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Mlecchita vikalpa, Indus Script explained as 'copperworker cipher'अक्षर-न्यास writing on अक्षर -भूमिका 'tablet with writing' (रघुवंश)

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http://tinyurl.com/y43yb6wo

-- न्यस्ताक्षरामक्षरभूमिकायाम् Rāmāyaṇa18. 46 अ-क्षर--न्यास  writing
--  rebus logo-semantics of metalwork words 

Vātsyāyana refers to mleccchita vikalpa 'writing cipher by mleccha, copper workers) as one of the 64 fine arts learnt by youth); two other arts related to language are: अक्षरः-मुष्टिका 'finger-speech', speaking by means of finger-signs.  देश--भाषाf. jñānam ज्ञानम् knowledge,learning of the language or dialect of a country 

The key component of the Indus Script Cipher is based on this देश--भाषा f. jñānam ज्ञानम् , i.e. knowledge of the dialects or spoken forms of literary words. The spoken forms constitute Meluhha or mleccha (so0-called mispronunciation) compared with literary style expressions of the same semantic content. The mleccha or meluhha spoken forms (or mispronunciations) are evident in hundreds of thousands of words of ancient Indian languages which constitute an Indian spraschbund or 'speech union'. These spoken forms of the अक्षर, hieroglyph or hypertexts in writing are read rebus in the vikalpa or rebus representations of similar sounding dialect words which signify wealth-accounting or metalwork catalogues of artisans and seafaring Meluhha merchants of Sarasvati Civilization. This is the reason why Vātsyāyana refers to the cipher or writing system as mlecchita vikalpa; mleccha 'n. copper' rebus: mleccha 'one who mispronounces or deploys ungrammatical expressions'; rebus: mleccha 'a person who lives by agriculture or by making weapons'. These semantics reinforce the Indus Script decipherment of over 8000 inscriptions as wealth-accounting ledgers of metalwork.
An example of  अक्षर भूमिका 'tablet with writing' found at Harappa; a tablet is so-called because, the suffix - भूमिका in the expression signifies 'earth, ground, soil'; it is a terracotta or earthen tablet.
One side of a planoconvex molded tablet found in 1995 in Mound ET at Harappa https://www.harappa.com/blog/story-tablet-harappa

What is mlecchita vikalpa on this अक्षर -भूमिका 'tablet with writing'?
karavu 'crocodile' rebus:khar 'blacksmith'
rango 'buffalo' rebus: rango 'pewter'
kolsa 'kick' rebus: kol 'working in iron', kolhe 'smelter'
kunta 'spear' kundu 'squat' rebus: kō̃da कोँद 'furnace for smelting': payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद । परिपाककन्दुः  f. a kiln (a potter's, a lime-kiln, and brick-kiln, or the like); a furnace (for smelting). कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi) kũdār 'turner, sculptor, engraver'.
kamaḍha 'penancce' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS kod 'horn' rebus:kod 'workshop' PLUS meḍha 'polar star' (Marathi). meḍ 'iron' (Ho.Mu.) 

The अक्षर-न्यास writing on the tablet signifies using mlecchita vikalpa cipher (copperworker alternative messaging): a blacksmith, iron-worker, smelter, furnace, mint 

nyāsa m. ʻ deposit, pledge ʼ Mn. [√as2]Pk. ṇāsa -- m. ʻ deposit ʼ, N. nāso, G. nās m. (CDIAL 7615)

अ-क्षर--न्यास m. array of syllables or letters; the alphabet (Monier-Williams)
भूमिका f. earth , ground , soil (काशिका-वृत्ति, कथासरित्सागर); (ifc.) a spot , place for (e.g. आहार-भ्° , an eating-place Katha1s. ; अक्षर-भ्° , a place i.e. a tablet for writing (Ragh. )(Monier-Williams) अक्षर -भूमिका tablet; न्यस्ताक्षरामक्षरभूमिकायाम् R.18. 46.; -(वि) न्यासः [ष. त. भावे घञ्] 1 writing, arrangement of letters; भूर्जपत्रगतो ˚सः V.2. -2 the alphabet. -3 scripture. -4 हृदयाद्याधारस्पर्शपूर्वकं तदक्षराणां स्मरणोच्चारणरूपस्तन्त्रप्रसिद्धो वर्णन्यासः (Apte)


Dance-steps of two Mohenjo-daro and one Bhirrana dancing girls is करण 'dance posture rebus करण 'scribe'

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Koitoor_Bhil-Meena /Lambada /Banjara /Meghwal 

 https://tinyurl.com/yatjsetx


Indian dance (nritta, नृत्त) traditions have roots in the aesthetics of Natyashastra. The text defines the basic dance unit to be a karana, which is a specific combination of the hands and feet integrated with specific body posture and gait (sthana and chari respectively). Chapter 4 describes 108 karanas as the building blocks to the art of dance. The text states the various movements of major and minor limbs with facial states as means of articulating ideas and expressing emotions.
Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe (2005). Approaches to Acting: Past and Present. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 6–7.
Katherine Young; Arvind Sharma (2004). Her Voice, Her Faith: Women Speak on World Religions. Westview Press. pp. 20–21
 Sunil Kothari; Avinash Pasricha (2001). Kuchipudi. Abhinav Publications, pp. 117–118.
Nina Mirnig; Peter-Daniel Szanto; Michael Williams (2013). Puspika: Tracing Ancient India Through Texts and Traditions: Contributions to Current Research in Indology Volume I. Oxbow, pp. 186–187; pp.174-177
Ananda Lal (2004). The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. Oxford University Press, pp. 95–99.


See: Full text translation at 
https://ia800607.us.archive.org/34/items/NatyaShastra/natya_shastra_translation_volume_1_-_bharat_muni.pdf
https://archive.org/stream/NatyaShastra/natya_shastra_translation_volume_1_-_bharat_muni#page/n87/mode/2up














The Natyashastra influenced other arts in ancient and medieval India. The dancing Shiva sculpture in Badami cave temples (6th–7th century CE), for example, illustrates its dance movements and Lalatatilakam pose (Archana Verma (2011). Performance and Culture: Narrative, Image and Enactment in India. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 10–12). Gaṇeśa in a dance-step. karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus; karba, ib 'iron'. karaṇa  'dance step, dance posture' rebus: karaṇa 'scribe'. meṭṭu 'step' meḍ iron, मेधाधनमेधः' yajna.

This is an addendum to: Itihāsa. Deepa Lakṣmi, Uṣā Mohenjodaro cire perdue bronze sculptures, dance-step, lamp-holder girls, signify Indus Script khāra-bhāṭi 'blacksmith's smelter’; meṭṭu 'step' meḍ iron, मेधाधनमेधः' yajna https://tinyurl.com/yaf3vsuc

Bhirrana potsherd. Dance posture


I suggest the cire perdue dancing girls of Mohenjo-daro signify the profession of writing. Hence the dancing postures of the girls signify a scribe.

Hieroglyph: ಕರಣ rhythm, dramatic actin, dancing posture (Kannada)Rebus:  करण m. writer , scribe; a class whose occupation is writing, accounts (Monier-Williams)

Rebus: करण m. writer , scribe; m. a man of a mixed class (the son of an outcast क्षत्रिय Mn. x , 22 ; or the son of a शूद्र woman by a वैश्य Ya1jn5. i , 92 ; or the son of a वैश्य woman by a क्षत्रिय MBh. i , 2446 ; 4521 ; the occupation of this class is writing , accounts &c ); n. the special business of any tribe or caste (Monier-Williams)
கரணகளேபரம் karaṇa-kaḷēparamn. < karaṇa +. The physical body with its sensory organs; பொறிகளும் சரீரமும்கரணகளே பரங்களை யிழந்து (அஷ்டாதசமுமுட்சுப்வ்யாஅவ.).   கரணம் karaṇam, n. < karaṇa. A variety in dramatic action, a kind of dancing; கூத்து விகற்பம்.கரணமிட்டுத் தன்மை பேசி (தேவா. 56, 3). 8. Somer-sault, tumbling heels over head; caper; தழைகீழாகப் பாய் கைகரணம்போடுகிறான். 9. Instrument; கருவி. (திவா.) 10. Implement, means, material, instrument; உபகரணம்அதனுக்குரியவாய பல்கரணமுந் தருதி (கந்தபுகுமாரபுரி. 65). 11. Number; எண். (பிங்.) 12. (Astron.) One of the five elements of the pañcāṅkam, a division of time, 11 in number, viz., பவம்பாலவம்கௌலவம்தைதுலம்கரசைவணிசைபத்திரைசகுனி,சதுஷ்பாதம்நாகவம்கிமித்துக்கினம், the eleven karaṇas being computed to be equal to 30 tithis of a lunar month according to a special calculation; பஞ்சாங்க உறுப்புக்களில் ஒன்று. (விதானபஞ்சாங்க. 29.) 13. Title-deed, document (R.F.); சாஸனம். 14. Accountant, karnam; கணக்கன். (S.I.I. i, 65.)






Portal for select books and back issues of Ancient India journal of ASI

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Select Books and backissues of Ancient India (Bulletin of the Archaeological Survey of India) are now available online for free download from the publication section of Archaeological Survey of India's website.






Brāhmī is a syllabic script while Indus Script is logos 'word'-based writing arrangement

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Brāhmī is a syllabic script. Harappan script is logos 'word' based writing. अ-क्षर-संस्थानम् 'arrangement of writing'; अ-क्षर means 'word'..Argument at

āre potter's wheel (Gondi) ārū आ॑रू॒ 'circle' (Kashmiri) ār̤i 'circle' (Tamil.Kannada) rebus āra 'brass'

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-- eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus:  arka, aka 'gold, copper'; eraka 'metal infusion'

This is an adddendum to: One-horned young bull PLUS spoked wheel signifies कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, turner' and akaracaa 'scribe' working with eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus 'molten cast, metal infusion' https://tinyurl.com/y2ongqg6

Mehergarh, 5th millennium BCE. 2.2 cm dia. 5 mm reference scale. Perhaps coppper alloyed with lead. It is remarkable, that this six-spolked cire perdue copper alloy wheels made in Mehrgarh becomes a hieroglyph of Indus Script on Dholavira signboard. 


Theorthography of these cire perdue spoked wheel shapes may be read rebus: āre potter's wheel (Gondi) rebus: āra 'brass'.

I suggest that theseMehrgarh artifacts provide the model for the Sign used on Indus Script Corpora.

Sign 391


The spoked wheel on the neck of the young bull (Field symbol 3 on a Mohenjo-daro seal) is composed of two semantic components: circle, spokes.
  
1. āre potter's wheel (Gondi) rebus āra'brass'. 
2. The semantics of spoke are signified by the word ara. अर m. the spoke or radius of a wheel RV.(Monier-Williams).

Field Symbol 3 [ASI 1977 Concordance (Mahadevan)]
One-horned young bull hypertext/hyperimage signifies a goldsmith, lapidary: कोंद kōnda ‘young bull' कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, turner'.  कुलालादिकन्दुः f. a kiln; a potter's kiln; kō̃da कोँद 'potter's kiln'  (Kashmiri) Thus, an iron turner (in smithy/forge).Ta. kuntaṉam interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (< Te.). Ka. kundaṇa setting a precious stone in fine gold; fine gold; kundana fine gold. Tu. kundaṇa pure gold. Te. kundanamu fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold. (DEDR 1725)

I suggest that the orthography of six spokes of the wheel is intended to reinforce the semantics of अर ara ‘spoke of a wheel’ reinforced by a homonym  āre‘potter’s wheel’. The shape of circle suggested by the word āre finds cognates lexemes in Kashmiri and other languages of the Indian sprachbund, 'speech union': āra 1 आर । वलयीकरणम् m. the act of encircling, surrounding, enclosing; standing in a circle (of a number) of people (Śiv. 947); a necklace (K.Pr. 143).  āru आरु । मण्डलीकरणम् m. the standing of a number of people in a circle; a circle of people.ālakŏnḍul आलक्वण्डु॒ल् । कुण्डलाङ्कः m. (sg. dat. ālakŏnḍalas आलक्वण्डलस्, pl. nom. ālakŏnḍal आलक्वण्डल्), a circle, a circular mark; the inner, circular, earthenware receptacle of the kāngrī or portable brazier. örü 3 आ॑रू॒ । वेष्टनम् f. encircling; a circle, band, fillet; a ring (as of rope, or as formed by a snake lying curled up); a wisp of straw or grass, bound in a ring, for supporting round-bottomed vessels so as to prevent their overturning. Cf. āra 1 and āru. -pörü -पा॑रू॒ । परित आवरणम् f. surrounding a person to prevent his departure, forming a circle of people round him, crowding round a person. (Kashmiri) hāra2 m. ʻ necklace ʼ MBh., ˚aka -- m. ʻ string of pearls ʼ Pañcat. Pk. hāra -- m. ʻ garland ʼ, hāri -- f. ʻ line ʼ; K. āra m. ʻ necklace ʼ, āru m. ʻ circle of people ʼ, örü f. ʻ circle, band, fillet ʼ(CDIAL 14059)  څرخ ṯs̱arḵẖ, s.m. (2nd) A wheel (particularly a potter's, or of a water-mill or well). 2. A grindstone. 3. Circular motion, turn, revolution, the act of turning. 4. Fortune, chance. 5. The heavens, the sphere, the celestial globe. (Pashto)

Ta. ār̤i circle, ring, wheel, discus weapon. Ma. ār̤i roundness (as of disk, ring, etc.); funeral pile. Ka. ār̤i roundness, a circle, a discus; āṇi roundness. Te. āṇi spherical, round, globular (applied to pearls). ? Go. (SR.) āre potter's wheel (Voc. 138).(DEDR 398)


A second overlay of semantics relates to the orthographic emphasis on the knave of the wheel. This yields eraka ‘knave of wheel’ rebus: arka, aka, aga ‘copper, gold’ as in akasāla ‘goldsmith’s shop’ (Kannada); అగసాలి  or అగసాలెవాడు agasāli. [Tel.] n. A goldsmith. కంసాలివాడు (Telugu); arukkam அருக்கம்1 arukkamn. < arka. (நாநார்த்த.) 1. Copper; செம்பு(Tamil); eraka 'metal infusion': Ta. eṟṟu (eṟṟi-) to throw out (as water from a vessel); iṟai (-v-, -nt-) to scatter (intr.), disperse; (-pp-, -tt-) to splash (tr.), spatter, scatter, strew, draw and pour out water, irrigate, bale out, squander; iṟaivai receptacle for drawing water for irrigation; iṟaṭṭu (iṟaṭṭi-) to sprinkle, splash. Ma. iṟekka to bale out; iṟayuka id., scatter, disperse; iṟava basket for drawing water; eṟiccil rainwater blown in by the wind. To. eṟ- (eṟQ-) to scoop up (water with vessel). Ka. eṟe to pour any liquids, cast (as metal); n. pouring; eṟacu, ercu to scoop, sprinkle, scatter, strew, sow; eṟaka, eraka any metal infusion; molten state, fusion. Tu. eraka molten, cast (as metal); eraguni to melt. Kur. ecchnā to dash a liquid out or over (by scooping, splashing, besprinkling). Cf. 840 Kur. elkhnā (Pfeiffer). (DEDR 866)

Unicorn or, young bull, is Indus Script hypertext; signifies kundār, 'turner, lapidary, goldsmith'

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--Goldsmith, lapidary signified by a oung bull with spoked wheel kunda 'lathe', kundār, 'turner, lapidary, goldsmith'

This monograph provides 1) archaeological evidence for a potter's wheel which is the model for the cire perdue copper alloy artifacts of Mehrgarh; and 2) decipherment of Indus Script Sign 291 'spoked wheel' as āre'potter's wheel' rebus: āra 'brass'.Thus, the Indus Script Corpora contains documentation of wealth-accounting ledgers and metalwork on metals such as brass. The combined expression signified a young bull PLUS spoked wheel sign is kunda, 'lathe' PLUS ār, 'persons, artificers' = hypertext 'kundār,'turners, lapidarie, goldsmiths' (guild)..

This is an addendum to 
āre potter's wheel (Gondi) ārū आ॑रू॒ 'circle' (Kashmiri) ār̤i 'circle' (Tamil.Kannada) rebus āra 'brass' https://tinyurl.com/yxbc7d33

I suggest that the one-horned youngbull PLUS spoked wheel on neck (ligature) is an orthoggraphic style to signify an expression consisting of two words (logos):

कोंद kōnda 'young bull' PLUS āre potter's wheel (Gondi) yield the combined expression kundār 'turner, lapidary who works with the lathe'..He also works with fine gold: Ta. kuntaṉam interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (< Te.). Ka. kundaṇa setting a precious stone in fine gold; fine gold; kundana fine gold. Tu. kundaṇa pure gold. Te. kundanamu fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold. (DEDR 1725). This artisan's professional competence is semantically reinforced by a part of the standard device normally shown in front of the young bull; this part is kunda 'lathe'.

Kannada has a word which explains ār, āru 'a frame put on the neck of cattle'; This is the lexeme which explains why a spoked wheel is ligatured on the neck of the young bull; the scribe intends to convey the underlying word ār, āru. This is read rebus: 1) as a suffix to indicate the perfomer artisan on a lathe: and 2) as spokes of potter's wheel āru which is signified by the orthography of th sign āru 'circle' which is read rebus as āra 'brass'; thus, a lapidary working with a lathe and brass metal.


Field Symbol 3 [ASI 1977 Concordance (Mahadevan)]

Sign 391 The -āra- ān suffix signifies a performer, a person. Thus, kundār is a lathe turner, lapidary who works with the lathe, say, to pierce stone beads and create perforated beads. Ind old Tamil, the suffix -ar signifies plurality: அர் arpart. 1. Pers. pl. suff.; பலர்பால் விகுதி. அரசர் வந்தனர். 2. Honorific pl. suff.; உயர்வுப்பன்மை விகுதி. சம்பந்தர் பாடினர். 3. An expletive affixed to some words; பகுதிப்பொருள் விகுதி. முன்னர் (குறள், 435).

The suffix -ār  also signifies plurality:    ஆர்3 ārpart. 1. Term. of the 3rd pers. pl. of the rational class, as in வந்தார்; பலர்பாற்படர்க்கை விகுதி. 2. The 3rd pers. honorific pl. suff., as in தகப்பனார்; மரியாதைப் பன்மைவிகுதி. 3. An expletive; ஓர் அசை.
   ஆர்4 ārinterrog. pron. < யார். [K. āru, M. ār.] Who?; யார். நானாரென் னுள்ளமார் (திரு வாச. 10, 2).


The standard device in front of the young bull includes a lathe as the top register. The word is: kunda 'lathe' kunda1 m. ʻ a turner's lathe ʼ lex. [Cf. *cunda -- 1] N. kũdnu ʻ to shape smoothly, smoothe, carve, hew ʼ, kũduwā
ʻsmoothly shapedʼ; A. kund ʻ lathe ʼ, kundiba ʻ to turn and smooth in a lathe ʼ, kundowā ʻsmoothed and rounded ʼ; B. kũd ʻ lathe ʼ, kũdā
kõdā ʻ to turn in a lathe ʼ; Or. kū˘nda ʻ latheʼ, kũdibā,kū̃d° ʻ to turn ʼ (→ Drav. Kur. kū̃d ʻ lathe ʼ); Bi.kund ʻ brassfounder's lathe ʼ; H. kunnā ʻ to shape on a lathe ʼ, kuniyā m. ʻ turner ʼ, kunwā m. (CDIAL 3295). kundakara m. ʻ turner ʼ W. [Cf. *cundakāra -- : kunda -- 1, kará -- 1] A. kundār, B. kũdār°ri, Or. kundāru; H. kũderā m. ʻ one who works a lathe, one who scrapes ʼ, °rī f., kũdernā ʻ to scrape, plane, round on a lathe ʼ(CDIAL 3297). 

Mehergarh, 5th millennium BCE. 2.2 cm dia. 5 mm reference scale. Perhaps coppper alloyed with lead. It is remarkable, that this six-spolked cire perdue copper alloy wheels made in Mehrgarh becomes a hieroglyph of Indus Script on Dholavira signboard. 

Oman Indus Script Inscriptions evidence dhā̆vaḍ 'Meluhha smelters', maritime Meluhha metals trade, 4th m. BCE

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This monograph deciphers the Indus Script inscriptions discovered in Oman Peninsula as wealth-accounting,metalwork catalogues indicating maritime trade of metal artifacts by Meluhha merchants and artisans.

Thanks to Dennys Frenez for making available Indus Script Inscriptions and providing archaeological evidence for trade between Meluhha (Sarasvati Civilization) and Oman.

Oman 1 artifact: dotted circles on softstone bowl deciphered: dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ)
 Cross-section view of a strand (say, through a bead), ‘dotted circle’: धातु ‘strand, element’ rebus: ‘primary element of the earth, mineral, metal’  dhātu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ(whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāūdhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si.  ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773)



Oman1
(After Fig.35.1 in Dennys Frenez, 2018;  Umm-an. Nar type softstone bowl found at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan (after Tosi 1991)
Oman2
(After Fig. 35.2 Dennys Frenez, 2018; Indu black slipped jars: (a) entire vessel from Harappa (courtesy Indus Civilization Exhibition, Tokyo/Nagoya); (b) fragment with Indus signs scratched from Building H, Room 18 (Priod II) Ras Al-Jinz RJ-2 (photograph by D. Frenez, courtesy Oman National Museum))

Oman3
After Fig. 35.4 Dennys Frenez, 2018
Oman4
(After Fig.35.7 Dennys Frenez 2018. Indus style copper axes from (a Tell Abraq; (b) Umm an-Nar, (c) Ras Al Jinz, RJ2, (d) Jebel Buhais BSH67, and (3) Al Moyassar 4 (Potts 1999: Fig. 36; Frifelt 1995: fig.276; Cleuziou and Tosi 2000;fig. 12.7; Jasim 2003: fig.6; Weisgerher 1980: fig. 5.11), and (f) Indus tanged spearhead from Khor Bani Bu Ali SWY-3 (Mery and Marquis 1998: fig.7).
Oman5
(AfterFig. 35.8.  Dennyss Frenez 2018. Indus drills in ernestite from Dholavira, Gujarat (photography by RW Law, courtesy Archaeological Survey of India).
Oman6
(After Fig. 35.9 Dennys Frenez 2018. Indus long and very long biconical beads in carnelian from (a) Salut ST1 (photograph by D.Frenez, courtesy Italian Mission to Oman), and (b) Bat Tomb 155 (photography by P. Koch, courtesy Ministry of Heritage and Culture of Oman).
Oman7
After Fig. 35.10 Dennys Frenez 2018.Indus bleached crnelian beads from (a) Bat Burial Pit 0025 (after Thornton et al. 2016: fig. 1.3, courtesy German Archaeological Mission to Bal), (b) Bat Tomb 401 (courtey German Archaeological Mission to Bat), (c) Bat Tower 1156 (photograph by A. Mortimer, courtesy Bal Archaeological Project), and (d) BidBid (photograph by D. Frenez and JM Kenoyer).

Oman 8 Dottted circles on ivory comb deciphered: dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ) PLUS kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (Gujarati) Rebus: kamsa,kancu=bronze (Telugu). Thus, bronze and iron working artisans.
 Cross-section view of a strand (say, through a bead), ‘dotted circle’: धातु ‘strand, element’ rebus: ‘primary element of the earth, mineral, metal’  dhātu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ(whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāūdhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si.  ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773)
Oman8
After Fig. 35.11 Dennys Frenez 2018

Oman9
After Fig. 35.10 Dennys Frenez 2018

Oman 10
The copper seal signifies a young bull. which signifies a turner, lapidary, goldsmith: कोंद kōnda 'young bull' PLUS āre potter's wheel (Gondi) yield the combined expression kundār 'turner, lapidary who works with the lathe'..He also works with fine gold: Ta. kuntaṉam interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (< Te.). Ka. kundaṇa setting a precious stone in fine gold; fine gold; kundana fine gold. Tu. kundaṇa pure gold. Te. kundanamu fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold. (DEDR 1725). This artisan's professional competence is semantically reinforced by a part of the standard device normally shown in front of the young bull; this part is kunda 'lathe'.
Oman10
After Fig. 35.14. Copper stamp seal with an Indus unicorn and script signs from Ras Al=Jinz RJ2 (a),

Oman 11 Seal with hieroglyphs are: crocodile and markhor deciphered: karā 'crocodile' khār 'blacksmith' PLUS miṇḍāl 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages).
Oman11
After Fig.35.15 (b) Dennys Frenez  copper stamp seal with Indus style male markhor goat and a gharial from Konar Sandal in Iran (from Pittman 2013)

Oman 12
Zebu deciphered as: pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus' Rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore'. If an 'ant' is signified by the hieroglyph used in the inscription it read చీమ [ cīma ] chīma. [Tel.] n. An ant. కొండచీమ. the forest ant. రెక్కలచీమ a winged ant. పారేచీమను వింటాడు he can hear an ant crawl, i.e., he is all alive.చీమదూరని అడవి a forest impervious even to an ant. చలిచీమ a black antపై పారేపక్షి కిందపారే చీమ (proverb) The bird above, the ant below, i.e., I had no chance with him. చీమంత of the size of an ant. చీమపులి chīma-puli. n. The ant lion, an ant-eater. rebus: mara -- kāra -- ʻcoppersmith' (Pali)
Oman 12, 13
After Fig. 35.14 © Dennys Frenez 2018 2018 Softstone stamp seal with a humped zebu and enigmatic objects/signs from Bisyah

Oman 14
Hieroglyphs signified are: caprid, goat, bison which are read rebus: 
करडूं karaḍū 'kid' Rebus: खरड kharaḍa 'wealth-accounting ledger', Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) kharādī ‘ turner’ (Gujarati)
mr̤eka, melh 'goat' (Telugu. Brahui) Rebus: melukkha 'milakkha, copper'.
 barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: bharat 'alloy of copper, pewter, tin' (Marathi)
rango 'buffalo' rebus: rango 'pewter' (alloy of copper, zinc, tin)
Oman 14
After Fig. 35.15 Dennys Frenez 2018. Three sided prismatic stamp seal with a canid, goats and a wild Indian bison fromAl Moyassar 1 (left) (photograph by H. David Cuny, courtesy Oman National Museum), and comparable seal with Indus Script signs, goats and a wild Indian bison from Hajjar in Bahrain (right)


Source: http://tinyurl.com/yytyrqn6 Dennys Frenez, 2018, Window 35 The Indus Civiliization Trade with Oman Peninsula, in: Serge Cleuziou & Maurizio Tosi, 2018, In the shadow of the anestors, the prehistoric foundation of early Arabian Civilization in Oman, 2nd expanded edn.,edited by Dennys Frenez & Roman Garba,  Ministry of Heritage and Culture,Sultanate of Oman, Khuwair,Muscat, www.mhc.gov.om


''Copper stamp seal with an Indus unicorn and script signs from Ras Al-Jinz RJ2 (a), copper stamp seal with Indus-style male markhor goat and a gharial from Konar Sandal South in Iran (from Pittman 2013) (b), softstone stamp seal with a humped zebu and enigmatic objects/signs from Bisyah (c)''



















Itihāsa of विज्ञानं . Indian Foundations of Modern Science : Lecture by Padma Sri Prof. Subhash Kak (1:04:21)

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Here's my Lecture on Indian Foundations of Modern Science, which covers both the past and prospects for the future. Delivered at National Physical Laboratory in Delhi on March 26, 2019. via



 Published on Apr 9, 2019

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Special lecture program on Indian Foundations of Modern Science by Padma Sri Prof. Subhash Kak. The program held on 26 - March -2019 at CSIR- NPL New Delhi. The program organised by Indraparastha Vigyan Bharati in association with CSIR -NPL.

Asko Parpola's and Kenoyer's identification of unicorn is countered.खोंड khōṇḍa, कोंद kōnda 'young bull' is kō̃da कोँद 'potter's kiln'; kundār, 'turner, lapidary, goldsmith, engraver'

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This is an addendum to: Unicorn on, young bull, is Indus Script hypertext; signifies kundār, 'turner, lapidary, goldsmith'
--Goldsmith, lapidary signified by a oung bull with spoked wheel kunda 'lathe', kundār, 'turner, lapidary, goldsmith'http://tinyurl.com/y4p2t7lp

This monograph challenges and counters the conclusions of the erroneous identification of 'unicorn' on Indus Script inscriptions 1) of Asko Parpola arrived at in 2018 and 2011 that it is probably originally the humpless bull of Western Asia and later adapted as nilgai antelope; and 2) of Jonathan Mark Kenoyer (2013) that the 'unicorn' signifies an antelope.

I submit that 'unicorn' is an orthographic signifier of a young bull, identified in genetic studies as bos primigenius.

In 2018, Asko Parpola concluded that the aurochs was a glorification of the goddess of war. In 2011, Asko Parpola concluded that the humpless wild cow called aurochs or urus (Bos primigenius) or the humpless taurine cow (Bos taurus) was adopted from Western Asia, stood for male creative power, and that its cult purported to secure rain and fertility for purposes of agriculture and animal husbandry and was later “iconographic fusion of the Mesopotamian aurochs (not present in South Asia) with the local nilgay or ‘blue bull’…transformed in the Indus Valley into an image of the blue bull, the nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus)...”

Asko Parpola’s two conclusions made in 2018 and 2011

Asko Parpola’s conclusion in 2018: This paper complements an earlier more extensive study of the Harappan glyptic motif of ‘unicorn’ bull by considering a previously unnoticed Mesopotamian parallel and its implications for our understanding of the Harappan and later Indian religion. Conclusions: The ‘unicorn’ bull motif together with its religious symbolism and ritual use in the victory parade to gratify the goddess of war and fertility was adopted by the Indus people from Mesopotamia in Late Early Dynastic / Early Akkadian times. A minor modification was the symbolic and iconographic fusion of the Mesopotamian aurochs (not present in South Asia) with the local nilgay or ‘blue bull’. From the Harappans this cultic package was adopted into the subsequent Vedic and Hindu religions; in Hinduism it has survived until our times.

Asko Parpola’s conclusion in 2011: The most frequently occurring iconographic motif of the Indus seals, with thousands of occurrences, is a unicorn bull, a male bovine animal with a single horn. Its exact zoological identity is still controversial, but while some scholars consider it to be a purely fabulous beast, perhaps a conflation of two or more real species, many authorities consider it to represent either the humpless wild cow called aurochs or urus (Bos primigenius) or the humpless taurine cow (Bos taurus). The religious meaning of the Harappan unicorn has remained unclear as well. The present study tries to solve this problem by considering both Eurasian unicorn myths and those which are particular to South Asia, as well as their historical evolution and context. The evidence strongly suggests that the Harappan unicorn was an integral part of this unicorn mythology, that it stood for male creative power, and that its cult purported to secure rain and fertility for purposes of agriculture and animal husbandry. The Harappan unicorn was probably originally the humpless bull of Western Asia, and then transformed in the Indus Valley into an image of the blue bull, the nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus)..

This monograph counters the two conclusions of Asko Parpola arrived at in 2018 and 2011 about the identity of ‘unicorn’ bull on Indus Script Corpora. The ‘uniconr’ bull was NOT a nilgai antelope or blue bull (boselaphus tragocamelus); the ‘unicorn’ bull was NOT an adaptation of transformed in the Indus Valley into an image of the blue bull, the nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus). Asko Parpola’s conclusions are based on an erroneous basis that Mesopotamian aurochs was NOT present in South Asia. This assumption has been effectively countered by archaeo-zoological studies. Zebu (Bos primigenius indicus) are descended from Indian aurochs (stylized as unicorns) 
https://tinyurl.com/yc4dj5gz aurochs was variously classified as Bos primigeniusBos taurus, or, in old sources, Bos urus.  International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature confirmed Bos primigenius for the aurochs...The oldest aurochs remains have been dated to about 2 million years ago, in India. The Indian subspecies was the first to appear. During the Pleistocene, the species migrated west into the Middle East (western Asia), as well as to the east. They reached Europe about 270,000 years ago. (van Vuure, Cis (2005). Retracing the Aurochs – History, Morphology and Ecology of an extinct wild Ox) The South Asian domestic cattle, or zebu, descended from Indian aurochs at the edge of the Thar Desert; the zebu is resistant to drought. Domestic yak, gayal, and Bali cattle do not descend from aurochs. The first complete mitochondrial genome (16,338 base pairs) DNA sequence analysis of Bos primigenius from an archaeologically verified and exceptionally well preserved aurochs bone sample was published in 2010. (Edwards, C.J.; Magee, D.A.; Park, S.D.E.; McGettigan, P.A.; Lohan, A.J.; et al. (2010).” A detailed genetic-archaeo-zoological study had appeared in 2010 in PLoS One, presenting a complete mitochondrial genome sequence from a Mesolithic wild aurochs (bos primigenius). The study noted: “Recent developments in DNA sequencing technologies, however, are affording new opportunities for the examination of genetic material retrieved from extinct species, providing new insight into their evolutionary history. Here we present DNA sequence analysis of the first complete mitochondrial genome (16,338 base pairs) from an archaeologically-verified and exceptionally-well preserved aurochs bone sample.” The conclusions of the study were: “For all nucleotide positions where both Sanger and Illumina Genome Analyzer sequencing methods gave high-confidence calls, no discrepancies were observed. Sequence analysis reveals evidence of heteroplasmy in this sample and places this mitochondrial genome sequence securely within a previously identified aurochsen haplogroup (haplogroup P), thus providing novel insights into pre-domestic patterns of variation. The high proportion of authentic, endogenous aurochs DNA preserved in this sample bodes well for future efforts to determine the complete genome sequence of a wild ancestor of domestic cattle… Archaeological evidence shows that domestication of this formidable animal occurred independently in the Near East and the Indian subcontinent between 10,000–8,000 years ago, giving rise to the two major domestic taxa observed today — humpless Bos taurus (taurine) and humped Bos indicus (zebu), respectively.  This is confirmed by genetic analyses of matrilineal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences, which reveal a marked differentiation between modern B. taurus and B. indicus haplotypes, demonstrating their derivation from two geographically- and genetically-divergent wild populations 

PLoS One. 2010; 5(2): e9255.
Published online 2010 Feb 17. 
A Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence from a Mesolithic Wild Aurochs (Bos primigenius)

 See: Identity and decipherment of 'unicorn' on Indus Script Corpora as a one-horned young bull, to signify workshop of a goldsmith, lapidary (turner, engraver). http://tinyurl.com/y2uekds6

Walking with the Unicorn is the title of a Jonathan Mark Kenoyer felicitation volume published on October 16, 2018. The volume includes contributions by Gregg Jamison (fn.1) and Asko Parpola (fn.2), related to the Unicorn on Indus Script inscriptions. Gregg Jamison suggests  that the evidenceof unicorn seal production suggests a decentralized form of socioolitical organization proposed by Kenoyer and supported by other forms of material culture throughout the Indus.
·          

For views which differ from Asko Parpola's arguments, on the identity and origin of the 'unicorn', see an article by JM Kenoyer (fn.3), Iconography of the Indus Unicorn: Origins and Legacy. This comprehensive article of JM Kenoyer examines the figure of the unicorn in different historical contexts including the Greeks, Mesopotamians and other West Asians, and local Indian mythological and actual creatures to arrive at the author's startling conclusion, for which it can be said, there have been other supporters and which, at the very least, should cause those who may disagree with Dr. Parpola's thesis, to reflect on the antelope-characteristics of the so-called unicorn.


Notes:

1. Gregg Jamison, 2018, The Organization of Indus Unicorn Seal Production. A Multi-faceted Investigation of Technology, Skill, and Style, in: Dennys Frenez, Gregg Jamison, Randall Law, Massimo Vidale and Richard Meadow (eds.), Walking with the Unicorn. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume. Oxford: Archaeopress. http://tinyurl.com/y43qvacr

2. Parpola, Asko, 2018. Unicorn Bull and Victory Parade. Pp. 435-444 in: Dennys Frenez, Gregg Jamison, Randall Law, Massimo Vidale and Richard Meadow (eds.), Walking with the Unicorn. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume. Oxford: Archaeopress

https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Kenoyer2013%20Indus%20Unicorns-1.pdf An article by JM Kenoyer was originally published as Chapter 6 in Connections and Complexity, New Approaches to the Archaeology of South Asia, Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California, 2013.

Originally published in Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past, Edited by Toashiki Osada and Hitoshi Endo, Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan, 2011, pp. 125-188. Parpola_A_2011_unicorn (1).pdf   https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Parpola_A_2011_unicorn%20%281%29.pdf

 

In the variant orthographic representations of the young bul, there are two examples which show the young bull with two horns, thus justifying the claim that the one-horn shown on the young bull in thousands of Indus Script inscriptions is an orthographic style of profiling the image by the Indus scribe. The intent of showing only one horn is to signify the underlying rebus reading to reinforce the semantics of the konda 'young bull' rebus kondar 'turner, engraver'; Hieroglyph: kōḍ 'horn' Rebus: kōḍ 'place where artisans work, workshop' The workshop has a furnace; the turner is a metalworker working with a furnace:  kō̃da कोँद । कुलालादिकन्दुः f. a kiln; a potter's kiln (Rām. 1446; H. xi, 11); a brick-kiln (Śiv. 1033); a lime-kiln. -bal -बल् । कुलालादिकन्दुस्थानम् m. the place where a kiln is erected, a brick or potter's kiln (Gr.Gr. 165). --khasüñü --खस॑ञू॒ । कुलालादिकन्दुयथावद्भावः f.inf. a kiln to arise; met. to become like such a kiln (which contains no imperfectly baked articles, but only well-made perfectly baked ones), hence, a collection of good ('pucka') articles or qualities to exist. Cf. Śiv. 1033, where the causal form of the verb is used. (Kashmiri) কুঁদন, কোঁদন [ kun̐dana, kōn̐dana ] n act of turning (a thing) on a lathe; act of carving (Bengali) कातारी or कांतारी (p. 154) [ kātārī or kāntārī ] m (कातणें) A turner.(Marathi)Similarly, the pannier on the shoulder also is read rebus as a semantic determinative: Hieroglyph: khōṇḍī 'pannier sackखोंडी (p. 216) [ khōṇḍī ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a कांबळा, to hold or fend off grain, chaff &c.) खोंडा 'cowl' or 'pannier'खोंडा 'cowl' or 'pannier'). खोंड [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf.(Marathi) खोंडरूं [ khōṇḍarūṃ ] n A contemptuous form of खोंडा in the sense of कांबळा-cowl.खोंडा [ khōṇḍ] m A कांबळा 
of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood(Marathi) Rebus: खोदकाम [ khōdakāma ] n Sculpture; carved work or work for the carver. खोदगिरी [ khōdagirī ] f Sculpture, carving, engraving: also sculptured or carved work.खोदणें [ khōdaṇēṃ ] v c & i ( H) To dig. 2 To engraveखोदींव [ khōdīṃva ] p of खोदणें Dug. 2 Engraved, carved, sculptured. 

The intimations of a metals turner as a scribe are also gleaned from the gloss: खोडाखोड or डी [ khōḍākhōḍa or ḍī ] f (खोडणें) Erasing, altering, interlining &c. in numerous places: also the scratched, scrawled, and disfigured state of the paper so operated upon; खोडींव [ khōḍīṃva ] p of खोडणें v c Erased or crossed out.Marathi). खोडपत्र [ khōḍapatra ] n Commonly खोटपत्र.खोटपत्र [ khōṭapatra ] n In law or in caste-adjudication. A written acknowledgment taken from an offender of his falseness or guilt: also, in disputations, from the person confuted. (Marathi) Thus, khond 'turner' is also an engraver, scribe.

That a metals turner is engaged in metal alloying is evident from the gloss: खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. Hence 2 A lump or solid bit (as of phlegm, gore, curds, inspissated milk); any concretion or clot. खोटीचाComposed or made of खोट, as खोटीचें भांडें.
 Field Symbol Figures 8, 9

 



Figure 15.4. Tell al Ubaid, Temple of Ninhursag. Copper bull sculpture from the frieze. Early Dynastic period (ca. 2600 b.c.e.) (© The Trustees of the British Museum)  

The sculpture signifies: dhangar 'bull' rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'. (Note: While the grown up bull or ox is called rebus: dhangar the young bullcalf is called కోడియ  Same as కోడె  kōḍe. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. కోడెదూడ. A young bull. కాడిమరపదగినదూడ. Plumpness, prime. తరుణము. జోడుకోడయలు a pair of bullocks. కోడె adj. Young. కోడెత్రాచు a young snake, one in its prime. "కోడెనాగముం బలుగుల రేడుతన్ని కొని పోవుతెరంగు"రామా. vi. కోడెకాడు kōḍe-kāḍu. n. A young man. పడుచువాడు. A lover విటుడు.కారుకోడె kārukōḍe kāru-kōḍe. [Tel.] n. A bull in its prime.. The one-horned young bull, thus is a signfier of this orthographic distinction between a grown-up bull and a young bull calf. Te. kōḍiya, kōḍe young bull; adj. male (e.g. kōḍe dūḍa bull calf), young, youthful; kōḍekã̄ḍu a young man. Kol. (Haig) kōḍē bull. Nk. khoṛe male calf. Konḍa kōḍi cow; kōṛe young bullock. Pe. kōḍi cow. Manḍ. kūḍi id.
 Kui kōḍi id., ox. Kuwi (F.) kōdi cow; (S.) kajja kōḍi bull; (Su. P.) kōḍi cow.(DEDR 2199)  cf. G. khũṭṛɔ m. ʻ entire bull used for agriculture but not for breeding ʼ, (Kathiawar) khũṭ m. ʻ Brahmani bull ʼ. (CDIAL 3899) खोंड khōṇḍa m A young bull, a bullcalf. 2 A variety of जोंधळा.(Marathi)

Bos primigenius are signified on ANE cylinder seals, artefacts at Tell Hariri (Mari), Temple of Ninhurag Tell al Ubaid and on Indus Script hypertexts.

On Indus Script hypertexts, three forms of bulls are signified:

1. Bos primigenius (unicorns as young bulls with one horn): khōṇḍa m A young bull, a bullcalf.  rebus: kunda, 'one of कुबेर's nine treasures', kundaa 'fine gold'
2. Bos primigenius Indicus (zebu): पोळ [a], 'zebu, dewlap' rebus: पोळ [a], 'magnetite, ferrite ore'
3. Bos primigenius taurus (old bull or oax): hangra 'bull'. Rebus: hangar 'blacksmith'. barad, balad, 'ox' rebus: bharata 'metal alloy' (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin).

One-horned young bull is NOT a mythical species said to be 'unicorn' but in the genre of Inian aurochs (Bos primigenius).

खोंड (p. 122khōṇḍa m A young bull, a bullcalf. 2 A variety of जोंधळा. जोंधळा (p. 187) jōndhaḷā m A cereal plant or its grain, Holcus sorghum. Eight varieties are reckoned, viz. उता- वळी, निळवा, शाळू, रातडी, पिवळा जोंधळा, खुंडी, काळबोंडी जोंधळा, दूध मोगरा. There are however many others as केळी, अरगडी, डुकरी, बेंदरी, मडगूप &c.कोंद kōnda 'young bull' PLUS āre potter's wheel (Gondi) yield the combined expression kundār 'turner, lapidary who works with the lathe'..He also works with fine gold: Ta. kuntaṉam interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (< Te.). Ka. kundaṇa setting a precious stone in fine gold; fine gold; kundana fine gold. Tu. kundaṇa pure gold. Te. kundanamu fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold. (DEDR 1725). This artisan's professional competence is semantically reinforced by a part of the standard device normally shown in front of the young bull; this part is kunda 'lathe'. Rebus 2:  kō̃da कोँदकुलालादिकन्दुः f. a kiln; a potter's kiln (Rām. 1446; H. xi, 11); a brick-kiln (Śiv. 1033); a lime-kiln. -bal -बल्कुलालादिकन्दुस्थानम् m. the place where a kiln is erected, a brick or potter's kiln (Gr.Gr. 165). 


Cups, depicting a domestic bull, found in the royal tomb of Vaphio, Sparta, late Minoan I, c.1500 BCE (gold) (Ajmone-Marsan, P.; Garcia, J.F.; Lenstra, J.A. (2010). "On the Origin of Cattle: How Aurochs Became Cattle and Colonized the World". Evolutionary Anthropology19(4): 148–157) One of the bulls throws one hunter on the ground while attacking the second with its horns. The cup despite the older perception of being Minoan seems to be Mycenaean. (Davis, E.N. (1974). "The Vapheio Cups: One Minoan and One Mycenean?". The Art Bulletin56 (4): 472–487. .(De Grummond, W.W. (1980). "Hands and Tails on the Vapheio Cups". American Journal of Archaeology84(3): 335–337.) The Hebrew Bible contains numerous references to the untameable strength of re'em, translated as "bullock" or "wild-ox" in Jewish translations and translated rather poorly in the King James Version as "unicorn", but recognised from the last century by Hebrew scholars as the aurochs. (The identification was first made by Johann Ulrich Duerst, Die Rinder von Babylonian, Assyrien und Ägypten(Berlin, 1899:7-8), and was generally accepted, as by Salo Jonas, "Cattle Raising in Palestine" Agricultural History 26.3 (July 1952), pp. 93-104; The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Entry for 'Wild Ox'. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 1939.)_


Life restoration of an aurochs bull found in Braunschweig, Germany; Speculative life restoration of the enigmatic Indian aurochs (B. p. namadicus)
The inscription reads: "The Aurochs – Bos primigenius bojanus, the ancestor of domestic cattle, lived in this forest Jaktorów until the year 1627."
Cro-Magnon graffito of Bos primigenius in Grotta del RomitoPapasidero, Italy

The Indian aurochs (B. p. namadicus) once inhabited India. It was the first subspecies of the aurochs to appear, at 2 million years ago, and from about 9000 years ago, it was domesticated as the zebu.(In the Light of Evolution III: Two Centuries of Darwin. National Academies Press. 2009. p. 96.Fossil remains indicate wild Indian aurochs besides domesticated zebu cattle were in Gujarat and the Ganges area until about 4–5000 years ago. Remains from wild aurochs 4400 years old are clearly identified from Karnataka 
in South India.(Shanyuan Chen, et al, "Zebu Cattle Are an Exclusive Legacy of the South Asia Neolithic", Mol Biol Evol (2010) 27(1): 1-6 ).

Indian zebu, although domesticated eight to ten thousand years ago, are related to aurochs that diverged from the Near Eastern ones some 200,000 years ago. African cattle are thought to have descended from aurochs more closely related to the Near Eastern ones. The Near East and African aurochs groups are thought to have split some 25,000 years ago, probably 15,000 years before domestication. The "Turano-Mongolian" type of cattle now found in northern China, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan may represent a fourth domestication event (and a third event among B. taurus–type aurochs). This group may have diverged from the Near East group some 35,000 years ago. Whether these separate genetic populations would have equated to separate subspecies is unclear. (Hideyuki Mannen; et al. (August 2004). "Independent mitochondrial origin and historical genetic differentiation in North Eastern Asian cattle" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 32, issue 2. pp. 539–544.)

The maximum range of the aurochs was from Europe (excluding Ireland and northern Scandinavia), to northern Africa, the Middle East, India, and Central Asia.("History, Morphology And Ecology Of The Aurochs"(PDF) (McKenzie, Steven (17 February 2010). "Ancient giant cattle genome first"BBC News.) Until at least 3,000 years ago, the aurochs was also found in eastern China, where it is recorded at the Dingjiabao Reservoir in Yangyuan County. Most remains in China are known from the area east of 105°E, but the species has also been reported from the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau, close to the Heihe River.(Zong, G (1984). A record of Bos primigenius from the Quaternary of the Aba Tibetan Autonomous Region, Volume XXII No. 3. Vertebrata PalAsiatica. pp. 239–245.)In Japan, excavations in various locations such as in Iwate and Tochigi prefectures have found aurochs which may have herded with steppe bisons.(HASEGAWA Y.,OKUMURA Y., TATSUKAWA H. (2009). "First record of Late Pleistocene Bison from the fissure deposits of the Kuzuu Limestone, Yamasuge,Sano-shi,Tochigi Prefecture,Japan" (pdf)Bull.Gunma Mus.Natu.Hist.(13). Gunma Museum of Natural History and Kuzuu Fossil Museum: 47–52.).
The Vig-aurochs, one of two very well-preserved aurochs skeletons found in Denmark. The circles indicate where the animal was wounded by arrows.
Aurochse.jpg
Mounted skeleton of a bull found in Vig, Denmark, National Museum of Denmark
Charles Hamilton Smith's copy of a painting possibly dating to the 16th century
Restoration of the aurochs based on a bull skeleton from Lund and a cow skeleton from Cambridge, with chart of characteristic external features of the aurochs

The aurochs (/ˈɔːrɒks/ or /ˈrɒks/; pl. aurochs, or rarely aurochsenaurochses), also urusure (Bos primigenius), is an extinct species of large wild cattle that inhabited Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It is the ancestor of domestic cattle and the European bison, crossbred with Steppe bison...During the Neolithic Revolution, which occurred during the early Holocene, at least two aurochs domestication events occurred: one related to the Indian subspecies, leading to zebu cattle, and the other one related to the Eurasian subspecies, leading to taurine cattle. Other species of wild bovines were also domesticated, namely the wild water buffalogaurwild yak and banteng. In modern cattle, numerous breeds share characteristics of the aurochs, such as a dark colour in the bulls with a light eel stripe along the back (the cows being lighter), or a typical aurochs-like horn shape. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurochs
The reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. The Ishtar Gate was the eighth gate to the inner city of Babylon. It was constructed in about 575 BCE, and edicated to the Babylonian goddess Ishtar.

Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskultur von Jeremias, Alfred. Leipzig 1913. Seite 283. Anshar standing on a bull. Excavated from one of the ancient capitals of AssyriaAssur. "Ashur (also, AssurAššur; cuneiform: 𒀭𒀸𒋩 dAš-šur) is an East Semitic god, and the head of the Assyrian pantheon in Mesopotamian religion, worshipped mainly in the northern half of Mesopotamia, and parts of north-east Syria and south east Asia Minor which constituted old Assyria. He may have had a solar iconography.Aššur was a deified form of the city of Assur, which dates from the mid 3rd millennium BC and was the capital of the Old Assyrian kingdom." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashur_(god)

Image result for mari standardStandard of Mari. The standard-bearer has a shaven face and head. The staff upholding the one-horned young bull is खोंड a variety of jōndhaḷā Holcus sorghum; the hieroglyph signifies  karba 'culm of millet' rebus: karba 'iron'. 

I submit that the one-honed young bull presented on this procession signifies the Indus Script young bull called खोंड (p. 122khōṇḍa m A young bull, a bullcalf. 2 A variety of जोंधळा. जोंधळा (p. 187) jōndhaḷā m A cereal plant or its grain, Holcus sorghum. Eight varieties are reckoned, viz. उता- वळी, निळवा, शाळू, रातडी, पिवळा जोंधळा, खुंडी, काळबोंडी जोंधळा, दूध मोगरा. There are however many others as केळी, अरगडी, डुकरी, बेंदरी, मडगूप &c.कोंद kōnda 'young bull'.

 कोंडी (p. 102) kōṇḍī f (कोंडणें) A confined place gen.; a lockup house, a pen, fold, pound; a receiving apartment or court for Bráhmans gathering for दक्षिणा; a prison at the play of आट्यापाट्या; a dammed up part of a stream &c. &c. कोंडवाड (p. 102) kōṇḍavāḍa n f C (कोंडणें & वाडा) A pen or fold for cattle. कोंडण (p. 102) kōṇḍaṇa f A fold or penकोंडमार (p. 102) kōṇḍamāra or -मारा m (कोंडणें & मारणें) Shutting up in a confined place and beating. Gen. used in the laxer senses of Suffocating or stifling in a close room; pressing hard and distressing (of an opponent) in disputation; straitening and oppressing (of a person) under many troubles or difficulties; कोंडाळें (p. 102) kōṇḍāḷēṃ n (कुंडली S) A ring or circularly inclosed space. 2 fig. A circle made by persons sitting round. कोंड (p. 102) kōṇḍa m C A circular hedge or field-fence. 2 A circle described around a person under adjuration. 3 The circle at marbles. 4 A circular hamlet; a division of a मौजा or village, composed generally of the huts of one caste. 5 Grounds under one occupancy or tenancy. 6 f R A deep part of a river. 7 f (Or कोंडी q. v.) A confined place gen.; a lock-up house &c.

कोंडण kōṇḍaṇa, 'cattlepen', Mesopotamia Rebus: kundaṇa 'fine gold'

Mudhif and three reed banners
Figure 15.1. 

Sealing with representations of reed structures with cows, calves, lambs, and ringed
bundle “standards” of Inana (drawing by Diane Gurney. After Hamilton 1967, fig. 1) Six rings on each reed: bhaṭa 'six' rebus: bhaṭa'furnace' Cylinder seal impression, Uruk period, Uruk?, 3500-2900 BCE. Note a load of livestock (upper), overlapping greatly (weird representation), and standard 'mudhif' reed house form common to S. Iraq (lower). On either side of reed posts are three dotted circles: dāya 'dotted circle' on dhā̆vaḍ priest of 'iron-smelters', signifies tadbhava from Rigveda dhāī ''a strand (Sindhi) (hence, dotted circle shoring cross section of a thread through a perorated bead);rebus: dhāū, dhāv ʻa partic. soft red ores'. dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā]Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. hāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence hāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāūdhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆va m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si.  ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773

The standard bearer on the Mari frieze looks ike the priest shown on the Tell al Ubaid temple architectural frieze.
Baghdad. Iraq. ca. 2002: Sumerian frieze with inlay of cows. Part of a pastoral scene. Temple of Ninhursag, Tell al Ubaid c 2475 BCE. National Museum of Iraq before it was looted in the Gulf War.  https://tinyurl.com/ycwaqgcb Two calves are seen to emerge out of bot sides of the doorway (reed posts).
Image result for british museum mudhif byre
Image result for british museum mudhif byre

Statue of Kurlil. Found next to the Temple of Ninhursag in Tell al-Ubaid. Southern Iraq. 2500 BC. British Museum. http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-mesopotamia-early-dynastic-period-statue-of-kurlil-found-next-to-the-78771104.html

Libation Offered to a Vegetation Goddess (Claude Valette)
Libation offered to vegetation divinity. Temple of Ninhursag. https://www.ancient.eu/Ninhursag/
LYRE  Sumerian stela National Museum of Iraq
Lyre Sumerian stela National Museum of Iraq https://www.pinterest.com/pin/366691594637065820/

Figure 15.6. Tell al Ubaid, Temple of Ninhursag. Tridacna shell inlaid architectural frieze with bitumen and black shale. Early Dynastic period (ca. 2600 b.c.) (Hall and Woolley 1927)
Image result for british museum mudhif byre
Figure 15.5. Tell al Ubaid, Temple of Ninhursag. Tridacna shell-inlaid architectural frieze with bitumen and black shale. Early Dynastic period (ca. 2600 b.c.e.) (© The Trustees of the British Museum)
Statue of a bull
The Copper Bull on display
MaterialCopper
SizeLength: 60.96 cm
Height: 60.96 cm
Created2600 BCE
Discovered1923
Tell al-`Ubaid
Discovered byLeonard Woolley
Present locationBritish MuseumLondon
IdentificationME 116740

Imdugud.jpg
Tell al-`Ubaid Copper Lintel on display in the British Museum
MaterialCopper
SizeLength 2.59 metres, Height 1.07 metres
Created2600-2400 BC
Present locationBritish MuseumLondon
IdentificationME 114308
"The sculpture was discovered in 1919 at the base of a temple foundation made from mud and brick at the isolated Sumerian site of Tell al-`Ubaid, close to the ancient city of Ur in southern Iraq. Archaeologistshave determined from extant inscriptions and sculptures that the temple was dedicated to the goddess Ninhursag. Based on where it was originally found, it has been suggested that the copper panel was located above the temple door, in full view of the congregation...The central figure in the restored lintel shows the lion-headed eagle Imdugud who is the symbol of the god Ningirsu. Flanking either side of the god are two stags, one of whose heads has been restored. The relief was beaten out of a very large piece of copper and almost seems to stand apart from the background." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_al-%60Ubaid_Copper_Lintel
7a - when the gods did the work before manCylinder seal impression. Plough. Star. Culm of millet. Bull? Source of picture: http://www.mesopotamiangods.com/tag/mans-spirit/


“…on the façade of the temple of Ninhursag at Tell al Ubaid, an inlaid narrative relief panel represents the temple as a cattlepen (Figs. 15.5-6). The narrative sequence made with injlaidTridacna shells and limestone on a bitumen and black shale back-ground, depicts a milking scene with the dominance of human figures on the left and cattle on the right, while the composition is centered on the image of the temple. The vertical linear features in the representation of the temple most likely allude to the reed construction (upright reed bundles fastened together with bands of rope). The scene of cattle emerging from agate is also known from Late Uruk cylinder seal designs and low relief decoration on an alabaster trough (see discussion in Hall and Woolley 1927, pp. 113-14; and Winter 2010, p.203). The architecture of this temple may be considered as an archaizing representation of an archetypal enclosure of a reed structure as cattle pen, as one would associate with the long-term building practices in the marshy landscape of the  south. In light of the above discussion of Mesopotamian cities and temples as cattlepen and sheepfold, this scene becomes not just symbolically linked to Ninhursag, ‘lady of the steppes,’ but evocative from a political point of view as well.” (Omur Harmansah, 2012, The cattlepen and the sheepfold: cities, temples, and pastoral power in Ancient Mesopotamia, in:Deena Ragavan (ed.), Heaven on earth, temples, ritual, and cosmic symbolism in the ancient world, Oriental Institute, Univ. of Chicago, 2012, p.383)

Omur Harmansah, 2012, The cattlepen and the sheepfold: cities, temples, and pastoral power in Ancient Mesopotamia, in:Deena Ragavan (ed.), Heaven on earth, temples, ritual, and cosmic symbolism in the ancient world, Oriental Institute, Univ. of Chicago, 2012,  pp. 374-394
Mudhif is a cattle pen.

and modern mudhif structure (Iraq) compare with the Toda mund (sacred hut)

A Toda temple in Muthunadu Mund near Ooty, India.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toda_people
Image result for bharatkalyan97 mudhif284 x 190 mm. Close up view of a Toda hut, with figures seated on the stone wall in front of the building. Photograph taken circa 1875-1880, numbered 37 elsewhere. Royal Commonwealth Society Library. Cambridge University Library. University of Cambridge.
 Rebus Meluhha readings: kōṭhā 'warehouse' kuṭhāru 'armourer, PLUS kole.l'temple' rebus: kole.l 'smithy, forge' PLUS ḍhāla 'flagstaff' rebus: ḍhālako 'large ingot'. Thus, the message is: armoury, smithy, forge ingots.

m0702 Text 2206 showing Sign 39, a glyph which compares with the Sumerian mudhif structure.
ढालकाठी [ ḍhālakāṭhī ] f ढालखांब m A flagstaff; esp.the pole for a grand flag or standard. 
ढाल [ ḍhāla ] 'flagstaff' rebus: dhalako 'a large metal ingot (Gujarati) ḍhālakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (Gujarati). The mudhif flag on the inscription is read rebus: xolā 'tail' Rebus: kole.l 'smithy, temple'. The structure is  goṭ  'catttle-pen' (Santali) rebus: koṭhaka 'warehouse'. [kōṣṭhāgāra n. ʻ storeroom, store ʼ Mn. [kṓṣṭha -- 2, agāra -- ]Pa. koṭṭhāgāra -- n. ʻ storehouse, granary ʼ; Pk. koṭṭhāgāra -- , koṭṭhāra -- n. ʻ storehouse ʼ; K. kuṭhār m. ʻ wooden granary ʼ, WPah. bhal. kóṭhār m.; A. B. kuṭharī ʻ apartment ʼ, Or. koṭhari; Aw. lakh. koṭhārʻ zemindar's residence ʼ; H. kuṭhiyār ʻ granary ʼ; G. koṭhār m. ʻ granary, storehouse ʼ, koṭhāriyũ n. ʻ small do. ʼ; M. koṭhār n., koṭhārẽ n. ʻ large granary ʼ, -- °rī f. ʻ small one ʼ; Si. koṭāra ʻ granary, store ʼ.WPah.kṭg. kəṭhāˊr, kc. kuṭhār m. ʻ granary, storeroom ʼ, J. kuṭhārkṭhār m.; -- Md. kořāru ʻ storehouse ʼ ← Ind.(CDIAL 3550)] Rebus:  kuṭhāru 'armourer,
Field symbol is zebu (bos indicus). pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore' [pōlāda]  'steel'.
Text 1330 (appears with Zebu glyph) showing Sign 39. Pictorial motif: Zebu (Bos indicus) This sign is comparable to the cattle byre of Southern Mesopotamia dated to c. 3000 BCE. Rebus Meluhha readings of gthe inscription are from r. to l.: kole.l 'temple' rebus: kole.l 'smithy, forge' PLUS goṭ 'cattle-pen' rebus: koṭṭhāra 'warehouse' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' PLUS aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS kuṭika— 'bent' MBh. Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) PLUS kanka, karṇika कर्णिक 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale'. Read together with the fieldsymbol of the zebu,the message is: magnetite ore smithy, forge, warehouse, iron alloy metal, bronze merchandise (ready for loading as cargo).


goṭ = the place where cattle are collected at mid-day (Santali); goṭh (Brj.)(CDIAL 4336). goṣṭha (Skt.); cattle-shed (Or.) koḍ = a cow-pen; a cattlepen; a byre (G.) कोठी cattle-shed (Marathi) कोंडी [ kōṇḍī ] A pen or fold for cattle. गोठी [ gōṭhī ] f C (Dim. of गोठा) A pen or fold for calves. (Marathi) 


koṭṭhaka1 (nt.) "a kind of koṭṭha," the stronghold over a gateway, used as a store -- room for various things, a chamber, treasury, granary Vin ii.153, 210; for the purpose of keeping water in it Vin ii.121=142; 220; treasury J i.230; ii.168; -- store -- room J ii.246; koṭthake pāturahosi appeared at the gateway, i. e. arrived at the mansion Vin i.291.; -- udaka -- k a bath -- room, bath cabinet Vin i.205 (cp. Bdhgh's expln at Vin. Texts ii.57); so also nahāna -- k˚ and piṭṭhi -- k˚, bath -- room behind a hermitage J iii.71; DhA ii.19; a gateway, Vin ii.77; usually in cpd. dvāra -- k˚ "door cavity," i. e. room over the gate: gharaŋ satta -- dvāra -- koṭṭhakapaṭimaṇḍitaŋ "a mansion adorned with seven gateways" J i.227=230, 290; VvA 322. dvāra -- koṭṭhakesu āsanāni paṭṭhapenti "they spread mats in the gateways" VvA 6; esp. with bahi: bahi -- dvārakoṭṭhakā nikkhāmetvā "leading him out in front of the gateway" A iv.206; ˚e thiṭa or nisinna standing or sitting in front of the gateway S i.77; M i.161, 382; A iii.30. -- bala -- k. a line of infantry J i.179. -- koṭṭhaka -- kamma or the occupation connected with a storehouse (or bathroom?) is mentioned as an example of a low occupation at Vin iv.6; Kern, Toev. s. v. "someone who sweeps away dirt." (Pali)

कोंडण kōṇḍaṇa, 'cattlepen', Mesopotamia Rebus: kundaṇa 'fine gold'

One-horned young bulls and calves are shown emerging out of  कोंडण kōṇḍaṇa cattlepens heralded by Inana standards atop the mudhifs. The Inana standards are reeds with three rings.

Democracy in Bharat, 2019, Phase 1

वैश्वानर image

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वैश्वानर mf()n. (fr. विश्वा-नर) relating or belonging to all men , omnipresent , known or worshipped , everywhere , universal , general , common RV.onsisting of all men , full in number , complete RV. AV. S3rS.relating or belonging to the gods collectively La1t2y.all-commanding AV.relating or sacred to अग्नि वैश्वानर TS. S3Br. S3rS.composed by विश्वानर or वैश्वानर;m. N. of अग्नि or Fire RV. &c &c (अग्नि वैश्वानर is regarded as the author of x , 79 , 80)m. a partic. अग्नि A1rshBr.m. the fire of digestionm. the sun , sunlight AV. S3a1n3khBr.m. (in the वेदा*न्तN. of the Supreme Spirit or Intellect when located in a supposed collective aggregate of gross bodies (= विरा*ज् , प्रजा-पति , पुरुष) , वेदान्तs. m. N. of a दैत्य Hariv. Pur.m. a partic. sacrifice performed at the beginning of every year n. men collectively , mankind TBr.n. N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. 
Yesterday I'd posted this pAla image from Bankura which the ASI had misidentified rudra nR^ityeshvara. No one seems to have correctly IDed it. The correct answer is the vaiShNava deity the sudarshana-chakra associated with the mantra OM trailokyaM rakSha rakSha huM phaT svAhA


Itihāsa. Dimensions of the Aryan problem revisited in 2017 -- Manogna Sastry & Megh Kalyanasundaram

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Dimensions of the Aryan problem revisited in 2017 
(Presented at IIT Madras, 2017 Dec)
Whether posited as an invasion by or migration of Aryans, these variant forms—of an into-India hypothesis (supposed movement into India around the second millennium BCE)—are underpinned by one constant: the consequence that the earliest forms of Vedic culture and Sanskrit are not indigenous to India. Written in 2017, this paper examines, in three dimensions, whether such a hypothesis, given its startling consequence to Indic history, can remain a preserve of only one domain (linguistics) before demonstrating not only an absence of proof for such a consequence, amongst other related questions, in key Indic texts through a study of the terms ārya and drāviḍa but also specific problematics in the development of this hypothesis in historical linguistics.

https://www.scribd.com/document/405984321/Dimensions-of-the-Aryan-problem-revisited-in-2017-Manogna-Sastry-Megh-Kalyanasundaram 

Itihāsa. Sarasvatī in the Mahābhārata - A Study -- Manogna Sastry & Megh Kalyanasundaram

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Sarasvatī in the Mahābhārata - A Study

Presented at third International Conference on Sarasvati River (Feb 8-9, 2019) at Panjab University, Chandigarh, 2019
The mammoth significance of the Mahābhārata to Indic Chronology is readily seen in the copious scholarship dedicated not only to examining its epoch but also in particular to dating of river Sarasvatī. While there are several works studying Sarasvatī in the earliest Sanskrit texts and drawing inferences and arguments from textual evidence to address critical issues plaguing early Indic chronology, a similar effort—to comprehensively document, from 89000+ verses of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI) critical edition of the Mahābhārata and analyse it in its context to draw inferences that could be of relevance to early Indic chronology—forms the crux of this paper. The authors’ work consists of a database of 222 verses of Sarasvatī from the BORI critical edition of the Mahābhārata. This database enables study of the qualifiers associated with the river, including vitality, an especially crucial factor when considered with the geographical markers associated with it, thus providing a framework against which contemporary scientific research draws greater perspective. We particularly look at the verses that indicate vitality of the river in the light of scientific evidence from fields including geology, geomorphology, geohydrology to explore the possibility of a terminus ante quem for the textual material. The authors believe that their database, when  combined with the parameter of geographical coordinates, fills an important place in textual analysis of the epic with regards to the timeline of the Sarasvatī itself, and by extension the chronology of the events of the Mahābhārata.

https://www.scribd.com/document/405984162/Sarasvati-in-the-Mahabharata-A-Study-Manogna-Sastry-Megh-Kalyanasundaram 

Itihāsa. Dating Buddha’s Parinirvāṇa, A critique of Heinz Bechert’s Echo Chamber -- Manogna Sastry & Megh Kalyanasundaram

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The B of ABC of Indian Chronology: Dating Buddha’s Parinirvāṇa, A critique of Heinz Bechert’s Echo Chamber


(Presented at IGNCA, 2019 Feb)

The parinirvāṇa of Gautama Buddha is a milestone of singular consequence in Indic chronology, serving as the landmark for dating most events which compose the timeline of our history. In this paper, the authors use astronomical methods to comprehensively compile, analyse, define constraints and determine the unique solution which meets the criteria considered for the most probable year for the death of Buddha. Subsequently, in light of recent archaeological evidence, not only do we demonstrate how key archaeology-related conclusions in When did the Buddha live? are acutely less tenable in 2019, but also deduce and propose a terminus ante quem (546 B.C.) for Buddha's death. Thereafter, in the philology section, through a critical synoptic analysis we identify problematics that, in our assessment, vitiate the so-called corrected long chronology, short chronology and Heinz Bechert's proposal. We believe this paper addresses a crucial void in the post-1995 literature pertaining to Buddha's chronological epoch in being perhaps the first substantive critical assessment of some aspects of the Bechert volume, from an Indic lens, underpinned by a scientific approach

https://www.scribd.com/document/405983944/Dating-Gautama-Buddha-s-Parinirva-n-a-A-Milestone-in-Indic-Chronology-Manogna-Sastry-Megh-Kalyanasundaram 

Indus Script hieroglyphs kanac, khū̃ṭ, konḍ 'corner' are rebus kañcu 'bronze''bronze' kō̃da कोँद 'kiln, furnace' mũhã̄ 'ingot'

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--Signs 262, 373, display competence of metal artificers

Kiln, furnace: kō̃da कोँद । कुलालादिकन्दुः f. a kiln; a potter's kiln (Rām. 1446; H. xi, 11); a brick-kiln (Śiv. 1033); a lime-kiln. -bal -बल् । कुलालादिकन्दुस्थानम् m. the place where a kiln is erected, a brick or potter's kiln (Gr.Gr. 165). --khasüñü --खस॑ञू॒ । कुलालादिकन्दुयथावद्भावः f.inf. a kiln to arise; met. to become like such a kiln (which contains no imperfectly baked articles, but only well-made perfectly baked ones), hence, a collection of good ('pucka') articles or qualities to exist. Cf. Śiv. 1033, where the causal form of the verb is used. (Kashmiri) khŏḍ or (El.) khwŏḍ ख्वड् । गर्तः m. (sg. abl. khŏḍa 1 ख्वड), a pit, a hole dug in the ground (H. x, 13); a ditch (Gr.M.); esp. a hole dug in the ground in which money or other treasure is buried for safety, a pit-hoard; a cavity (El.), a rent (El.). --khanun --खनुन् । विघातः m. to dig a pit (Śiv. 590, 746, 1215); met. to dig a pit (for a person), to lay a trap for his destruction (e.g. by calumniating him to his superiors). Cf. khŏna-waṭh,s.v. khŏn. khŏḍa-onu ख्वड-अ॑नु॒ । अन्धभेदः adj. (f. -üñü -अ॑ञू॒), a blind man whose eyeballs are sunken in as if at the bottom of a pit (an appearance presented by persons blind from smallpox, or sometimes by persons born blind).(Kashmiri) 

(Santali)

*khuṇṭa2 ʻ corner ʼ. 2. *kuṇṭa -- 2. [Cf. *khōñca -- ]1. Phal. khun ʻ corner ʼ; H. khū̃ṭ m. ʻ corner, direction ʼ (→ P. khũṭ f. ʻ corner, side ʼ); G. khū̃ṭṛī f. ʻ angle ʼ. <-> X kōṇa -- : G. khuṇ f., khū˘ṇɔ m. ʻ corner ʼ.2. S. kuṇḍa f. ʻ corner ʼ; P. kū̃ṭ f. ʻ corner, side ʼ (← H.).(CDIAL 3898) Ka. gondi, gondu alley, lane, narrow passage in the ocean, strait. Te. gondi corner, lane. (DEDR 2100) Ta. kōṇ crookedness, angle, crossness of disposition; kōṇu (kōṇi-) to be bent, curved, be crooked, deviate, be perverse; kōṇam curve, curvature, scimitar, angle, corner; kōṇal obliquity, hump, crookedness (as of mind); kōṇaṉ humpback; kōṇai curvature, crookedness, cruelty; kuṇaku (kuṇaki-) to become bent, crooked; kuṇakku (kuṇakki-) to bend (tr.); n. crookedness, curvature, crossness; kuṇalai bending of the body through bashfulness; kuṇukku (kuṇukki-) to bend (tr.). Ma. kōṇ corner, angle; kōṇuka to bend (intr.); kōṇam corner; kōṇi corner of a piazza. Ko. go·ṇ corner of room. Ka. kōṇ, kōṇa, kōṇe, kōna angle, corner. Tu. kōṇa, kōṇè id.; kōṅgaṇṇů a squint eye. Te. kōṇamu angle, corner; kōna corner. Ga. P.) kōne corner. 
Konḍa (BB) kōna id. Cf. 2054(bTa. kōṭi. / Cf. Skt. koṇa- corner, angle, point of the compass; Turner, CDIAL, no. 3504.(DEDR 2209) kōṇa m. ʻ corner, angle ʼ MBh. [Cf. kuṇi -- , *khuṇṭa -- 2: ← Drav. T. Burrow BSOAS xi 341]Pa. kōṇa -- m., Pk. kōṇa -- , ˚aga -- , m.n. ʻ corner, part of a house ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) kunīˊ ʻ corner ʼ, K. kūn m., P. koṇ˚ṇākūṇ˚ṇā m., WPah. bhal. kōṇi f., cam. kūṇā m., Ku. kuṇo, pl. kwāṇā, gng. &rtodtilde; N. kunu, A. koṇ, B. koṇ˚ṇā, Or. koṇakuṇa; Bi. kon˚nīkonā -- konī ʻ ploughing from corner to corner ʼ; Mth. koniyā ʻ low wall round three sides of winnowing basket ʼ; Bhoj. kōn ʻ corner ʼ, H. kon˚nā m., G. kɔṇ m. (X *khuṇṭa -- 2 in kāṭ -- khuṇ = -- koṇ m. ʻ right angle ʼ), M. koṇ m., Si. kona; -- Pk. koṇṇa -- m. ʻ corner of a house ʼ (< kōṇa -- as tella -- < tailá -- ?); M. kon m. ʻ corner ʼ, ˚nā˚nyā m. ʻ cornerstone ʼ (prob., despite LM 139, koṇ, not kon, is borrowed).*kōṇakāṣṭha -- , *kōṇasītā -- ; catuṣkōṇa -- , ṣaṭkōṇa -- .Addenda: kōṇa -- : S.kcch. khūṇo m. ʻ corner ʼ, WPah.kṭg. kvṇɔ m., kc. kvṇe f., J. koṇā m., Garh. kōṇū.(CDIAL 3504)


kū̃j कूँज् (cf. । कोणः m. a corner (El.); an intermediate point of the compass, such as north-east, south-east, and so on. El. makes this word f.kūn कून् । कोणः m. a corner (El., Gr. Gr. 18). --yunu --यिनु॒ । वक्रीभवनम् m.inf. a corner to come; in a machine, a driving band to become displaced.(Kashmiri)
Sign 373 has the shape of oval or lozenge is the shape of a bun ingotmũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced atone time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed likea four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes andformed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt komūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali). Thus, Sign 373 signifies word, mũhã̄ 'bun ingot'.
Sign 267 is oval=shape variant, rhombus-shape of a bun ingot. Like Sign 373, this sign also signifies mũhã̄ 'bun ingot' PLUS kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bell-metal'.kaṁsá1 m. ʻ metal cup ʼ AV., m.n. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ Pat. as in S., but would in Pa. Pk. and most NIA. lggs. collide with kāˊṁsya -- to which L. P. testify and under which the remaining forms for the metal are listed. 2. *kaṁsikā -- .1. Pa. kaṁsa -- m. ʻ bronze dish ʼ; S. kañjho m. ʻ bellmetal ʼ; A. kã̄h ʻ gong ʼ; Or. kãsā ʻ big pot of bell -- metal ʼ; OMarw. kāso (= kã̄ -- ?) m. ʻ bell -- metal tray for food, food ʼ; G. kã̄sā m. pl. ʻ cymbals ʼ; -- perh. Woṭ. kasṓṭ m. ʻ metal pot ʼ Buddruss Woṭ 109.2. Pk. kaṁsiā -- f. ʻ a kind of musical instrument ʼ;  A. kã̄hi ʻ bell -- metal dish ʼ; G. kã̄śī f. ʻ bell -- metal cymbal ʼ, kã̄śiyɔ m. ʻ open bellmetal pan ʼ. (CDIAL 2756)
Lozenge, corner, signifier of portable furnace smoke/fire. Lozenge or oval shapes are mũhã̄ 'bun-ingot' shapes.  kammaṭa 'portable furnace to melt metals', rebus: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mintKa. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner (DEDR 1236). Thus, bronze, bell-metal ingot mint.
Variant of Sign 272. Lozenge, short vertical stroke, signifier of portable furnace smoke/fire. If the short vertical stroke is a 'notch' the rebus reading is: खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). Rebus: khāṇḍa 'tools, pots and pans, and metal-ware'.

The ccentre-piece of a metalworker'sactivities is the kiln, furnace. Many ligatures are shown to embellish the semantics of this artifact as may be seen from scores of variants and signs of Indus Script Corpora signified by the orthography of a rhombus or lozenge, focussed on the 'corner' semantics.
 Variants of Sign 261Variants of Sign 267




Mohenjo-daro Seal impression. m0296 Two heads of one-horned bulls with neck-rings, joined end to end (to a standard device with two rings coming out of the top part?), under a stylized tree-branch with nine leaves.
P
Hypertext: Pair of rings attached to string, pair of young bulls: dol 'likeness, picture, form' (Santali) dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast iron' (Santali) dul ‘to cast metal in a mould’ (Santali) dul meṛeḍ cast iron (Mundari. Santali) కమ్మరు kammaru or కమరు kammaru. [Tel.] n. A girdle. మొలనూలు. కమ్మరము kammaramu kammaramu. [Tel.] n. Smith's work, iron work. కమ్మరవాడు, కమ్మరి or కమ్మరీడు kammara-vāḍu. n. An iron-smith or blacksmith. బైటికమ్మరవాడు an itinerant blacksmith. कर्मार karmāra m. an artisan , mechanic , artificer, a blacksmith &c ऋग्-वेद RV. x , 72 , 2 AV. iii , 5 , 6 VS. Mn. iv , 215 &c (Monier-Williams)

Thus, semantics of 'metalcasting' should be used to expand the meanings of associated hypertexts of 'young bull' or 'ring' hieroglyphs.

Hieroglyphs which compose the hypertext on m296 are vivid and unambiguous.

Hieroglyph:Nine, ficus leaves: 1.loa 'ficus glomerata' (Santali) no = nine (B.)  on-patu = nine (Ta.)

rebus: lo 'iron' (Assamese) loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) lauha = made of copper or iron (Gr.S'r.); metal, iron (Skt.); lohakāra = coppersmith, ironsmith (Pali);lohāra = blacksmith (Pt.); lohal.a (Or.); loha = metal, esp. copper or
bronze (Pali); copper (VS.); loho, lo = metal, ore, iron (Si.) loha lut.i = iron utensils and implements (Santali)

Exact number of nine ficus leaves occur together with a zebu tied to a post, on another artifact of Mehi, a site of the civilization. 
Hieroglyph: loa 'a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus glomerata (Santali)
 kamaṛkom ‘ficus’ (Santali); Rebus: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭamcoinage, mintKa. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner (DEDR 1236)
Hieroglyph: Semantic determinative of portable furnace: 
కమటము kamaṭamu kamaṭamu. [Tel.] n. A portable furnace for melting the precious metals. అగసాలెవాని కుంపటి. "చ కమటము కట్లెసంచియొరగల్లును గత్తెర సుత్తె చీర్ణముల్ ధమనియుస్రావణంబు మొలత్రాసును బట్టెడ నీరుకారు సా నము పటుకారు మూస బలునాణె పరీక్షల మచ్చులాదిగా నమరగభద్రకారక సమాహ్వయు డొక్కరుడుండు నప్పురిన్"హంస. ii.  కమసాలవాడు (p. 246) kamasālavāḍu Same as కంసాలి. కమసాలవాడు kamasālavāḍu kaṃsāli or కంసాలవాడు kamsāli. [Tel.] n. A goldsmith or silversmith. కమ్మటము  kammaṭamu Same as కమటము. కమ్మటీడు kammaṭīḍu. [Tel.] A man of the goldsmith caste. Rebus: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mintKa. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner (DEDR 1236)
koṭ = neck (Gujarati) ko 'horn'  koḍiyum ‘heifer’ (G.). Rebus: koṭ ‘workshop’ (Kuwi) koṭe = forge (Santali) kōḍiya, kōḍe = young bull (G.)Rebus: ācāri koṭṭya ‘smithy’ (Tulu) Pair: 

kondh 'young bull' rebus: kũdār 'turner, brass-worker, engraver (writer)' kundaa 'fine gold'. Thus apair of young bulls signify the hypertext: dul kundakoḍ  'metalcaster goldsmith workshop'. 

kaṛā 'ring' (Punjabi) rebus: khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः 'blacksmith, ironsmith' (Kashmiri) Pair: dul khār 'metalcaster smith'.

Hieroglyph: गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble Rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī f (Dim. of गोटा A lump of silver: as obtained by melting down lace or fringe.  Thus, the hypertext reads:  dul gōṭī khār 'silver metalcaster smith'.

Rebus: khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -bü -ब&above;ठू&below; । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy-बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer.; । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. , a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl  । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. । लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 -म्य&above;च&dotbelow;ू&below; । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore.; । लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -च्&dotbelow;ञ । लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -wah -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil. (Kashmiri)Rebus: khara 'sharp-edged' Kannada); pure, unalloyed (Kashmiri) 

Text of the Indus Script inscription m296
1387
 kana, kanac =corner (Santali); Rebus: kañcu, 'bell-metal' (Telugu) कंस mn. ( √कम् Un2. iii , 62), a vessel made of metal , drinking vessel , cup , goblet AV. x , 10 , 5 AitBr. S3Br. &c; a metal , tutanag or white copper , brass , bell-metal (Monier-Williams)
 Ligatured glyph. arā 'spoke' rebus:  āra 'brass'. era, er-a = eraka =

?nave; erakōlu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Kannada)

[Note Sign 391 and its ligatures Signs 392 and 393 may connote a spoked-wheel,

nave of the wheel through which the axle passes; cf. ar ā, spoke]erka = ekke (Tbh.

of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal);crystal (Kannada) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any
metal infusion (Ka.Tu.); erako molten cast (Tulu) Rebus: eraka
= copper (Ka.)eruvai =copper (Ta.); ere - a dark-red colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). eraka, era, er-a = syn. erka, copper, weapons (Ka.)Vikalpa: ara, arā (RV.) = spoke of wheel  ஆரம்² āram , n. < āra. 1. Spoke of a wheel. See ஆரக்கால்ஆரஞ்சூழ்ந்தவயில்வாய்நேமியொடு (சிறுபாண்253). Rebus: ஆரம்brass; பித்தளை.(அகநி.)
kui = a slice, a bit, a small piece (Santali.Bodding) Rebus: kuṭhi ‘iron smelter furnace’ (Santali) kuṭhī
factory (A.)(CDIAL 3546)

Thus, Part 1 of the hypertext sequence connotes a copper, bronze, brass smelter furnace. (Brass is signifiedby th spoked wheel: āra 'spoke' rebus: āra 'brass')
The hieroglyph components of Sign 236 are Sign 180 and Sign 267

  Signs 180, 181 have variants like inlaid warp-pegs within a rhombus with a corner identified.

Warp-pegs kor.i = pegs in the ground in two rooms on which the thread is passed back and forth in preparing the warp (S.) Edging, trimming (cf. orthography of glyph in the middle of the epigraph) K. goṭh f., dat. °ṭi f. ʻ chequer or chess or dice board ʼ; S. g̠oṭu m. ʻ large ball of tobacco ready for hookah ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; P. goṭ f. ʻ spool on which gold or silver wire is wound, piece on a chequer board ʼ; N. goṭo ʻ piece ʼ, goṭi ʻ chess piece ʼ; A. goṭ ʻ a fruit, whole piece ʼ, °ṭā ʻ globular, solid ʼ, guṭi ʻ small ball, seed, kernel ʼ; B. goṭā ʻ seed, bean, whole ʼ; Or. goṭā ʻ whole, undivided ʼ, goṭi ʻ small ball, cocoon ʼ, goṭāli ʻ small round piece of chalk ʼ; Bi. goṭā ʻ seed ʼ; Mth. goṭa ʻ numerative particle ʼ; H. goṭ f. ʻ piece (at chess &c.) ʼ; G. goṭ m. ʻ cloud of smoke ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ kernel of coconut, nosegay ʼ, goṭī f. ʻ lump of silver, clot of blood ʼ, °ṭilɔm. ʻ hard ball of cloth ʼ; M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ a marble ʼ, goṭuḷā ʻ spherical ʼ; Si. guṭiya ʻ lump, ball ʼ; -- prob. also P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H.goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ. Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271) Rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (Gujarati).

Decipherment of Sign 236 as a hypertext with two hieroglyph components Sign 180 and Sign 267: 1. warp-pegs (Sign 180) 2. rhombus with corner (Sign 267): Sign 267 is:  kancu ʼmũh kharaḍa 'bell metal ingot daybook' PLUS the inlaid Sign 180 (warp-pegs) read rebus: goṭ'hem of a garment' rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (G.). Thus, together, the hypertext of Sign 236 reads: goṭī kancu ʼmũh kharaḍa 'silver lump, bell-metal ingot daybook'.

An example of Sign 180 may be seen on Mohenjodaro seal m0009.
Seal m0009 inscription deciphered: Pictorial motif (field symbol): 1, kōḍe kōnda ‘young bull'  (Telugu, Marathi)  
2. kōḍ (pl. kōḍul) horn (Pargi)
3. kot.iyum = a wooden circle (ring) put round the neck of an animal; kot. = neck (Gujarati)
4. khōṇḍā 'cowl or hood'

Rebus 1: kōnda ‘engraver', kōndaṇa 'lapidary infixing gems’ working with , kundaṇa 'pure gold'
Rebus 2: ko  'artisan's workshop' (Kuwi) ko  = place where artisans work (Gujarti)
sāṅgaḍa f A body formed of two or more (fruits, animals, men) linked or joined together. The parts joined are: 1.lathe; 2. portable furnace. 1. sāṅgaḍa 'lathe' kunda 'lathe' rebus: kunda 'nidhi of Kubera' PLUS kammaṭamu 'portable furnace' rebus:  Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mintKa. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner. (DEDR 1236). Rebus: jangaḍiyo  ‘military guard who accompanies treasure into the treasury’; jāṅgaḍa f (Hindi) Goods taken from a shop, to be retained or returned. 
Text of the inscription: rim-of-jar with inlaid three short strokes: 
Hypertext 1: kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, engraver ' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'.
Hypertext 2: gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271) Rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (Gujarati).
Hypertext 3:  koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop'.

Thus, the inscription reads: kundaṇa kammaṭa sāṅgaḍa goṭī kolimi koḍ karṇī 'gold mint, jangaḍiyo  ‘military guard who accompanies treasure into the treasury’, silver lump smithy/forge, (output products entrusted to) supercargo, engraver'. 
Sign 274Variant Sign 273 The hypertexts are composed of Sign 267 and duplicated Sign 176 The rebus reading of both signs, Signs 273 and 274 somposed of Sign 267 and duplicated Sign 176 is:  kancu ʼmũh dul kharaḍa 'bell metal ingot metal casting daybook'. 

Hieroglyph: joint of stalk: kāˊṇḍa (kāṇḍá -- TS.) m.n. ʻ single joint of a plant ʼ AV., ʻ arrow ʼ MBh., ʻ cluster, heap ʼ (in tr̥ṇa -- kāṇḍa -- Pāṇ. Kāś.). [Poss. connexion with gaṇḍa -- 2 makes prob. non -- Aryan origin (not with P. Tedesco Language 22, 190 < kr̥ntáti). Prob. ← Drav., cf. Tam. kaṇ ʻ joint of bamboo or sugarcane ʼ EWA i 197] Pa. kaṇḍa -- m.n. ʻ joint of stalk, stalk, arrow, lump ʼ; Pk. kaṁḍa -- , °aya -- m.n. ʻ knot of bough, bough, stick ʼ; Ash. kaṇ ʻ arrow ʼ, Kt. kåṇ, Wg. kāṇkŕãdotdot;, Pr. kə̃, Dm. kā̆n; Paš. lauṛ. kāṇḍkāṇ, ar. kōṇ, kuṛ. kō̃, dar. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, kã̄ṛī ʻ torch ʼ; Shum. kō̃ṛkō̃ ʻ arrow ʼ, Gaw. kāṇḍkāṇ; Kho. kan ʻ tree, large bush ʼ; Bshk. kāˋ'n ʻ arrow ʼ, Tor. kan m., Sv. kã̄ṛa, Phal. kōṇ, Sh. gil. kōn f. (→ Ḍ. kōn, pl. kāna f.), pales. kōṇ; K. kã̄ḍ m. ʻ stalk of a reed, straw ʼ (kān m. ʻ arrow ʼ ← Sh.?); S. kānu m. ʻ arrow ʼ, °no m. ʻ reed ʼ, °nī f. ʻ topmost joint of the reed Sara, reed pen, stalk, straw, porcupine's quill ʼ; L. kānã̄ m. ʻ stalk of the reed Sara ʼ, °nī˜ f. ʻ pen, small spear ʼ; P. kānnā m. ʻ the reed Saccharum munja, reed in a weaver's warp ʼ, kānī f. ʻ arrow ʼ; WPah. bhal. kān n. ʻ arrow ʼ, jaun. kã̄ḍ; N. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, °ṛo ʻ rafter ʼ; A. kã̄r ʻ arrow ʼ; B. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, °ṛā ʻ oil vessel made of bamboo joint, needle of bamboo for netting ʼ, kẽṛiyā ʻ wooden or earthen vessel for oil &c. ʼ; Or. kāṇḍakã̄ṛ ʻ stalk, arrow ʼ; Bi. kã̄ṛā ʻ stem of muñja grass (used for thatching) ʼ; Mth. kã̄ṛ ʻ stack of stalks of large millet ʼ, kã̄ṛī ʻ wooden milkpail ʼ; Bhoj. kaṇḍā ʻ reeds ʼ; H. kã̄ṛī f. ʻ rafter, yoke ʼ, kaṇḍā m. ʻ reed, bush ʼ (← EP.?); G. kã̄ḍ m. ʻ joint, bough, arrow ʼ, °ḍũ n. ʻ wrist ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ joint, bough, arrow, lucifer match ʼ; M. kã̄ḍ n. ʻ trunk, stem ʼ, °ḍẽ n. ʻ joint, knot, stem, straw ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ joint of sugarcane, shoot of root (of ginger, &c.) ʼ; Si. kaḍaya ʻ arrow ʼ. -- Deriv. A. kāriyāiba ʻ to shoot with an arrow ʼ.(CDIAL 3023) Rebus: kaṇḍa 'equipment, metalware'.
Sign 271 ciphertext is composed of Sign 276 PLUS three identical signifiers of jointed stalks. kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy,forge' PLUS Hypertext reads: kancu ʼmũh kolimi kaṇḍa 'bell-metal ingot, smithy/forge equipment'.
Sign 282 VariantSign 283 The hypertexts are composed of  and Sign 176The rebus reading of both signs, Signs 282 and 283 somposed of Sign 267 and duplicated Sign 176 is:  dul kancu ʼmũh kharaḍa 'cast bell metal ingot daybook'. 
Sign 373 has the shape of oval or lozenge is the shape of a bun ingotmũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced atone time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed likea four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes andformed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt komūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali). Thus, Sign 373 signifies word, mũhã̄ 'bun ingot'.
Sign 269 ciphertext is composed of Sign 373 and Sign 86 and 'corner' signifier. Hypertext is: mũhã̄ kañcu 'bell-metal ingot' PLUS koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop'. Thus, bell-metal ingot workshop. 
Sign 268 ciphertext is composed of duplicated, ligatured Sign 373 with infixed 'corner' signifiers. Hypertext reads: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS kanac 'corner' rebus: kañcu 'bell-metal' PLUS  mũhã̄ 'bun ingot'. The message is: dul mũhã̄ kañcu'metal casting of bell-metal ingot'
Sign 382 Cyphertext is composite of Sign 373 and duplicates of Sign 176. The hypertext is: mũhã̄ 'bun ingot' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khareḍo 'a currycomb' (Gujarati) rebus: kharaḍa, 'daybook'. Thus, the reading is: mũhã̄ dul kharaḍa, 'ingot metalcasting daybook'.

A painted goblet with the 'three-branched fig tree' motif from Nausharo I D, transitional phase between the Early and Mature Harappan periods (c. 2600-2550 BCE) (After Samzun 1992: 250, fig.29.4 no.2)
Sign 327V326 (Orthographic variants of Sign 326) V327 (Orthographic variants of Sign 327) loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus glomerata (Santali.lex.) Vikalpa: kamaṛkom ‘ficus’ (Santali); rebus: kampaṭṭam ‘mint’ (Ta.) patra ‘leaf’ (Skt.); rebus: paṭṭarai ‘workshop’ (Ta.) Rebus: lo ‘iron’ (Assamese, Bengali); loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) lauha = made of copper or iron (Gr.S'r.); metal, iron (Skt.); lo_haka_ra = coppersmith, ironsmith (Pali); lo_ha_ra = blacksmith (Pt.); lohal.a (Or.); lo_ha = metal, esp. copper or bronze (Pali); copper
(VS.); loho, lo_ = metal, ore, iron (Si.) loha lut.i = iron utensils and implements (Santali.lex.) koṭiyum = a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal; koṭ = neck
(G.lex.) kōṭu = horns (Ta.) kōḍiya, kōḍe = young bull (G.) Rebus: koḍ  = place where artisans work (Gujarati)
Zebu and nine leaves. In front of the standard device and the stylized tree of 9 leaves, are the black buck antelopes. Black paint on red ware of Kulli style. Mehi. Second-half of 3rd millennium BCE. [After G.L. Possehl, 1986, Kulli: an exploration of anancient civilization in South Asia, Centers of Civilization, I, Durham, NC: 46, fig. 18 (Mehi II.4.5), based on Stein 1931: pl. 30. 

पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' signifies pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4',

Semantic determinative: markhor: mẽḍhā 'markhor' rebus: medhā 'yajña, dhanam'; दु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Santali.Mu.Ho.);med 'copper' (Slavic)mēthí m. ʻ pillar in threshing floor to which oxen are fastened, prop for supporting carriage shafts ʼ AV., °thī -- f. KātyŚr.com., mēdhī -- f. Divyāv. 2. mēṭhī -- f. PañcavBr.com., mēḍhī -- , mēṭī -- f. BhP. 1. Pa. mēdhi -- f. ʻ post to tie cattle to, pillar, part of a stūpa ʼ; Pk. mēhi -- m. ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ, N. meh(e), mihomiyo, B. mei, Or. maï -- dāṇḍi, Bi. mẽhmẽhā ʻ the post ʼ, (SMunger) mehā ʻ the bullock next the post ʼ, Mth. mehmehā ʻ the post ʼ, (SBhagalpur) mīhã̄ ʻ the bullock next the post ʼ, (SETirhut) mẽhi bāṭi ʻ vessel with a projecting base ʼ.2. Pk. mēḍhi -- m. ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ, mēḍhaka<-> ʻ small stick ʼ; K. mīrmīrü f. ʻ larger hole in ground which serves as a mark in pitching walnuts ʼ (for semantic relation of ʻ post -- hole ʼ see kūpa -- 2); L. meṛhf. ʻ rope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floor ʼ; P. mehṛ f., mehaṛ m. ʻ oxen on threshing floor, crowd ʼ; OA meṛhamehra ʻ a circular construction, mound ʼ; Or. meṛhīmeri ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ; Bi. mẽṛ ʻ raised bank between irrigated beds ʼ, (Camparam) mẽṛhā ʻ bullock next the post ʼ, Mth. (SETirhut) mẽṛhā ʻ id. ʼ; M. meḍ(h), meḍhī f., meḍhā m. ʻ post, forked stake ʼ.(CDIAL 10317). Rebus: मृदु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'metal' mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formeḍinto an equilateral lump a little pointed at each end;  mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)


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Mystery of 5th m. BCE Mehrgarh ornament solved; āre, ṯs̱arḵẖ 'wheel' rebus āra ‘brass’, eraka 'metal infusion'

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https://tinyurl.com/y245bxk7


This is an addendum to Speculating on chronology of early writing systems. Spoked wheel on Indus Script, is it adapted from a chariot wheel or a potter's wheel? 

http://tinyurl.com/y6jymj68


I submit that the Mehrgarh copper alloy ornament (pendant) is a compartmented seal with Indus Script which signifies āre‘potter's wheel’ rebus: āra‘brass’; څرخ ṯs̱arḵẖ, 'potter's wheel'; eraka'knave of wheel' rebus: arka, aka'gold, copper'; eraka'metal infusion'. The embedded video titled 'The mystery of the amulet (6:57) explains the cire perdue metallurgical process or lost-wax method of casting. This is a tribute to the archaeologist, Jean-Francois Jarrige (Video 6:57). Such seals were perhaps worn as pendants on necklaces, by artisans, to proclaim their metallurgical competence.


Indus Script corpora contains examples of metal seals.''Standard Indus seals made of terracotta (L-41), ivory (L-6), copper/bronze (L-44), and silver (M-1199)'' Source : https://tinyurl.com/y3tgv23t Dennys Frenez, 2018, Private Person or Public Persona? Use and Significance of Standard Indus Seals as Markers of Formal Socio-Economic Identities, in: Walking with the Unicorn. Social Organization and Material Culture in Ancient South Asia – Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume, 2018, pp. 166 to 193.

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It should be noted that the size of the ornament of copper alloy made in Mehrgarh was only about 1 inch dia. and was perhaps used as a pendant on a necklace.Image result for copper alloy amulet mehrgarh british museum


See:  https://tinyurl.com/yxbc7d33


-- eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus:  arka, aka 'gold, copper'; eraka 'metal infusion'.

What is the purpose of the copper alloy wheel made by Mehrgarh metal artificer? Another way to phrase the question can be: why was the pictograph of a spoked wheel chosen to create a cire perdue (lostwax technique) casting of a copper alloy? I suggest an answer to the second question.The pictograph was chosen because it was taken from the potter's wheel used by artisans to turn and produce terracotta vessels and artifacts. By any standards of reckoning, the cire perdue method of casting metal is an extraordinary invention, using wax scultpural shapess, applying  fine clay from the river bed on the image and replicating the shape by pouring molten metal into the clay mound, replacing clay with metal infusion as the wax melts and drains away, leaving the metal object in the same shape as the wax image.

So, I suggest that the resulting object may not be an amulet but may be called metal compartmented seal or an ornament, like an akɔṭī f. ʻearring ʼor arkapuṭikā -- f. ʻ a silver ornament consisting of a round disk like the sunʼ. It is possible that the metal ornaments so made were intended for use as ear-rings or jewellery. 

Hieroglyph: څرخ ṯs̱arḵẖ, s.m. (2nd) A wheel (particularly a potter's, or of a water-mill or well). 2. A grindstone.  Rebus:  P زرګر zar-gar, s.m. (5th) A goldsmith, a worker in gold. Pl. زرګران zargarān P زر zar, s.m. (6th) Gold, riches, wealth, money. Sing. and Pl. سپین زر spīn zar, Silver (lit. white gold). سره زر sarah zar, Gold. زرافشان zar afs̱ẖān, adj. Strewing gold. زر خرید zar ḵẖarīd, adj. Purchased (as a slave).(Pashto), L. P. sar m. (P. sarī f. ʻ bar of iron, lash of whip ʼ); Ku. saro m., sarī f. ʻ stick, thin iron bar, penis ʼ; N. sar ʻ shaft (e.g. of a spear) ʼ; B. sar ʻ reed ʼ; Or. sara ʻ reed, handle of oar ʼ; H. sar m. ʻ S. sara ʼ, sarā m. ʻ long straight bamboo ʼ, sarī f. ʻ reed, shaft of arrow ʼ, sariyā f. ʻ piece of reed or bamboo, gold or silver wire ʼ; G. sariyɔ m. ʻ bar, rod'(CDIAL 12324) अर्क  'the sun, copperm. ( √ अर्च्) , Ved. a ray , flash of lightning RV. &c; fire RV. ix , 50 , 4 S3Br. Br2A1rUp. (Monier-Williams) arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc]Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624) *arkavarta ʻ a sort of ornament ʼ. [Cf. arkapuṭikā -- f. ʻ a silver ornament consisting of a round disk like the sun ʼ lex.: arká -- 1, *varta -- 3]G. akɔṭī f. ʻ earring ʼ.(CDIAL 628) (Note:the Pashto word ṯs̱arḵẖ may explain the various semantic expressions listed in Annex. Cakra and examples of semantic expansions). 


Kalyanaraman, Sarasvati Research Centre.

One of the most exciting discoveries of the year: a detailed, full-field photoluminescence study of a 6,000 year old copper "wheel" amulet from Mehrgarh in Balochistan has opened the door to many new facts about this period of history. This study by Ipanema, the European center for the study of ancient materials, believes that this is the oldest known example of the "lost wax" casting technique, one of the most important innovations in the history of metallurgy.

In this method of metal casting, a mold is made with wax, then covered in clay and baked until the wax melts out and the clay forms a hard mold. Then molten metal is poured into this cavity and cooled until it hardens. When the mold is broken open, a perfect metal model of the original wax structure remains. In this example from Mehrgarh, the form is also one of the oldest known ancient Indus signs, possibly of a wheel, but certainly of a six-spoked circular object.
Over the millennia, lost-wax casting has been used to produce innumerable artefacts, including daily use items like knives, water vessels, utensils, tools, as well as high-value and symbolic items such as jewellery, religious figurines, and metal statues of gods, kings and heroes.The article states that "The technique helped societies transition from the Stone Age to the ages of copper and bronze and gave rise to new and powerful types of culture." Over thousands of years we find many excellent examples of this method of casting in different metals from different parts of the world, such as the bronze Buddha at Tōdai-ji temple in Japan, the Benin Bronzes from West Africa, the Dhokra metal ware from Orissa, the Chola Brones and Faberge eggs from Russia. Within the Harappan Phase of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Dancing Girl of Mohenjodaro is probably the most famous example of lost wax metal casting.

In linking the development of technological innovations between Mehrgarh and the mature Harappan phase, a different article on the metal technologies of the Indus Valley, Jonathon Kenoyer writes that "the evidence from Mehrgarh and other early sites demonstrates that the pyrotechnological and metallurgical innovations of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic set the technological background for the metallurgical traditions of the Harappan Phase….the origin and development of copper metal technology occurred in conjunction with developments in other technologies."This example of attempting to work with pure copper, a metal that is hard to acquire and corrodes more easily than an alloy, demonstrates that the people of Mehrgarh were innovating with new substances and technologies.
An excellent descriptive video accompanies the story, which concludes:

"In terms of beauty or sophistication, the amulet cannot rival its more famous successors. But [Mathieu] Thoury [the lead investigator] finds it impressive in other ways. Not only did the amulet's creators use a new casting technique, they also opted to craft the amulet entirely from copper — a rare and unusual choice, since pure copper is hard to acquire and corrodes more easily than an alloy.

'It is not the most beautiful object, but still it holds so much history,” he said. “It shows how the metalworkers at the time were so innovative and wanted to optimize and improve the technique."



Photograph Credits:

1. D. Bagault/C2RMF
2. T. Séverin-Fabiani, M. Thoury, L. Bertrand, B. Mille/Ipanema CNRS MCC UVSQ/Synchrotron Soleil/C2RMF
3. C. Jarrige/Mission Archéologique de l’Indus

This 6,000-year-old amulet is the oldest example of a technology still used by NASA


The amulet from Mehrgarh. (D. Bagault/C2RMF)
The amulet doesn't look like much: A lopsided, six-spoke wheel barely an inch across, swollen and green from corrosion.
But the 6,000-year-old object, uncovered from the ruins of a Neolithic farming village in Pakistan, holds clues about the ancient world it came from. And the effort to decipher those clues required some of the most sophisticated technology of today.

In the journal Nature Communications on Tuesday, scientists describe how they used a powerful synchrotron beam to analyze the tiny amulet on a microscopic level, revealing secrets about its origins that were once thought lost.

The Mystery of the Mehrgarh ornament

Time: 
6:57
A stunningly beautiful, accessible animation about the scientific investigation of the metallurgy of a 6000 year old amulet from Mehrgarh, the first known example of the lost wax method. The tiny spoked wheel shape was alloyed from pure copper. The research shows how this neolithic innovation was a precursor to technology of the copper and bronze ages, when the lost wax method was used around the world, and onwards to modern metal casting. Mehrgarh is considered seminal to the birth of the Indus Valley Civilisation. It saw an explosion of metal working techniques, as Shereen Ratnagar has pointed out, and sophisticated pyro-technology, working raw materials to create faience, stoneware, jewelery, and seals, researched by J.M Kenoyer, Massimo Vidale, and Heather Miller, amongst many others.
The film is a fitting tribute to the memory of the great archaeologist Jean-Francois Jarrige, (1940-2014), who led the Mehrgarh excavations.
And we are left wondering at the meaning of this wheel shaped symbol which also occurs in the Indus script...
https://www.harappa.com/video/mystery-mehrgarh-amuletScientist carried out a detailed study to find out how amulets were made 6,000 years ago. 
Peering through the corrosion, “we discovered a hidden structure that is a signature of the original object, how it was made,” said lead author Mathieu Thoury, a physicist at Ipanema, the European center for the study of ancient materials. “You have a signature of what was happening 6,000 years ago.”
The study relied on an imaging technique called full-field photoluminescence. The researchers shined a powerful light at the amulet, exciting electrons in the atoms that compose it so that they emitted their own light in response. By analyzing the spectrum of this emission, the researchers could figure out the shape and composition of parts of the amulet they couldn't see.
The technique revealed something surprising: countless tiny, bristle-like rods of copper oxide scattered throughout the interior of the amulet. Their structure was very different from the copper-oxygen compounds that pervade the rest of the object as a result of heavy corrosion over the course of thousands of years.
Thoury believes that ancient metallurgists were trying to craft the amulet out of pure copper, but inadvertently allowed some oxygen in during the production process. Those early copper oxides hardened into the microscopic bristles in the amulet's interior.
Photoluminescence revealed tiny, bristle-like rods of copper oxide (top right) in the amulet's interior. (T. Séverin-Fabiani, M. Thoury, L. Bertrand, B. Mille/Ipanema CNRS MCC UVSQ/Synchrotron Soleil/C2RMF)
Their existence, paired with the fact that the amulet is not symmetrical, also suggests that the amulet was made via a process called lost-wax casting — one of the most important innovations in the history of metallurgy. The age-old process, which is still used to make delicate metal instruments today, involves crafting a model out of wax, covering it in clay, and baking the whole thing until the wax melts out and the clay forms a hard mold. Then molten metal is then poured into this cavity and cooled until it hardens. When the mold is broken open, a perfect metal model of the original wax structure remains.
At 6,000 years, the amulet is the oldest known example of this technique. Eventually, lost-wax casting would be used to produce countless functional objects — knives, water vessels, utensils, tools — as well as jewelry, religious figurines, impressive metal statues of gods, kings and heroes. The technique helped societies transition from the Stone Age to the ages of copper and bronze and gave rise to new and powerful types of culture. We have it to thank for the incredible bronze Buddha at Tōdai-ji temple in Japan and Faberge eggs. Investment casting, which is based on the process, is now used to produce equipment for NASA that has flown to the International Space Station and Mars.
In terms of beauty or sophistication, the amulet cannot rival its more famous successors. But Thoury finds it impressive in other ways. Not only did the amulet's creators use a new casting technique, they also opted to craft the amulet entirely from copper — a rare and unusual choice, since pure copper is hard to acquire and corrodes more easily than an alloy.

“It is not the most beautiful object, but still it holds so much history,” he said. “It shows how the metalworkers at the time were so innovative and wanted to optimize and improve the technique.”
The archaeological site MR2 at Mehrgarh, where the amulet was found. (C. Jarrige/Mission Archéologique de l’Indus)
Mehrgarh, the ancient settlement where the amulet was uncovered 35 years ago, is already known as a “crucible” of innovation, Thoury added. The first evidence of proto-dentistry was uncovered at the site, which is more than 600 miles southwest of Islamabad. It also contains some of the most ancient evidence of agriculture and the oldest ceramic figurines in South Asia. It's thought that this small farming community was a precursor to the entire Indus Valley civilization, one of the most important cultures in the ancient world.
“I’m really impressed that these people at the time were so keen on experimenting,” Thoury said. As a scientist, that's an impulse he knows well.


High spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging reveals the metallurgy of the earliest lost-wax cast object

Nature Communications volume7, Article number: 13356 (2016)

Abstract

Photoluminescence spectroscopy is a key method to monitor defects in semiconductors from nanophotonics to solar cell systems. Paradoxically, its great sensitivity to small variations of local environment becomes a handicap for heterogeneous systems, such as are encountered in environmental, medical, ancient materials sciences and engineering. Here we demonstrate that a novel full-field photoluminescence imaging approach allows accessing the spatial distribution of crystal defect fluctuations at the crystallite level across centimetre-wide fields of view. This capacity is illustrated in archaeology and material sciences. The coexistence of two hitherto indistinguishable non-stoichiometric cuprous oxide phases is revealed in a 6,000-year-old amulet from Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, Pakistan), identified as the oldest known artefact made by lost-wax casting and providing a better understanding of this fundamental invention. Low-concentration crystal defect fluctuations are readily mapped within ZnO nanowires. High spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging holds great promise for the characterization of bulk heterogeneous systems across multiple disciplines.

Introduction

For the last 15 years, specific cutting-edge developments have led to considerable improvements in photoluminescence-based analysis. Life sciences and semiconductor physics have been the main drivers strongly influencing instrumental choices1,2. In particular, monitoring target biomolecules with fluorescence imaging has led to major breakthrough in biomedical research3. A critical development has been specific antibody tagging, which provides the specificity and high quantum yield required to map and dynamically follow proteins within tissues at cellular level4. In solid-state physics, high-resolution low-temperature (helium) photoluminescence micro-spectroscopy has become the preferred technique to assess intrinsic electronic properties from individual nanostructures, such as the early state of chemical doping in single-walled carbon nanotubes5. Interpretation of spectral signatures collected at room temperature is challenging as emission bands are thermally broadened, particularly owing to the temperature-dependent phonon-coupling factors. Ultra high analytical sensitivity, great ease of use and emergence of super-resolved imaging have been instrumental to further establish photoluminescence as an essential tool in these fields. These optimizations have been driven by specific constraints; for instance, attaining nanoscale spatial resolutions has triggered near-field scanning at the expense of narrow fields of view and stringent requirements in sample surface roughness and slope. However, if major developments including near-field configuration, specific labelling and cryogenic environment have strongly enhanced the capability of characterizing specific biomolecules and semiconductor nanostructures, they are not directly applicable to imaging much of the very large range of mixed-compositional materials that are heterogeneous at bulk, such as those encountered in environmental, material, earth or planetary sciences, engineering and so on. In these samples, significant areas need to be studied at high spatial resolution to attain a statistically significant representation of materials’ heterogeneity. Even for materials where specific staining would be applicable, it is often not an option owing to the alteration induced on the analyte. Characterization therefore needs to resort to autoluminescence. However, the high contrast in luminescence yields between intrinsic luminophores becomes a limiting factor. In addition, many samples cannot tolerate mechanical stress or chemical transformation induced by large temperature changes when placed in a cryogenic environment6. To tackle the characterization of such materials, the ideal system would allow covering all length scales from micrometric resolution to centimetres, providing wide tunability in excitation energy and detection from the deep ultraviolet to the near infrared to collect autoluminescent signatures, while being efficient at room temperature. Here we demonstrate the great benefit of gigapixel luminescence images obtained from coupling full-field imaging and optimized raster scanning. Versatile characterization of complex low-intensity photoluminescence signatures from crystallite sizes to whole macroscopic objects opens a new possibility for the study of polycrystalline semiconductors and other heterogeneous materials. For these materials, ensuring the best compromise between full tunability in excitation and emission, high spatial dynamics, that is, a high ratio between field of view and lateral resolution, and convenient room-temperature operation, is often more critical than reaching nanometric resolution. This means, for example, that we were able to study fluctuations in crystal defect density at the submicrometric scale while imaging this behaviour over centimetres. The wide tunability of the excitation, owing to the ability to switch between conventional and synchrotron sources, allows selecting an optimized excitation of luminophores above 200 nm.
We demonstrate this improved capability on two applications. Although use of advanced photoluminescence imaging has never been reported in archaeology, imaging reveals a hidden microstructure across a particularly challenging archaeological artefact. In a fully corroded 6,000-year-old small amulet identified as the earliest lost-wax cast and discovered in Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, Pakistan), one of the most important archaeological sites from the early Neolithic period, the clue to the entire metallurgical process of the earliest lost-wax cast amulet is provided by multiscale photoluminescence imaging. The methodology identifies the coexistence of two hitherto indistinguishable non-stoichiometric cuprous oxide phases and allows visualization of the spatial distribution of a ghost fossilized eutectic system, which reveals the innovative process they developed. All the images were collected on a fully customized synchrotron full-field microscope equipped with multispectral detection. The overall data cube results from the mosaicking of 414 tiles collected in three emission bands at three excitation energies, totalling 1.5 gigapixels. Using the same strategy, we could image structured crystal defects fluctuation within individual ZnO nanowires across populations of hundreds, from their low-yield photoluminescence. The continuous tunability of the synchrotron beam allows excitation down to the shortwave ultraviolet (UVC). We therefore demonstrate the exceptional potential of high spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging to study nano- and polycrystalline materials for applications within a variety of fields, ranging from quality control in semiconductor solid-state physics to geophysics, archaeology and environmental sciences.

Results

The Mehrgarh amulet is the earliest known lost-wax cast object

To highlight the novelty of our approach, we report the information revealed by high spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging on a six-millennia old amulet discovered at Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, Pakistan), one of the most important archaeological sites from the early Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Fig. 1).
Figure 1: The amulet MR.85.03.00.01 from Mehrgarh.
Figure 1
(a) Map indicating the major Indo-Iranian archaeological sites dated from the seventh to the second millennia BC. Scale bar, 200 km. (b) View of the MR2 archaeological site at Mehrgarh (sector X, Early Chalcolithic, end of period III, 4,500–3,600 BC). (c) View of the front side of the wheel-shaped amulet. Scale bar, 5 mm. (d) Dark-field image of the equatorial section of the amulet.
The ornament with inventory number MR.85.03.00.01 was studied in detail (Fig. 1c,d). A visual inspection indicates that its ‘spoked wheel’ shape consists of six small rods lying on a ring of 20 mm diameter. At the centre of the wheel, the spokes were clearly pressed on each other until a junction was obtained by superposition; the base of each spoke was attached to the support ring using the same technique. Both the spokes and the support ring are circular in section. Only a wax-type material, that is, easily malleable and fusible, could have been used to build the corresponding models. This wheel-shaped amulet cannot result from casting in a permanent mould: this shape could not have been withdrawn without breaking the mould, as no plane intercepts jointly the equatorial symmetry planes of the support ring and of the spokes without inducing an undercut. The artefact was therefore cast using a lost-wax process (Supplementary Fig. 2).
A first campaign of measurements was performed 10 years ago but the wheel-shaped amulet could only be exhaustively described through novel advanced imaging. X-ray radiographs showed that it is corroded from its surface to its core. SEM examination of the equatorial section of the amulet corroborated the complete corrosion of the artefact, yet showed locally a fossilized dendritic structure, confirming a casting process. X-ray microanalyses on small areas highlighted Cu, O and Cl in the dendrites and Cu and O in the interdendritic space. Raman spectra allowed identifying the corrosion compounds: clinoatacamite Cu2(OH)3Cl in the dendrite and cuprous oxide Cu2O in the interdendritic space. However, full corrosion of the metal to cuprous oxide Cu2O precluded any further understanding of the manufacturing and metallurgical processes.

Macroscale imaging confirms casting in a single piece

Photoluminescence imaging shows the continuity of the spatial distribution and orientation of the remnant dendritic structure all across the equatorial section (Figs 1d and 2a,bSupplementary Fig. 3). This demonstrates that the artefact was cast in a single piece and does not consist of soldered parts (Supplementary Fig. 4). The lack of any crystal deformation shows that the object was made with very little, if any, subsequent work on the object, such as hammering. In addition, in the amulet three-dimensional morphology, no plane intercepts jointly the equatorial symmetry planes of the support ring and of the spokes without inducing an undercut. These observations therefore designate lost-wax casting as the procedure used for its fabrication. This is in agreement with the history of metallurgy in Baluchistan that shows evidence of an important development of lost-wax casting as demonstrated by finds such as the ‘Leopards Weight’, an extraordinary decorated ovoid ball of copper and lead weighing more than 15 kg dated end of the fourth millennium BC (ref. 7), and by the absence of any tradition of casting intricate shapes using piece-moulds as for instance reported in China8.
Figure 2: Fossil microstructure of the eutectic revealed in the 6,000-year-old Mehrgarh amulet.
Figure 2
Images reveal a typical eutectic morphology. The regular rod-like pattern is observed over millimetres in the interdendritic spaces. (a) Low magnification photoluminescence (PL) image of the wheel under 420–480 nm excitation and 850–1,020 nm bandpass emission (× 40 objective, NA=0.6). Scale bar, 500 μm. (b) Close-up view of the wheel (× 100 objective, projected pixel size: 155 nm, NA=1.25). den, dendrite; eu, rod-like eutectic in the interdendritic space. Scale bar, 100 μm. (c) Dark-field microscopy image of the same area of a. (d) Dark-field microscopy image of the same area of b. Note that the dendritic microstructure is more clearly evidenced in a than in c, and that the eutectic microstructure in b is not visible in d.

Mesoscale imaging reveals atypical metallographic structure

Between corroded dendrites, hundreds of micrometres wide interdendritic spaces are observed in photoluminescence imaging. So-called ‘ghost’ dendritic structures are frequently observed in highly corroded ancient copper alloys9. On alloys, an interdendritic structure only occurs in the solidification of a two-phase system with alloying element such as Pb, As or Sn in ancient copper alloys. Extensive investigation by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and Raman spectroscopy reveals no alloying element at the 100 μm length scale: red cuprous oxide Cu2O is ubiquitous in the extended interdendritic spaces, while green clinoatacamite Cu2(OH)3Cl has formed in the corroded dendrites (Figs 2c,d and 3). The chemical composition of the interdendritic spaces is extremely homogeneous throughout the entire artefact (Fig. 3b–d, and Supplementary Fig. 4). Apart from copper and oxygen, only Ag and Fe are identified as traces with SEM-EDS (<0.2 wt%, SEM-EDS). Synchrotron X-ray microfluorescence imaging over a spoke of the artefact detect, in addition, trace levels of Au, Ag and Hg in interdendritic spaces. The composition of the Mehrgarh artefact is therefore atypical, as copper was not alloyed with another metal. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) performed at a submicron scale shows no other phase than cuprous oxide Cu2O within the interdendritic space (Supplementary Fig. 5).
Figure 3: Mapping of Cu2O species in interdendritic spaces.
Figure 3
(a) Image of dendrites and homogeneous interdendritic spaces (SEM-BEI, 10 kV). Scale bar, 300 μm. (b) RGB false colour image (SEM-EDS) of Cu (red), Cl (green) and O (blue) from the area denoted by a rectangle in a. Interdendritic spaces contain only Cu and O as major elements, while Cl is found in the corroded dendrites. Scale bar: 30 μm. (c,d) Identification of Cu2O in interdendritic spaces in the area denoted by a rectangle in b(c) Typical Raman spectrum from a Cu2O region. The spectrum was obtained by averaging 12 scans within the zone imaged in d (using four pixels in three separate areas). (d) RGB false-colour image of Raman vibrational bands characteristic of Cu2O: 632 (red), 416 (green) and 218 cm−1 (blue). Raman spectroscopy mapping does not show any variation in the characteristic vibrational features of Cu2O that would allow evidencing the rod-like eutectic structure. Scale bar, 4 μm.

Microscale imaging reveals an invisible eutectic microstructure

The intense photoluminescence signal within the interdendritic spaces appears to result from the presence of an exceptionally well-fossilized microscopic pattern, invisible with the other methods used (SEM, EBSD, white light OM, Raman spectroscopy). The 1 μm lateral resolution allows the clear observation of a rod-like structure of high-yield luminescent Cu2O in the near infrared within a distinctly emitting Cu2O matrix (Fig. 2a,b). Such rod-like pattern, which has been preserved through corrosion, is a direct signature of a eutectic growth. The interdendritic spaces therefore correspond to eutectic areas that were initially composed of Cu0 with rod-like Cu2O, and result from the hypoeutectic solidification of the binary system Cu0–Cu2O in which initial Cu0 dendrites were formed. During long-term corrosion at ambient temperature, the original Cu0 has been oxidized to Cu2O, while the rod-like eutectic Cu2O phase has been preserved. These two distinct cuprous oxides Cu2O observed today are hereafter designated as co-Cu2O (corrosion) and eu-Cu2O (eutectic), respectively. Strikingly, this micrometric structure was completely preserved over centimetres during six millennia (Supplementary Fig. 3). Due to the aggressive role of chlorides in the archaeological soil, dendritic Cu0 was more affected by corrosion than eutectic Cu0 in contact with eu-Cu2O, inducing the progressive formation of Cu2(OH)3Cl in the dendrites11–13.
Pure Cu2O is a semiconductor whose spectroscopic properties are highly sensitive to intrinsic or extrinsic crystal defects14,15. Although uniquely consisting today of Cu2O (Fig. 3b–d), the different nature of atomic-scale crystal defects within eu-Cu2O and co-Cu2O of the interdendritic spaces allows visualization of the 6,000-year-old metallographic structure. The associated photoluminescence signal of the eu-Cu2O is dominated by emission in the near infrared from copper vacancies (VCu), while the excitonic emission near the band-edge transition at 2.1 eV is quenched16,17. The formation of eu-Cu2O at high temperature (the eutectic reaction occurs at 1,066 °C, Supplementary Note 1), must have led to the creation of a high density of stable VCu.

The oldest lost-wax cast

The ability to cover all length scales continuously from crystallite sizes to macroscopic sample dimensions allows deciphering invisible patterns that provided the key for a complete understanding of the manufacturing of the Mehrgarh artefact. From the visual inspection of the artefact, we show that the 20 mm wheel-shape model was prepared in a waxy material: the spokes were brought together by pressing each other at the wheel centre, and the base of each spoke was pressed on the support-ring (Fig. 4aSupplementary Fig. 2). Once made, the wax model was invested into a clay mould. The clay mould was heated upside down to run out the wax; baking was extended at higher temperature to harden the mould and drive out any moisture. Copper was poured in the mould, taking the place of the wax to cast the artefact in a single piece (Fig. 4b). The absence of any alloying element or significant impurity except low traces of Au, Hg and Ag in the amulet points to the use of a very pure copper, possibly native copper, that was melted in air above 1,085 °C. Had arsenic been present, as in most coeval cast alloys known so far18, the eutectic could not have formed, as oxidation of liquid copper is mitigated by the greater affinity of arsenic for oxygen19. The Cu0–Cu2O phase diagram can be exploited to trace the metallurgical sequence. During casting, the furnace atmosphere was inevitably oxidizing, and the copper melt absorbed 0.3 wt% of oxygen (1.1 at.%, Supplementary Fig. 6 and Supplementary Note 1), leading to the observed hypo-eutectic structure. The solidification of the dendrites started at about 1,070–1,074 °C (Fig. 4eSupplementary Fig. 6) while the eutectic formed at 1,066 °C (Fig. 4f). After cooling, the mould was broken and the casting was finished by cold working such as cutting the sprue and polishing (Fig. 4c,g). After burial, slow alteration took place in a sandy clayey soil and in a relatively dry environment (Fig. 4d,hSupplementary Fig. 7). The ghost fossilization of the metallographic structure took several centuries to complete in a comparatively dry environment—at typically about one micrometre per year20,21—leading to a final uniform presence of Cu2O within the eutectic.
Figure 4: Manufacturing of the amulet from Mehrgarh by the lost-wax casting process.
Figure 4
(a) The model was shaped by manufacturing small rods circular in section in a very ductile material that melts at low temperature, such as beeswax. Each wax piece was welded to the other by a slight heating of their extremities. (b) The wax model was invested by a clay mixture to form a mould. The mould was heated to run out the wax, and copper was poured in the mould, taking place of the wax. (c) The final copper artefact was extracted by breaking the mould after cooling. (d) Totally corroded artefact after its 6,000-year burial. (eh) Schematic representation of the solidification process and its evolution at a microscale: (e) 1,085 °C>T>1,066 °C. Dendritic growth of metallic copper (oxygen content in dendritic Cu<0.03% at). (f) Formation of the Cu-Cu2O eutectic at 1,066 °C. The liquid phase solidifies into Cu0 (0.03%at O) and a eu-Cu2O rod-like structure. (g) Final metallurgical structure of crystals of dendritic copper (low in oxygen) surrounded by oxygen saturated Cu0(Cu0.97O0.03) and rod-like Cu2O. (h) Current state of the artefact with the formation of the Cu2Cl(OH)3 phase within dendrites, while Cu0 fully oxidizes to co-Cu2O within the eutectic. eu-Cu2O is fully preserved.

Discussion

The discovery of the wheel-shaped amulets from Mehrgarh is an extraordinary evidence of the first attempts to manufacture precision casts by a lost-wax process. This innovation did not replace casting in permanent moulds but engendered a novel lineage of objects, whose complex shapes can only be obtained by this method. We can now state not only that metallurgists invented a totally new technique for casting, but also that control of the metal composition was part of their innovative research. By choosing a very pure copper rather than the usual arsenical copper22, they used a metal whose origin was probably considered to be of higher value and quality. The traces of mercury, silver and gold identified in the corroded amulet form a typical pattern for native copper23. The use of high-purity copper turned out to be a dead end: this did not improve the casting properties of the melt but caused unfamiliar problems to the founder: the melting point is not decreased, whereas the metal castability is severely reduced24. Although the lost-wax process proved to be an irrefutable and permanent success, selecting very pure copper for casting has not been retained as a valid innovation. Looking for improvements, Baluchistan founders soon discovered that the addition of a large proportion of lead to copper (Pb: 10–30 wt%) vastly increased the metal fluidity. During the fourth millennium BC and up to the end of the third millennium BC, this new Cu–Pb alloy was extensively used, and solely dedicated for lost-wax casting7,25. Lost-wax casting and Cu–Pb alloy were therefore widely adopted in the Ancient Near East, and used to manufacture artefacts of the highest symbolic and ceremonial significance. The use of Cu–Pb alloy was only challenged at the beginning of the second millennium BC, when Cu–Sn bronze became widely used within this geographic area owing to its improved metallurgical properties.
Mehrgarh is a crucible for technological innovation during Neolithic and Chalcolithic times in the ancient South Asia from lithics, pottery, ornaments, clay figurines, glazed materials as well as textiles and early practice of dentistry25,26,27. The emergence of the lost-wax technique at Mehrgarh could have been triggered by several factors. The availability of beeswax is attested in the Near East at this period28. Second, recent works have proposed that lost-wax casting has been adopted more for the central role of beeswax as a ritually important material than for a technical need29. It is also significant that the very first objects made by lost-wax casting did not fully exploit the potential of lost-wax casting. The amulet here in question is practically flat, and arguably a rather similar one could have been cast more easily using an open mould. The wax rods used to shape the metal amulet closely resemble the small clay coils used to model hundreds of clay figurines and amulets discovered in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic levels of Mehrgarh, and possibly associated with a magical and/or religious function. With lost-wax casting, it was now possible to produce these traditional adornment artefacts in metal, by simply working wax in place of clay, maintaining the long-established way in which they were modelled. The specific context at the site (resources, ritual, know-how) nurtured metallurgical invention, while other sites, possibly contemporaneous, such as Nahal Mishmar in the Levant that may have led to independent invention of lost-wax casting30 did not provide the incubating context allowing dissemination to the entire ancient Near East. Lost-wax casting tested for the first time with the Mehrgarh artefact is still the premier technique for art foundry. It is also today the highest precision metal forming technique—under the name ‘investment casting’—in aerospace, aeronautics and biomedicine, for high-performance alloys from steel to titanium31. Today, rapid prototyping technique such as three-dimensional printing offers revolutionary capabilities to design plastic, polymer or wax models used in investment casting32,33. New templating approaches for nanocasting semiconductor structures are among the latest evidence of the fundamental character of the lost-wax concept34,35.
We demonstrate the potential of gigapixel photoluminescence imaging to study the response of materials at micrometric resolution over centimetre-size fields within desired spectral bands. The exploration of the spatial distribution of the electronic density of state within polycrystalline semiconductor materials is then possible. The proposed approach goes far beyond collection of point or average luminescence signal of great complexity, towards determination of the representative elementary areas in which the measured photoluminescence response in a heterogeneous matrix becomes continuous quantities. Here, high-definition images of crystal defect contrasts provide a direct probe of stoichiometry fluctuations, which in turn record information on the materials’ manufacturing process. This approach can conversely prove to be extremely effective in optimizing the synthesis route of systems that are far less expected to be heterogeneous, such as batches of semiconductor nano-structures. We have therefore extended our proof of concept to a modern synthetic material by mapping and characterization of crystal defects density within a batch of nanowires. High signal-to-noise ratio images of zinc oxide nanowires of 0.5–1 μm in diameter and 14 μm in length deposited on a substrate were collected in nine spectral bands ranging from the deep ultraviolet to the near infrared using an excitation wavelength of 275 nm. The images reveal both unexpected spectral-dependent spatially variable emission from crystal defects along the length of individual nanowires and the statistical variability of the distribution of those defects within the entire population where a limited number of typical nanowire behaviours is observed (Fig. 5). Deep ultraviolet-optimized multispectral collection strategy allows ‘à la carte’ adaptation of integration times to each spectral emission range, to collect extremely low-yield responses that would otherwise go undetected through hyperspectral data collection. The ability to collect emission from single grains or crystallites to centimetres of samples at room temperature with tuneable source over the whole deep ultraviolet to near infrared range therefore provides unprecedented capability to image the intrinsic complexity of heterogeneous materials from nanosciences, engineering, geophysics, archaeology and environmental sciences.
Figure 5: Spatial distribution of crystal defect and band edge emission of ZnO nanowires.
Figure 5
Full-field photoluminescence image of a batch of ZnO nanowires (ultraviolet excitation: 275 nm, 4.50 eV). False colour overlays of signal in the 850–1,020 nm (red), 499–529 nm (green) and 370–410 nm (blue) bands. The image is corrected in each channel from collection time, quantum efficiency of the CCD camera, transmission of emission filters and theoretical point spread function of the objective. Scale bar, 10 μm.

Methods

Photoluminescence imaging

Photoluminescence micro-imaging was performed on a full-field inverted microscope (Axio Observer Z1 microscope, Zeiss) at the DISCO beamline (SOLEIL synchrotron)36. The microscope is equipped with custom quartz lenses instead of the original glass ones, to ensure transmission of excitation and emission above 80% and allow collecting luminescence images down to 200 nm. The beamline exploits the tunability of the bending magnet source, with an energy bandwidth ΔE/E of 2 × 10−2 at 275 nm (100 grooves per millimetre grating, iHR320 monochromator, Jobin-Yvon, Longjumeau, France).
In the frame of this work, specific developments were implemented to optimize excitation tunability, high-throughput detection and spatial dynamics required to detect and spatially resolve the multi-scale luminescence pattern in the amulet (Supplementary Fig. 8a,b in comparison with Supplementary Fig. 8c–h). Two sources were coupled to attain the respective excitation ranges 220–400 nm (synchrotron radiation source)36,37 and above 400 nm (halogen lamp coupled to an interference bandpass filter). In the deep ultraviolet (synchrotron) range, energies greater than 1.2 eV are blocked using a cold finger of thickness 7.5 mm that intercepts a vertical angle of 1.5 mrad in the middle of the beam. As a result, the spatial distribution of the beam at the exit of the monochromator is composed of two longitudinal sheets. To obtain a homogeneous field of illumination down to the deep ultraviolet, an optical set-up using micro-array lenses and a rotating diffuser was developed and positioned ahead of the microscope.
High-grade optical elements were used all along the optical path to minimize all optical distortions, particularly field and chromatic aberrations, and allow image stitching. A × 40 / NA 0.6 and × 100 / NA 1.25 glycerine Zeiss ultrafluar apochromatic immersion objectives were used to excite and collect images from ultraviolet-C to near infrared ranges. High spatial dynamic images were gathered by collecting mosaics of tiles with an XY motorized stage (PI) allowing to image areas of hundreds of micron side. For instance, Fig. 2a is made of overlapping tiles, each of 1.4 × 104 μm2 (774 × 759 pixels), in a 414 images matrix that creates a final 4.0 mm2 image (14,888 × 11,415 pixels). The projected pixel size of 155 nm is 2.4 times smaller than the theoretical diffraction limit of 374 nm (=935 nm/2/1.25) at 935 nm. Measurement of the optical point spread function across an 400 nm CdS particle shows that spatial resolution is 1 μm (Supplementary Fig. 9). During the optimization procedure of our set-up, the experiment was replicated four times on the amulet. For each measurement, the eutectic pattern could clearly be visualized in the images collected in the near infrared (Supplementary Fig. 10). In addition, all the tiles collected showed a similar reproducible pattern.
High-throughput spectral detection from UVC up to near infrared was achieved by using a multi-spectral detection using high-transmission interferential bandpass filters positioned in front of a back-illuminated 1,024 × 1,024 pixels CCD (PIXIS:1024BUV, Princeton Instrument 13 × 13 μm2 pixel size)38. The images shown in this work were collected using 370–410, 499–529 and 850–1,020 nm interference bandpass filters (transmission >90%). The collection time is adjusted for each set of excitation/emission conditions to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio (up to a few minutes per tile).

Optical microscopy

Dark-field microscopy was performed using a Zeiss Axio Imager M2m microscope coupled to an AxioCam ICc5 camera, with × 5 and × 20 objectives (C2RMF). The images collected on an XY motorized stage were mosaicked to cover a large field of view.

Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy was performed at an excitation of 532 nm and on-sample power of 2 mW with a × 100 objective (SOLEIL, SMIS). The spectra were collected using an integration time of 2 s, accumulation of two spectra per point and a 25 μm spectrograph aperture slit.

Scanning electron microscopy

SEM and EDS were performed on a Zeiss Supra 55 VP coupled to a Bruker EDS system (Quantax 800, 30 mm2 silicon drift detector (SDD); IPANEMA).

Electron backscatter diffraction

EBSD was conducted on a JSM 7100F apparatus equipped with an Oxford AztecHKL and NordlysNano with 4 FSD detector (Centre de Microcaractérisation Raimond Castaing, Toulouse, France). For this analysis, the surface was prepared using vibratory polishing (Buehler VibroMet 2, ChemoMET polishing cloth) with 50 nm colloid alumina suspension. A carbon coating a few nanometres was applied (Leica EMACE600). The experiments were performed at 20 kV (70° tilt) and data were processed using the Channel 5 Tango software.

Sample preparation

The wheel-shaped amulet inventory number MR.85.03.00.01 was collected in 1985 at the MR2 site of Mehrgarh during the excavations of the ‘Mission Archéologique de l’Indus’ (dir. Jean-François Jarrige) in collaboration with the Department of Archaeology and Museums of Pakistan. A section was prepared in the equatorial plane, embedded in epoxy resin (Epofix, Struers) and polished with diamond pastes up to 0.25 μm grain size (C2RMF).

Preparation of the ZnO nanowires

ZnO nanowires were grown at 850 °C by metal–organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD) on a (0001) sapphire substrate using diethylzinc and nitrous oxide as zinc and oxygen precursors (GEMaC, Versailles, France).

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Additional information

How to cite this article: Thoury, M. et al. High spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging reveals the metallurgy of the earliest lost-wax cast object. Nat. Commun. 7, 13356 doi: 10.1038/ncomms13356 (2016).
Publisher's note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Acknowledgements

This article is dedicated to the memory of Jean-François Jarrige (1940–2014), former director of the musée Guimet in Paris, who discovered Mehrgarh in 1974 and directed the ‘Mission Archéologique de l’Indus’ from 1975 to 2014. Claudie Josse is warmly acknowledged for providing EBSD results (Centre de microcaractérisation Raimond Castaing, CNRS UMS 3623, Toulouse, France). We acknowledge SOLEIL for provision of synchrotron radiation under projects no 20120848 and 20130920. We thank Christophe Sandt at the SMIS beamline for access to Raman microscopy (SOLEIL synchrotron), Pierre Gueriau for complementary synchrotron XRF mapping (IPANEMA) and Frédéric Jamme (SOLEIL synchrotron) for providing support to generate the point spread function (PSF). We thank Pierre Galtier, Alain Lusson and Vincent Sallet (GEMaC UMR8635) for preparing and providing the ZnO nanowires. We thank Sebastian Schoeder (synchrotron SOLEIL) for the representation of the amulet in three dimensions. We especially thank Catherine Jarrige, Gonzague Quivron, Aurore Didier and Jérôme Haquet who provided complementary information about the metal artefacts from Mehrgarh. We thank Barbara Berrie, Catherine Perlès, Denis Gratias and Uwe Bergmann for critical re-reading of the manuscript.

Author information

Author notes

    • J-F Jarrige
    Deceased

Affiliations

  1. IPANEMA, CNRS, ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, USR 3461, Université Paris-Saclay, 91128 Gif-sur-Yvette, France

    • M. Thoury
    • T. Séverin-Fabiani
    •  & L. Bertrand
  2. Synchrotron SOLEIL, 91128 Gif-sur-Yvette, France

    • M. Thoury
    • T. Séverin-Fabiani
    • M. Réfrégiers
    •  & L. Bertrand
  3. C2RMF, Palais du Louvre, 75001 Paris, France

    • B. Mille
  4. PréTech, CNRS, Université Paris Nanterre, UMR 7055, 92023 Nanterre, France

    • B. Mille
  5. TRACES, CNRS, ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, Université Toulouse—Jean Jaurès, UMR 5608, 31100 Toulouse, France

    • L. Robbiola
  6. ArScAn, CNRS, Université Paris Nanterre, Université Paris 1, ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, UMR 7041, 92023 Nanterre, France

    • J-F Jarrige
  7. Institut de France, 23 quai de Conti, 75006 Paris, France

    • J-F Jarrige

Contributions

M.T. and L.B. designed the experiments. L.B., M.T. and T.S.-F. coordinated and drafted the manuscript. T.S.-F., M.T., L.B., B.M. and L.R. wrote the manuscript and prepared the figures. B.M. selected the artefact and provided the archaeometallurgical interpretation. L.R. provided the corrosion interpretation. The experiments and data analysis were performed at the DISCO beamline at synchrotron SOLEIL (M.T., T.S.-F., L.B., M.R.), SEM-EDS (L.R., B.M.), Raman (M.T., L.R.), EBSD (L.R.) and OM (B.M., T.S.-F.). J.-F.J. provided the archaeological information.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Thoury.

Supplementary information

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  1. 1.

    Supplementary Information

    Supplementary Figures 1-10, Supplementary Note 1, Supplementary Methods and Supplementary References
  2. 2.

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Is it an amulet? Maybe a compartmental seal to signify metalwork catalogue. http://tinyurl.com/grzqh5e
https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13356

Annex. Cakra and examples of semantic expansions

   4538 cakrá m.n. ʻ wheel ʼ RV., ʻ potter's wheel ʼ ŚBr., ʻ oil mill ʼ Mn., ʻ circle ʼ R., cakrīˊ -- f. ʻ wheel ʼ RV.Pa. cakka -- n. ʻ wheel ʼ, Pk. cakka -- , ˚aya -- n.; Kho. (Lor.) č*lkvr ʻ spinning wheel ʼ (with *l for o fr. č*lxvr ← Ir. BSOS viii 660); Sh. gil. čărkŭ m. ʻ wheel, spinning wheel ʼ, (Lor.) gil. čurūk, gur. čorōk ʻ buttocks ʼ (→ Ḍ. čərōk); K. ċakhar, dat. ˚kras m., ċạkhürü f. ʻ wheel ʼ; S. caku m. ʻ potter's wheel ʼ, ˚kī f. ʻ hand -- mill ʼ; L. cakkar m. ʻ wheel ʼ, awāṇ. cakkur; 
P. cakkar m. ʻ circuit, ring ʼ, cakk m. ʻ potter's wheel ʼ; WPah. cakkī ʻ mill ʼ; Ku. cāk(h) ʻ bunch of bananas ʼ, cāk(h)o ʻ hand -- mill ʼ, gng. ċak(h) ʻ stone -- mill ʼ; N. cāk ʻ buttocks ʼ (semant. cf. Sh. above, Pk. cakkāāra -- as epithet of ʻ buttock ʼ and K. s.v. cakrala -- ), cāko ʻ anything round ʼ, mah ko c˚ ʻ honeycomb ʼ; A. sāk ʻ potter's wheel ʼ, sākā ʻ wheel ʼ, ˚ki ʻ small round bunch of flowers ʼ; B. cāk ʻ wheel, comb or hive of bees or wasps ʼ, cākā ʻ wheel ʼ, ˚kī ʻ grindstone ʼ; Or. caka ʻ wheel, potter's wheel ʼ, cakā ʻ round stone ʼ, cakī ʻ mill -- stone ʼ; Bi. cāk ʻ wheel, potter's wheel ʼ, (Gaya) cakkā ʻ wheel ʼ; Mth. cāk ʻ wheel, potter's wheel, pastry board ʼ; Bhoj. cāk ʻ wheel ʼ; Aw. lakh. cakiā ʻ stone -- mill ʼ; H. cāk m. ʻ any kind of wheel, millstone ʼ (mau -- cāk m. ʻ honeycomb ʼ), cākā m. ʻ wheel, sod of turf ʼ, cākī f. ʻ millstone ʼ; G. cāk m. ʻ wheel, potter's wheel, millstone ʼ, ˚kī f. ʻ circular piece fixed in axle ʼ, ˚kũ n. ʻ a thick roundish mass ʼ; M. ċāk n. ʻ wheel ʼ, ˚kī f. ʻ circular flat piece of metal ʼ; Ko. ċāka n. ʻ wheel ʼ; Si. saka ʻ wheel, circle ʼ.cakraka -- , cakrala -- , cakriṇī -- , cakríya -- , cākrika -- ; *cakracāra -- , cakranakha -- , cakranābhi -- , *cakrapati -- , *cakrapattra -- , cakramarda -- , *cakrayaṣṭi -- , cakravartin -- , cakravāṭa -- , cakravyūha -- .Addenda: cakrá -- : S.kcch. cakk m. ʻ potter's wheel ʼ, WPah.kṭg. ċɔkkər m., J. cakkar m. prob. ← P. Him.I 89; Garh. cāk; -- Ko. ċāka rather ʻ slice ʼ.†cakrin -- .
   4539 cakraka ʻ circular ʼ W. [cakrá -- ]Pk. cakkāga -- , Or. cakā, H. cākā.
   4541 *cakracāra ʻ course of a wheel ʼ. [Cf. cakracārin- ʻ flying in a circle ʼ Hariv. -- cakrá -- , cāra -- 1]
M. cakārī f. ʻ wheel rut, wheeling round (of a carriage) ʼ.
   4542 cakranakha m. ʻ the perfume Unguis odoratus ʼ. [cakrá -- , nakhá -- ]
Si. sakniya ʻ a partic. drug ʼ.
   4543 cakranābhi f. ʻ hub of wheel ʼ Suśr. [cakrá -- , nāˊbhi -- ]
Si. saknäba ʻ hub ʼ.
   4544 *cakrapati ʻ universal ruler ʼ. [cakrá -- , páti -- ]
Pk. cakkavaï -- (→ OAw. cakkavaï ʻ universal sovereign ʼ); G. cakve adv. ʻ as sole ruler ʼ.
   4547 *cakrayaṣṭi ʻ stick for potter's wheel ʼ. [cakrá -- , yaṣṭí -- ]
Bi. cakaiṭh ʻ pointed stick with which potter twirls his wheel ʼ, H. cakeṭh m.
   4548 *cakrala ʻ circular ʼ. [Poss. MIA. cakkala -- ʻ round ʼ Uṇ. < *cakla -- ~ cakrá -- ]Pa. cakkalaka -- m. ʻ disc, tuft ʼ; Pk. cakkala -- ʻ round, extensive ʼ, n. ʻ circle ʼ; Kho. čókul ʻ avalanche of stones ʼ (< *cakla -- BelvalkarVol 88); K. ċakul m. ʻ anything circular ʼ, ċaküjü f. ʻ buttock, hip ʼ; S. cakaru m. ʻ circle ʼ; L. cakkul m. ʻ horizontal wheel of well gear ʼ, cakklī f. ʻ vertical do. ʼ, awāṇ. caklī ʻ wheel ʼ; P. caklā ʻ round, wide ʼ, m. ʻ open square in city, district, brothel ʼ, cakklī f. ʻ roundness, pastry board ʼ (→ S. cakulo m.); Ku. cāklo ʻ broad ʼ; N. cāklo ʻ thick, dense ʼ; A. sākli ʻ any flat circular thing, coin ʼ; B. cāklā ʻ round and flat, piece of bread, province ʼ; Or. cakuḷī ʻ a kind of cake ʼ; Bi. cakrī ʻ round flat sweetmeat of sugarcane juice ʼ; WBi. cākal ʻ cake of dung placed on grain heap to avert evil eye ʼ; Mth. cākar ʻ wide ʼ; H. cākalcaklā ʻ circular, round and flat, broad ʼ, m. ʻ province ʼ, cakrām. ʻ flat round cake ʼ; G. cākaḷ f. ʻ a kind of snake which looks like a wheel ʼ, cākḷɔ m. ʻ water -- wheel, circular leather seat, pot ʼ.Addenda: *cakrala -- : Ko. ċākkaḷa ʻ round bite mark ʼ.
   4549 cakravartin m. ʻ a universal ruler ʼ MBh. [Poss. der. fr. *cakravarta -- ʻ enclosure of the earth -- circle ʼ (same as cakravāṭa -- if < * -- vārt(r)a -- )]
Pa. cakkavattin -- m., NiDoc. cakravarti, Pk. cakkavaṭṭi -- , ˚vatti -- m.; -- Si. sakviti ʻ universal ruler ʼ EGS 171, but certainly ← Pa.
   4550 *cakravaha ʻ flowing in a circle ʼ. [cakrá -- , vahá -- ]
OH. cakoha m. ʻ whirlpool ʼ.
   4551 cakravāká m. ʻ the ruddy goose Anas casarca ʼ RV., ˚kī -- f. Kālid.
Pa. cakkavāka -- m., Aś. cakavāke, Pk. cakkavāya -- , cakkāa -- m.; K. ċā̆kav m. ʻ the ruddy sheldrake Casarca ʼ; S. cakuo m. ʻ A. casarca ʼ, P. cakvā m., ˚vī f., WPah. bhiḍ. ċekkrõ, pl. ˚ru n., N. cakhewā, A. sakowāsākai f., B. cakā, Or. cakuā˚ui, Mth. cakawā˚kewā, Aw. lakh. cakawā˚kaī, H. cakwā m., ˚kaī f., G. cakvɔ m., ˚vī f., M. ċakvā m., ˚vī f., Si. sakvā.
   4552 cakravāṭa m. ʻ boundary ʼ lex., cakravāla -- m. ʻ circle ʼ MBh., BHSk. cakravāḍa -- m. ʻ a mountain range encircling the earth ʼ. [Cf. cakravartin -- . -- cakrá -- , vāṭa -- 1]Pa. cakkavāḷa -- m.n. ʻ mountain range encircling the earth ʼ; Pk. cakkavāla -- m. ʻ circle ʼ; Si. sakvaḷa ʻ the world ʼ EGS 170 prob. ← Pa.
   4553 cakravyūha m. ʻ circular array of troops ʼ MBh. [cakrá -- , vyūhá -- ]
Or. cakabhua ʻ circular battle array ʼ.
   4554 cakriṇī f. of cakrin -- ʻ having a wheel ʼ (ʻ driving in a carriage ʼ Yājñ.), m. ʻ snake ʼ lex. (semant. cf. G. cākaḷ < *cakrala -- ). [cakrá -- ]M. cākaṇ f. ʻ a snake, species of Coluber ʼ.
4554a †cakrin -- ʻ having wheels ʼ lex., ʻ driving in a carriage ʼ Yājñ., ʻ discus -- bearer ʼ MBh., ʻ oil -- miller ʼ Yājñ., ʻ potter ʼ lex. [cakrá -- ]Pk. cakki(ya) -- m. ʻ potter ʼ, cakkisālā -- f. ʻ oil -- shop ʼ; -- S.kcch. cākī m. ʻ oil -- miller ʼ, cāka f. ʻ his wife ʼ (rather < cākrika -- ?).
   4555 cakríya ʻ pertaining to wheels ʼ RV., ʻ *circular ʼ. [cakrá -- ]
Dm. čakri ʻ a partic. entrail ʼ; Kal. rumb. čāˊkri ʻ spleen ʼ. (CDIAL 4538 to 4555)

ʦroṭu च़्र॑टु॒ । चक्राकारत्वम् m. the condition of being wheel-shaped; anything wheel-shaped; a potter's wheel (El. tsruṭ m.); ʦrüṭü च़्र॑टू॒ । चक्रिका f. (sg. dat. ʦracĕ च़्रच्य), a potter's wheel (El. tsrauṭ f.); any circular disc, large or small, a round cake, a tabloid (cf. hanga-ʦo, p. 338b, l. 47; lācha-ʦo, p. 507a, l. 30; mīli-ʦo, p. 565b, l. 51; nāga-ʦo, p. 623b, l. 49; nöhii, p. 625b, l. 23; tŏndūra-ʦo, p. 1010a, l. 18); cf. ʦroṭu. ʦrüṭügaʦhüñü च़्र॑टू॒ गछ़॑ञू॒ । आहतिनाशः f.inf. to become a disc, to be squashed flat by a blow from above, to be struck by a blow from above and so destroyed. (Kashmiri).

Revisiting BB Lal's analysis of Copper hoard culture (1951); anthropomorphs, Indus Script metalworker professional calling cards, link the culture with Sarasvati Civilization

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While accepting the association of Ochre Coloured Pottery with copper hoards,I agree with the argument of DP Agrawal (1969) that copper hoard are perhaps, pre-Black-and-Red ware in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, i.e. prior to c. 1450-1200 BCE. I suggest that thee megalithic copper hoards may also be prior to the Iron Age sites of Raja Nal ki Tila, Lohardewa and Malhar reported by Rakesh Tiwari (2009) dated to ca. 19th century BCE. This brings the copper hoard culture close to the last phases of Sarasvati CIvilization, evidenced by the the largest site of Rakhigarhi, which is close to the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This proximity may explain why Rakhigarhi became the capital of the civilization as a riverine port town linking the Doab and Sarasvati River navigable waterways which provided access through the Persian Gulf to the Mesopotamia/Sumeria interaction areas.

I submit that the key link of copperhoard culture with Sarasvati civilization is provided by the copper alloy Anthropomorphs of atleas tfour types. These anthropomorphs date back to the early phases of Sarasvati Civilization as evidenced by the finds in Lothal and Persian Gulf sites (cf. Paul Alan Yule's researches).  In 1985 Paul Alan Yule published 1083 examples from 'Copper Hoards' but also other peninsular prehistoric metal finds.(Paul YuleThe Bronze Age Metalwork of India,Prähistorische Bronzefunde XX,8 (München 1985).http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/1895/ By 1992 284 further examples followed specifically of the Copper Hoard types.


The anthropomorphs are NOT weapons but calling cards of metalwork artisans since the associated Indus Script inscriptions clearly demonstrate that they signify proclamations of metalwork competene of the artisans and could have served as professional calling cards and professional proclamations presented on their workshop doorways. (Note that some anthropomorphs weigh as much as 7 kgs.)

Anthropomorphic figures are Indus Script hypertexts cataloguing metalwork wealth and hence, the Copper Hoard metal objects are in the Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization metalwork tradition. See:  http://tinyurl.com/zelxo3r

Anthropomorph with Indus Script ayo 'fish' mẽḍhā 'curved horn' meḍḍha 'ram' rebus: ayo meḍh 'metal merchant' ayo mēdhā 'metal expert' karṇika 'spread legs' rebus: karṇika कर्णिक 'steersman'.


See:  https://tinyurl.com/ya3e5fvj


This is an addendum to: 

1. Sanauli gold & four types of bronze anthropomorphs of Sarasvati Civilization are professional calling cards, Indus Script metalwork dhamma samjñā responsibility signifiers https://tinyurl.com/y9uext8p
2. Itihāsa. Mohenjodaro dancing girls' posture is ಕರಣ (Kannada) rebus: करण m. writer,scribe; a class whose occupation is writing, accounts https://tinyurl.com/yatjsetx


I agree with the analyses of genetic evidence discussed by Jaydeepsingh Rathod. This signifier of contacts between Sarasvati's children and Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian is consistent with the observation in Baudhāyana Śrautasūtra:
 The golden anthropomorph discovered in Sanauli in 2006-7 excavations, compares with four types of bronze anthropomorphs found in many parts of Sarasvati Civilization, including Lothal.   The gold anthropomorph dated to ca. 2000 BCE signifies a standing person with spread legs. He signifies a dance-posture.

This golden anthropomorph is an Indus Script hypertext:
karaṇa  'dance step, dance posture' rebus: karaṇa 'scribe'. meṭṭu 'step' meḍ iron, मेधाधनमेधः' yajna.

Indian dance (nritta, नृत्त) traditions have roots in the aesthetics of Natyashastra. The text defines the basic dance unit to be a karana, which is a specific combination of the hands and feet integrated with specific body posture and gait (sthana and chari respectively). Chapter 4 describes 108 karanas as the building blocks to the art of dance. The text states the various movements of major and minor limbs with facial states as means of articulating ideas and expressing emotions.
Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe (2005). Approaches to Acting: Past and Present. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 6–7.
Katherine Young; Arvind Sharma (2004). Her Voice, Her Faith: Women Speak on World Religions. Westview Press. pp. 20–21
 Sunil Kothari; Avinash Pasricha (2001). Kuchipudi. Abhinav Publications, pp. 117–118.
Nina Mirnig; Peter-Daniel Szanto; Michael Williams (2013). Puspika: Tracing Ancient India Through Texts and Traditions: Contributions to Current Research in Indology Volume I. Oxbow, pp. 186–187; pp.174-177
Ananda Lal (2004). The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. Oxford University Press, pp. 95–99.

This is an Indus Script hieroglyph read rebus:  कर्णक kárṇaka, कर्णकm. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 , 3 Rebus:  कर्णिन््  karn-ín having ears; barbed; m. helmsman. कर्ण kárna â, î) -dhâra, m. helmsman; sailor: -tâ, f. helmsmanship (Monier-Williams) karṇadhāra m. ʻ helmsman ʼ Suśr. [kárṇa -- , dhāra -- 1] Pa. kaṇṇadhāra -- m. ʻ helmsman ʼ; Pk. kaṇṇahāra -- m. ʻ helmsman, sailor ʼ; H. kanahār m. ʻ helmsman, fisherman ʼ. (CDIAL 2826)
Type IV Anthropormorph standing inscribed with one-horned young bull and ligatured with head of a boar
Type III anthropomorph with Indus Script hieroglyphs signifies a copper worker, metals merchant with mint  A composite copper anthropomorphic figure along with a copper sword was found by Dr. Sanjay Manjul, Director, Institute of Archaeology at the Central Antiquity Section, ASI, Purana Qila in 2005. This composite copper anthropomorph is a solitary example in the copper hoard depicting a Varaha'boar' head. The Anthropomorphic figure, its inscription and animal motif that it bears, illustrate the continuity between the Harappan and Early Historical period.

Hieroglyph: mẽḍhā 'curved horn', miṇḍāl 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep; mē̃ḍh 'ram' Rebus: Медь [Med'] (Russian, Slavic) 'copper'.

Selected hoard artifacts from 1-2 South Haryana, 3-4 Uttar Pradesh, 5 Madhya Pradesh, 6-8 South Bihar-North Orissa-Bengalen.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.403.4300&rep=rep1&type=pdf Rakesh Tiwari, 2003, The origins of iron-working in India: new evidence from the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas, Antiquity, Volume 77 Issue 297, pp. 536 to 544.

Black and Red Ware, Sonkh, Uttar PradeshGovernment Museum, Mathura.
Image result for black and red ware wikipedia

"The earliest discoveries (of copper hoards) were reported by V. A. Smith (1905, 1907). R. Heine-Geldern (1936) equated them with the Indo-Aryan culture on the basis of typological considerations alone. He proposed that the trunnion axes came from Transcaucasia, the axe-adze from the Danube and the antennae sword from the Koban region. He surmised that these artifacts came to India through Persia around 1200-1000 B.C. In this equation he was at first supported by S. Piggott (1944), but subsequently the latter proposed that they were perhaps the relics of the Harappan refugees (Piggott 1950)...The Copper Hoards are a unique and probably isolated phenomenon in Indian prehistory. They probably represent the original inhabitants of the tangled, wooded country of the Doab, before the Painted Gray Ware people started clearing the forests. It may be noted that eastern India had contacts with Southeast Asia in Neolithic times (Dani 1960; Worman 1949). Latest research in Thailand (Solheim 1967) shows that bronze technology there starts by ca. 2300 B.C. as indicated by the radiocarbon dates for the Non Nok Tha site: TF-651, 2325±200 B.C. and GaK-956, 2290±90 B.C. [Copper socketed tool tentatively dated 3590±320 B.c, GaK 1034. Ed.] This suggests the probability of inspiration from Southeast Asia for the Copper Hoards although an independent origin is not precluded. But western contacts were impossible because of the forest barriers. Lal (1951) and Gupta (1963, 1965) identified the Hoards with the Mundas. It is worth noting that the eastern Austronesian tribes (forefathers of the Mon-Khmers, linguistically affiliated with the Mundas) independently developed the use of metal. And north-east India has been considered an integral part of Southeast Asia in the Neolithic period (Bongard-Levin and Deopik 1957)... If the OCP association of the Copper Hoards is accepted, they are pre-Po G. Ware and even pre-Black-and-Red ware in the Doab. For precision in dating one will have to await the testimony of the spade." (DP Agrawal, 1969, The copperhoards problek: a technological angle, in: Asian Perspectives, XII, 1969, pp. 113 to 119) http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.827.6147&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Stuart Piggott, 1954, Antiquity, Vol. 28, Issue 111, Sept. 1954, pp. 172-173, Review of BB Lal, 

FURTHER COPPER HOARDS FROM THE GANGETIC BASINBy B. B. Lal. Ancient India, no. 7 (1951), 20–39, 8 figs., 7 pls.


cover photo, No photo description available.


































Image result for anthropomorphs bharatkalyan97
A composite copper anthropomorphic figure along with a copper sword was found by Dr. Sanjay Manjul, Director, Institute of Archaeology at the Central Antiquity Section, ASI, Purana Qila in 2005. This composite copper anthropomorph is a solitary example in the copper hoard depicting a Varāha 'boar' head. The Anthropomorph figure, its inscription and animal motif that it bears, illustrate the continuity between the Harappan and Early Historical period.

Hieroglyph: mẽḍhā 'curved horn', miṇḍāl 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep; mē̃ḍh 'ram' Rebus: Медь [Med'] (Russian, Slavic) 'copper'. meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.)

मृदु, मृदा--कर 'iron, thunderbolt'  मृदु mṛdu 'a kind of iron' मृदु-कार्ष्णायसम्,-कृष्णायसम् soft-iron, lead.
Santali glosses.
Sa. <i>mE~R~hE~'d</i> `iron'.  ! <i>mE~RhE~d</i>(M).
Ma. <i>mErhE'd</i> `iron'.
Mu. <i>mERE'd</i> `iron'.
  ~ <i>mE~R~E~'d</i> `iron'.  ! <i>mENhEd</i>(M).
Ho <i>meD</i> `iron'.
Bj. <i>merhd</i>(Hunter) `iron'.
KW <i>mENhEd</i>
@(V168,M080)

— Slavic glosses for 'copper'
Мед [Med]Bulgarian
Bakar Bosnian
Медзь [medz']Belarusian
Měď Czech
Bakar Croatian
KòperKashubian
Бакар [Bakar]Macedonian
Miedź Polish
Медь [Med']Russian
Meď Slovak
BakerSlovenian
Бакар [Bakar]Serbian
Мідь [mid'] Ukrainian[unquote]
Miedź, med' (Northern Slavic, Altaic) 'copper'.  

One suggestion is that corruptions from the German "Schmied", "Geschmeide" = jewelry. Schmied, a smith (of tin, gold, silver, or other metal)(German) result in med ‘copper’.

ayo meḍh 'metal merchant' ayo mēdhā 'metal expert' 
PLUS  karṇika 'spread legs' rebus: karṇika कर्णिक 'steersman'.
barāh, baḍhi 'boar' vāḍhī, bari, barea 'merchant' bārakaśa 'seafaring vessel'.
eka-shingi 'one-masted' koḍiya ‘young bull’, koṭiya 'dhow', kũdār 'turner, brass-worker'.
Daimabad seal. Note:  karṇika 'helmsman' is also signified by the hieroglyph: rim-of-jar: kanka, karNika 'rim of jar' rebus 2: karNI 'supercargo' -- a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.
Subhash Kak has suggested alternate readings, see: https://medium.com/@subhashkak1/a-reading-of-the-br%C4%81hm%C4%AB-letters-on-an-anthropomorphic-figure-2a3c505a9acd

शं झ ग              śam ña ga
की म झी थ         kī ma jhi tha
त ड य              ta ḍa ya

Figure 1. The copper object and the text together with the reading in Munjal, S.K. and Munjal, A. (2007). Composite anthropomorphic figure from Haryana: a solitary example of copper hoard. Prāgdhārā (Number 17). 

Anthropomorph found in a foundation of a house in a village called Kheri Gujar in Sonepat District in Haryana. The house itself rests on an ancient mound that has been variously dated to Late Harappan. The object is about 2 kg. and has dimensions of 30×28.5 cm.

It is possible that Line 3 is a composition of Indus Script Hieroglyphs (and NOT Brāhmī syllables). Framed on this hypothesis, the message of Line 3 signifies:


mū̃h baṭa 'iron ingot',
baran, bharat 'mixed copper, zinc, tin alloy metal' and
khāṇḍā metalware. 

Hypertext of Sign 336 has hieroglyph components: muka 'ladle' (Tamil)(DEDR 4887) Rebus: mū̃h'ingot' (Santali).PLUSSign 328 baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: baṭa 'iron'

Sign 48 is a 'backbone, spine' hieroglyph: baraḍo = spine; backbone (Tulu) Rebus: baran, bharat 'mixed alloys' (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin)

Sign 211 'arrow' hieroglyph: kaṇḍa ‘arrow’ (Skt.) H. kãḍerā m. ʻ a caste of bow -- and arrow -- makers (CDIAL 3024). Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrow ʼ(CDIAL 3023). ayaskāṇḍa ‘a quantity of iron, excellent  iron’ (Pāṇ.gaṇ) Thus ciphertext kaṇḍa ‘arrow’ is rebus hypertext kāṇḍa 'excellent iron', khāṇḍā 'tools, pots and pans, metal-ware'. 

saṁjñāˊ f. ʻ agreement, understanding ʼ ŚBr., ʻ sign ʼ MBh. [√jñā]Pa. saññā -- f. ʻ sense, sign ʼ, Pk. saṁṇā -- f.; S. sañaṇu ʻ to point out ʼ; WPah.jaun. sān ʻ sign ʼ, Ku. sān f., N. sān; B. sān ʻ understanding, feeling, gesture ʼ; H. sān f. ʻ sign, token, trace ʼ; G. sān f. ʻ sense, understanding, sign, hint ʼ; M. sã̄j̈ f. ʻ rule to make an offering to the spirits out of the new corn before eating it, faithfulness of the ground to yield its usual crop ʼ, sã̄jẽ n. ʻ vow, promise ʼ; Si. sanaha˚ ʻ sign ʼ; -- P. H. sain f. ʻ sign, gesture ʼ (in mng. ʻ signature ʼ ← Eng. sign), G. sen f. are obscure. Addenda: saṁjñā -- : WPah.J. sā'n f. ʻ symbol, sign ʼ; kṭg. sánku m. ʻ hint, wink, coquetry ʼ, H. sankī f. ʻ wink ʼ, sankārnā ʻ to hint, nod, wink ʼ Him.I 209.(CDIAL 12874)

meḍ 'body', meḍho 'ram' rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (ram hieroglyph, (human) body hieroglyph)
कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 , 3 rebus: कर्णिक having a helm; a steersman (Monier-Williams) 
ayas 'alloy metal' (fish hieroglyph)
कोंद kōnda ‘engraver' (one-horned young bull hieroglyph)
bāṛaï 'carpenter' (boar hieroglyph)
bari barea 'merchant' (boar hieroglyph)

The anthropomorphs are dharma samjña, signifiers of responsibilities of the metalsmith-carpenter-merchant. Signs 389, 387 signify mũhã̄ kuṭhi 'ingot smelter', mũhã̄ kolami 'ingot smithy, forge'.
Anthropomorphs of Sarasvati Civilization are Indus Script hypertexts which signify metalwork.
1.. Sign 389,  bun-ingot shape (oval) + 'twig', i.e. ingots produced from a smelter. This indicates that copper plates on which this hypertext occurs with high frequency are accounting ledgers of products produced from a smelter.
2. Sign 387, bun-ingot shape (oval) + 'riceplant', i.e. ingots worked on in a smithy/forge. This hypertext DOES NOT occur on copper plates. This indicates that Sign 387 signifies ingots processed in a smithy/forge, i.e. to forge ingots into metalware, tools, implements, weapons.

The two distinctly orthographed Indus Script hypertexts signify 1. mũhã̄ kuṭhi 'ingot smelter', 2. mũhã̄ kolami 'ingot smithy, forge'.

For interpretation of the anthropomorph hypertexts by S.Kalyanaraman, see:  

 

 

The Sheorajpur anthropomorph (348 on Plate A) has a 'fish' hieroglyph incised on the chest

Hieroglyphs: tagara ‘ram’ (Kannada) Rebus: damgar ‘merchant’ (Akk.) Rebus: tagara ‘tin’ (Kannada)



Ta. takar sheep, ram, goat, male of certain other animals (yāḷi, elephant, shark). பொருநகர் தாக்கற்குப் பேருந் தகைத்து (குறள், 486).Ma. takaran huge, powerful as a man, bear, etc. Ka. tagar, ṭagaru, ṭagara, ṭegaru ram. Tu. tagaru, ṭagarů id. Te. tagaramu, tagaru id. / Cf. Mar. tagar id. (DEDR 3000). Rebus 1:tagromi 'tin, metal alloy' (Kuwi) takaram tin, white lead, metal sheet, coated with tin (Ta.); tin, tinned iron plate (Ma.); tagarm tin (Ko.); tagara, tamara, tavara id. (Ka.) tamaru, tamara, tavara id. (Ta.): tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. (Te.); ṭagromi tin metal, alloy (Kuwi); tamara id. (Skt.)(DEDR 3001). trapu tin (AV.); tipu (Pali); tau, taua lead (Pkt.); tū̃ tin (P.); ṭau zinc, pewter (Or.); tarūaum lead (OG.);tarv (G.); tumba lead (Si.)(CDIAL 5992). Rebus 2: damgar ‘merchant’.

Hieroglyphs, allographs: ram, tabernae montana coronaria flower: तगर [ tagara ] f A flowering shrub, Tabernæ montana coronaria. 2 n C The flower of it. 3 m P A ram. (Marathi)

*tagga ʻ mud ʼ. [Cf. Bur. t*lg*l ʻ mud ʼ] Kho. (Lor.) toq ʻ mud, quagmire ʼ; Sh. tăgāˊ ʻ mud ʼ; K. tagöri m. ʻ a man who makes mud or plaster ʼ; Ku. tāgaṛ ʻ mortar ʼ; B. tāgāṛ ʻ mortar, pit in which it is prepared ʼ.(CDIAL 5626). (Note: making of mud or plaster is a key step in dhokra kamar's work of cire perdue (lost-wax) casting.)
krəm backʼ(Kho.) karmāra ‘smith, artisan’ (Skt.) kamar ‘smith’ (Santali) 

A fourth type Type IV anthropomorph has been reported from Haryana (unprovenanced). It is an anthropomorph which extends the Indus script hieroglyph mode seen on Sheorajpur anthropomorph to ligature the head of the anthropomorph with the head of a boar PLUS incise a hieroglyph of one-horned young bull on the chest. Two examples of this Type IV anthropomorph have been cited.
L. Anthropomorph reported by Art Curator,Naman Ahuja in 2014. R. Anthropomorph reported by Sanjay Manjul, Director, Institute of Archaeology, Delhi Museum, ASI in August 2015. "A composite copper Anthropomorphic figure along with a copper sword was found by the speaker at the Central Antiquity Section, ASI, Purana Qila in 2005. This composite copper Anthropomorph is a solitary example in the copper hoard depicting a Varah head. The Anthropomorphic figure, its inscription and animal motif that it bears, illustrate the continuity between the Harappan and Early Historical period.An animal-headed anthropomorph http://www.business-standard.com/article/specials/naman-ahuja-is-mastering-the-art-of-reaching-out-114092501180_1.html                            http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/05/composite-copper-alloy-anthropomorphic.html “These are very abstract figures, which were published in various articles, have common characteristics, namely a semicircular head directly restingon the shoulders, volute-like scrolled arms on both sides, and pointed open legs. Paul Yule distinguishes two types: Type I has thinner legs, which are extremely spread: ‘Fashioned from thick metal sheeting, these artifacts have stocky proportion and are patterned on both sides with elongated gouges or dents which usually are lengthwise oriented. Type II anthropomorphs are proportionately longer than those of type I and show a curious and distinctive thickening of the metal on the upper margin of the ‘head’. In section the ‘arms’are triangular, the most acute angle being outward. The ‘legs’ and ‘trunk’ are rectangular in cross section […] The artifacts are morphologically homogenous except for No…. (Yule, 1985: 52.)’”

In an ethnological interpretation, Jurgen W. Frembigen suggested: “To sum up the hypothesis, one can say that – in the light of comparative ethnographical and ethological data – the North Indian copper age anthropomorphs most probably represent fmale fertility figures of a specific dominnt and provocative type.” (Jürgen W. Frembgen, 1996, On Copper Age Anthropomorphic Figures from North India An Ethnological Interpretation, in: East and West
Vol. 46, No. 1/2 (June 1996), pp. 177-182, p.181) Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757261.

Oxford English Dictionary defines anthropomorphic: "a. treating the deity as anthropomorphous, or as having a human form and character; b. attributing a human personality to anything impersonal or irrational."

The copper anthropomorph of Haryana is comparable to and an elaboration of a copper anthropomorph of Sheorajpur, Uttar Pradesh. Both deploy Meluhha hieroglyphs using rebus-metonymy layered cipher of Indus writing. 
The hieroglyhs of the anthropomorphs are a remarkable archaeological evidence attesting to the evidence of an ancient Samskritam text, Baudhāyana śrautasūtra.
Baudhāyana śrautasūtra 18.44 which documents migrations of Āyu and Amavasu from a central region:
pran Ayuh pravavraja. tasyaite Kuru-Pancalah Kasi-Videha ity. etad Ayavam pravrajam. pratyan amavasus. tasyaite Gandharvarayas Parsavo ‘ratta ity. etad Amavasavam
Trans. Ayu went east, his is the Yamuna-Ganga region (Kuru-Pancala, Kasi-Videha). Amavasu went west, his is Gandhara, Parsu and Araṭṭa.
Ayu went east from Kurukshetra to Kuru-Pancala, Kasi-Videha. The  migratory path of Meluhha artisand in the lineage of Ayu of the Rigvedic tradition, to Kasi-Videha certainly included the very ancient temple town of Sheorajpur of Dist. Etawah (Kanpur), Uttar Pradesh.
Haryana anthropormorph (in the Kurukshetra region on the banks of Vedic River Sarasvati) deploys hieroglyphs of markhor (horns), crocodile and one-horned young bull together with an inscription text using Indus Script hieroglyphs. The Sheorajpur anthropomorph deploys hieroglyphs of markhor (horns) and fish. The astonishing continuity of archaeo-metallurgical tradition of Sarasvati-Sindhu (Hindu) civilization is evident from a temple in Sheorajpur on the banks of Sacred River Ganga. This temple dedicated to Siva has metalwork ceilings !!!
Both anthropomorph artefacts in copper alloy are metalwork catalogs of dhokara kamar 'cire perdue(lost-wax) metal casters'.
Hieroglyhph: eraka 'wing' Rebus: eraka, arka 'copper'.In 2003, Paul Yule wrote a remarkable article on metallic anthropomorphic figures derived from Magan/Makkan, i.e. from an Umm an-Nar period context in al-Aqir/Bahla' in the south-western piedmont of the western Hajjar chain. "These artefacts are compared with those from northern Indian in terms of their origin and/or dating. They are particularly interesting owing to a secure provenance in middle Oman...The anthropomorphic artefacts dealt with...are all the more interesting as documents of an ever-growing body of information on prehistoric international contact/influence bridging the void between south-eastern Arabia and South Asia...Gerd Weisgerber recounts that in winter of 1983/4...al-Aqir near Bahla' in the al-Zahirah Wilaya delivered prehistoric planoconvex 'bun' ingots and other metallic artefacts from the same find complex..." 
In the following plate, Figs. 1 to 5 are anthropomorphs, with 'winged' attributes. The metal finds from the al-Aqir wall include ingots, figures, an axe blade, a hoe, and a cleaver (see fig. 1, 1-8), all in copper alloy. 
Image result for Fig. 1: Prehistoric metallic artefacts from the Sultanate of Oman yuleFig. 1: Prehistoric metallic artefacts from the Sultanate of Oman: 1-8  al-Aqir/Bahla'; 9 Ra's al-Jins 2, building vii, room 2, period 3 (DA 11961) "The cleaver no. 8 is unparalleled in the prehistory of the entire Near East. Its form resembles an iron coco-nut knife from a reportedly subrecent context in Gudevella (near Kharligarh, Dist. Balangir, Orissa) which the author examined some years ago in India...The dating of the figures, which command our immediate attention, depends on two strands of thought. First, the Umm an-Nar Period/Culture dating mentioned above, en-compasses a time-space from 2500 to 1800 BC. In any case, the presence of “bun“ ingots among the finds by nomeans contradicts a dating for the anthropomorphic figures toward the end of the second millennium BC. Since these are a product of a simple form of copper production, they existed with the beginning of smelting in Oman. The earliest dated examples predate this, i.e. the Umm an-NarPeriod. Thereafter, copper continues to be produced intothe medieval period. Anthropomorphic figures from the Ganges-Yamuna Doab which resemble significantly theal-Aqir artefacts (fig. 2,10-15) form a second line of evidence for the dating. To date, some 21 anthropomorphsfrom northern India have been published." (p. 539; cf. Yule, 1985, 128: Yule et al. 1989 (1992) 274: Yule et al 2002. More are known to exist, particularly from a large hoard deriving from Madarpur.)

About a temple in Sheorajpur with metal ceiling 

Could this be the work of dhokra kamar? this is an amazing structure by any standards as a ceiling of a S'iva temple called Kereshwar in Shivrajpur, a village on the banks of Ganga.
Many bronze artifacts are also venerated in the temple.

I hope some researcher will find out the sources for these bronze/brass marvels which echoe the anthropomorph of ancient India?
Sheorajpur anthropomorph with 'fish' hieroglyph and 'markhor' horns hieroglyph. ayo'fish' Rebus: ayo 'iron, metal' (Gujarati) miṇḍāl markhor (Tor.wali) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Ho.)

Prima facie, it appears that these are products of dhokra kamar 
metalworkers

NB: Some historical notes:

Pratihara emperor, Mihir Bhoja, has ruled in nearby Kanpur since nearby Kannuaj was the capital of Parihar. At Shivrajpur, 20 km from the Kanpur Central railway station, there is an ancient temple built by Chandel Raja Sati Prasad. The history of the temple and architecture needs further investigations and researches.


Fish-fin incised on the chest of the anthropomorph from Sheorajpur. Two types of inscribed anthropomorphs with hieroglyphs have been discovered in the copperwork areas of Bharatam, in particular the regions classified as copper complexes such as Ahar-Banas region of Rajasthan (close to the Khetri copper belt). 


A brilliant exposition on the etymology of the word  Varāha is provided by वाचस्पत्यम् Vācaspatyam: वराय अभीष्ठाय मुस्तादिलाभाय आहन्ति खनति भूमिम्  To represent a boon, (to obtain) wished, desired products (including species of grass) mined from the earth, by striking, hitting. Thus, Varāha is a hieroglyph metaphor to represent, signify mining for minerals.


Both anthropomorphs are shaped like a standing person with spread legs and with the horns of a markhor or ram. 

Type 1 Anthropomorph: metalworker (mintworker), merchant

On one type of anthropomorph, an additional hieroglyph is incised. That of 'fish with fins'. The reading of hieroglyphs in Indus Script cipher: ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS miṇḍāl markhor (Tor.wali) meḍho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Gujarati) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda) ayo ‘fish’ Rebus: ayo, 'iron', ayas ‘metal. Thus, together read rebus: ayo meḍh  ‘iron stone ore, metal merchant.’ Hieroglyph: Spread legs: कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 'spread legs'; (semantic determinant) Rebus: karNa 'helmsman', karNI 'scribe, account''supercargo'. Thus, the hieroglyphs on the anthropomorph Type 2 signify a helmsman, engraver who works with alloys of metals to produce supercargo of mined products.

Type 2 Anthropomorph: miner (worker in wood and iron), merchant

On the second type of anthropomorph, a Varāha head is ligatured to the top of the anthropomorph and an additional hieroglyph is incised on the chest: That of a 'one-horned young bull' which accounts for nearly 80% of pictorial motifs on Indus Script seals. miṇḍāl markhor (Tor.wali) meḍho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Gujarati) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda) Hieorglyph of one-horned bull inscribed on chest: khoṇḍ, kõda 'young bull-calf' Rebus: kũdār ‘turner’. कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi) Hieorglyph: boar: baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: baḍhi ‘a caste who work both in iron and wood’; baḍhoe ‘a carpenter, worker in wood’; badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) 'Rebus: bari 'merchant'.barea 'merchant' (Santali)বরাহ barāha 'boar'Rebus: bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea 'merchant' (Santali) Varāha is explained by वाचस्पत्यम् Vācaspatyam: वराय अभीष्ठाय मुस्तादिलाभाय आहन्ति खनति भूमिम्  To represent a boon, (to obtain) wished, desired products (including species of grass) mined from the earth, by striking, hitting. Hieroglyph: Spread legs: कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 'spread legs'; (semantic determinant) Rebus: karNa 'helmsman', karNI 'scribe, account''supercargo'. Thus, the hieroglyphs on the anthropomorph Type 2 signify a helmsman, engraver who works with metals and mines to produce supercargo of mined products. (Note: I had suggested that the head ligature on the anthropomorph signifies a crocodile, but Dr. Sanjay Manjul's suggestion that it signifies head of a boar is consistent with the Vedic metaphor and tradition of Varāha. I correct my identification and read the Anthropomorph head as signifier of Varāha.)

Excerpts from Yule, .Paul"The Copper Hoards of Northern India" Expedition Magazine 39.1 (1997): n. pag. Expedition Magazine. Penn Museum, 1997 Web. 02 Sep 2018 <http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/?p=5112>https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/39-1/Yule.pdf

From Lothal was  reported a fragmentary Type 1 anthropomorph (Cu 97.27%, Pb 2.51% (Rao), surface patterning runs lengthwise, lower portion slightly thicker than the edge of the head, ‘arms’ and ‘legs’ broken (Pl. 1,22)—ASI Ahmedabad (10918 – Rao, SR, 1958, 13 pl. 21A).
File:Anthropomorphic figures, chalcolithic,Yamuna-Ganga.BKB.jpgChalcolitique du bassin Gange-Yamuna. 2800 - 1500 avant notre ère. Provenance : 
Bisauli (212 km de New Delhi), district de Badaun, Uttar Pradesh. Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi. Inv. n° 94620 et 94621
Anthropomorphic figures, formed from copper/bronze. Northern India, Doab region, circa 1500.-1200 BCE. 
Anthropomorph is a signature tune of copper hoard culture.
Composite copper alloy anthropomorphic Meluhha hieroglyphs of Haryana and Sheorajpur: fish, markhor, 
boar, one-horned young bull
Fig1. Previously sqampland, the Ganges-Yamuna Doah has been drained and is today used agriculturally. It is likely that settlement sites of the Copper Hoard people lie buried beneath the alluvium.Fig1. Previously sqampland, the Ganges-Yamuna Doah has been drained and is today used agriculturally. It is likely that settlement sites of the Copper Hoard people lie buried beneath the alluvium.Fig2. Map of India showing major cities, states, and sites referred to in text (Map prepared by J. Edens, after author's original)
Fig2. Map of India showing major cities, states, and sites referred to in text (Map prepared by J. Edens, after author’s original)
Fig4. Metal hoard implements from Haryana, including harpoons, so-called bars, and flat axes. Chemical analyses prove these implements are made of copper, not bronze. Recent discoveries at sites in the doab are shedding light on people who made these objects and aspects of their culture.
Fig4. Metal hoard implements from Haryana, including harpoons, so-called bars, and flat axes. Chemical analyses prove these implements are made of copper, not bronze. Recent discoveries at sites in the doab are shedding light on people who made these objects and aspects of their culture.
Fig10. Axe-ingots, such as this one from Peru in West Bengal, are unsuited to use as axes. (Indian Museum, Calcutta)Fig10. Axe-ingots, such as this one from Peru in West Bengal, are unsuited to use as axes. (Indian Museum, Calcutta)Fig 11. Anthropomorphic figures, such as this one from Saipai in Uttar Pradesh, are probably cult objects, although some scholars have interpreted them as boomerangs. (Wahal Collection, Kanpur.)Fig 11. Anthropomorphic figures, such as this one from Saipai in Uttar Pradesh, are probably cult objects, although some scholars have interpreted them as boomerangs. (Wahal Collection, Kanpur.)


An emphatic evidence linking Indus Script Corpora with metalwork catalogues is provided by the anthropomorph discovered in Sheorajpur, Kanpur Dist. on the banks of Ganga, with 'fish' engraved on the chest of the bronze object of ram with curved horns and spread legs. 



Anthropomorphic figure. Sheorajpur, Kanpur Dist. Inscribed with fish hieroglyph. ca. 2nd millennium BCE. 4 kg; 47.7 X 39 X 2.1 cm. State Museum,   Lucknow (O.37) Anthropomorph with Indus Script ayo 'fish' mẽḍhā 'curved horn' meḍḍha 'ram' 
rebus: ayo meḍh 'metal merchant' ayo mēdhā 'metal expert' karṇika 'spread legs' rebus: karṇika कर्णिक 'steersman'.
miṇḍāl ‘markhor’ (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) Meluhha glosses are annexed which indicate association with cire perdue (or lost wax) method of casting metals using beeswax, particularly in the glosses for miedź, med'  'copper' in Northern Slavic and Altaic languages. 
On an anthropomorph copper plate of 2nd millennium BCE from Keonjhar copper hoard, an inscription dated to 1483 CE has been recorded in Keonjhar, Orissa.(Land grant by Raja Purushottam Deb).

Dist. Keonjhar, Or. – Around 1985 three type III axeingots and a small stand (nos. 1195-1197), evidently part of the same hoard, to judge from the surface texture and patina, were acquired as a group for the Orissa State Museum from this district. Detailed information exists neither for their provenance, nor the circumstances of discovery63 . 1195. Axe-ingot, type III. 14.7x12.3x1.3 cm, 972 gm, sharp lead edge (Fig. 19, 1195). – Orissa State Museum (0.52.1). – Unpub. 1196. Axe-ingot, type III. 17x13.2x1.4cm, rev. surface very rough (Fig. 19, 1196). – Orissa State Museum (0.52.2). – Unpub. 1197. Miniature stand. 24.6 x 13. 2 x 8. 5 cm, thick light green patina, rough surface similar to other metallic artefacts from eastern Chota Nagpur, heavy corrosion on the legs, legs recently bent inward (Fig. 19, 1197). – Orissa State Museum (0.52.3). – Unpub. 
File:Oriya land grant.jpg
A facsimile of an inscription on a copper plate recording a land grant made by Rāja Purushottam Deb, king of Orissa, in the fifth year of his reign (1483). J. Beames The Indian Antiquary, December 6, 1872, p. 355.
Land grants made by royal decree were protected by law, with deeds often being recorded on metal plates.


John Beames, 1872, Indian Antiquary, Vol. 1, pp. 355-356
On a copper-plate grant from Balasore (AD 1483)

[quote]The plate is in the possession of the Bhuyans of Garpada, an ancient and respectable family of zamindars. Their estate of Garhpada is situated on a rocky spur of the Moharbhanj hills about 15 miles north of the station of Balasore. The plate records the grant of the estate to their ancestor, Poteswar Bhat, a Brahman by Raja Purushottam Deb, King of Orissa. This monarch ascended the throne in AD 1478 and the 5th year of his reign, the date of the grant would be therefore 1483. The Bhuyan hwever read it the 25th year of his reign which would make it 1503. This I shall show presently is incorrect. The text in Roman characters is as follows:
Obverse. “Sri Jaya durgAyai namah hira Sri gajapati gaureshwara nava kota karnatakala-vargeswara Sri purushottama deva maharajankar poteswara bhatanku dina s’Asana pata e anka mesha di 10 am sumabUrn grahana kAle ganga gurbhe purushottamapura s’asana bhUmI chaiidasa ushTottara xxxx dAna desnne bhUmI yavachchandrarke putra pautrAdi purushannakrame bhaga karu thiba jalarUtna nikshepa sahit bhUmI dehau. Reverse. YAvach chandrascha sUryascha yAvat tishThati medina yAvad dattAmayAhr eshii susya yuktA basundhurA swadatrAan purushattUm vU brahmavRittim haretyah ShashTir varshasahasrANi vishTAyAm jUyate kRAmih Sri mudunagopAluh saruNam mama”
Translation: Reverence to Sri Jaya Durga. Of the hero, the illustrious Gajapati, lord of GauD, lord of the tribes (of the country) of the nine forts, Karnata and Utkala Sri Purushottam Deh MahArAja to Poteswar Bhat a deed of gift of a s’Asan. In this fifth year of my reign the tenth day of Mesh, Monday at the time of an eclipse, in the womb of GungA, I have given Purushottampura S’Asan land fourteen (hundred) and eight besides, ha 1408 lss, as a gift. This land as long as the moon and sun, son, grandson and the rest, generation after generation enjoying remain! I have given the land together with its tanks and gardens.
(The above is in Oriya; the rest is in Sanskrit)
Reverse. As long as the moon and the sun, as long as the earth shall stand, so long be the gift upheld of this rich grain-bearing land; whose of his own or another’s gift a Brahman shall deprive, for sixty thousand years a worm in dung shall be born and live. Sri Mudangopal my protection.

The marks at the end are: first, the ankush or elephant goad, the special sign manual of the kings of Orissa, referring to their ancient title of Gajapati or land of elephants; second, the s’ankh or conch-shell of Vishnu (Jagannath), third and fourth the khandA or straight sword, and the katar or dagger, both emblems of the warrior-caste, the khanDA belonging especially to the hill-people, and he kutAr to those of the plains. With regard to the wording of the deed one or two points may perhaps stand in need of explanation. GauDeshwara or lord of GauD, i.e. Bengal, is a constant empty boast of the kings of Orissa, who claimed to rule from the great to the little GungA, i.e. from GangA to GodAvari. Their kingdom did frequently stretch as far as the latter river, and even beyond it; but only twice in all their annals did they reach the Ganges and then only for a brief period each time. ‘Karnata kula’ is a mistake of the engraver for karnATotkala ‘Karnata and Utkala’, the forms which occurs in all the deeds and decriptions of the monarchs of Orissa. This very Purushottam Deb conquered Kanjikaveri or Conjeevaram and spent the greater part of his reign on the Godavary. The expression later on in this plate ‘GangAgarbhe’ probably refers to that river the ‘SAngangU’ or little Ganges of the Oriya as there is no record of this king’s having ever having visited the great Ganges. ‘S’Asan’ in Orissa is a patch of rent-free land with a village inhabited and cultivated exclusively by Brahmans, generally on behalf of some god, whose temple is in their village and whose worship they are theoretically bound to keep up. As a rule the poor Thakur gets very little worship and the money goes into the Brahman’s bellies or on to their backs. These Brahman’s S’Asana are scattered all over the country and are detected at once by the large comfortable homesteads, the groves of cocoa-palms and fruit trees and the generally superior style of cultivation. The cocoa-palm flourishes well in Orissa, but is not grown except by Brahmans owing to the popular superstititon that if a man of another caste plants them, he or his children will die in a year and a day. .. ‘Di10um’ and ‘ba1408ti’. This is the Oriya fashion of writing figures, the name of the article is divided in two and the numbers written in between, the above form stands for 10 diam, and 1408 bAtI respectively. Thus they would write 10 rupees, Ta10nka’ – 10 Tanka; 5 maunds would be mA5na…Potesar Bhat obtained possession and he and his descendants held the estate for some generations…Aurangzeb…The Brahman resisted for a long time, but finding that the Emperor was deaf to remonstrances, he eventually consented, embraced Islam and returned to Orissa with an order for his restitution to his estates. Since that time the family has been Muhammadan, and the present head of it, Ghulum Mustafa Khan, and his brothers are men with quite a Mughal type of countenance, probably derived from frequent intermarriages with Mughul and Pathan ladies. The archaic form of the letters in this grand renders it very valuable as showing the gradual development of the modern Oriya alphabet from a southern variety of the Kutila type… [unquote](The Indian Antiquary, Dec. 6, 1872, pp. 355-356), Excerpted from the full text of the Indian Antiquary, Vol. I 1872 embedded.

This Keonjhar copper plate grant is on an anthropomorph which is comparable to the antropomorph type noted in Metmuseum dated to ca. 1500-500 BCE.

Anthropomorph celt. Met Museum Accession Number 2001.433.8
http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/50575

– Type IV Anthropomorph – (Indus Script ‘boar’ ligature & ‘yong [sic] bull’ hieroglyh [sic] inscribed) similar to Type I but with Indus Script inscriptions/ligatures of boar’s head and hieroglyph of one-horned young bull.




See: 

http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/109/1/Yule_2003.pdf P. Yule, “Beyond the Pale of Near Eastern Archaeology: Anthropomorphic Figures from al-Aqir near Bahla’, Sultanate of Oman” within:  T. Stöllner et al. (Hrsg.), “Mensch und Bergbau Studies in Honour of Gerd Weisgerber on Occasion of his 65th Birthday”, (Bochum 2003) 537-542

After Fig. 6, ibid.

“The Copper Hoards Problem: A Technological Angle” D. P. AGRAWAL Asian Perspectives Vol. 12 (1969), pp. 113-119 Published by: University of Hawai’i Press http://www.jstor.org/stable/42929067
Page Count: 7  https://www.scribd.com/document/359287585/Copper-Hoards-DP-Agarwal-1969


"THE AUTHORSHIP AND AGE. The Copper Hoards are a unique and probably isolated phenomenon in Indian prehistory. They probably represent the original inhabitants of the tangled, wooded country of the Doab, before the Painted Gray Ware people started clearing the forests. It may be noted that eastern India had contacts with Southeast Asia in Neolithic times (Dani 1960; Worman 1949). Latest research in Thailand (Solheim 1967) shows that bronze technology there starts by ca. 2300 B.C. as indicated by the radiocarbon dates for the Non Nok Tha site: TF-651, 2325±200 B.C. and GaK-956, 2290±90 B.C. [Copper socketed tool tentatively dated 3590±320 B.c, GaK 1034. Ed.] This suggests the probability of inspiration from Southeast Asia for the Copper Hoards although an independent origin is not precluded. But western contacts were impossible because of the forest barriers. Lal (1951) and Gupta (1963, 1965) identified the Hoards with the Mundas. It is worth noting that the eastern Austronesian tribes (forefathers of the Mon-Khmers, linguistically affiliated with the Mundas) independently developed the use of metal. And north-east India has been considered an integral part of Southeast Asia in the Neolithic period (Bongard-Levin and Deopik 1957). If we take the Plateau zone as the primary center because of its simpler types (barcelt was a mining tool) the diffusion probability from Southeast Asia becomes more plausible. Those people possessing the mysterious skill of metallurgy were probably released from the kinship bonds of the tribes and thus became the itinerant smiths who later developed the Doab zone of the Copper Hoards. The age of the Copper Hoards is more difficult to arrive at. If the OCP association of the Copper Hoards is accepted, they are pre-Po G. Ware and even pre-Black-and-Red ware in the Doab. For precision in dating one will have to await the testimony of the spade." (DP Agarwal, 1969, The copper hoards problem, a technological angle, in: Asian Perspectives XII, p.118)
http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/1895/1/Metalwork_BronzeAge_India.pdf P. Yule, 1985, “Metalwork of the Bronze Age in India” 
“The Copper Hoard Culture of the Gangā Valley” – B. Lal (1972), “The Copper Hoard culture of the Gangā Valley”. Antiquity, 46 (184), 282-287. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00053886
– https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/copper-hoard-culture-of-the-ganga-valley/EB6ABFD8D5BD193835C0145C3BD55925

– J. Manuel, “The antecedent’s diverse  influences  on  and  by Vaishnava Art,  as perceptible from the times of Copper Anthropomorphic Figures” within: Journal of Religious History South Asia, Vol. A-1 (Published Fall 2015) – http://www.jorhsa.com/Edition_2015/Copper.pdf

“On Copper Age Anthropomorphic Figures from North India An Ethnological Interpretation”
Jürgen W. Frembgen East and West Vol. 46, No. 1/2 (June 1996), pp. 177-182 Published by: Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente (IsIAO)  http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757261
Page Count: 6

T.K.D GUPTA, “The anthropomorphic figures of the copper-hoards from India”
– https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306878726_The_anthropomorphic_figures_of_the_copper-hoards_from_India




http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/aa.1968.70.5.02a00030/pdf (BB Lal, 1968, A deluge? Which deluge? Yet another facet of the problem of the Copper Hoard Culture, pp.857-863)

"A fragment of an anthropomorph came to light in controlled excavations at Lothal and a second one at Saipai Lichchwai, Etawah district. The doabhoards are associated with the so-called Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) which appears to be closely associated with the Late Harappan (or Posturban) phase. As early as the 19th century, stray hoard objects became known and established themselves as an important find group in the two-river land of northern India. The dating is unclear. These hoard artefacts are a main manifestation of the archaeology of India during the metals age...In a milestone publication B.B. Lalpublished 35 from the Gangetic basin, from the central peninsula and the eastern part of India.( B.B. Lal, Further Copper Hoards from the Gangetic Basin and a Review of the Problem, Ancient India 7, 1951, 20-39)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_Hoard_Culture

 http://tinyurl.com/ktohgmv
Four hoods of cobra arch over membrum virile. Hypertext expression reads: lo gaṇḍa phaṇin Rebus plaintext readings : 1. phaṇi lokhaṇḍa, 'tin or lead foil,metalware,metal implements market (pun on the word paṇi, 'market'); 2.  lokhaṇḍa paṇe (pai) 'metal implements production,metals quarry'. Thus, the charioteer is described to be a paṇikkan, 'a metals workers, a master metallurgical artificer'.  Alternative: mēṇḍhra -- m. ʻ penis ʼ(Samskritam)(CDIAL 9606) rebus: मृदु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' meḍ 'iron, metal' (Ho.Mu.) Alternative: reinforcement of semantics for upraised penis, for lobhar̥kanu  'rise of penis' (N.)(CDIAL 9365) rebus: bhaṭa  'furnace, smelter'  Thus, an alternative plain text is: bhaṭa  phaṇi lokhaṇḍ'furnace (for) tin or lead foil, metal implements'. The cobra hood is also seen as:  phaḍa 'hood of cobra' rebus: फड, phaḍa 'metalwork artisan guild'.



Hauptmann, Andreas ; Hughes, Michael J., 1989,  The Copper Hoards of the Indian Subcontinent: Preliminaries for an Interpretation with Appendix I and II in: In: Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz, Bd. 36. 1989, pp. 193-275

How a farmer has been protecting the prehistoric Indus carvings of Domkhar -- Tania Banerjee

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How a farmer has been protecting the prehistoric Indus carvings of Domkhar

Indus Script writing instruments, Kernoi rings are ink-stands for iron-oxide liquid pigment, gold pectorals with nibs are styluses

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https://tinyurl.com/y4fjvrsl


-- Writing ink of iron oxide liquid in kernoi rings and gold metallic stylus to inscribe free-hand Indus Script inscription on metal

-- Decipherment of Nindowari seal khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻsquirrelʼ rebus šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ 'guild master'; Kernoi rings karã̄ 'wristlets, bangles' rebus khār 1 खार् 'blacksmith, iron worker'


This is an addendum to:  

1. ḍ̠āhū̃ 'pomegranate' is an Indus Script Hypertext, signifies, metalwork catalogue rūpaka, 'metaphor' hālako 'a large metal ingot' https://tinyurl.com/ybu636zy 


2. Hieroglyphs on Kernoi rings are metalwork catalogues, with Meluhha roots in Sarasvati Civilization sprachbund (speech union) 
https://tinyurl.com/y8g8443w 

Indus Script writing instruments included kernos, ring of pots as a set of ink-pots containing iron oxide pigment to inscribe inscriptions on metal objects Iron oxide liquid held in such kernos may have been used to write on metal, as demonstrated on the Mohenjo-daro gold pendant. I suggest that the kernos ring of vessels is like an ink-pot containing iron oxide liquid used as a writing ink, to write on metal objects, like copper tablets or gold pendants. The gold-pendants with  sharp nibs might have been used as writing instruments.See:  https://tinyurl.com/y8xqexl6   

The monograph is presented in the following sections:


Section 1: Stylus with nib for free-hand writing using ink (iron-oxide liquid pigment)

Section 2. kernoi rings are Indus Script Hypertexts and are 'ink-stands' to hold iron oxide liquid to write on metal



Section 3. Indus Script hypertexts/artifacts of Nindowari, Kulli, Nal cultures of Balochistan related to metalwork competence

Section 4. Nindowari-damb seal 01,Harappa,Mohenjo-daro inscriptions show
'squirrel 'šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻflying squirrelʼ,'guild master'. 

Section 5. Terracotta Ring-shaped Object with Animal Figurines and a Miniature Pot of the Balochistan Tradition in the Okayama Orient Museum by Akinori Uesugi (2013)
Section 6. Kernoi rings identify metal workers and Kernunnos rings are writing 
instruments, ink-stands


Section 7. पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' signifies pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4',Hieroglyph: పోలడు pōlaḍu 'black drongo' rebus: पोलाद [ pōlāda ]






 n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel.


Section 1: Stylus with nib for free-hand writing using ink (iron-oxide liquid pigment)

I suggest that the Kernoi  rings were 'ink-stands' containing iron oxide liquid for free-hand wrigting to inscribe on metal. A superb example is provided by the Mohenjo-daro gold pectoral with an Indus Script inscription. This gold pectoral is a writing instruiment, a metallic stylus with a nib.
The inscription reads Meluhha rupaka, 'metaphor' rebus translation:  kanac 'corner' Rebus: kancu 'bronze'; sal 
'splinter' Rebus: sal 'workshop'; dhatu 'cross road' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral'; gaNDa 'four' Rebus: khanda 'implements'; kolom 'three' Rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge'; Vikalpa: ?ea ‘seven’ (Santali); rebus: ?eh-ku ‘steel’ (Telugu)

aya 'fish' Rebus: aya 'iron'(Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Rigveda)

Thus, the inscription is: kancu sal (bronze workshop), dhatu aya kaṇḍ kolami mineral, metal, furnace/fire-altar smithy.





The inscription is a professional calling card -- describing professional competence and ownership of specified items of property -- of the wearer of the pendant.


This is an extraordinary evidence of the Indus writing system written down, with hieroglyphs inscribed using a coloured paint, on an object.

Writing on metal objects has been demonstrated in a gold fillet discovered in Mohenjo-daro with an Indus Script Inscription.
Image result for inscribed gold pendant bharatkalyan97 3 Gold pendants: Jewelry Marshall 1931: 521, pl. CLI, B3

Three gold pendants are shown on the bottom right-corner of the image. An enlargement of one of the pendants reveals an Indus Script inscription from Mohenjodaro, written in ink (perhaps, iron oxide pigment). 

The comments made by John Marshall on three curious objects at bottom right-hand corner of Pl. CLI, B3: “Personal ornaments…Jewellery and Necklaces…Netting needles (?) Three very curious objects found with the studs and the necklace appear to be netting needles of gold. They are shown just above the ear-studs and also in the lower right-hand corner of Pl. CLI, B, 3-5 and 12-14. The largest of these needles (E 2044a) is 2.5 inches long. The handle is hollow and cylindrical and tapers slightly, being 0.2 inch in diameter at the needle-end. The needle point is 0.5 inch long and has a roughly shaped oval eye at its base. The medium sized needle (E 2044b) is 2.5 inches long and of the same pattern: but the cap that closed the end of the handle is now missing. The point which has an oval eye at its base is 0.3 inch long. The third needle (E 2044c) is only 1.7 inches long with the point 0.3 inch in length. Its handle, which is otherwise similar to those of the other two needles, is badly dented. The exact use of these three objects is open to question, for they could have been used for either sewing or netting. The handles seem to have been drawn, as there is no sign of a soldered line, but the caps at either end were soldered on with an alloy that is very little lighter in colour than the gold itself. The two smaller needles have evidently been held between the teeth on more than one occasion.” (p.521)."


I surmise that all the three gold objects could be pendants tagged to other jewellery such as necklaces. The pendants were perhaps worn with a thread of fibre passing through the eye of the needle-like ending of the pendants.

Why needle-like endings? Maybe, the pendants were used as 'writing' devices 1) either to engrave hieroglyphs into objects; 2)or to use the needle-ending like a metal nib to dip into a colored ink or liquid or zinc-oxide paste or cinnabar-paste. This possibility is suggested by the use of cinnabar in ancient China to paint into lacquer plates or bowls. Cinnabar or powdered mercury sulphide was the primary colorant lof lacquer vessels. "Known in China during the late Neolithic period (ca. 5000–ca. 2000 B.C.), lacquer was an important artistic medium from the sixth century B.C. to the second century A.D. and was often colored with minerals such as carbon (black), orpiment (yellow), and cinnabar (red) and used to paint the surfaces of sculptures and vessels...a red lacquer background is carved with thin lines that are filled with gold, gold powder, or lacquer that has been tinted black, green, or yellow.http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2009/cinnabar









https://tinyurl.com/y8xqexl6






Functions served be kernoi in ancient times have to be re-evaluated. The arguments advanced by many scholars point to 'cult' practices or 'ritual' mysteries. An alternative, practical function can now been posited thanks to the investigation done on the contents of a pomegranate-shaped Motya vase by Labs of Sapienza University. 




What could the three objects which are gold pendants, be? Sewing needles? Netting needles? No, metallic writing styluses.

Section 2. kernoi rings are Indus Script Hypertexts and are 'ink-stands'
to hold iron oxide liquid to write on metal

Scores of kernoi rings found in the Sarasvati civilization contact area have now been shown to be 'ink-stands' containing iron exide liquids used as 'ink' to write on metal objects.

I suggest that the kernoi contained iron oxide liquid which was used to write on metal objects. 






This monograph posits that the kernoi rings and the Motya vase were ink-pots containing iron oxide pigment to write Indus Script inscriptions on metal objects such as copper plates.




"The (pomegranate-shaped) vase content was sampled twice and analysed in the Labs of Sapienza University. Data collected suggest that inside the vase there was an organic fluid, leaving traces of iron oxide."(Lorenzo Nigro, 2018, Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) from Motya and its deepest oriental roots in: Vicino Oriente XXII (2018), pp. 63-64).
https://www.academia.edu/37111300/POMEGRANATE_PUNICA_GRANATUM_L._FROM_MOTYA_AND_ITS_DEEPEST_ORIENTAL_ROOTS







I suggest that the pomegranate-shaped vase served as an ink-pot containing iron oxide pigment (liquid).

The discovery of iron oxide in liquid form is significant and consistent with the functions of hypertexts on kernoi which are descriptions of wealth accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues in the Indus Script Cipher tradition.


Kernosis a Mycenaean ceramic piece, usually in the form of a ring, to which were attached a number of cups or vases, used in the mystic ceremonies to holdsmall quantities of viands (foods). 


https://www.dictionary.com/browse/kernos

"Ochre (rarely spelled ocher and often referred to as yellow ochre) is one of a variety of forms of iron oxide which are described as earth-based pigments. These pigments, used by ancient and modern artists, are made of iron oxyhydroxide, which is to say they are natural minerals and compounds composed of varying proportions of iron (Fe3 or Fe2), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H)." (Hirst, Kris (15 April 2017). "Ochre - The Oldest Known Natural Pigment in the World") https://www.thoughtco.com/ochre-the-oldest-known-natural-pigment-172032

"Ochre (British English) (/ˈkər/ OH-kər; from Greek: ὤχρα, from ὠχρός, ōkhrós, pale) or ocher (American English) is a natural clay earth pigmentwhich is a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand.It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced by this pigment, especially a light brownish-yellow. A variant of ochre containing a large amount of hematite, or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish tint known as "red ochre" (or, in some dialects, ruddle)." 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochre

"The use of red ochre in the prehistoric architecture of Central Anatolia has long been recognized. Scholars have often argued that its use in architecture has a symbolic role, and that it has been used in sacred parts of ritual buildings. This paper examines red‐painted buildings in the prehistoric settlements of Central Anatolia. Recently, a building with red‐coloured plastered walls and floors was found in Chalcolithic Çatalhöyük West. The technique of Raman Spectroscopy has been applied to identify the red pigment and results show that it is red ochre, which contains predominantly hematite, Fe2O3." (Erdogu B, and Ulubey A. 2011. Colour symbolism in the prehistoric architecture of central Anatolia and Raman Spectroscopic Investigation of red ochre in Chalcolithic Çatalhöyük. Oxford Journal Of Archaeology 30(1):1-11.) https://www.scribd.com/document/93900374/Erdogu-ulubey-Colour-Symbolism-in-the-Prehistoric-Architecture 












Top and front views of the terracotta ring object with Indus Script Hypertexts (zebu, bird, pot), in Okayama Orient Museum.





The hieroglyphs zebu, bird and circular pot (ring) are read rebus: 







I suggest that this terracotta ring objects kernoi rings are Indus Script Hypertexts with the following hieroglyph components:





1.. Zebu, bos indicusपोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu, bos indicus taurus' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus (similar sounding homonym): पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, ferrite ore: Fe3O4'.




pōḷa 'zebu' Rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite ore'. पोळ (p. 534) [ pōḷa ] 

m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus,

and set at large.पोळा (p. 534) [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--

the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor;

variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship.पोळींव (p. 534) 

[ pōḷīṃva ] p of पोळणें Burned, scorched, singed, seared. (Marathi)





2.Bird, black drongo:  pōlaḍu 'black drongo bird' (Telugu) Rupaka, 'metaphor'


or rebus:  पोलाद pōlāda n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel.  (Marathi) bulad


'steel, flint and steel for making fire' (Amharic); fUlAd 'steel' (Arabic)


 pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), fuladh (Persian) folādī (Pashto)



 Image result for black drongo zebuZebu, bos indicus PLUS black drongo bird (perched on the back of the bull) This bird is called పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu 'friend of cattle'.





3. Ring or circle: 


 karã̄ 'wristlets, bangles' rebus khār खार् 'blacksmith, iron worker'










4. Pot: kuṇḍá1 n. (RV. in cmpd.) ʻ bowl, waterpot ʼ KātyŚr., ʻ basin of water, pit ʼ MBh. (semant. cf. kumbhá -- 1), °ḍaka -- m.n. ʻ pot ʼ Kathās., °ḍī -- f. Pāṇ., °ḍikā -- f. Up. 2. *gōṇḍa -- . [← Drav., e.g. Tam. kuṭam, Kan. guṇḍi, EWA i 226 with other ʻ pot ʼ words s.v. kuṭa -- 1]1. Pa. kuṇḍi -- , °ḍikā -- f. ʻ pot ʼ; Pk. kuṁḍa -- , koṁ° n. ʻ pot, pool ʼ, kuṁḍī -- , °ḍiyā -- f. ʻ pot ʼ; Kt. kuṇi ʻ pot ʼ, Wg. kuṇḍäˊi; Pr. künǰúdotdot; ʻ water jar ʼ; Paš. weg. kuṛã̄ ʻ clay pot ʼ < *kũṛā IIFL iii 3, 98 (or poss. < kuṭa -- 1), lauṛ. kuṇḍalīˊ ʻ bucket ʼ; Gaw. kuṇḍuṛīˊ ʻ milk bowl, bucket ʼ; Kal. kuṇḍṓk ʻ wooden milk bowl ʼ; Kho. kúṇḍuk°ug ʻ milk bowl ʼ, (Lor.) ʻ a kind of platter ʼ; Bshk. kūnḗċ ʻ jar ʼ (+?); K. kŏnḍ m. ʻ metal or earthenware vessel, deep still spring ʼ, kọ̆nḍu m. ʻ large cooking pot ʼ, kunāla m. ʻ earthenware vessel with wide top and narrow base ʼ; S. kunu m. ʻ whirlpool ʼ, °no m. ʻ earthen churning pot ʼ, °nī f. ʻ earthen cooking pot ʼ, °niṛo m.; L. kunnã̄ m. ʻ tub, well ʼ, °nī f. ʻ wide -- mouthed earthen cooking pot ʼ, kunāl m. ʻ large shallow earthen vessel ʼ; P. kū̃ḍā m. ʻ cooking pot ʼ (←H.), kunāl°lā m., °lī f., kuṇḍālā m. ʻ dish ʼ; WPah. cam. kuṇḍ ʻ pool ʼ, bhal. kunnu n. ʻ cistern for washing clothes in ʼ; Ku. kuno ʻ cooking pot ʼ, kuni°nelo ʻ copper vessel ʼ; B. kũṛ ʻ small morass, low plot of riceland ʼ, kũṛi ʻ earthen pot, pipe -- bowl ʼ; Or. kuṇḍa ʻ earthen vessel ʼ, °ḍā ʻ large do. ʼ, °ḍi ʻ stone pot ʼ; Bi. kū̃ṛ ʻ iron or earthen vessel, cavity in sugar mill ʼ, kū̃ṛā ʻ earthen vessel for grain ʼ; Mth. kũṛ ʻ pot ʼ, kū̃ṛā ʻ churn ʼ; Bhoj. kũṛī ʻ vessel to draw water in ʼ; H. kū̃ḍ f. ʻ tub ʼ, kū̃ṛā m. ʻ small tub ʼ, kū̃ḍā m. ʻ earthen vessel to knead bread in ʼ, kū̃ṛī f. ʻ stone cup ʼ; G. kũḍ m. ʻ basin ʼ, kũḍī f. ʻ water jar ʼ; M. kũḍ n. ʻ pool, well ʼ, kũḍā m. ʻ large openmouthed jar ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; Si. ken̆ḍiyakeḍ° ʻ pot, drinking vessel ʼ.2. N. gũṛ ʻ nest ʼ (or ← Drav. Kan. gūḍu ʻ nest ʼ, &c.: see kulāˊya -- ); H. gõṛā m. ʻ reservoir used in irrigation ʼ.Addenda: kuṇḍa -- 1: S.kcch. kūṇḍho m. ʻ flower -- pot ʼ, kūnnī f. ʻ small earthen pot ʼ; WPah.kṭg. kv́ṇḍh m. ʻ pit or vessel used for an oblation with fire into which barley etc. is thrown ʼ; J. kũḍ m. ʻ pool, deep hole in a stream ʼ; Brj. kū̃ṛo m., °ṛī f. ʻ pot ʼ.(CDIAL 3264) Rupaka, 'metaphor' or Rebus: kō̃da -कोँद 'kiln'; furnace' (Kashmiri)








Vikalpa: Circle:*varta2 ʻ circular object ʼ or more prob. ʻ something made of metal ʼ, cf. vartaka -- 2 n. ʻ bell -- metal, brass ʼ lex. and vartalōha -- . [√vr̥t?] Pk. vaṭṭa -- m.n., °aya -- m. ʻ cup ʼ; Ash. waṭāˊk ʻ cup, plate ʼ; K. waṭukh, dat. °ṭakas m. ʻ cup, bowl ʼ; S. vaṭo m. ʻ metal drinking cup ʼ; N. bāṭā, ʻ round copper or brass vessel ʼ; A. bāṭi ʻ cup ʼ; B. bāṭā ʻ box for betel ʼ; Or. baṭā ʻ metal pot for betel ʼ, bāṭi ʻ cup, saucer ʼ; Mth. baṭṭā ʻ large metal cup ʼ, bāṭī ʻ small do. ʼ, H. baṭṛī f.; G. M. vāṭī f. ʻ vessel ʼ.(CDIAL 11347) 


dāẽ 'tied' rebus dhā̆vaḍ 'iron smelter.' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or Rebus: bhaṭa, 'furnace'baṭa 'iron'(Gujarati)




Section 3. Indus Script hypertexts/artifacts of Nindowari, Kulli, Nal cultures of Balochistan related to metalwork competence


Thanks to Asko Parpola for the brilliant identification of 'squirrel' hieroglyph in Nindowari and other seal inscriptions of Indus Script Corpora. (www.harappa.com/script/indus-writing.pdf page 128

"Nindowari is an important settlement of the Kulli culture. The Kulli culture was a prehistoric culture in southern Balochistan(Gedrosia) in Pakistan 
ca. 2500 - 2000 BCE....A popular motif is the zebu-bull."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulli_culture
Kulli people were trading partners of Sarasvati (Indus Valley) Civilization. 
https://web.archive.org/web/20060619010132/http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/593757
Fig. 3 Findspots mentioned 
(After Fig. 3 in Paul Yule, 2013) Nindowari, Kulli, Nal Buthi in Balochistan
Rhyton (drinking vessel), zebushaped. Painted terracotta. Pakistan, 
Nindowari site, 2300-2000 BCE, Kulli culture, the time of the Indus civilization. 
Guimet Museum, Paris.



Map showing the main sites of Middle Asia in the third millennium BCE.





Excerpts from Paul Yule's article (2013):







[quote] A silver dagger-like blade (Fig. 1.1) and in the same material an unusual implement (Fig. 1.2), both which I examined and recorded in 1985, are on permanent exhibition in the National Museum in Delhi. Hargreaves also mentions the silver "unidentified object, No. 20" on p. 33 which is probably the "cult object" (quotation marks mine) in our




Fig. 1.1 Dagger blade NM 2622.- 1.2 Cult object NM 2620.- 1.3 Harvesting knife NM 2619. Figs. 1.1-1.3 Sohr Damb

Fig. 1.1 Dagger blade NM 2622.- 1.2 Cult object NM 2620.- 1.3 Harvesting knife NM 2619. Figs. 1.1-1.3 Sohr Damb



Fig. 1.2, since the other two objects are readily identifiable. In addition, inquiries in the Museum yielded a repousé silver harvesting knife or hand sickle (Fig. 1.3), which, like the other two objects, is registered in the accessions record (38). The source given is the "DGA" (Director General of Archaeology). The number "26" in the inventory number attests to the accessioning of the three pieces in 1926, doubtless from Hargreaves's excavation, and not those of his predecessors. The three pieces are sequentially numbered and no further silver objects appear to belong to this lot. Confirmation of the find circumstances lies in Hargreaves's description "...one fragment shows small parallel flutings in repousé", evidently a reference to our dagger blade. The dagger blade by no means measures 20 cm in length, but the harvesting knife is approximately this size. The hand sickel is fragmentary and reconstructed from 21 fragments. Fresh breaks are evident. Little imagination is required to explain their multiplication over the years from eight to 21. Fresh breaks are visible.




Fig. 2.4-6. From Sohr Damb. 2.7-8 from Mohenjo daro. - 2.4 Palstaves A 9782.- 2.5 NM 2614.- 2.6 NM 2616.- 2.7 & 2.8 Mohenjo daro Museum, no inv. nos.

Fig. 2.4-6. From Sohr Damb. 2.7-8 from Mohenjo daro. - 2.4 Palstaves A 9782.- 2.5 NM 2614.- 2.6 NM 2616.- 2.7 & 2.8 Mohenjo daro Museum, no inv. nos.[unquote]





https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/fakultaeten/philosophie/zaw/ufg/forschung/yule_silver.html


Paul Yule, 2013, Silver Grave Goods from the Sohr Damb near Nal, Pakistan 




"Nindowari (Urduنندارہ‎) , also known as Nindo Damb, is a Kulli archaeological site, dating back to chalcolithicperiod, in Kalat District of Balochistan, Pakistan. Archaeological investigation of the site suggests that the Nindowari complex was occupied by the Harappans before the Kulli civilization arrived and that the Kulli culture was related to or possibly derived from the Harappan culture...Nindowari is located some 240 kilometres (150 mi) northwest of Karachi, in Ornach Valley in Tehsil Wadh of the Kalat District. It is located on the right bank of the Kud River, a tributary of the Porali River...The site, spread over an area of 124 acres and 75 feet (23 m) high, is the largest Kulli complex site discovered so far...The central mound near the platform rose to a height of 82 feet (25 m) and consisted of large stones and boulders. The summit of the mound was accessed via a staricase from the platform showing this mound was considered a monument. Another mound, called Kulliki-an Damb (Mound of Potteries), was located 590 feet (180 m) south of the main mound...The site was discovered by Beatrice De Cardi in 1957.[1] French Archaeological Mission, led by Jean-Marie Casal, and Department of Archaeology, Pakistan later carried out the Nindowari excavations from 1962 till 1965, uncovering traces of a Kulli settlement dating back to the third millennium BC.[1] These excavations unearthed Kulli-Harappan pottery and vases with animal figures, mostly bulls and birds. Terracotta figurines of women adorned with jewelry with elaborate details were also discovered. Nal ware (old pottery from Indus Civilization) excavated from the site suggested a pre-Kulli occupation and that the Harrapans were settled in the area in early periods (3200 - 2500 BC)."(McIntosh, Jane R. (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 87; Neil Asher Silberman, ed. (2012). The Oxford Companion To Archaeology (2 ed.). Oxford University Press.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nindowari

Section 4. Nindowari-damb seal 01,Harappa,Mohenjo-daro 
inscriptions show'squirrel 'šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻflying squirrelʼ,'guild master'. 
Nd-1 Nindowari0-damb seal 01 shows 'squirrel'šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻflying squirrelʼ,'guild master'.

kanac 'corner' rebus: kañcu 'bronze' 

मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick, horn &c.) and attrib. such a stick, horn, bullock. मेढा [ mēḍhā ] m A stake, esp. as forked. Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) The circumscript is composed of four 'splinters': gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements', kanda 'fire-altar' 

खााडा [ kāṇḍā ] 'A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon)' Rebus: kaNDa 'implements' (Santali).

kole.l 'temple' rebus: kole.l 'smithy, forge'

kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metalcasting'. Thus, metalcasting smithy/forge.

kanka, karṇaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo', 'engraver, scribe, account'

Hieroglyph: 8 short strokes: gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, this hieroglyph-multiplex or hypertext signifies: iron implements workshop.

Hieroglyph: squirrel:  *śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1]Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: guild master khāra, 'squirrel', rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri)*śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1] Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? (CDIAL 12723) Rebus: śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, °nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- ] Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., °iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ,seṭhaṇ°ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., °ṭhan f.; G. śeṭhśeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M. śeṭh°ṭhīśeṭ°ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭuhi° ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?) (CDIAL 12726) I suggest that the šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? is read rebus: śeṭhīśeṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ (Marathi) or eṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ(Prakrtam) Hypertext of Indus Script: šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄  'flying squirrel' rebus: śrēṣṭhin 'foreman of a guild'. 
Indian palm squirrel, Funambulus Palmarum There are also other seals with signify the 'squirrel' hieroglyph. 
Nindowari-damb seal Nd0-1; Mohenjo-daro seal m-1202; Harappa tablet h-771; Harappa tablet h-419 

m1634 ceramic stoneware bangle (badge)
 Read from r. to l.: 

Vikalpa: The prefixSign 403: Hieroglyph: bārī , 'small ear-ring': H. bālā m. ʻbraceletʼ (→ S. ḇālo m. ʻbracelet worn by Hindusʼ), bālībārī f. ʻsmall ear -- ringʼ, OMārw. bālī f.; G. vāḷɔ m. ʻ wire ʼ, pl. ʻ ear ornament made of gold wire ʼ; M. vāḷā m. ʻ ring ʼ, vāḷī f. ʻ nose -- ring ʼ.(CDIAL 11573) Rebus: bārī 'merchant' vāḍhī, bari, barea 'merchantbārakaśa 'seafaring vessel'. If the duplication of the 'bangle' on Sign 403 signifies a plural, the reading could be: karã̄ n. pl. wristlets, bangles Rebus: khār 'blacksmith, iron worker'.


Sign 403 is a duplication of  bun-ingot shape. This shape is signified on a zebu terracotta pratimā found at Harappa and is consistent with mūhā mẽṛhẽt process of making unique bun-shaped ingots (See Santali expression and meaning described below):


 I suggest that Sign 403 is read: dul mūhā mẽṛhẽt 'cast iron ingot'. 


Thus, the hypertext may read: 


1. dul mūhā mẽṛhẽt uukku 'cast iron ingot,steel' or 2. khār uukku 'blacksmith, steel'. 




If he squirrel is read as šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻflying squirrel' rebus: śrēṣṭhin 'guild master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa), the reading of the hypertext is: 


1. dul mūhā mẽṛhẽt śrēṣṭhin 'cast iron ingot, guild-master' or 2. khār śrēṣṭhin 'blacksmith, guild-master'.


 Slide 33. Early Harappan zebu figurine with incised spots  magnetite, citizen.






 mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali) खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. (Marathi)

An alternative reading for 'squirrel' hieroglyph is also suggested:

The sequence of hieroglyphsSquirrel + Sign 403 signifies two professional responsibilities/functions  1. khār  'blacksmith'; 2. seṭhi ʻwholesale merchant' (Sindhi).



Alternatively, 1. dul mūhā mẽṛhẽt 'cast iron ingot'; 2. khār  'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) or seṭhi ʻwholesale merchant' (Sindhi) or śrēṣṭhin 'guild master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa)





Thus, two readings are possible for the 'squirrel' hieroglyph: khār  'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) and/or seṭhi ʻwholesale merchant' (Sindhi) orśrēṣṭhin 'guild master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa)



Hieroglyph: squirrel (phonetic determinant): खार [ khāra ] A squirrel, Sciurus palmarum. खारी [ khārī ] (Usually खार) A squirrel. (Marathi) 



A homonymous hieroglyph or allograph: arms with bangles: karã̄ n. pl. ʻwristlets, banglesʼ.(Gujarati)(CDIAL 2779) Rebus: khār खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b,l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta 'bellows of blacksmith'.with inscription.





*śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1]Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: guild master:*śrēṣṭrī2 ʻ line, ladder ʼ. [For mng. ʻ line ʼ conn. with √śriṣ2 cf. śrḗṇi -- ~ √śri. -- See śrití -- . -- √śriṣ2]Pk. sēḍhĭ̄ -- f. ʻ line, row ʼ (cf. pasēḍhi -- f. ʻ id. ʼ. -- < EMIA. *sēṭhī -- sanskritized as śrēḍhī -- , śrēṭī -- , śrēḍī<-> (Col.), śrēdhī -- (W.) f. ʻ a partic. progression of arithmetical figures ʼ); K. hēr, dat. °ri f. ʻ ladder ʼ.(CDIAL 12724) Rebus: śrḗṣṭha ʻ most splendid, best ʼ RV. [śrīˊ -- ]Pa. seṭṭha -- ʻ best ʼ, Aś.shah. man. sreṭha -- , gir. sesṭa -- , kāl. seṭha -- , Dhp. śeṭha -- , Pk. seṭṭha -- , siṭṭha -- ; N. seṭh ʻ great, noble, superior ʼ; Or. seṭha ʻ chief, principal ʼ; Si. seṭa°ṭu ʻ noble, excellent ʼ. śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, °nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- ]Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., °iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ, seṭhaṇ°ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., °ṭhan f.; G. śeṭhśeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M. śeṭh°ṭhīśeṭ°ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭuhi° ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?)(CDIAL 12725, 12726) 



m1202
From r. to l.:
barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: bharat 'alloy of copper, pewter, tin' (Marathi) pattar 'trough' Rebus: pattar 'goldsmith guild'
muhA 'ingot'; dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' muhA 'ingot' (Together, dul muhA  'cast iron ingot');
Squirrel 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Indus Script hypertext is khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa) Vikalpa: tuttha 'squirrel' Rebus: tuttha 'pewter, zinc alloy'; 
kanda kanka 'rim of pot' Rebus: khaNDa 'implements' karNI 'supercargo, scribe'; 
aduru 'harrow' Rebus: aduru 'native unsmelted metal';bhaTa 'warrior' Rebus: bhaTa 'furnace';  
kanda kanka 'rim of pot' Rebus: khaNDa 'implements' karNI 'supercargo, scribe'; muhA 'ingot, 
quantity of iron ore smelted out of the smelter'.
h771
dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' muhA 'ingot' (Together, dul muhA  'cast iron ingot'); 
Squirrel 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Indus Script hypertext is khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa) Vikalpa: tuttha 'squirrel' Rebus: tuttha 'pewter, zinc alloy'; 
dula 'two' Rebus: dul 'cast metal or casting'. 
Thus, the epigraph with three hieroglyph-multiplexes read rebus: metal castings, cast metal ingot, guild-master (pewter-zinc alloy.)
h419
Squirrel 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Indus Script hypertext is khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa) Vikalpa: tuttha 'squirrel' Rebus: tuttha 'pewter, zinc alloy'; 
maṇḍā 'warehouse, workshop' (Konkani). 
Thus, guild-master's warehouse.
















Longest inscription m0314 of Indus Script Corpora is catalogue of a guild-master. The guild master is signified by Indus Script hypertext 'squirrel' hieroglyph 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Rebus: plaintext: khār 'blacksmith' 


śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa).




  The guild-master signs off on the inscription by affixing his hieroglyph: 


palm squirrel,Sciurus palmarum'


























m0314 Seal impression, Text 1400 Dimension: 1.4 sq. in. (3.6 cm) Marshall 1931 (Vol. II, p. 402). 





This is perhaps the longest inscriptionof Indus Script Corpora.





m0314 The indus script inscription is a detailed account of the metal work engaged in by the Indus artisans. It is a professional calling card of the metalsmiths' guild of Mohenjodaro used to affix a sealing on packages of metal artefacts traded by Meluhha (mleccha)speakers.


 The last sign is wrongly identified in Mahadevan concordance. This hieroglyph is Squirrel as shown on Seal impressionFlipped vertically is likey to signify 'squirrel' as on Nindowari-damb seal 01




All hieroglyphs are read from r. to l. 

Line 1:

eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, moltencast copper workshop.

Fish + lid: aya dhakka,Rebus: aya dhakka 'bright iron/alloy metal'.

Fish + fin:  aya khambhaṛā rebus: aya kammaṭa 'alloy metal mint, coiner, coinage'




Fish + sloping stroke, aya dhāḷ ‘metal ingot’ (Vikalpa: ḍhāḷ = a slope; the inclination of a plane (G.) Rebus: : ḍhāḷako = a large metal ingot (G.)




khaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements' 

Thus, line 1 reads: bright iron/alloy metal, alloy metal mint, large metal ingot (ox-hide)




Line 2:





मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick, horn &c.) and attrib. such a stick, horn, bullock. मेढा [ mēḍhā ] m A stake, esp. as forked. Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) The circumscript is composed of four 'splinters': gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements', kanda 'fire-altar' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, this hieroglyph-multiplex or hypertext signifies: iron implements workshop.





S. baṭhu m. ‘large pot in which grain is parched, Rebus; bhaṭṭhā m. ‘kiln’ (P.) baṭa = a kind of iron (G.) Vikalpa: meṛgo = rimless vessels (Santali) bhaṭa ‘furnace’ (G.) baṭa = kiln (Santali); baṭa = a kind of iron (G.) bhaṭṭha -- m.n. ʻ gridiron (Pkt.) baṭhu large cooking fire’ baṭhī f. ‘distilling furnace’; L. bhaṭṭh m. ‘grain—parcher's oven’, bhaṭṭhī f. ‘kiln, distillery’, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭh m., ṭhī f. ‘furnace’, bhaṭṭhā m. ‘kiln’; S. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ‘distil (spirits)’. (CDIAL 9656) Rebus: meḍ iron (Ho.) PLUS  muka 'ladle' rebus; mū̃h 'ingot', quantity of metal got out of a smelter furnace (Santali).Thus, this hieroglyph-multiplex (hypertext) signifies: iron ingot.


kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metalcasting'. Thus, metalcasting smithy/forge.

kanka, karṇaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo', 'engraver, scribe, account'

Thus line 2 signifies metal products -- iron ingots, metalcastings (of smithy/forge iron metals workshop) handed over to Supercargo, (a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale).

Line 3:




kolmo ‘three’ (Mu.); rebus: kolami ‘smithy’ (Telugu)





A. goṭ ‘a fruit, whole piece’, °ṭā ‘globular, solid’, guṭi ‘small ball, seed, kernel’; B. goṭā ‘seed, bean, whole’; Or. goṭā ‘whole, undivided’, goṭi ‘small ball, cocoon’, goṭāli ‘small round piece of chalk’; Bi. goṭā ‘seed’; Mth. goṭa ‘numerative particle’ (CDIAL 4271) Rebus: koṭe ‘forging (metal)(Mu.) Rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (G.) PLUS infix of sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, the hieroglyph-multiplex or hypertext signifies: forged silver workshop.





m009


Hieroglyph is a loop of threads formed on a loom or loose fringes of a garment. This may be seen from the seal M-9 which contains the sign: 






 धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu  *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773)





Rebus: M. dhāūdhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; (CDIAL 6773) धातु  primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral, ore (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh. &c element of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]) (Monier-Williams. Samskritam)







Thus, this hieroglyph signifies three types of ferrite ore: magnetite, hematite and laterite (poLa, bicha, goTa). Vikalpa: Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271) Rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (G.)







Hieroglyph: Archer with bow and arrow on one hand:  kamāṭhiyo = archer; kāmaṭhum = a bow; kāmaḍ, kāmaḍum = a chip of bamboo (G.) kāmaṭhiyo a bowman; an archer (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kammaṭi a coiner (Ka.); kampaṭṭam coinage, coin, mint (Ta.) kammaṭa = mint, gold furnace (Te.)





kolom 'rice plant' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge'.







kanac 'corner' rebus: kañcu 'bronze' Vikalpa: (A.) kũdār, kũdāri (B.); kundāru (Or.); kundau to turn on a lathe, to carve, to chase; kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven image (Santali) kunda a turner's lathe (Skt.)(CDIAL 3295).







Hieroglyph: squirrel:  *śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1]Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: guild master khāra, 'squirrel', rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri)*śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1] Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? (CDIAL 12723) Rebus: śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, °nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- ] Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., °iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ,seṭhaṇ°ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., °ṭhan f.; G. śeṭhśeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M. śeṭh°ṭhīśeṭ°ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭuhi° ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?) (CDIAL 12726) I suggest that the šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? is read rebus: śeṭhīśeṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ (Marathi) or eṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ(Prakrtam)









Thus, line 3 signifies: bronze guild master of smithy/forge, mint for three types of ferrite mineral (magnetite, hematite, laterite)





The three lines together, the engtire inscription of m0314 is a metalwork cagtalogue of a guild-master of workshops working in: 





(1) native unsmelted metal, metal mint, large metal ingot (oxhide)





(2) metal products -- iron ingots, metalcastings (of smithy/forge iron metals workshop) handed over to Supercargo, (a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale)





(3)smithy/forge, mint for three types of ferrite mineral (magnetite, hematite, laterite)






Nal ware and terracotta figurines with drawings of bulls (similar to the seals above) showed that Nindowari was once occupied by the Harappans.










Naushahdu Matka,
a jar made around (2700 - 1800 BCE) found in Nausharo.
 poa 'zebu' rebus: poa 'magnetite, ferrite
ore' me
h 'tied rope' rebus: me 'iron' med 'copper'(Slavic) medha 'yajna'


 medhā 'dhanam' (Niruktam)






 
4.1a Ns-3A Nausharo 3.2 dia
4.2b Nd-3A Nindowari-damb 3.6 dia
4.2c H-243B Harappa 1.4 dia
4.2d H-349B Harappa 1.3x1.3
4.2e Pk-21A Pirak 2.3x1.5
4.2f 
http://www.harappa.com/indus3/205.html, H2000-4483/2342-01 Harapa 2.7x2.7
Source: http://www.tifr.res.in/~archaeo/papers/Harappan%20Script/Classification%20of%20patterns%20on%20Indus%20objects.pdf Nisha Yadav and MN Vahia, Classification of patterns on Indus objects

Section 5. Terracotta Ring-shaped Object with Animal Figurines and a Miniature Pot of the Balochistan Tradition in the Okayama Orient Museum by Akinori Uesugi (2013)


 

https://tinyurl.com/y7xxo7kp

Kulli terracotta ring (also called Kernos Ring) with pot, two zebu (bos indicus), black drongo is Indus Script hypertext to signify pōḷā magnetite ore, pwlad 'steel' dhā̆vaḍ, 'smelter' kō̃da,'furnace'

https://tinyurl.com/y9n3ppyt  A Note on a Terracotta Ring-shaped Object with Animal Figurines and a Miniature Pot of the Balochistan Tradition in the Okayama Orient Museum by Akinori Uesugi (2013)


Abstract. In this paper, a terracotta ring-shaped object with animal figurines and a miniature pot in the collection of the Okayama Orient Museum is reported. Although its provenance is unknown, its uniqueness is important for understanding the nature of the Kulli culture in Balochistan during the late third millennium BCE. Similar objects that are known from the Middle East and the eastern Mediterranean region may be related to this rare object of the Kulli culure.  

Description of the Kulli terracotta object with Indus Script Hypertext, ca. 3rd millennium BCE 


The object consists of a ring with three short legs, two humped bulls, one bird and a miniature pot (Figures above). A whitishslip (light grey 2.5Y 8/2) is executed over areddish orange clay (dull orange 7.5YR 7/3)and paintings are made in black (brownish black 10YR 3/1- yellowish grey 
2.5Y 4/1).The measurements are shown in Table 1. The bird is placed on the rear side of thering with a tall cylindrical stand.


Terracotta ring objects (called 'Kernos Ring') are widely distributed in Kulli culture (After Fig. 8 in Akinori Uesugi's monograph)
Chronological distribution of ring-shapedobjects in Southwest Asia from 5000 BCE(After Fig. 9 in Akinori Uesugi's monograph)The ring object dated to 5000 BCE is from Tell Kosak Shamali in northern Syria. Similar objects continue upto the first millennium BCE.

Kulli style animal figures (zebu, bird) in Okayama Orient Museum

 

https://www.scribd.com/document/384387101/Harappan-Ring-Kernoi-A-Study-BM-Pande
https://tinyurl.com/y9568l2x

Section 6. Kernoi rings identify metal workers and Kernunnos rings are writing 
instruments, ink-stands

This is an addendum to: Kernos ring of Kulli with wealth accounting ledgers of khār, 'blacksmith' working with poḷa 'magnetite ore', poḷaḍ 'steel' 
https://tinyurl.com/ya744hnz 2.  Kulli terracotta ring with pot Indus Script hypertexts signify pōḷāmagnetite ore, pwlad 'steel' dhā̆vaḍ, 'smelter' kō̃da,'furnace' 

The objects shown atop the kernoi rings include narrow-necked jars and animals or birds. I suggest that all these objects are Indus Script Hypertexts signifying metalwork catalogues, wealth-accounting ledgers. This rebus reading explains the reason why the kernoi rings become sacred objects, yielding a messaging system to declare the contributions made by metalwork artisans and seafaring merchants to augmenting a nation's wealth.
Narrow-necked pots: Hieroglyph, karika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī  'supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.'

ḍ̠āṛhū̃ 'pomegranate' (Sindhi) Rebus: ḍhālako 'a large metal ingot'.

पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods. pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’. Rebus: pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri)

pōlaḍu,'black drongo' rebus pōlaḍ 'steel' 

Hypertext: miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages)

The word mr̥du is shown on the grape vine held on the right hand of a Yavana (Greek) fighter on a Bharhut sculptural frieze. The word for a grapevine is mr̥dvi. The rebus signifiers are mr̥dh 'fight, battle', mr̥du 'iron'. 

The soldier carries a broad sword on his left hand. The metaphor is that he signifies a mint-worker working with 'dotted circle' hypertextdhā̆vaḍ 'iron smelter'. The fish-fins above this dotted circle signify 
khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner,coinage'. Thus, he is a mint-worker, guard of the treasures created in the metals manufactories.

I suggest that the name K(C)ernunnos on the Pillar of Boatmen and on the Gundestrup Cauldron is related to the torcs which are distinct identifiers of the seated person as a blacksmith. The torc or the ring called in Meluhha (Indus Script Corpora) karã̄ n. pl.wristlets, bangles' rūpaka, 'metaphor'or rebus: khār 'blacksmith'. Thus, I suggest that the kernos ring is a signifier of a blacksmith's work. This etymological trace explains why the Kulli kernos ring has the added Indus Script hypertexts of two zebu, bos indicus, and black drongo, both signifying, respectively po'magnetite ore', poa 'steel'. These hypertexts are added on the Kulli kernos ring to signify wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork catalogues.

khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü  । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy -बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru  । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji -or -güjü  । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü -हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü -कूरू‍&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu -। लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü -क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 - । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu -;  लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -। लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil. (Kashmiri)
Detail from the interior plate. Gundestrup Cauldron. Kernunnos holds a torc -- signifier of a kernos ring--  on his right hand. Indus Script Hypertexts signify metalwork catalogues:  badhia 'rhinoceros' Rebus: badhi 'carpenter'; badhoe 'worker in wood and iron'. पंजा pañjā 'claw of a tiger' rebus: पंजा pañjā 'kiln, smelter.; फडा phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága Rebus:phaḍa फड ' metals manufactory, company, guild, public place'; kūdī 'twig' kuṭhi 'smelter'.

C(K)ernunnos on the Pillar of the Boatmen, from the Musée national du Moyen Âge (Museum of the Middle Ages), in ParisFrance"The theonym [C]ernunnos appears on the Pillar of the Boatmen, a Gallo-Roman monument dating to the early 1st century CE, to label a god depicted with stag's antlers in their early stage of annual growth. [Both antlers have torcs hanging from them...The name has been compared to a divine epithet Carnonos in a Celtic inscription written in Greek characters at MontagnacHérault (as καρνονου, karnonou, in the dative case).A Gallo-Latin adjective carnuātus, "horned," is also found." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cernunnos The torcs of Kernunnos are relatable to the kernos ring.

"For more than one thousand years, people from every corner of the Greco-Roman world sought the hope for a blessed afterlife through initiation into the Mysteries of Demeter and Kore at Eleusis. In antiquity itself and in our memory of antiquity, the Eleusinian Mysteries stand out as the oldest and most venerable mystery cult. Despite the tremendous popularity of the Eleusinian Mysteries, their origins are unknown. Because they are lost in an era without written records, they can only be reconstructed with the help of archaeology. This book provides a much-needed synthesis of the archaeology of Eleusis during the Bronze Age and reconstructs the formation and early development of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The discussion of the origins of the Eleusinian Mysteries is complemented with discussions of the theology of Demeter and an update on the state of research in the archaeology of Eleusis from the Bronze Age to the end of antiquity.(Michael B. Cosmopoulos, 2015, Bronze Age Eleusis and the Origins of the Eleusinian Mysteries, Cambridge University Press.)

Kernoi rings

The pottery of Mohenjo-dara, one of the two major urban centers of the Indus Valley civilization (2500-2000 B.C.) is described and documented. The authors survey Harappan ceramic technology and style, and develop an important and unique approach to vessel form analysis and terminology. Included is Leslie Alcock's account of the pottery from the 1950 excavations by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.University Museum Monograph, 53 
“Hollow pottery rings surmounted by small vessels are common ‘ritual’ objects at Mediterranean and Levantine sites where they are known by the Greek name kernos (pl.kernoi).More rarely they occur in Mesopotamian contexts…Two or more small pots attached to the top side of a hollow ring so that liquid poured into the pots would run down into the hollow ring connecting them…Only six certain and two possible fragmentary examples are recorded from the UM excavations…..Because these objects are so rare in South Asia, mention should be made of two other fragmentary examples found at Harappa. Both of these have also been discussed by BM Pande in his detailed study of ring-kernoi’. The first example was published in a photograph only by Vats (1940: Pl. LXXI:6) with no description in the text. The second example, almost half a hollow ring with scars where three small vessels were attached, was excavated by Wheeler in 1946 but remained unpublished until Pande’s study…Pande’s excellent study of these enigmatic objects cites examples from Mediterranean, Egyptian,  Levantine, and Mesopotamian sites ranging in date from the mid-fourth millennium BCE to at least the early centuries.” [BM Pande, 1971, Harappan Ring-Kernoi: A study. East & West 21 (3-4), pp. 311-324); George DalesJonathan Mark KenoyerLeslie Alcock, 1986, UPenn Museum of ArchaeologyExcavations at Mohenjo Daro, PakistanThe Pottery, with an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, p.226).

In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings -- "a terracotta vessel with many little bowls stuck on to it. In them there is sage, white poppy heads, wheat, barley, peas (?), vetches (?), pulse, lentils, beans, spelt (?), oats, cakes of compressed fruit, honey, olive oil, wine, milk, and unwashed sheep's wool. When one has carried this vessel, like a liknophoros, he tastes of the contents"[Phillippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: From Cybele to the Virgin Mary (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, English translation 2004)].  
“KernosRings (Fig. 92:1-6). Hollow pottery rings surmounted by small vessels are common ‘ritual’ objects at Mediterranean and Levantine sites where they are known by the Greek name kernod (pl. kernoi). More rarely they occur in Mesopotamian contexts…Bases: attached to the top side of the hollow ring; usually piered through to connect vessel interior with hollow ring, but two examples (Fig. 92:2,6) are solid…Two or more small pots attached to the top side of a hollow ring so that liquid poured into the pots would run down into the hollow ring connecting them…Only six certain and two possible fragmentary examples are recorded from the UM excavations…Because these objects are so rare in South Asia, mention should be made of two other fragmentary examples found at Harappa. Both of these have also been discussed by B.M. Pande in his detailed study of ‘ring-kernoi’….Pande reports that one of his colleagues who was present during Wheeler’s excavations says the object was discovered near Cemetery R37, Burial 5, and belongs to the mid-levels of the Harappa culture…Pande’s excellent study of these enigmatic objects cites examples from Mediterranean, Egyptian, Levantine, and Mesopotamian sites ranging in date from the mid-fourth-millennium BCE to at least the early centuries CE. Reference should be made to his study for details of the elaborate ritual nature of many of these Western examples.” (George Dales, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Leslie Alcock, 1986, Excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistn: The pottery, with an account of the pottery from the 1950 excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, UPenn Museum of Archaeology, p.226).

GF Dales reported the find of a kernos from Mohenjo-daro. (GF Dales, 1965, New investigations at Mohenjo-daro, Archaeology, XVIII, 2, pp. 145-50).

“A fragment of a pottery kernod – circular tube with small vases at intervals – associated with the mud brick embankment was found in the recent excavations at Mohenjo-daro, conducted by Dales. His view that the object had ‘not hitherto been reported from Harappan sites’ does not appear to be totally correct, for a few other like examples have been unearthed at Harappan sites. In the excavations at Harappa, a similar object was found in the Great Granary area. But for the variation with regard to the form of the vase, the object from Harappa belongs to the same class of objects as the latest Mohenjo-daro example.The fragmentary Harappa kernos has only extant vase resembling a cup with a splayed-out mouth and plain featureless rim, as against a miniature-sized globular jar with a narrow neck and externally-curved rim of the Mohenjo-daro specimen. In the same group of vessels may also be included two more examples – one each from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa – which are lodged in the Central Antiquities Collection Safdarjang Tomb Baradari, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. The earlier Mohenjo-daro specimen, which is also fragmentary, has two intact vases, akin to the Harappa one. The other specimen, from Wheeler’s excavations at Harappa, has only the half segment of the tube surviving and the vases are broken and lost.That the four specimens – two each from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa – belong to the same class of objects known as kernos, is beyond doubt. This is obvious from their general shape and characteristic features comparable to the ones found in a vast area outside India and in large numbers.”(pp.311-312).



"The kernoi have a wide distribution both in space and time. The distribution in time ranges from about the middle of the 4th millennium BCE to the early centuries CE, and, in fact, to the modern times in certain parts of the world. The area of distribution includes Greece (and the islands), Crete, Cyprus, Israel, Egypt and modern Iraq (and the peripheral regions)...The main focus of distribution of the kernos is mainly Greece, Crete and the adjoining islands, where these occur for the first time in the Early Minoan (c. 2500-2100 BCE) and pre-Mycenaen (c. 2500-1800 BCE) to Late Minoan (c. 1550-1150 BCE) down to the late Greek and Roman times (c. 6th cent. BCE onwards). Thus a continuous tradition of use can be discerned for an interminable period of about three thousand years, the tradition surviving even in the modern times, with subsequent mofications and alterations, in the Greek Orthodox church…At Palaikastro site ‘was found a clay cover with a conical pierced top and a kind of door in the side, as covers for lamps…(which) were set on the kernoi, when they were decked for ritual use.’ (RM Dawkins, Excavations at Palaikastro III, Annual of the British School of Athens, X, 1903-1904, p.221)...At Kourtes site, (Nilsson,The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion, Lund, 1927,  pp. 116-117, fig. 19.. This kernos consists of a ‘hollow ring (diameter 19 cm) upon which six small jugs with narrow necks and spreading mouths are placed alternately with three coarsely made human figurines, of  which one holds his arms to his head, another to his breast, while the third graps the handles of the vases next to him. As Xanthoudides justly remarks, this very pecular feature connects the vessel with the group of dancing women fastened on a common ring-shaped base from Palaikastro’" (BM Pande, opcit, p.314)/

A variant of the ring-kernos has a number of small vessels attached to the ring and communicating with the interior. Some of these have also attached to them plastic serpents, bulls’ heds and perchaing birds. (Nilsson, opcit., p. 117).

“That the object kernos – ring kernos or the other types – had ritualistic function in ancient Greece, or is a cult-object in the Megiddo cult, is beyond doubt. In Cyprus, more often than not, these are found in graves as a part of the funerary furniture. This is evident from their location in a site (whereever found from the excavations) connected with cult, rituals or as accompanying the dead. Even the shape of the ring-kernos – clearly the result of a complex evolution – and the variety of forms or objets represented on the ring-kernoi prove that they were ritualistic vessels. Ancient Greek and Roman literature attests to this fact. Harrison, while discussing the kernophoria, has described two types of kernos on the authority of Athenaeus and the scholiasts on Nikander etc. The first of these was a winnowing fan which in the beginning was a simple agricultural instrument, but was subsequently mysticized by the religion of Dionysus. But there was another kind of kernos, which according to Athenaeus, was ‘a vessel made of earthenware,having in it many little cups fastened to it’, in which while poppies, wheat, barley, pulse etc. were kept. It ws thereafter carried aloft and certain rites were performed and was distributed to those who had done so. Athenaeus also gives a long list of the contents of the kernos. From Eleusis, where such an objet had been found in the excavations, are also available accounts of the officials mentioning a vessel…which is identical to the kernos of Athenaeus…The kernos from Haghios Nikolaos, again an example of the composite variety, is important, for, ‘inside it was found a clay lamp with one wick and two holes in the cover’, which conforms to the description given by the scholiast on Nikander. According to Xanthoudides, ‘the kernos was a sacred vessel not used exclusively at the Eleusinian mysteries, but also in the worship of other gods, as is known from the cults of Rhea Cybele, Attis, and the Corybantes’.”(BM Pande, opcit., pp.320-321)
It is thus obvious that the kernos – the ring-kernos or the other types – was a vessel connected, in ancient Greece and Crete, with harvest and used in the related festivals. The ring kernoi from Israel, which might have ‘originated in the footed ring-vases of early Cyprus and Egypt’, have pomegranates, doves, gazelles on them. These are symbolic and mark ‘its function in the fertility cult’ and the miniature jars ‘contained wine, the fruit of the grape’. Thus, ‘the kernos ring was probably for libations: the liquid would be poured into the cups to circulate throughout the doves, pomegranates, and jars, symbolizing the fertility of the earth and the fructifying of its produce’. (BM Pande opcit, p. 321).



Fig. 92.1,3 Mohenjo-daro kernos ring with pots

Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos
Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase), Terracotta, Cypriot

Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase)

Period:
Cypro-Geometric I
Date:
ca. 1050–950 B.C.
Culture:
Cypriot
Medium:
Terracotta
Dimensions:
H. 4 7/16 in. (11.3 cm)
Classification:
Vases
Credit Line:
The Cesnola Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76
Accession Number:
74.51.659
File:Pottery kernos, Early Cycladic II-III, 2500-2000 BC, AM Milos, 152540.jpg
Kernos (and "souce-boat"), pottery. Early Cycladic II-III period, 2500 to 2000 BC. Vessel found in burial site in Rivari on Mlios, excavations in 1997. Archaeological Museum of Milos.
Céramiques de tous les pays et de toutes les époques

Outro cerno cicládico (ca. século XXII a.C.) https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerno
Terracotta kernos (vase for multiple offerings), Terracotta, Cypriot
Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase) Cypriot 
From the Cesnola Collection, Accession # 74.51.660 http://www.ipernity.com/doc/laurieannie/24387123

Terracotta kernos (vase for multiple offerings)

Period:
Cypro-Archaic I
Date:
750–600 B.C.
Culture:
Cypriot
Medium:
Terracotta
Dimensions:
H. 4 1/8 in. (10.5 cm); diameter 7 1/8 in. (18.1 cm)
Classification:
Vases
Credit Line:
The Cesnola Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76
Accession Number:
74.51.688
4.jpg
Terracotta. Kernos. 2300-2200 BCE

 

https://tinyurl.com/y7zupcay
Thanks to @manasataramgini for exquisite images of a Kernos ring (evidenced ca. 2000 BCE from Greek pottery) said to be from Balochistan. This artifiact (now said to be in Japan) contains Indus Script hypertext of hieroglyphs, zebu abd black drongo. The Indus Script hypertext readings are:
pōḷa'bos indicus, zebu' rebus: pōḷa'magnetite, ferrite ore'
pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: [pōlāda] n ( or P) [pōlādi] 'steel'.


manasataramgini @blog_supplementpresents a rare e.g. of a Kernos ring from the subcontinent. It was apprently smuggled to japan from a site in what'stoday Balochistan

9 minutes ago

Top view of same: Kernos rings were made frequently in bronze age and later West Asia and Greece. This e.g. from subcontinent suggests that it was made using local motifs but inspired closely by west Asian Kernos design.
Bottom view of same along with a stand alone bull from what's today Balochistan showing similar techinique of manufacture.
Background note on Kernos ring
In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings. Its unusual design is described in literary sources, which also list the ritual ingredients it might contain .[1] .The kernos was used primarily in the cults of Demeter and Kore, and of Cybele and Attis [2]
The Greek term is sometimes applied to similar compound vessels from other cultures found in the Mediterranean, the LevantMesopotamia, and South Asia[3]

Literary description

Athenaeus preserves an ancient description of the kernos as
The kernos was carried in procession at the Eleusinian Mysteries atop the head of a priestess, as can be found depicted in art. A lamp was sometimes placed in the middle of a stationary kernos.[5]

References

  1. Jump up^ Jacquelyn Collins-Clinton, A Late Antique Shrine of Liber Pater at Cosa (Brill, 1976), pp. 29 –30 online.
  2. Jump up^ Phillippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: From Cybele to the Virgin Mary (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, English translation 2004), passim.
  3. Jump up^ Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery (University of Pennsylvania Museum, 1986), p. 226 online.
  4. Jump up^ Athenaeus 11.478c = Polemon, frg. 88 Preller; English translation from Homer A. Thompson, Hellenistic Pottery and Terracottas (American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1987), p. 448 online.
  5. Jump up^ The verb kernophorein means "to bear the kernos"; the noun for this is kernophoria; Stephanos Xanthoudides, "Cretan Kernoi," Annual of the British School at Athens 12 (1906), p. 9.
Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos
Kernos Libation vase. Early Aegean, HelladicBronze Age, Late Helladic Periodabout 1200–1100 B.C.Diameter: 26.7 cm (10 1/2 in.) Accession number: 35.735. "Ring-shaped with bull's head and three small vases, part of fourth, and place for fifth on ring. Twisted basket handle with one of pair of doves on top. Conventional decoratin of herring-bone and floral patterns in dark brown on light pinkish brown clay. Nostrils of bull pierced, and a third hole below. Amphora, 2 skyphoi painted solid. Filled arcs connected by diagonals. Chevrons, triangles. Close Style, perhaps fr. Rhodes or Cyprus (EV)."
Image result for kernos ring bull birdImage result for kernos ring bull bird
Line-drawing of the tripartite kernos for the Heraion of Samos | Tripartite Offering Vessels

Image result for terracotta kernos ring
Terracotta tripartite kernos. Louvre Museum.https://www.pinterest.com/pin/457748749602706628/
A SYRIAN CERAMIC TRIPARTITE VESSEL WITH IBEX FIGURE
Syrian ceramic tripartite vessel with ibex figure. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/457748749602703821/
Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase), Terracotta, Cypriot

Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase)



Period:
Cypro-Geometric I
Date:
ca. 1050–950 B.C.
Culture:
Cypriot
Medium:
Terracotta
Dimensions:
H. 4 7/16 in. (11.3 cm)
Classification:
Vases
Credit Line:
The Cesnola Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76
Accession Number:
74.51.659







https://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/240246





Fig.5 Ring kernoi from Cyprus “…an example of a ring-kernos of the White Painted II variety from Cyprus has, over an elaborately painted ring with a basket handle, bull’s and goat’s heads, pomegranates and miniature vases (fig.5).”(BM Pande, opcit., p.318)

Fig.6 Ring kernoi from Cyprus “Late Mycenaean (c. 1500-1100 BCE), Cyprus, comprises ‘a ring upon which three vessels, two with narrow mouths and one cup with a handle, and a bull’s head is fastened.” (BM Pande, opcit., p.318)




“The Palestinian examples, notably from Megiddo and Gezer, are again of an elaborate type The Megiddo specimen (fig 10) has, on a ring base, one gazelle head, two amphorae, two pomegranates, two doves and one cup which all communicate with the hollow base. The gazelle head is decorated with red lines, has pierced eyes and orifice through mouth; the other pots or birds are also painted or decorated likewise. The Gezer examples also have alternating figures of birds and pomegranates (fig. 11).” (BM Pande, opcit., pp. 318-319)
 “The Palestinian examples, notably from Megiddo and Gezer, are again of an elaborate type The Megiddo specimen (fig 10) has, on a ring base, one gazelle head, two amphorae, two pomegranates, two doves and one cup which all communicate with the hollow base. The gazelle head is decorated with red lines, has pierced eyes and orifice through mouth; the other pots or birds are also painted or decorated likewise. The Gezer examples also have alternating figures of birds and pomegranates (fig. 11).” (BM Pande, opcit., pp. 318-319)
 

Fig. 13 Ring kernoi from Melos
Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos

Kernos carried on her head. "The kernos was carried in procession at the Eleusinian Mysteries atop the head of a priestess, as can be found depicted in art. A lamp was sometimes placed in the middle of a stationary kernos. The verb kernophorein means "to bear the kernos"; the noun for this is kernophoria; Stephanos Xanthoudides, "Cretan Kernoi," Annual of the British School at Athens 12 (1906), p. 9."
See: 

2. Rosicrucian Digest, Eleusis, Volume 90 Number 2 2009 https://rosicrucian.org/rosicrucian-digest-eleusis

In this votive plaque depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a female figure (top center of rectangular portion) wears a kernos on her head
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernos

The votive plaque known as the Ninnion Tablet depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, discovered in the sanctuary at Eleusis (mid-4th century BCE). In this votive plaque depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a female figure (top center of rectangular portion) wears a kernos on her head

Kulli terracotta ring (also called Kernos Ring) with pot, two zebu (bos indicus), black drongo is Indus Script hypertext to signify pōḷā magnetite ore, pwlad 'steel' dhā̆vaḍ, 'smelter' kō̃da,'furnace'.








HTTPS://WWW.SCRIBD.COM/DOCUMENT/384387101/HARAPPAN-RING-KERNOI-A-STUDY-BM-PANDE
JOURNAL ARTICLE

Harappan Ring-Kernoi: A Study

B. M. Pande
East and West
Vol. 21, No. 3/4 (September-December 1971), pp. 311-323
It has been demonstrated in Epigraphia Indus Script -- Hypertexts and Meanings (3 vols.) that writing was used to document wealth accounting ledgers. 

 
The hieroglyphs of the types assembled on kernoi rings are consistent with this hypertext tradition and translated as wealth accounting ledgers related to metalwork catalogues, consistent with the objective of the Indus Script writing system to document wealth-creation and trading activities of artisan guilds and seafaring merchant guilds.



 Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos. "The kernos was carried in procession at the Eleusinian Mysteries atop the head of a priestess, as can be found depicted in art. A lamp was sometimes placed in the middle of a stationary kernos" (The verb kernophorein means "to bear the kernos"; the noun for this is kernophoria; Stephanos Xanthoudides, "Cretan Kernoi," Annual of the British School at Athens 12 (1906), p. 9.)

"In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings. Its unusual design is described in literary sources, which also list the ritual ingredients it might contain. The kernos was used primarily in the cults of Demeter and Kore, and of Cybele and Attis.The Greek term is sometimes applied to similar compound vessels from other cultures found in the Mediterranean, the LevantMesopotamia, and South Asia."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernos

The presence of Meluhha settlements has been attested in cuneiform records. It is possible that like the Phoenician merchants, the seafaring Meluhha merchants had also trade contacts with many regions where kernos rings which carry signifiers of Indus Script Hypertexts proclaiming metalwork, have been found across Eurasia.

Examples can be cited from Mediterranean, Egyptian, Levantine and Mesopotamian sites from mid-fourth millennium BCE to early centuries of Common Era. These examples have been documented by BM Pande.

The thesis of this monograph is that: 

1. the kernos ring was an ink-stand containing iron oxide pigment used by scribes; and 

2. the kernos ring designed in Sarasvati Civilization (Mohenjo-daro artifacts presented by George Dales et al in 1986 and Kulli culture artifacts presented in Akinori Uesugi's monograph (2012), spread to entire Eurasia. 

I suggest that the Greek word kernos has cognates in Indian sprachbund (speech union) with particular reference to a scribe, engraver, accountant, ledger-keeper (to record wealth-accounting ledgers of Indus Script metalwork catalogues):  kāraṇika m. ʻ teacher ʼ MBh., ʻ judge ʼ Pañcat. [kā- raṇa -- ]Pa. usu -- kāraṇika -- m. ʻ arrow -- maker ʼ; Pk. kāraṇiya -- m. ʻ teacher of Nyāya ʼ; S. kāriṇī m. ʻ guardian, heir ʼ; N. kārani ʻ abettor in crime ʼ; M. kārṇī m. ʻ prime minister, supercargo of a ship ʼ, kul -- karṇī m. ʻ village accountant ʼ.(CDIAL 3058)கணக்குச்சுருணை kaṇakku-c-curuṇain. < id. +. Roll or file of accounts on palmyra leaves, kept by a village accountant; கணக் கோலைக்கற்றை.கணக்கப்பிள்ளை kaṇakka-p-piḷḷai, n. < gaṇaka +. 1. Village accountant, cashier, bursar, writer, agent, shipping clerk, bill collector; கணக்கன். 2. Man of the kaṇakkaṉ caste; ஒரு சாதியான்.   கணக்கன் kaṇakkaṉ, n. < gaṇaka. [M. kaṇakkaṉ.] 1. Accountant, book-keeper; கணக் கெழுதுவோன். (திருவாலவா. 30, 22.) 2. See கணக்கப்பிள்ளை, 1. 3. A certain caste; ஒரு சாதி. (இலக். வி. 52, உரை.) 4. Arithmetician; கணக்கில் வல்லவன். (W.) கருணீகம் karuṇīkam, n. < karaṇa. [T. karaṇikamu.] Office of village accountant or karṇam; கிராமக்கணக்குவேலை.   கருணீகன் karuṇīkaṉn. < id. 1. Village accountant; கிராமக்கணக்கன். கடுகை யொருமலை யாகக் . . . காட்டுவோன் கருணீகனாம் (அறப். சத. 86). 2. A South Indian caste of accountants; கணக்குவேலை பார்க்கும் ஒருசாதி.
காரணிக்கன் kāraṇikkaṉn. < id. Accountant; கணக்கன்.(Insc.) కరణము  karaṇamu. [Skt.] n. A village clerk, a writer, an accountant. వాడు కూత కరణముగాని వ్రాతకరణముకాడు he has talents for speaking but not 
for writing. స్థలకరణము the registrar of a district. कारणी or कारणीक   kāraṇī or kāraṇīka a (कारण S) That causes, conducts, carries on, manages. Applied to the prime minister of a state, the supercargo of a ship (Marathi).
The examples of kernoi rings cited from Mohenjo-daro may date to ca. 3rd millennium BCE. 

The most significant design feature which links the roots of the kernoi rings to Sarasvati Civilization relates to Indus Script Cipher with hypertexts. I have demonstrated that the hypertexts contained in almost all kernoi rings discovered so far from Eurasia relate to wealth accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues. 

That kernoi ring metaphors validate Indus Script Cipher with roots in Sarasvati Civilization is explained by the hypertexts on the kernos ring, Samian. 

This Kernos ring has a central tube on which small vessels with spouts are arranged. The small vessels feeding into the kernos are: a pomegranate, a shell, a toad, monkey, lion, ram, bull’s head, horns of a warrior, a woman. A small snake surrounds the tube. I suggest that all these are Indus Script Hypertexts with hieroglyph components to document wealth accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues.

The rebus readings of hypertexts are:

Pomegranate, Metal ingot: ḍ̠āṛhū̃ 'pomegranate' rebus: ḍhālako 'a large metal ingot'

Toad/frog, Metal taken out of a furnace: Kur. mūxā frog. Malt. múqe id. / Cf. Skt. mūkaka- id. (DEDR 5023) Rebus: mū̃h 'ingot' muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native

Monkey, armourer: kuṭhāru = amonkey (Sanskrit) Rebus: kuṭhāru 'armourer
Lion, brass: arye 'lion' rebus: arā 'brass'
Ram, iron: Tor. miṇḍ 'ram', miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (CDIAL 10310) Rebus: meḍ (Ho.); mẽṛhet 'iron' (Munda.Ho.). med 'copper' (Slavic languages)
Zebu, iron: pōḷā पोळ 'zebu' rebus  pōḷā  'magnetite, ferrite ore'
Warrior, mint: kamaḍha 'archer' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'; bhaa 'warrior' rebus: bhaa 'furnace'
Woman, moltencast: era 'woman' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper'
Cobrahood, metals manufactory: phaḍā 'cobra hood' rebus phaḍā 'metals manufactory' paṭṭaḍa workshop (Telugu)

Shell, Artificer: Ta. ippi pearl-oyster, shell; cippi shell, shellfish, coconut shell for measuring out curds. Ma. ippi, cippi oyster shell. Ka. cippu, sippu, cimpi, cimpe, simpi, simpu, simpe oyster shell, mussel, cockle, a portion of the shell of a coconut, skull, a pearl oyster; (Gowda) cippi coconut shell. Tu. cippi coconut shell, oyster shell, pearl; tippi, sippi coconut shell. Te. cippa a shell; (kobbari co) coconut shell; (mōkāli co) knee-pan, patella; (tala co) skull; (muttepu co) mother-of-pearl. Go. (Ma.) ipi shell, conch (Voc. 174). / Cf. Turner, CDIAL, no. 13417, *sippī-; Pali sippī- pearl oyster, Pkt. sippī- id., etc. (DEDR 2835) *sippī ʻ shell ʼ. [← Drav. Tam. cippi DED 2089] Pa. sippī -- , sippikā -- f. ʻ pearl oyster ʼ, Pk. sippī -- f., S. sipa f.; L. sipp ʻ shell ʼ, sippī f. ʻ shell, spathe of date palm ʼ, (Ju.) sip m., sippī f. ʻ bivalve shell ʼ; P. sipp m., sippīf. ʻ shell, conch ʼ; Ku. sīpsīpi ʻ shell ʼ; N. sipi ʻ shell, snail shell ʼ; B. sip ʻ libation pot ʼ, chip ʻ a kind of swift canoe ʼ S. K. Chatterji CR 1936, 290 (or < kṣiprá -- ?); Or.sipa ʻ oyster shell, mother -- of -- pearl, shells burnt for lime ʼ; Bi. sīpī ʻ mussel shells for lime ʼ; OAw. sīpa f. ʻ bivalve shell ʼ, H. sīp f.; G. sīp f. ʻ half an oyster shell ʼ, chīpf. ʻ shell ʼ; M. śīpśĩp f. ʻ a half shell ʼ, śĩpā m. ʻ oyster shell ʼ; -- Si. sippiya ʻ oyster shell ʼ ← Tam.(CIAL 13417) śilpin ʻ skilled in art ʼ, m. ʻ artificer ʼ Gaut., śilpika<-> ʻ skilled ʼ MBh. [śílpa -- ] Pa. sippika -- m. ʻ craftsman ʼ, NiDoc. śilpiǵa, Pk. sippi -- , °ia -- m.; A. xipini ʻ woman clever at spinning and weaving ʼ; OAw. sīpī m. ʻ artizan ʼ; M. śĩpī m. ʻ a caste of tailors ʼ; Si. sipi -- yā ʻ craftsman ʼ.(CDIAL 13471)

Cup/pot, furnace Pk. vaṭṭa -- m.n., ˚aya -- m. ʻ cup ʼ; Ash. waṭāˊk ʻ cup, plate ʼ; K. waṭukh, dat. ˚ṭakas m. ʻ cup, bowl ʼ; S. vaṭo m. ʻ metal drinking cup ʼ; N. bāṭā, ʻ round copper or brass vessel ʼ; A. bāṭi ʻ cup ʼ; B. bāṭā ʻ box for betel ʼ; Or. baṭā ʻ metal pot for betel ʼ, bāṭi ʻ cup, saucer ʼ; Mth. baṭṭā ʻ large metal cup ʼ, bāṭī ʻ small do. ʼ, H. baṭṛī f.; G. M. vāṭī f. ʻ vessel ʼ.(CDIAL 11347) Rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'.


Kernos ring, Samian, ca. 600 BCE. (After Vierneisel,K., 1961, 'Neue Tonfiguren aus dem Heraion von Samios Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts 76:25-59 von Leutsch E.L. and F.W. Schneidewin edd 1951 Corpus Paroemiographorum Graeocorum 1839-51, app.25). Hera may have been the first deity to whom the Greeks dedicated an enclosed roofed temple sanctuary, at Samos about 800 BCE.Her name is attested in Mycenaean Greek written in the Linear B syllabic script as 𐀁𐀨e-ra, appearing on tablets found in Pylos and Thebes.("The Linear B word e-ra"Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of Ancient languages. Raymoure, K.A. "e-ra".https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera
(Santali)

The kernoi rings were essential writing instruments in furthering the documentation of accounting ledgers using Indus Script.

“Most ring kernoi come from Iron Age I levels and the majority are connected with Philistine sites or sites where Philistine cultural influence can be detected.”( Brad E. Kelle, Megan Bishop Moore, Israel's Prophets and Israel's Past: Essays on the Relationship of Prophetic Texts and Israelite History in Honor of John H. HayesBloomsbury Publishing USA, 01-Nov-2006, p.153).

Excerpt from: George DalesJonathan Mark KenoyerLeslie Alcock, 1986, Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, PakistanThe Pottery, with an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, UPenn Museum of Archaeology, 1986, p.226 
Fig. 92.1,3 Mohenjo-daro kernos ring with pots
 (cited in BM Pande 1971(embedded)


Hera Campana Louvre Ma2283.jpgThe Campana Hera, a Roman copy of a Hellenisticoriginal, from the LouvreGoddess of marriage, women, childbirth, and family. "Hera is commonly seen with the animals she considers sacred including the cowlion and the peacock. Portrayed as majestic and solemn, often enthroned, and crowned with the polos (a high cylindrical crown worn by several of the Great Goddesses), Hera may hold a pomegranate in her hand.In Hellenistic imagery, Hera's chariot was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of Alexander.
The Temple of Hera at AgrigentoMagna Graecia.


Kernos ring, Megiddo

Aquatic bird, hard alloy: kāraṁḍa 'aquatic bird' rebuskaraḍā 'hard alloy'
A pair of ducks, metal casting: dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'
http://jerusalem.nottingham.ac.uk/items/show/97 "This ring was probably used as a libation vessel during religious ceremonies in ancient Palestine. It consists of a hollow clay ring with hollow clay attachments in the forms of a gazelle head, two jars, two pomegranates, two doves, and a cup. The doves, whose heads have been restored, drink from the cup. An eighth attachment is missing, having been broken off in antiquity. The pomegranate, the gazelle and the doves suggest that this ring was associated with a fertility cult. Wine or water would have been poured into the cup and circulated through the other objects attached to the ring, thus symbolizing the fertility of the earth and its produce. Kernos rings are fairly common in Palestine, although few are as elaborate or as well preserved as this one." https://oi.uchicago.edu/collections/highlights/highlights-collection-pottery

Circular kernos from Megiddo (Stratum VI)


After Fig. 6(g) in 

Circular kernos from Megiddo (stratum VI) Lorenzo Nigro, 2018, Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) from Motya and its deepest oriental roots in: Vicino Oriente XXII (2018), pp. 49-90.
Region: Palestine: Megiddo
Origin: Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1930
Accession: OIM A18835
Period: Stratum VI Iron Age I, ca. 1175-1100 B.C.
Materials: Baked clay, painted

https://www.synthescape.com/collections/ancient-art/artworks/kernos-ring


Kernoi rings

The pottery of Mohenjo-dara, one of the two major urban centers of the Indus Valley civilization (2500-2000 B.C.) is described and documented. The authors survey Harappan ceramic technology and style, and develop an important and unique approach to vessel form analysis and terminology. Included is Leslie Alcock's account of the pottery from the 1950 excavations by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.University Museum Monograph, 53 
“Hollow pottery rings surmounted by small vessels are common ‘ritual’ objects at Mediterranean and Levantine sites where they are known by the Greek name kernos (pl.kernoi).More rarely they occur in Mesopotamian contexts…Two or more small pots attached to the top side of a hollow ring so that liquid poured into the pots would run down into the hollow ring connecting them…Only six certain and two possible fragmentary examples are recorded from the UM excavations…..Because these objects are so rare in South Asia, mention should be made of two other fragmentary examples found at Harappa. Both of these have also been discussed by BM Pande in his detailed study of ring-kernoi’. The first example was published in a photograph only by Vats (1940: Pl. LXXI:6) with no description in the text. The second example, almost half a hollow ring with scars where three small vessels were attached, was excavated by Wheeler in 1946 but remained unpublished until Pande’s study…Pande’s excellent study of these enigmatic objects cites examples from Mediterranean, Egyptian,  Levantine, and Mesopotamian sites ranging in date from the mid-fourth millennium BCE to at least the early centuries.” [BM Pande, 1971, Harappan Ring-Kernoi: A study. East & West 21 (3-4), pp. 311-324); George DalesJonathan Mark KenoyerLeslie Alcock, 1986, UPenn Museum of ArchaeologyExcavations at Mohenjo Daro, PakistanThe Pottery, with an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, p.226).

In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings -- "a terracotta vessel with many little bowls stuck on to it. In them there is sage, white poppy heads, wheat, barley, peas (?), vetches (?), pulse, lentils, beans, spelt (?), oats, cakes of compressed fruit, honey, olive oil, wine, milk, and unwashed sheep's wool. When one has carried this vessel, like a liknophoros, he tastes of the contents"[Phillippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: From Cybele to the Virgin Mary (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, English translation 2004)].  

“KernosRings (Fig. 92:1-6). Hollow pottery rings surmounted by small vessels are common ‘ritual’ objects at Mediterranean and Levantine sites where they are known by the Greek name kernod (pl. kernoi). More rarely they occur in Mesopotamian contexts…Bases: attached to the top side of the hollow ring; usually piered through to connect vessel interior with hollow ring, but two examples (Fig. 92:2,6) are solid…Two or more small pots attached to the top side of a hollow ring so that liquid poured into the pots would run down into the hollow ring connecting them…Only six certain and two possible fragmentary examples are recorded from the UM excavations…Because these objects are so rare in South Asia, mention should be made of two other fragmentary examples found at Harappa. Both of these have also been discussed by B.M. Pande in his detailed study of ‘ring-kernoi’….Pande reports that one of his colleagues who was present during Wheeler’s excavations says the object was discovered near Cemetery R37, Burial 5, and belongs to the mid-levels of the Harappa culture…Pande’s excellent study of these enigmatic objects cites examples from Mediterranean, Egyptian, Levantine, and Mesopotamian sites ranging in date from the mid-fourth-millennium BCE to at least the early centuries CE. Reference should be made to his study for details of the elaborate ritual nature of many of these Western examples.” (George Dales, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Leslie Alcock, 1986, Excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistn: The pottery, with an account of the pottery from the 1950 excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, UPenn Museum of Archaeology, p.226).

GF Dales reported the find of a kernos from Mohenjo-daro. (GF Dales, 1965, New investigations at Mohenjo-daro, Archaeology, XVIII, 2, pp. 145-50).

“A fragment of a pottery kernod – circular tube with small vases at intervals – associated with the mud brick embankment was found in the recent excavations at Mohenjo-daro, conducted by Dales. His view that the object had ‘not hitherto been reported from Harappan sites’ does not appear to be totally correct, for a few other like examples have been unearthed at Harappan sites. In the excavations at Harappa, a similar object was found in the Great Granary area. But for the variation with regard to the form of the vase, the object from Harappa belongs to the same class of objects as the latest Mohenjo-daro example.The fragmentary Harappa kernos has only extant vase resembling a cup with a splayed-out mouth and plain featureless rim, as against a miniature-sized globular jar with a narrow neck and externally-curved rim of the Mohenjo-daro specimen. In the same group of vessels may also be included two more examples – one each from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa – which are lodged in the Central Antiquities Collection Safdarjang Tomb Baradari, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. The earlier Mohenjo-daro specimen, which is also fragmentary, has two intact vases, akin to the Harappa one. The other specimen, from Wheeler’s excavations at Harappa, has only the half segment of the tube surviving and the vases are broken and lost.That the four specimens – two each from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa – belong to the same class of objects known as kernos, is beyond doubt. This is obvious from their general shape and characteristic features comparable to the ones found in a vast area outside India and in large numbers.”(pp.311-312).

"The kernoi have a wide distribution both in space and time. The distribution in time ranges from about the middle of the 4th millennium BCE to the early centuries CE, and, in fact, to the modern times in certain parts of the world. The area of distribution includes Greece (and the islands), Crete, Cyprus, Israel, Egypt and modern Iraq (and the peripheral regions)...The main focus of distribution of the kernos is mainly Greece, Crete and the adjoining islands, where these occur for the first time in the Early Minoan (c. 2500-2100 BCE) and pre-Mycenaen (c. 2500-1800 BCE) to Late Minoan (c. 1550-1150 BCE) down to the late Greek and Roman times (c. 6th cent. BCE onwards). Thus a continuous tradition of use can be discerned for an interminable period of about three thousand years, the tradition surviving even in the modern times, with subsequent mofications and alterations, in the Greek Orthodox church…At Palaikastro site ‘was found a clay cover with a conical pierced top and a kind of door in the side, as covers for lamps…(which) were set on the kernoi, when they were decked for ritual use.’ (RM Dawkins, Excavations at Palaikastro III, Annual of the British School of Athens, X, 1903-1904, p.221)...At Kourtes site, (Nilsson,The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion, Lund, 1927,  pp. 116-117, fig. 19.. This kernos consists of a ‘hollow ring (diameter 19 cm) upon which six small jugs with narrow necks and spreading mouths are placed alternately with three coarsely made human figurines, of  which one holds his arms to his head, another to his breast, while the third graps the handles of the vases next to him. As Xanthoudides justly remarks, this very pecular feature connects the vessel with the group of dancing women fastened on a common ring-shaped base from Palaikastro’" (BM Pande, opcit, p.314)/
A variant of the ring-kernos has a number of small vessels attached to the ring and communicating with the interior. Some of these have also attached to them plastic serpents, bulls’ heds and perchaing birds. (Nilsson, opcit., p. 117).
“That the object kernos – ring kernos or the other types – had ritualistic function in ancient Greece, or is a cult-object in the Megiddo cult, is beyond doubt. In Cyprus, more often than not, these are found in graves as a part of the funerary furniture. This is evident from their location in a site (whereever found from the excavations) connected with cult, rituals or as accompanying the dead. Even the shape of the ring-kernos – clearly the result of a complex evolution – and the variety of forms or objets represented on the ring-kernoi prove that they were ritualistic vessels. Ancient Greek and Roman literature attests to this fact. Harrison, while discussing the kernophoria, has described two types of kernos on the authority of Athenaeus and the scholiasts on Nikander etc. The first of these was a winnowing fan which in the beginning was a simple agricultural instrument, but was subsequently mysticized by the religion of Dionysus. But there was another kind of kernos, which according to Athenaeus, was ‘a vessel made of earthenware,having in it many little cups fastened to it’, in which while poppies, wheat, barley, pulse etc. were kept. It ws thereafter carried aloft and certain rites were performed and was distributed to those who had done so. Athenaeus also gives a long list of the contents of the kernos. From Eleusis, where such an objet had been found in the excavations, are also available accounts of the officials mentioning a vessel…which is identical to the kernos of Athenaeus…The kernos from Haghios Nikolaos, again an example of the composite variety, is important, for, ‘inside it was found a clay lamp with one wick and two holes in the cover’, which conforms to the description given by the scholiast on Nikander. According to Xanthoudides, ‘the kernos was a sacred vessel not used exclusively at the Eleusinian mysteries, but also in the worship of other gods, as is known from the cults of Rhea Cybele, Attis, and the Corybantes’.”(BM Pande, opcit., pp.320-321)

It is thus obvious that the kernos – the ring-kernos or the other types – was a vessel connected, in ancient Greece and Crete, with harvest and used in the related festivals. The ring kernoi from Israel, which might have ‘originated in the footed ring-vases of early Cyprus and Egypt’, have pomegranates, doves, gazelles on them. These are symbolic and mark ‘its function in the fertility cult’ and the miniature jars ‘contained wine, the fruit of the grape’. Thus, ‘the kernos ring was probably for libations: the liquid would be poured into the cups to circulate throughout the doves, pomegranates, and jars, symbolizing the fertility of the earth and the fructifying of its produce’. (BM Pande opcit, p. 321).



Fig. 13 Ring kernoi from Melos (cited in BM Pande, 1971 (embedded)
Rim of jar, supercargo: kanka, karṇaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.', 'engraver, scribe, account'. 

Iron oxide liquid held in such kernos may have been used to write on metal, as demonstrated on the Mohenjo-daro gold pendant.

"In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings. Its unusual design is described in literary sources, which also list the ritual ingredients it might contain. The kernos was used primarily in the cults of Demeter and Kore, and of Cybele and Attis.The Greek term is sometimes applied to similar compound vessels from other cultures found in the Mediterranean, the LevantMesopotamia, and South Asia."
I suggest that the kernos ring of vessels is like an ink-pot containing iron oxide liquid used as a writing ink, to write on metal objects, like copper tablets or gold pendants. The gold-pendants with  sharp nibs might have been used as writing instruments.
I suggest that kernos of Greek  has cognates in Indian sprachbund (speech union) with particular reference to a scribe, engraver, accountant, ledger-keeper (to record wealth-accounting ledgers of Indus Script metalwork catalogues):  kāraṇika m. ʻ teacher ʼ MBh., ʻ judge ʼ Pañcat. [kā- raṇa -- ]Pa. usu -- kāraṇika -- m. ʻ arrow -- maker ʼ; Pk. kāraṇiya -- m. ʻ teacher of Nyāya ʼ; S. kāriṇī m. ʻ guardian, heir ʼ; N. kārani ʻ abettor in crime ʼ; M. kārṇī m. ʻ prime minister, supercargo of a ship ʼ, kul -- karṇī m. ʻ village accountant ʼ.(CDIAL 3058)கணக்குச்சுருணை kaṇakku-c-curuṇain. < id. +. Roll or file of accounts on palmyra leaves, kept by a village accountant; கணக் கோலைக்கற்றை.கணக்கப்பிள்ளை kaṇakka-p-piḷḷai, n. < gaṇaka +. 1. Village accountant, cashier, bursar, writer, agent, shipping clerk, bill collector; கணக்கன். 2. Man of the kaṇakkaṉ caste; ஒரு சாதியான்.   கணக்கன் kaṇakkaṉ, n. < gaṇaka. [M. kaṇakkaṉ.] 1. Accountant, book-keeper; கணக் கெழுதுவோன். (திருவாலவா. 30, 22.) 2. See கணக்கப்பிள்ளை, 1. 3. A certain caste; ஒரு சாதி. (இலக். வி. 52, உரை.) 4. Arithmetician; கணக்கில் வல்லவன். (W.) கருணீகம் karuṇīkam, n. < karaṇa. [T. karaṇikamu.] Office of village accountant or karṇam; கிராமக்கணக்குவேலை.   கருணீகன் karuṇīkaṉn. < id. 1. Village accountant; கிராமக்கணக்கன். கடுகை யொருமலை யாகக் . . . காட்டுவோன் கருணீகனாம் (அறப். சத. 86). 2. A South Indian caste of accountants; கணக்குவேலை பார்க்கும் ஒருசாதி.
காரணிக்கன் kāraṇikkaṉn. < id. Accountant; கணக்கன்.(Insc.) కరణము  karaṇamu. [Skt.] n. A village clerk, a writer, an accountant. వాడు కూత కరణముగాని వ్రాతకరణముకాడు he has talents for speaking but not 
for writing. స్థలకరణము the registrar of a district. कारणी or कारणीक   kāraṇī or kāraṇīka a (कारण S) That causes, conducts, carries on, manages. Applied to the prime minister of a state, the supercargo of a ship (Marathi).

Section 7. पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' signifies pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4',Hieroglyph: పోలడు pōlaḍu 'black drongo' rebus: पोलाद [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel.

A painted goblet with the 'three-branched fig tree' motif from Nausharo I D, transitional phase between the Early and Mature Harappan periods (c. 2600-2550 BCE) (After Samzun 1992: 250, fig.29.4 no.2)
Sign 327V326 (Orthographic variants of Sign 326) V327 (Orthographic variants of Sign 327) loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus glomerata (Santali.lex.) Vikalpa: kamaṛkom ‘ficus’ (Santali); rebus: kampaṭṭam ‘mint’ (Ta.) patra ‘leaf’ (Skt.); rebus: paṭṭarai ‘workshop’ (Ta.) Rebus: lo ‘iron’ (Assamese, Bengali); loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) lauha = made of copper or iron (Gr.S'r.); metal, iron (Skt.); lo_haka_ra = coppersmith, ironsmith (Pali); lo_ha_ra = blacksmith (Pt.); lohal.a (Or.); lo_ha = metal, esp. copper or bronze (Pali); copper
(VS.); loho, lo_ = metal, ore, iron (Si.) loha lut.i = iron utensils and implements (Santali.lex.) koṭiyum = a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal; koṭ = neck
(G.lex.) kōṭu = horns (Ta.) kōḍiya, kōḍe = young bull (G.) Rebus: koḍ  = place where artisans work (Gujarati)
Zebu and nine leaves. In front of the standard device and the stylized tree of 9 leaves, are the black buck antelopes. Black paint on red ware of Kulli style. Mehi. Second-half of 3rd millennium BCE. [After G.L. Possehl, 1986, Kulli: an exploration of anancient civilization in South Asia, Centers of Civilization, I, Durham, NC: 46, fig. 18 (Mehi II.4.5), based on Stein 1931: pl. 30. 
पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' signifies pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4',

Semantic determinative: markhor: mẽḍhā 'markhor' rebus: medhā 'yajña, dhanam'; दु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Santali.Mu.Ho.);med 'copper' (Slavic)mēthí m. ʻ pillar in threshing floor to which oxen are fastened, prop for supporting carriage shafts ʼ AV., °thī -- f. KātyŚr.com., mēdhī -- f. Divyāv. 2. mēṭhī -- f. PañcavBr.com., mēḍhī -- , mēṭī -- f. BhP. 1. Pa. mēdhi -- f. ʻ post to tie cattle to, pillar, part of a stūpa ʼ; Pk. mēhi -- m. ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ, N. meh(e), mihomiyo, B. mei, Or. maï -- dāṇḍi, Bi. mẽhmẽhā ʻ the post ʼ, (SMunger) mehā ʻ the bullock next the post ʼ, Mth. mehmehā ʻ the post ʼ, (SBhagalpur) mīhã̄ ʻ the bullock next the post ʼ, (SETirhut) mẽhi bāṭi ʻ vessel with a projecting base ʼ.2. Pk. mēḍhi -- m. ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ, mēḍhaka<-> ʻ small stick ʼ; K. mīrmīrü f. ʻ larger hole in ground which serves as a mark in pitching walnuts ʼ (for semantic relation of ʻ post -- hole ʼ see kūpa -- 2); L. meṛhf. ʻ rope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floor ʼ; P. mehṛ f., mehaṛ m. ʻ oxen on threshing floor, crowd ʼ; OA meṛhamehra ʻ a circular construction, mound ʼ; Or. meṛhīmeri ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ; Bi. mẽṛ ʻ raised bank between irrigated beds ʼ, (Camparam) mẽṛhā ʻ bullock next the post ʼ, Mth. (SETirhut) mẽṛhā ʻ id. ʼ; M. meḍ(h), meḍhī f., meḍhā m. ʻ post, forked stake ʼ.(CDIAL 10317). Rebus: मृदु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'metal' mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formeḍinto an equilateral lump a little pointed at each end;  mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)
When a hypertext is presented with a black drongo perched on a zebu (bos indicus), it is not necessary to posit a mythological narrative. Treating this as a hypertext of metaphors rendered rebus in Indus Script Meluhha provides a truthful framework for realizing the meanings of the signifier and the signified in the message. Hieroglyph: black drongo: పోలడు pōlaḍu rebus: पोलाद [ pōlāda ]
 n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel. (Marathi) bulad'steel, flint and steel for making fire' (Amharic); lād 'steel' (Arabic) The Prakritam gloss पोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu' as hieroglyph is read rebus: pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide'; poliya 'citizen, gatekeeper of town quarter'. Thus, the black drongo perched on a zebu,bos indicus as a hypertext signifies: magnetite, ferrite ore and steel.
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