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Evidence of pre-modern iron technology found in Nagaland

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Evidence of pre-modern iron technology found in Nagaland
   02-Apr-2019
 
 
 
Rayies Altaf
 
New Delhi, April 1 (India Science Wire): The development of technology for extracting metals from ores has been critical in the growth of various civilizations. Smelting is one process that has evolved over time. Some regions and communities have contributed greatly in shaping and evolution of such technologies through their skills, knowledge and craft. Scientists, archaeologists and historians are exploring the history and evolution of such technologies to know more about the art and culture of communities.
 
In one such initiative, scientists from Nagaland University and the Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati have studied the history and evolution of smelting inWui village of Tuensang district of Nagaland.The village is well known for its traditional art of iron-smelting and iron tool production since pre-colonial times.
 
In medieval times, spears forged from Wui were highly valued. Iron smelting was once the primary source of livelihood for Wui people. Smelting of Wui community was of exceptional quality and kings from even far off places such as Myanmar would get their weaponry specially made from Wui. The current scenario is, however, grim. Iron smelting is a dying art and people of Wui are struggling to preserve their traditional knowledge.
 

Preparing iron slag samples for studying its microstructures (Photo :TiatemjenTzudir
 
The researchers studied various chemical properties and compositions, quality and quantity of mineral iron content and other oxides to grasp the use of early iron technology in Nagaland. It emerged that iron ore used for smelting in early days was primary mined from this region. Thus it was, perhaps, a major source of iron-ore in Nagaland.
 
The researchers excavated two trenches at two different localities of the village. This was done on the assumption that the people from this area may have been engaged in iron-smelting for generations and, therefore, there was a high probability for extracting slag refuse from the deep layers of the trenches. This would be vital for understanding early metallurgical practice.
 
The first trench revealed a four-metre thick cultural deposit, revealing six layers. The excavation yielded cork-mark potteries, animal bones, glass beads, slag and good quality charcoal. The second trench too revealed a thick habitation deposit. Evidence from this trench included plain and cork-mark potteries, perforated roof tiles of slates, glass beads and charcoal. Charcoal from both trenches was carbon dated and their age ranged from 800-753 BCE to 980-1053 AD.

An analysis of microstructure iron slag and ore samples was done using X-ray diffraction. Hardness test was also done to understand microstructures in terms of its strength and hardness. Electrical furnace test was done on the iron ore sample to examine the chemical variations. All these tests provided detailed account of the presence of different mineral compositions.
 
TiatemjenTzudir, one of the co-authors of the study, said, “this research is part of an ongoing study and we are looking for further evidence for smelting and iron smithing for better understanding of technological and social processes involved in pre-modern iron production in Wui and other sites in Nagaland. It is among the first such research initiatives aimed at understanding the metal craft history of Wui community.”
 
The research team included TiatemjenTzudir and Tiatoshi Jamir (Nagaland University) and Sukanya Sharma (IIT-Guwahati). The study results have been published in journal Current Science.(India Science Wire)


Identity and decipherment of 'unicorn' on Indus Script Corpora as a one-horned young bull, to signify workshop of a goldsmith, lapidary (turner, engraver).

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  • http://tinyurl.com/y2uekds6

  • I submit that the so-called 'unicorn' on Indus Script Corpora is an orthographic composition (consistent with the styles of creating composite animals) which signifies a young bull, with characteristic orthographic ligatured of one horn, rings on neck, a pannier on shoulder. All these orthographic components are hypertexts read rebus in Meluhha readings for semantic determinatives signified by hieroglyphs: कोंद kōnda'young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda'engraver, turner'kundana'fine gold' PLUS kōḍu'horn' rebus koḍ 'workplace' PLUS koḍiyum'ring on neck' rebus:  koḍ 'workplace' PLUS  khōṇḍī खोंडी 'pannier sack' rebus: कोंद kōnda'engraver, turner, fine gold'. Thus, the hypertext composition signifies workshop of a goldsmith, lapidary (turner, engraver). A remarkable cognate etymon signifying a young bull is seen in Telugu (Indian sprahbund, 'speech union'): kōḍe. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. కోడెదూడ. A young bull. కాడిమరపదగినదూడ. Plumpness, prime. తరుణము. జోడుకోడయలు a pair of bullocks. కోడె adj. Young. కోడెత్రాచు a young snake, one in its prime. "కోడెనాగముం బలుగుల రేడుతన్ని కొని పోవుతెరంగురామా. vi. కోడెకాడు kōḍe-kāḍu. n. A young man. పడుచువాడు. A lover విటుడు.

I submit that there is little evidence to suggest that the young bull shown on Indus Script Corpora is an import from Mari or Ancient Near East. 

On the contrary, the rebus readings of the Indus Script messages composed of hieroglyphs/hypertexts clearly indicate the semantic base of words of Indian sprachbund (speech union). I also submit that such an indication is not an idiosyncratic view given the archaeological evidence of Meluhha settlements in Ancient Near East and the discovery of three pure tin ingots with Indus Script inscriptions,from a shipwreck in Haifa. See: Itihāsa.Tin-Bronze mirror, exemplar of Tin-Bronze Revolution, of Rakhigarhi on an Ancient Maritime Tin Route Meluhha seafaring merchants link Hanoi and Haifa https://tinyurl.com/ydhyklz7 

Considering that identical orthography occurs on Ancient Near East artifacts, the identity of the young bull, कोंद kōnda, is an Indian aurochs (Bos primigenius) as shown on the Mari procession proclaiming a young bull atop a flag-staff (which is a culm of millet). 

See: Zebu (Bos primigenius indicus) are descended from Indian aurochs (stylized as unicorns) 
Bos primigenius are signified on ANE cylinder seals, artefacts at Tell Hariri (Mari), Temple of Ninhurag Tell al Ubaid and on Indus Script hypertexts.

On Indus Script hypertexts, three forms of bulls are signified:

1. Bos primigenius (unicorns as young bulls with one horn): khōṇḍa m A young bull, a bullcalf.  rebus: kunda, 'one of कुबेर's nine treasures', kundaṇa 'fine gold'
2. Bos primigenius Indicus (zebu): पोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu, dewlap' rebus: पोळ [pōḷa], 'magnetite, ferrite ore'' 
3. Bos primigenius taurus (old bull or ox): ḍhangra 'bull'. Rebus: ḍhangar 
'blacksmith'. barad, balad, 'ox' rebus: bharata 'metal alloy' (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin).

One-horned young bull is NOT a mythical species said to be 'unicorn' but in the genre of Indian aurochs (Bos primigenius).

In front of a soldier, a Sumerian standard bearer holds a banner aloft signifying the one-horned young bull which is the signature glyph of Harappa Script (Indus writing). Detail of a victory parade, from the Ishtar temple, Mari, Syria. 2400 BCE Schist panel inlaid with mother of pearl plaques. Louvre Museum. See:
Refuting pictorial symbolism of Othmar Keel. Meanings of Indus Script hypertexts, gypsum plaster priest of Mari, steatite priest of Mohenjo-daro 

Detail of the Mari procession; the stand topped by the image of one-horned young bull (excavation no. M-458), height 7 cm. (After Parrot 1935: 134, fig.15)

This procession is called a victory parade in Asko Parpola's article. I submit that the use of culm of millet as a flagstaff is a clear hypertext in the tradition of Indus Script cipher. karba'culm of millet' rebus: karba'iron'. 

The 'rein rings' which constitute the stand for the one--horned young bull held aloft, are read rebus: valgā, bāg-ḍora 'bridle' rebus (metath.) bagalā 'seafaring dhow'. See: Priests of Mohenjo-daro and Mari (Susa) are dhāvaḍ 'iron smelters' 

 

This young bull is distinguished from bos indicus or zebu with a pronounced hump, high horns and dewlap.






Walking with the Unicorn is the title of a Jonathan Mark Kenoyer felicitation volume published on October 16, 2018. The volume includes contributions by Gregg Jamison (fn.1) and Asko Parpola (fn.2), related to the Unicorn on Indus Script inscriptions. Gregg Jamison suggests  that the evidenceof unicorn seal production suggests a decentralized form of socioolitical organization proposed by Kenoyer and supported by other forms of material culture throughout the Indus.

For views which differ from Asko Parpola's arguments, on the identity and origin of the 'unicorn', see an article by JM Kenoyer (fn.3), Iconography of the Indus Unicorn: Origins and Legacy. This comprehensive article of JM Kenoyer examines the figure of the unicorn in different historical contexts including the Greeks, Mesopotamians and other West Asians, and local Indian mythological and actual creatures to arrive at the author's startling conclusion, for which it can be said, there have been other supporters and which, at the very least, should cause those who may disagree with Dr. Parpola's thesis, to reflect on the antelope-characteristics of the so-called unicorn.

Abstract of Kenoyer's article

The most frequently occurring iconographic motif of the Indus seals, with thousands of occurrences, is a unicorn bull, a male bovine animal with a single horn. Its exact zoological identity is still controversial, but while some scholars consider it to be a purely fabulous beast, perhaps a conflation of two or more real species, many authorities consider it to represent either the humpless wild cow called aurochs or urus (Bos primigenius) or the humpless taurine cow (Bos taurus). The religious meaning of the Harappan unicorn has remained unclear as well. The present study tries to solve this problem by considering both Eurasian unicorn myths and those which are particular to South Asia, as well as their historical evolution and context. The evidence strongly suggests that the Harappan unicorn was an integral part of this unicorn mythology, that it stood for male creative power, and that its cult purported to secure rain and fertility for purposes of agriculture and animal husbandry. The Harappan unicorn was probably originally the humpless bull of Western Asia, and then transformed in the Indus Valley into an image of the blue bull, the nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus).



In an earlier conclusion reached in 2011, Asko Parpola stated: "My conclusion, is that the Indian Rsyasrnga legend goes back to the Harappan religion, where the unicorn bull depicted on thousands of seals has a real local animal, the nilgai antelope, called rsya in Sanskrit. His single horn, the length of which is exaggerated, has a phallic connotation and emphasizes the importance of this animal as a symbol of fertility. His cult purported to secure abundant rains that were vital for agriculture and animal husbandry, the foundations of Harappan economy. Such a role can best explain the overwhelming popularity of the unicorn as the favorite deity of many Indus seals owners." (4)

  • Series: Orientale Roma (Book 15)
  • Paperback: 680 pages Publisher: Archaeopress Access Archaeology; 1 edition (October 16, 2018)
  • Language: English ISBN-10: 1784919179 ISBN-13: 978-1784919177

Notes:

1. Gregg Jamison, 2018The Organization of Indus Unicorn Seal Production. A Multi-faceted Investigation of Technology, Skill, and Style, in: Dennys Frenez, Gregg Jamison, Randall Law, Massimo Vidale and Richard Meadow (eds.), Walking with the Unicorn. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume. Oxford: Archaeopress. http://tinyurl.com/y43qvacr

2. Parpola, Asko, 2018. Unicorn Bull and Victory Parade. Pp. 435-444 in: Dennys Frenez, Gregg Jamison, Randall Law, Massimo Vidale and Richard Meadow (eds.), Walking with the Unicorn. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume. Oxford: Archaeopress
http://tinyurl.com/yb695goq

3. https://www.harappa.com/content/iconography-indus-unicorn-origins-and-legacy  

https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Kenoyer2013%20Indus%20Unicorns-1.pdf An article by JM Kenoyer was originally published as Chapter 6 in Connections and Complexity, New Approaches to the Archaeology of South Asia, Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California, 2013.

Originally published in Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past, Edited by Toashiki Osada and Hitoshi Endo, Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan, 2011, pp. 125-188.

Five of ten दशावतार, daśāvatāra include Vāmana, dwarf, artificer, miner, smith; Itihāsa signifiers in Indus Script Corpora, validate decipherment

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https://tinyurl.com/y26zo83k

--  intimations in wealth-accounting metalwork ledgers of Indus Script

This monograph posits that five of the ten दशावतारdaśāvatāra signify metalwork, wealth-accounting which is the core objective evidenced by Indus Script Corpora. These are Itihāsa signifiers in Indus Script Corpora which explain how ancient India accounted for 33% of World GDP in 1 Common Era (CE)(pace Angus Maddison):


This is an addendum to 

1. Nr̥simha emerges from a pillar, pillar of flame and godhuma 'wheat chaff' Vedic caṣāla on Skambha, Yupa. Cultural significance of Holika 

2. दशावतार, daśāvatāra. Itihāsa rendered by poets (kavi) and artisans (kamar). Veda metaphors of avatāra transformation and Indus Scrip rebus cipher of metal transmutations https://tinyurl.com/y2tg5wsy 

Bhāgavata Purāṇa has nine chapters to the adventures of Vāmana, a dwarf, fifth avatāra of Lord Viṣṇu; also called त्रिविक्रम Trivikrama which literally, "three steps", signifying the Svarga (heaven), the earth, and the Patala (netherworld). "Aditi took Payovrata to propitiate Lord Vishnu. As a result, Vamana was born to Aditi and Kashyapa. He is the twelfth of the Adityas. Account of the several Manus and ManwantarasVishnu Purana, translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, 1840, Book III: Chapter I. 265:22, at the request of the deities Vishńu was born as a midget, Vámana, the son of Adití by Kaśyapa. By applying to Mahabali for alms Kaśyapa was promised by the prince whatever he might demand, notwithstanding Śukra (the preceptor of the Daityas). The dwarf demanded as much space as he could step over at three steps and upon the assent of Mahabali he enlarged himself to such dimensions as to stride over the three worlds. Being worshipped however by Mahabali and his ancestor Prahláda, he conceded to them the sovereignty of Pátála... Asura King Mahābali (or simply called Bali). Bali was the great grandson of Hiraṇyakśipu, the grand son of Prahlada and son of Virochana.

Hiraṇyakśipu, his grandson  Asura King MahābaliHiraṇyākṣa, all three signify association with metalwork since हिरण्य n. (ifc. f(). ; prob. connected with हरि , हरित् , हिरि) gold (orig. " uncoined gold or other precious metal " ; in later language " coined gold " -or " money ") RV. &c; any vessel or ornament made of gold (as " a golden spoon " Mn. ii , 29RV. AV. VS. Kaus3.;; a gold piece or coin (generally with सुव्/अर्ण as opp. to base metal) Br.; substance , imperishable matter. 

Thus, all the five avatāra:
1. Fish: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal'; 

2.Turtle, tortoise kã̄śī f. ʻ bell -- metal cymbal ʼ Rebus: kāñcana काञ्चन a. (-नी f.) [काञ्च्-ल्युट्] Golden, made of gold; kamaṭha 'tortise' rebus: kãsā kammaṭa 'bell-metal coiner, mint, portable furnace'.

3. Boar वराह m. (derivation doubtful) a boar , hog , pig , wild boar RV. &c (ifc. it denotes , " superiority , pre-eminence " ; » g. व्याघ्रा*दि). 
N. of विष्णु in his third or boar-incarnation (cf. वराहा*वतार) TA1r. MBh. &c; (also -कविष्णु in his 4th अवतार (cf. नर-स्°ib. &c
baḍhi, vaḍraṅgi, vaḍlaṅgi, vaḍlavāḍu, baḍaga, vardhaki,'worker in metal and wood'.

4. Lion Nr̥simha  नृ--सिंह m. " man-lion " , a great or illustrious man MBh. R. arye'lion' rebus: āra 'brass'

5.  Vāmana, 'dwarf' synonym kharva (cups or vessels baked in fire); karba'iron' 

See

FS 68 Inscribed object in the shape of a fish (Frequency in M Corpus: 14) ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'alloy metal' अयस् n. iron , metal RV. &c; an iron weapon (as an axe , &c RV. vi , 3 ,5 and 47 , 10; gold (नैघण्टुक , commented on by यास्क);steel L. ; ([cf. Lat. aes , aer-is for as-is ; Goth. ais , Thema aisa ; Old Germ. e7r , iron ; Goth. eisarn ; Mod.Germ. Eisen.]) ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS Hieroglyph: ढाळ (p. 204) ḍhāḷa Slope, inclination of a plane. Rebus: ḍhālako = a large metal ingot . Thus, large metal or iron ingot.

  Signs 59, 67 ayo, aya 'fish' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS kammaTa 'mint' 

See: 

 https://tinyurl.com/y8p7b8q2

Cluster Tortoise, turtle clusters, bronze classifiers in Indus Script Corpora
FS 69 Inscribed object in the shape of a tortoise.
FS 56 (Frequency in M Corpus: 9) dula 'duplicated, mirror image' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS

A giant turtle (of what was thought to be an extinct species) has been found on Pacific island in 2010 CE !!


कंस[p= 241,1] mn. ( √कम् Un2. iii , 62), a vessel made of metal , drinking vessel , cup , goblet AV. x , 10 , 5 AitBr. S3Br. &c; a metal , tutanag or white copper , brass , bell-metal
 
"Front view of Meiolania platyceps fossil 
Meiolania ("small roamer") is an extinct genus of cryptodire  
turtle from the Oligocene to Holocene, with the last relict populations at New Caledonia which survived until 2,000 years ago.
The animal was rather large, measuring 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in length, making it the second-largest known nonmarine turtle or tortoise, surpassed only by Colossochelys atlas from Asia, which lived in the Pleistocene. It lived in Australia and New Caledonia. Remains have also been found on the island of Efate in Vanuatu, associated with settlements from the Lapitaculture...When the first fossil remains (a vertebra) were found, they were originally thought to be from a large monitor lizard, similar to, but smaller than Megalania, so the genus was named accordingly. Later, when more remains were found, it was realized that the "small roamer" was actually a turtle, and not a lizard. Synonyms include Miolania and Ceratochelys."


There are examples of copper plates with the pictorial motifs of large turtles combined back to back, as a pair to signify: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'.




See: The world's earliest coin, Lydia electrum coin with खोंड khōṇḍa 'unicorn, young bull' rebus kundaṇa 'pure gold' (Tulu) is an invention by an Indus Script smith, kundār, खोदण 'engraver, turner, scribe' 

Image result for persepolis lion unicornImage result for persepolis lion unicorn
Frieze on staircase wall, Persepolis. 

Image result for persepolis lion unicorn
Procession of lions, unicorns (auroch or urus) at Persepolis. 

The juxtaposition signifier on Lydian electrum (gold-silver compound) coins between a young bull's profile and a lion's profile signies a metallurgical challenge between 1.kundaṇa 'fine gold',+ goṭī 'silver', i.e., electrum gold and 2. āra 'brass' + arka 'gold', i.e.golden brass. panja 'feline paw' rebus: panja 'kiln, furnace; juxtaposesko  'horn' rebus: ko 'workshop' kunda 'young bull' rebus: yajñakuṇḍa 'fire altar, furnace'; kũdār 'turner' The joined animal parts constituting hypertext on Kyzikos electrum coins is signify a unified guild formation, a phaḍa फड ‘manufactory, company, guild, public office’, keeper of all accounts, registers' -- of mintwork in gold, silver, copper, brass, alloy metals.

1. One-horned bull kunda 'young bull' rebus: kundaa 'fine gold' kũdār 'turner (artisan)' 
2. Lion arye 'lion' rebus: āra 'brass' (epithets of आदित्य अर्य, sun, lord
3. Sun with multiple rays arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'gold', eraka 'moltencast copper'
4. Global protuberance above nose गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) 'round stone, pebble' rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver'; goṭi = silver; koḍ ‘workshop’ (Gujarati).
5. Round stones, pebbles, गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) 'round stone, pebble' rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver'; goṭi = silver; koḍ ‘workshop’ (Gujarati).
6. Fish ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'alloyed metal'(R̥gveda) khambhaā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaa 'mint, coiner, coinage'
7. Goat Brahui. ḻẖ is without etymology; see MBE 1980a.] Ka. mēke she-goat; mē the bleating of sheep or goats. Te. mē̃ka, mēka goat. Kol. me·ke id. Nk. mēke id. Pa. mēva, (S.) mēya she-goat. Ga. (Oll.) mēge, (S.) mēge goat. Go. (M) mekā, (Ko.) mēka id. ? Kur. mēxnā (mīxyas) to call, call after loudly, hail. Malt. méqe to bleat. [Te. mr̤ēka (so correct) is of unknown meaning. / Cf. Skt. (lex.)meka- goat.(DEDR 5087) Rebus: meluhha (milakkhumleccha, 'copper' (Pali.Saskrtam) (merchant).
8. Cobra hood phaā फटा (Samskrtam), phaā फडा (Marathi), paam (Tamil. Malayalam), paaga (Telugu) 'cobra hood' rebus: bhaṭṭh m., °hī f. ʻ furnaceʼ, paṭṭaai, paṭṭaai 'anvil, smithy, forge', paṭṭae, paṭṭai 'anvil, workshop', Te. paṭṭika, paṭṭeḍa anvil; paṭṭaa workshop. Cf. 86 Ta. aṭai. (DEDR 3865) phaa फड ‘manufactory, company, guild, public office’, keeper of all accounts, registers'. 

Gold stater Period: Archaic Date: ca. 560–546 B.C.E Lydia Medium: Gold Dimensions: Overall: 3/8 x 9/16 x 1/16 in. (1 x 1.4 x 0.2 cm) Credit Line: Gift of The American Society for the Excavation of Sardis, 1926 Accession Number: 26.59.2 https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/26.59.2/

gveda (1.22, 1.154, 1.154, 6.49, 7.100 and 8.29) describes Viṣṇu as that benevolent god who in three steps defined all there is in the universe. About thirty different versions of his mythology are found in these texts.(Deborah A. Soifer (1991). The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective. State University of New York Press. pp. 18–19, 22–25; pp. xiii, 113–116, 123–138).
Walters Arts Museum. "Standing tall despite his diminutive proportions, this dwarf, Vamana, is an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. He holds Vishnu’s attributes—the club and discus in his upper hands and the conch shell in his lower left hand—and makes the gesture of giving. As preserver of cosmic order, Vishnu descends to earth to restore balance whenever the world is threatened by evil. When the king Bali was becoming too powerful, Vishnu came to earth as a dwarf and, dressed as a pious student of Hindu knowledge, asked the king for the amount of land he could cover in three steps. Thinking he had nothing to lose, the king granted the dwarf’s request, whereupon Vishnu transformed himself into the giant Trivikrama, covering the entire earth with his first step, the heavens with his second step, and with his third step pushing Bali into the netherworld.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamana#/media/File:Indian_-_Dwarf_Form_of_Vishnu_-_Walters_25260.jpg

Dictionary definition of a dwarf: (in folklore or fantasy literature) a member of a mythical race of short, stocky human like creatures who are generally skilled in mining and metalworking. 
synonyms:gnomegoblinhobgoblintrollimpelfbrowniekelpieleprechaunfairypixiesprite
"the wizard captured the dwarf"
"The noun dwarf stems from Old English dweorg, originally referring to a being from Germanic mythology—a dwarf—that dwells in mountains and in the earth, and is associated with wisdom, smithing, mining, and crafting.... Indo-European root *dheur- (meaning 'damage'), the Indo-European root *dhreugh (whence modern German Traum 'dream' and Trug 'deception'), and comparisons have been made with the Old Indian dhvaras (a type of demonic being). The being may not have gained associations with small stature until a later period.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarfism

Dwarfs are also वालखिल्याः - who are referred to in तैत्तिरीयब्राह्मणम् (1-92) --

ततोरुणाः केतवो वातरशना ऋषय उदतिष्ठन् (91)

ये नखाः। ते वैखानसाः। ये वालाः। ते वालखिल्याः  यो रसः। सोपाम्।
Image result for mathura gana sivalinga
Worship of linga by Gandharva, Shunga period (ca. 2nd cent. BCE), ACCN 3625, Mathura Museum. Worship signified by dwarfs, Gaṇa (hence Gaṇeśa =  Gaṇa +  īśa).

A tree associated with smelter and linga from Bhuteshwar, Mathura Museum. 
Architectural fragment with relief showing winged dwarfs (or gaNa) worshipping with flower garlands, Siva Linga. Bhuteshwar, ca. 2nd cent BCE. Lingam is on a platform with wall under a pipal tree encircled by railing. (Srivastava,  AK, 1999, Catalogue of Saiva sculptures in Government Museum, Mathura: 47, GMM 52.3625) The tree is a phonetic determinant of the smelter indicated by the railing around the linga: kuṭa°ṭi -- , °ṭha -- 3, °ṭhi -- m. ʻ tree ʼ  Rebus: kuhi 'smelter'. kuṭa, °ṭi -- , °ṭha -- 3, °ṭhi -- m. ʻ tree ʼ lex., °ṭaka -- m. ʻ a kind of tree ʼ Kauś.Pk. kuḍa -- m. ʻ tree ʼ; Paš. lauṛ. kuṛāˊ ʻ tree ʼ, dar. kaṛék ʻ tree, oak ʼ ~ Par. kōṛ ʻ stick ʼ IIFL iii 3, 98. (CDIAL 3228). 
Relief with Ekamukha linga. Mathura. 1st cent. CE (Fig. 6.2).This is the most emphatic representation of linga as a pillar of fire. The pillar is embedded within a brick-kiln with an angular roof and is ligatured to a tree. Hieroglyph: kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'. In this composition, the artists is depicting the smelter used for smelting to create mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) of mēḍha 'stake' rebus: meḍ 'iron, metal' (Ho. Munda)मेड (p. 662) [ mēḍa ] f (Usually मेढ q. v.) मेडका m A stake, esp. as bifurcated. मेढ (p. 662) [ mēḍha ] f A forked stake. Used as a post. Hence a short post generally whether forked or not. मेढा (p. 665) [ mēḍhā ] m A stake, esp. as forked. 2 A dense arrangement of stakes, a palisade, a paling. मेढी (p. 665) [ mēḍhī ] f (Dim. of मेढ) A small bifurcated stake: also a small stake, with or without furcation, used as a post to support a cross piece. मेढ्या (p. 665) [ mēḍhyā ] a (मेढ Stake or post.) A term for a person considered as the pillar, prop, or support (of a household, army, or other body), the staff or stay. मेढेजोशी (p. 665) [ mēḍhējōśī ] m A stake-जोशी; a जोशी who keeps account of the तिथि &c., by driving stakes into the ground: also a class, or an individual of it, of fortune-tellers, diviners, presagers, seasonannouncers, almanack-makers &c. They are Shúdras and followers of the मेढेमत q. v. 2 Jocosely. The hereditary or settled (quasi fixed as a stake) जोशी of a village.मेंधला (p. 665) [ mēndhalā ] m In architecture. A common term for the two upper arms of a double चौकठ (door-frame) connecting the two. Called also मेंढरी & घोडा. It answers to छिली the name of the two lower arms or connections. (Marathi)

Relief with Ekamukha linga. Mathura. 1st cent. CE shows a gaNa, dwarf with tuft of hair in front, a unique tradition followed by Dikshitar in Chidambaram. The gaNa is next to the smelter kuTi 'tree' Rebus: kuThi 'smelter' which is identified by the ekamukha sivalinga. mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali). kharva is a dwarf; kharva is a nidhi of Kubera. karba 'iron' (Tulu)  http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/09/indus-script-corpora-muha-metal-from.html खर्व(र्ब) पु० खर्व--गर्वे अच् । १ कुवेरनिविशेषि शब्दरत्ना० ।२ कुब्जक वृक्षे अन्त्यस्थमध्यः राजनि० तस्य गन्धस्योत-कटतया गर्वहेतुत्वात् तथात्वम् । खर्ब--गतौ अच् । वर्ग्य-मध्यः ३ ह्रस्वे ४ वामने त्रि० अमरः “खर्बे! गर्वसमूह-पूरिततनो!” तारास्तोत्रम् । ५ संख्याभेदे (सहस्रकोटौ)“अर्बुदमब्जं खर्बनिखर्ब” मिति लीलावती । ६ तत्संख्याते च https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम् खर्ब्बः, पुं, (खर्ब्ब + अच् ।) कुवेरस्य निधि-विशेषः । इति शब्दरत्नावली ॥ दशवृन्दसंख्या । इति स्मृतिः ॥ कुब्जकवृक्षः । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ।(वामनः । इत्यमरः । २ । ६ । ४६ ॥ स्त्री ।गायत्त्रीस्वरूपा भगवती । यथा, देवीभाग-वते । १२ । ६ । ३८ ।“खड् गखेटकरा खर्ब्बा खेचरी खगवाहना”)  https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/शब्दकल्पद्रुमः खर्व [p= 338,1] mfn. (cf. /अ- , त्रि-) mutilated , crippled , injured , imperfect TS. ii , 5 , 1 , 7; low , dwarfish L.; mn. a large number (either 10 , 000 , 000 , 000 [ L. ],or 37 cyphers preceded by 1 R. vi , 4 , 59); m. N. of one of the nine निधिs or treasures of कुबेर L. (वालखिल्या are also dwarfs; (°ल्य्/अ) pl. N. of a class of ऋषिs of the size of a thumb (sixty thousand were produced from ब्रह्मा's body and surround the chariot of the sun) TA1r. MBh. Ka1v. &c. They are comparable to गण [p= 343,1] certain troops of demi-gods considered as शिव's attendants and under the special superintendence of the god गणे*श ; cf. -देवता) Mn. Ya1jn5. Lalit. &c; m. a flock , troop , multitude , number , tribe , series , class (of animate or inanimate beings) , body of followers or attendants RV. AV. &c. गणः gaṇḥ [गण् कर्मणि कर्तरि वा अच्] 1 A flock, multitude, group, troop, collection; गुणिगणगणना, भगणः -2 A series, a class. -3 A body of followers or attendants. -4 Particularly, a troop of demigods considered as Śiva's attendants and under the special superintendence of Gaṇeśa, a demigod of this troop; गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनाम् &c.; गणानमेरुप्रसवावतंसाः Ku.1.55,7.4,71;  Me.35.57; Ki.5.13. -5 Any assemblage or society of men formed for the attainment of the same objects. -6 A company, association. -7 A tribe, class.  
In Atharva Veda stambha is a celestial scaffold, supporting the cosmos and material creation.
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/12/skambha-sukta-atharva-veda-x-7-pair-of.html Full text of Atharva Veda ( X - 7,8) --- Stambha Suktam with translation (with variant pronunciation as skambha). See Annex A List of occurrences of gloss in Atharva Veda.
avs.8.6[0800605] The black and hairy Asura, and Stambaja and TundikaArayas from this girl we drive, from bosom, waist, and parts below.
Archaeological finds: cylindrical stele in Kalibangan, a pair of polished stone pillars in Dholavira, s'ivalinga in Harappa, Kalibangan


यष्टि 1 [p=840,3] f. (for 2. » [p= 848,3]) sacrificing Pa1n2. 3-3 , 110 Sch. (prob. w.r. for इष्टि).यष्टि 2 [p=848,3]n. (only L. )or f. (also यष्टी cf. g. बह्व्-ादि ; prob. fr. √ यछ् = यम् ; for 1. यष्टि » [p=840,3]) " any support " , a staff , stick , wand , rod , mace , club , cudgel; pole , pillar , perch S3Br. &c; a flag-staff (» ध्वज-य्°; a stalk , stem , branch , twig Hariv. Ka1v.

ஈட்டி īṭṭin. cf. yaṣṭi. [T. īṭe, K. īṭi, M. īṭṭi.] 1. Lance, spear, pike; குந்தம். செறியிலை யீட்டியும் (பரிபா. 5, 66). 2. Black wood. See தோதகத்தி. (L.)

इष्टि 1 [p=169,1] f. impulse , acceleration , hurry; despatch RV.f. seeking , going after RV.f. sacrificing , sacrifice.

ఇటిక (p. 0134) [ iṭika ] or ఇటికె or ఇటుక iṭika. [Tel.] n. Brick. ఇటికెలు కోయు or ఇటుకచేయు to make bricks. వెయ్యి యిటుక కాల్చిరి they burnt 1000 bricks. ఇష్టక (p. 0141) [ iṣṭaka ] ishṭaka. [Skt. derived from ఇటుక.] n. A brick. ఇటుక రాయి.इष्टका [p= 169,3] f. a brick in general; a brick used in building the sacrificial altar VS. AitBr. S3Br. Ka1tyS3r.Mr2icch. &c (Monier-Williams); iṣṭakā इष्टका [इष्-तकन् टाप् Uṇ.3.148] 1 A brick; Mk.3. -2 A brick used in preparing the sacrificial altar &c. लोकादिमग्निं तमुवाच तस्मै या इष्टकी यावतार्वा यथा वा Kaṭh.1.15. -Comp. -गृहम् a brick-house. -चयनम् collecting fire by means of a brick. -चित a. made of bricks; Dk.84; also इष्टकचित; cf. P.VI.3.35. -न्यासः laying the founda- tion of a house. -पथः a road made of bricks. -मात्रा size of the bricks. -राशिः a pile of bricks.इष्टिका iṣṭikā इष्टिका A brick &c.; see इष्टका. (Apte. Samskritam) íṣṭakā f. ʻ brick ʼ VS., iṣṭikā -- f. MBh., iṣṭā -- f. BHSk. [Av. ištya -- n. Mayrhofer EWA i 94 and 557 with lit. <-> Pk. has disyllabic iṭṭā -- and no aspiration like most Ind. lggs.]
Pa. iṭṭhakā -- f. ʻ burnt brick ʼ, Pk. iṭṭagā -- , iṭṭā -- f.; Kho. uṣṭū ʻ sun -- dried brick, large clod of earth ʼ (→ Phal.iṣṭūˊ m. NOPhal 27); L. iṭṭ, pl. iṭṭã f. ʻ brick ʼ, P. iṭṭ f., N. ĩṭ, A. iṭā, B. iṭĩṭ, Or. iṭā, Bi. ī˜ṭī˜ṭā, Mth. ī˜ṭā, Bhoj.ī˜ṭi, H. ī˜ṭhīṭī˜ṭīṭā f., G. ĩṭi f., M. īṭvīṭ f., Ko. īṭ f. -- Deriv. Pk. iṭṭāla -- n. ʻ piece of brick ʼ; B. iṭāl°al ʻ brick ʼ, M. iṭhāḷ f. ʻ a piece of brick heated red over which buttermilk is poured to be flavoured ʼ. -- Si. uḷu ʻ tile ʼ seeuṭa -- .
*iṣṭakālaya -- .Addenda: íṣṭakā -- : S.kcch. eṭṭ f. ʻ brick ʼ, Garh. ī˜ṭ; -- Md. īṭ ʻ tile ʼ ← Ind. (cf. H. M. īṭ).
*iṣṭakālaya ʻ brick -- mould ʼ. [íṣṭakā -- , ālaya -- ]
M. iṭāḷẽ n. (CDIAL 1600, 1601)

shrI-sUktam of Rigveda explains the purport of the yaSTi to signify a baton of divine authority:

ArdrAm yaHkariNIm yaShTim suvarNAm padmamAlinIm |

sUryAm hiraNmayIm lakSmIm jAtavedo ma Avaha || 14

Trans. Oh, Ritual-fire, I pray you to invite shrI-devi to me, an alter-ego of everyone, who makes the environ holy let alone worship-environ, wielder of a baton symbolizing divine authority, brilliant in her hue, adorned with golden garlands, motivator of everybody to their respective duties like dawning sun, and who is manifestly self-resplendent in her mien.


Indus Script Corpora and archaeological excavations of 'fir-altars' provide evidence for continuity of Vedic religion of fire-worship in many sites of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. 

The metalwork catalogues of deciphered Indus Script Corpora are consistent with the fire-altars found in almost every single site of the civilization consistent with the documentation of yajna, fire-worship, in ancient texts of the Veda. The continuity of Vedic religion, veneration of Ruda-Siva among Bronze Age Bhāratam Janam, 'metalcaster folk' is firmly anchored.

kole.l signified 'smithy'. The same word kole.l also signified ' temple' (Kota)

In Hindu civilization tradition, yupa associated with smelter/furnace operations in fire-altars as evidenced in Bijnor, Kalibangan, Lothal and in many yupa pillars of Rajasthan of the historical periods, assume the aniconic form of linga venerated as Jyotirlinga, fierly pillars of light.
A 10th-century four-headed stone lingam (Mukhalinga) from Nepal. The 'mukha' or face on the linga is a hieroglyph read rebus muh 'ingot'.  Hieroglyph: mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali) muhA 'the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace' (Santali. Campbell)

"The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Skambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma , and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga. In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva. Jyotirlinga means "The Radiant sign of The Almighty". The Jyotirlingas are mentioned in the Shiva Purana.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva

Sources: Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). "God, the Father". Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 156–157

 Vivekananda, Swami. "The Paris Congress of the History of Religions" The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda 4.

SAMA Kubera 1.jpgKubera. Northern India. 10th century. Sandstone. San Antonio Museum of Art[quote] Kuberain Hindu mythology, the king of the yakshas (nature spirits) and the god of wealth. He is associated with the earth, mountains, all treasures such as minerals and jewels that lie underground, and riches in general. According to most accounts, he first lived in Lanka (Sri Lanka), but his palace was taken away from him by his half brother, Ravana, and he now resides in a beautiful mountain residence near the god Shiva’s home on Mount Kailasa, where he is attended by all manner of demigods.

Kubera is the guardian of the north and is usually depicted as a dwarfish figure with a large paunch, holding a money bag or a pomegranate, sometimes riding on a man. Also known as Vaishravana and Jambhala, he is a popular figure in Buddhist and Jain mythology as well. In Buddhist sculptures he is often shown accompanied by a mongoose. [unquote] 

R̥gveda invokes Gaṇapati, kavi, synonym is tri-dhātu 'three minerals, leader of Gaṇa, corporation, guild. Decipherment of Gardez Vināyaka Indus Script hypertexts

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RV 2.23.1 गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥

(Griffith translation) WE call thee, Lord and Leader of the heavenly hosts, the wise among the wise, the famousest of all,
The King supreme of prayers, O Brahmanaspati: hear us with help; sit down in place of sacrifice.


Gaṇeśa, flanked by dwarf couples. ullamangai, Tanjavur Dt., Tamil Nadu, India. ca.. 9th-10th cent.
http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/huntington/show_detail.py?ObjectID=30004830

Gaṇa. Mahabodhi Temple complex, architectural fragment, vedika (railing), pillar2nd - 1st century BCE
http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/huntington/show_detail.py?ObjectID=21541

Four adorsed dwarf figures Sanchi Buddhist Monastery complex, Stupa 1 ("Great Stupa")http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/huntington/show_detail.py?ObjectID=2646
Image result for gana of dwarfs badami
Cave 2 : Dancing gana figures on the outer left wall. Badami , Karnataka, India
File:Gana, dwarfs goblins in Indian temple architecture.jpg
Gana is a dwarf or goblin, usually with big belly found in Indian temple base, pillars and elsewhere. They typically are shown in humorous postures, sometimes with musical instruments or dancing or singing or dressed like a prankster.
This is a derivative work on
Shiva Temple, Bhojpur 08 - Gana.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gana,_dwarfs_goblins_in_Indian_temple_architecture.jpg


Dwarf musicians. Badami. Bagalkot Dt., Karnataka, India

Viṣṇu Trivikrama and dwarfs. Badami caves.

Viṣṇu Trivikrama, King and Viṣṇu disguised as a dwarf ca. 7th century CE
http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/huntington/show_detail.py?ObjectID=5000369

Varāha and dwarfs.Badami caves.
Image result for gana of dwarfs badami
Gaa Musicians at Upper Śivālaya, North Badami Fort, Karnataka
Image result for gana of dwarfs badami
Naṭaraja, dwarfs PLUS Gaṇapati doing a karaṇa, 'dance posture' next to a drummer . Badami caves, Karnataka.
Image result for gana of dwarfs badami
Naṭaraja, dwarfs Cave 14 / Ravana Ka Khaim Ellora

Dwarf with Tendrils. Nachna-Kuthara temples, Panna District

Dwarf & Kirtimukha. Sarnath, Varanasi Dt., Uttar Pradesh, India. ca. 500 CE
Viṣṇu in the form Vāmana Dwarf , 6th Century Badami rock-cut cave temples , Karnataka 
Related image
Patan, Gujarat. Vāmana Dwarf 
Image result for gana of dwarfs siva ganaŚiva GaṇaŚiva's followers, the Ganas, are dwarves and revered as minor deities (5th Century, Khoh, Madhya Pradesh, Red Sandstone)
A_Dwarf_Drummer_
Śiva Gaṇa playing on drum
anuradhapura
Dwarf from Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

त्रि--धातु m. गणे*श; mfn. consisting of 3 parts , triple , threefold (used like Lat. triplex to denote excessive) RV. S3Br. v , 5 , 5 , 6; m. (scil. पुरोड्/आशN. of an oblation TS. ii , 3 , 6. 1 ( -त्व्/अ n. abstr.); n. the aggregate of the 3 minerals or of the 3 humours (Monier-Williams).gaṇḥ गणः [गण् कर्मणि कर्तरि वा अच्] 1 A flock, multitude, group, troop, collection; गुणिगणगणना, भगणः -2 A series, a class. -3 A body of followers or attendants. -4 Particularly, a troop of demigods considered as Śiva's attendants and under the special superintendence of Gaṇeśa, a demigod of this troop; गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनाम् &c.; गणा नमेरुप्रसवावतंसाः Ku.1.55,7.4,71; Me.35.57; Ki.5.13. -5 Any assemblage or society of men formed for the attainment of the same objects. -6 A company, association. -7 A tribe, class. -8 A series of lunar mansions classed under three heads (of god, men and demons). -9 A sect (in philosophy, religion). -1 A small body of troops (a sub-division of अक्षौहिणी), consisting of 27 chariots, as many elephants, 81 horses and 135 foot; Mb.1.2.21. -11 A number (in math.). -12 A foot (in prosody). -13 (In gram.) A series of roots or words belonging to the same rule and called after the first word of that series; e. g. भ्वादिगण i. e. the class of roots which begin with भू. -14 An epithet of Gaṇeśa. -Comp. -अग्रणी m. N. of Gaṇeśa. -अचलः N. of the mountain Kailāsa, as the residence of the Gaṇas of Śiva. -अधिपः, -अधिपतिः 1 N. of Śiva; Śi.9.27. -2 N. of Gaṇeśa. -3 the chief of a troop of soldiers or of a class of disciples, of a body of men or animals. -अन्नम् a mess, food prepared for number of persons in common; Ms.4.29,219. -अभ्यन्तर a. one of a troop or number. (-रः) the leader or mem- ber of any religious association; Ms.3.154. -ईशः N. of Gaṇapati, Śiva's son (see गणपति below). ˚जननी an epithet of Pārvatī. ˚भूषणम् red-lead. -ईशानः, -ईश्वरः 1 an epithet of Gaṇeśa. -2 of Śiva. -उत्साहः the rhinoceros. -कारः 1 a classifier. -2 an epithet of Bhīmasena. -कृत्वस् ind. for a whole series of times, for a number of times. -गतिः a particular high number. -चक्रकम् a dinner eaten in common by a party of virtuous men. -छन्दस् n. metre regulated and measured by feet. -तिथ a. forming a troop or collection. -दीक्षा 1 initiation of a number or a class. -2 performance of rites for a number of persons. -दीक्षिन् a. 1 one who officiates for a number of per- sons or for various castes (as a priest). -2 one who has been initiated into the worship of Ganeśa. -देवताः (pl.) groups of deities who generally appear in classes of troops; Ak. thus classifies them :-आदित्यविश्ववसव- स्तुषिता भास्वरानिलाः । महाराजिकसाध्याश्च रुद्राश्च गणदेवताः ॥ -द्रव्यम् 1 public property, common stock; Y.2.187. -2 a variety of articles. -धरः 1 the head of a class or number. -2 the teacher of a school. -नाथः, -नाथकः 1 an epithet of Śiva. -2 of Gaṇeśa. -3 the leader of the attendants of any god; Bhāg.5.17.13. -4 the head of an assemblage or corporation; Bṛi. S.15.4. -नायिका an epithet of Durgā. -पः, पतिः 1 N. of Śiva. -2 N. of Gaṇeśa. [He is the son of Śiva and Pārvatī, or of Pārvatī only; for according to one legend, he sprang from the scurf of her body. He is the god of wisdom and remover of obstacles; hence he is invok- ed and worshipped at the commencement of every important undertaking. He is usually represented in a sitting posture, short and fat, with a protuberant belly, and four hands; riding a mouse; and with the head of an elephant. This head has only one tusk, the other having been lost in a scuffle between him and Paraśurāma when he opposed the latter's en- trance to Śiva's inner apartments; (whence he is called Ekadanta, Ekadaṁṣṭra &c.). There are seve- ral legends accounting for his elephant head. It is said that he wrote the Mahābhārata at the dictation of Vyāsa who secured his services as a scribe from the god Brahman]. -3 also an epithet of Bṛihas- pati and Indra. -4 the leader of a class or troop. -पर्वत see गणाचल. -पाठः a collection of gaṇas or series of words falling under the same grammatical rule. -पीठकम् the breast, bosom. -पुङ्गवः the head of a tribe or class. (pl.) N. of a country and its people; Bṛi. S.4.24. -पूर्वः the leader of a tribe or class; (ग्रामणी); Mb.13.23.2. ˚तापनी N. of a Upaniṣad. -भर्तृ m. 1 an epithet of Śiva; गणभर्तृरुक्षा Ki.5.42. -2 N. of Gaṇeśa. -3 the leader of a class. -भोजनम् mess, eating in com- mon. -यज्ञः a rite common to all. -रत्नमहोदधिः a collection of grammatical gaṇas by Vardhamāna. -राज्यम् N. of an empire in the Deccan; Bṛi. S.14. 14. -रात्रम् a series of nights. -वल्लभः a general of the army (सेनानायक); Rām.2.81.12. -वृत्तम् see गणच्छन्दस्. -हासः, -हासकः a species of perfume. (Apte)Gaṇa is a corporation, guild;  "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements; hence, a synonym of Gaṇapati is tri-dhātu 'three mineral elements' (Amarakośa also notes other synonyms: Amarakośa 1.1. 38 vināyako vighnarājadvaimāturagaṇādhipāḥ apyekadantaherambalambodaragajānanāḥ):

In the Burmese languageगणे*श is known as Maha Peinne (မဟာပိန္နဲ
pronounced [məhà pèiɴné]), derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka (မဟာဝိနာယက).The widespread name of गणे*श in Thailand is Phra Phikanet. The earliest images and mention of गणे*श names as a major deity in present-day Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th- and 8th-centuries,and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier. In Sri Lankan Singhala Buddhist areas, he is known as Gana deviyo, and revered along with BuddhaVishnu,
Skanda and others.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganesha

Two iconographic representations of Gaṇeśa which predate any pratimā  found in Bhārat are reported from China (dated to ca. 500 CE).

1. In Sri Lanka, the oldest image of Ganesh is found in the Kantak Chaitya in Mihintale dated to 1st century BCE.
2. Mahāvināyaka of Gardez, Afghanistan is dated to 5th century CE.
3. A painting of the elephant-headed deity is found in Cave 285 at Tun-huang, a chamber excavated in the Northern Wei dynasty but with some decorations dating the image to the T’ang dynasty.
4. A stone sculpture of the deity is found at Kung-hsien. The inscription on the image.datesit to 531 CE. Gaṇeśa of Kung-hsien is a two-armed seated figure, holds a lotus, the inscription described Gaṇeśa as the ‘‘Spirit King of Elephants’’.
The Chinese finds are reported in: Alice Getty, 1936, Ganesa, A monograph on the elephant-faced God, 1936, repr. Ed., Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1971), p.67, p.68.
File:Shoten.jpgButsuzō-zu-i 仏像図彙, “Collected Illustrations of Buddhist Images.” Published 1690 (Genroku 元禄 3).

“The theme of aiding the demonic spirits in order to control them and to stop the hindrances they create is continued in the works of a mid-eighth century Chinese disciple of Amoghavajra. Han-kuang pointed out that Vināyaka had many forms, the embracing figures, Ganapati, and the elephant-headed king. The Chinese Tantric master taught that the elephant-headed king is a symbol of the great power Vināyaka possesses, but just as an elephant can be tamed by the keeper, so Vināyaka can be tamed by certain rituals.” (Lewis Lancaster, 1991,  Gaṇeśa in CHina: Methods of transforming the demonic, in: Robert L. Brown 1991, Ganesh, studies of an Asian God, State University of New York Press, p.284).
The unique image of Ganesha of 1239 found at Bara belonging to Sangasari period is seen protected from the rear by a demonic face on the back of its head.
Gaṇeśa -- Prah Kenes (Khmer), Phra Phikanet (Thailand) -- from 1239 CE found at Bara belonging to Sangasari period is seen protected from the rear by a kīrtimukha face on the back of its head; skulls adorn the base of pratimā

http://staging.heritage-india.com/blog/ganeshaaroundtheworld/
Japanese Ganesha
"Kangi-ten (deva of bliss): This is the dual image known in Japanese as Kangi-ten. It shows two elephant-headed figures embracing their hands clasped behind each other’s back. This type of Ganesha-form came to Japan originally from China. This is a secret esoteric form of the god (Ganesha) Kangi-ten derived from the Tantric cult based on the Yoga doctrine of the union of the Individual with the Universal spirit." Another form Another form in Japan, Vajra Vinayaka or Kakuzencho, has three heads with three eyes, holds a sword, radish, sceptre and modak in his four hands.

http://staging.heritage-india.com/blog/ganeshaaroundtheworld/

See: Lewis Lancaster, 1991,  Gaṇeśa in CHina: Methods of transforming the demonic, in: Robert L. Brown 1991, Ganesh, studies of an Asian God, State University of New York Press, pp. 277-286) https://www.academia.edu/10470293/Ganesha_in_China_Methods_of_Transforming_the_Demonic

Gaṇeśa is invoked in the R̥gveda (RV 2.23.1) as leader of gaņa, the retinue of Śiva. (Wilson, H. H. Ŗgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001)

गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥ gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | RV 2.23.1; "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages."

Two verses in texts provide a description of the iconographic features of Gaṇeśa: 1. Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1) ( "tát karāţāya vidmahe | hastimukhāya dhîmahi | tán no dántî pracodáyāt||"and 2. Taittirīya Āraṇyaka(10.1) ("tát púruṣâya vidmahe vakratuṇḍāya dhîmahitán no dántî pracodáyāt||")

In these texts, two iconographic features recognized are: hastimukha 'elephant face' and vakratuṇḍa 'curved tusk'. A third iconographic feature recognized is that Gaeśa is surrounded by Maruts as attested in  R̥gveda: RV 10.112.9 (10092) ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".
त्रि tri-धातुः an epithet of Gaṇeśa; -तुम् 1 the triple world. -2 the aggregate of the 3 minerals or humours. (Apte lexicon)  त्रि--धातु [p= 458,3] mfn. consisting of 3 parts , triple , threefold (used like Lat. triplex to denote excessive) RV. S3Br. v , 5 , 5 , 6; m. (scil. पुरोड्/आश) N. of an oblation TS. ii , 3 , 6. 1 ( -त्व्/अ n. abstr.); n. the triple world RV.; n. the aggregate of the 3 minerals or of the 3 humours W.; m. गणे*श L.

hēramb हेरम्बः [हे शिवे रम्बति रम्ब्-अच् अलुक् समा˚ Tv.] 1 N. of Gaṇeśa; जेता हेरम्बभृङ्गिप्रमुखगणचमूचक्रिणस्तारकारेः Mv. 2.17; हे हेरम्ब, किमम्ब, रोदिषि कथं, कर्णौ लुठत्यग्निभूः Subhāṣ. लुठत् [p= 904,1] mfn. rolling , falling down W.; flowing , trickling (?) ib.


Tracing back through the mists of time into the periods prior to 8th millennium BCE, it is possible to realize the significance of Tri-dhātu Gaṇeśa venerated from the days of R̥gveda. Veneration of Ganesha dates back to Rigvedic times (See RV 2.23 sukta gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnām upamaśravastamam -- with translation appended). In the tradition of Bharatam Janam, gana are related to kharva, dwarfs as part of Kubera's nidhi; rebus: karba 'iron'. See: 

Gaṇeś https://www.academia.edu/s/32bd84b1b4


Mahāvināyaka, Tri-dhātu Gaṇeśa in Gardez; śabda-sphoṭa 'meaning of pratimā'karba, ib 'iron worker', phaḍa' फड 'manufactory in-charge, guild, public officer, scribe with iron stylus' (ib 'elephant' rebus; ib 'needle, writing stylus', ib 'iron')'.

Hieroglyph: फडा (p. 313phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága &c. Ta. patam cobra's hood. Ma. paṭam id. Ka. peḍe id. Te. paḍaga id. Go. (S.) paṛge, (Mu.) baṛak, (Ma.) baṛki, (F-H.) biṛki hood of serpent (Voc. 2154). / Turner, CDIAL, no. 9040, Skt. (s)phaṭa-, sphaṭā- a serpent's expanded hood, Pkt. phaḍā- id. For IE etymology, see Burrow, The Problem of Shwa in Sanskrit, p. 45.(DEDR 47)

Rebus: 
फड ‘manufactory, company, guild, public office’, keeper of all accounts, registers.
फडपूस (p. 313) phaḍapūsa f (फड & पुसणें) Public or open inquiry. फडफरमाश or स (p. 313) phaḍapharamāśa or sa f ( H & P) Fruit, vegetables &c. furnished on occasions to Rajas and public officers, on the authority of their order upon the villages; any petty article or trifling work exacted from the Ryots by Government or a public officer. 
फडनिविशी or सी (p. 313) phaḍaniviśī or sī & फडनिवीस Commonly फडनिशी & फडनीसफडनीस (p. 313) phaḍanīsa m ( H) A public officer,--the keeper of the registers &c. By him were issued all grants, commissions, and orders; and to him were rendered all accounts from the other departments. He answers to Deputy auditor and accountant. Formerly the head Kárkún of a district-cutcherry who had charge of the accounts &c. was called फडनीस
फडकरी (p. 313) phaḍakarī m A man belonging to a company or band (of players, showmen &c.) 2 A superintendent or master of a फड or public place. See under फड. 3 A retail-dealer (esp. in grain). 
फडझडती (p. 313) phaḍajhaḍatī f sometimes फडझाडणी f A clearing off of public business (of any business comprehended under the word फड q. v.): also clearing examination of any फड or place of public business. 
फड (p. 313) phaḍa m ( H) A place of public business or public resort; as a court of justice, an exchange, a mart, a counting-house, a custom-house, an auction-room: also, in an ill-sense, as खेळण्याचा फड A gambling-house, नाचण्याचा फड A nach house, गाण्याचा or ख्यालीखुशालीचा फड A singing shop or merriment shop. The word expresses freely Gymnasium or arena, circus, club-room, debating-room, house or room or stand for idlers, newsmongers, gossips, scamps &c. 2 The spot to which field-produce is brought, that the crop may be ascertained and the tax fixed; the depot at which the Government-revenue in kind is delivered; a place in general where goods in quantity are exposed for inspection or sale. 3 Any office or place of extensive business or work, as a factory, manufactory, arsenal, dock-yard, printing-office &c. 4 A plantation or field (as of ऊसवांग्यामिरच्याखरबुजे &c.): also a standing crop of such produce. 5 fig. Full and vigorous operation or proceeding, the going on with high animation and bustle (of business in general). v चालपडघालमांड. 6 A company, a troop, a band or set (as of actors, showmen, dancers &c.) 7 The stand of a great gun. फड पडणें g. of s. To be in full and active operation. 2 To come under brisk discussion. फड मारणेंराखणें-संभाळणें To save appearances, फड मारणें or संपादणें To cut a dash; to make a display (upon an occasion). फडाच्या मापानें With full tale; in flowing measure. फडास येणें To come before the public; to come under general discussion. 

गणे* श a[p= 343,2] m. (= °ण-नाथ) N. of the god of wisdom and of obstacles (son of शिव and पार्वती , or according to one legend of पार्वती alone ; though गणे*श causes obstacles he also removes them ; hence he is invoked at the commencement of all undertakings and at the opening of all compositions with the words नमो गणे*शाय विघ्ने*श्वराय ; he is represented as a short fat man with a protuberant belly , frequently riding on a rat or attended by one , and to denote his sagacity has the head of an elephant , which however has only one tusk ; the appellation गणे*श , with other similar compounds , alludes to his office as chief of the various classes of subordinate gods , who are regarded as शिव's attendants ; cf. RTL. pp. 48 , 62 , 79 , 392 , 440 ; he is said to have written down the MBh. as dictated by व्यास MBh. i , 74 ff. ; persons possessed , by गणे*श are referred to Ya1jn5. i , 270 ff.).

Hypertexts on the Gardez pratimā of Gaṇeśa and additional hieroglyphs.hypertexts on other images are:

1. cobra hood
2. membrum virile
3. elephant head
4. mouse
5. broken rusk
6. dance step

Rebus readings of the hypertexts relate their significance to iron-metal work:

1. फडphaḍa,  'cobra hood' rebus: फडphaḍa 'Bhāratīya arsenal of metal weapons' 

2. lo 'membrum virile' rebus: loh 'copper'
3. karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' ib 'needle' (writing stylus) ibbo 'merchant' 
4. मूष mūṣa [p= 827,2] rat, mouse Rebus: मूष mūṣa [p= 827,2] a crucible Ma1rkP. Kull. L.
5. दन्त danta [p= 468,2] an elephant's tusk , ivory MBh. R. &c Rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore'
6. meḍ 'dance-step' Rebus; mẽṛhẽt, me 'iron' (Santali.Mu.Ho.).med 'copper' (Slavic) (cf. Candi-Sukuh Gaṇeśa) 

Ib 'elephant' rebus: ib 'needle', rebus: ib 'iron' is a rendering in hypertext of the iron stylus used by Gaṇeśa as a scribe of Mahābhārata Epic.

Candi-Sukuh Gaṇeśa is shown in a dance-step, in the context of smelting, forging of sword by Bhima and by the bellows-blower Arjuna. The building in the background is a smelter/forge.

The association of Gaṇeśa with iron-working gives him the name tri-dhātu 'three minerals' wich are:

goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore' poḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore' bicha 'haemtite, ferrite ore'. These three ferrite ores are signified by the hieroglyphs: goṭa 'round pebble stone' poḷa 'zebu, dewlap, honeycomb' bica 'scorpion'.

Gaṇeśa is signified as part of Marut गण[p= 343,1] troops or classes of inferior deities (especially certain troops of demi-gods considered as शिव's attendants and under the special superintendence of the god गणे*श ; cf. देवता) Mn. Ya1jn5. Lalit. &c;  m. a flock , troop , multitude , number , tribe , series , class (of animate or inanimate beings) , body of followers or attendants RV. AV. &c. 
Image result for kailasanatha maruts
Marut-gaṇa including Gaṇeśa on a sculptural panel.Kailasanatha Temple,Kanchipuram.
[quote] Hindu Shahi Rule 

The Shahi dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the old province of Gandhara (NE Afghanistan, northern Pakistan and NW India), known as Kabul-shahan, with twin capitals at Kapisa and Kabu, from the aftermath of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century CE to the early 9th century.

The term Shahi was a popular royal title in Afghanistan — used at various times by Achaemenids, Bactrians, Sakas, Kushan rulers and Huns (Hephthalites), as well as by the 6th- to 8th-century Shahi rulers of Kapisa/Kabul.

Historians divide the Shahi Period of Kabul/Gandhara into two eras: the so-called Buddhist Turk-Shahis (before 870 AD), and the so-called Hindu-Shahis (after 870 AD).

Despite numerous references to the Shahis as decendents of the Kushans or Western Turks, the Shahi rulers of Kabul/Kapisa almost certainly descended from the warrior caste known as Ashvakas (the word from which, several scholars contend, the term "Afghan" is derived) who for many centuries dwelt in the region known as Kambojas on the northern and southern sides of the Hindu Kush range.



A 5th-century marble Gaṇeśa  found in GardezAfghanistan, and once displayed at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, Kabul (present location unknown). The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image of Mahāvināyaka" was consecrated by the Shahi King Khingala. (For photograph of statue and details of inscription, see: Dhavalikar, M.K., "Gaņeśa: Myth and Reality", in: Brown 1991, pp. 50, 63.[Dhavalikar, M.K. “A Note on Two Gaṇeśa Statues from Afghanistan.” East and West, vol. 21, no. 3/4, 1971, pp. 331–336, www.jstor.org/stable/29755703]
Mahāvināyaka of Gardez, Afghanistan. A 5th century marble Ganesha found in Gardez, Afghanistan, now at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, Kabul. The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image of Mahāvināyaka" was consecrated by the Shahi King Khingala.(Dhavalikar, M. K., "Gaņeśa: Myth and Reality", in: Robert L. Brown 1991, Ganesh, studies of an Asian God, State University of New York Press, pp. 50,63). Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Gaṇeśa in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter). (Ibid., p. 49)
Hooded snake on sacred thread.
I suggest that the glyphics on the sacred thread and on the garment worn on the sculpture signify cobra-hoods. Cobra hoods are clearly seen on the following sculpture, on the left shoulder of .Gaṇeśa. These cobra-hoods are also comparable to the glyphics shown on Sanchi sculptural frieze.
Image result for bharatkalyan97 serpent hood daimabadCobra hoods arching over membrum virile of charioteer. Daimabad.

फडphaḍa,  'cobra hood' rebus: फडphaḍa 'Bhāratīya arsenal of metal weapons' lo 'membrum virile' rebus: loh'copper'

Image result for serpent hoods sanchiSouthern pillar, East Torana. Sanchi. Cobra hoods.
Image result for bharatkalyan97 serpent hood sanchiSanchi. Sculptural frieze. Cobra hoods.
Image result for serpent hoods sanchi

Figure 1: Elephant-headed figure from Luristan, western Iran, 1000 BCE. Was this the scribe of the Mahabharata?
Figure 2: Four armed Ganesha, Shankar Dhar, Afghanistan, 4th century CE.
Figure 3: Four armed Mahavinayaka, Gardez, Afghanistan, 5th-6th century CE.

Figure 4: Ganesha as the primordial sound or pranava mantra OM.
Figure 5: Ganesha under the Pipal tree.
Figure 6: Ganesha as head of ganas, Mihintale stupa, Sri Lanka, 2nd-3rd century CE.

Figure 7: Ganesha in bas relief, Fatehgarh, Uttar Pradesh, 3rd century CE.
Figure 8: Ganesh, Mathura, 5th century CE.

Figure 9: Ganesha, Deogarh, Madhya Pradesh, 5th century CE.

Figure 10: Ganesha, Samalaji, Gujarat, 5th century CE.

Figure 11: Ganesh, Badami, Karnataka, 6th-7th Century CE.

Figure 12: Ganesha with Saptamatrikas, Aihole, Karnataka, 8th century CE.



Figure 13: Ganesha with dancing Shiva, Badami, Karnataka, 6th-7th century CE.
Figure 14: Dancing Ganesha, Gangaikonda-cholapuram, Tamil Nadu, 11th century CE.

Figure 15: A patachitra painting of dancing Ganesha, Orissa, contemporary painting.


Figure 16: Ashta Vinayaka, Maharashtra.



Note on the cobra hoods of Daimabad chariot 

Four hoods of cobra arch over membrum virile. Hypertext expression reads: lo gaṇḍa phain Rebus plaintext readings : 1. phai lokhaṇḍa, 'tin or lead foil,metalware,metal implements market (pun on the word pai, 'market'); 2.  lokhaṇḍa pae (pai) 'metal implements production,metals quarry'. Thus, the charioteer is described to be a paikkan, 'a metals workers, a master metallurgical artificer'.  Alternative: mēṇḍhra -- m.ʻ penis ʼ(Samskritam)(CDIAL 9606) rebus: मृदु mdu, mht, me 'iron' me 'iron, metal' (Ho.Mu.) Alternative: reinforcement of semantics for upraised penis, for lobhar̥kanu  'rise of penis' (N.)(CDIAL 9365) rebus: bha 'furnace, smelter'  Thus, an alternative plain text is: bhaa  phai lokhaṇḍa 'furnace (for) tin or lead foil, metal implements'.

Curved stick held in his right hand: मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick, horn &c.) rebus: मृदुmṛdu, mẽht, meḍ 'iron' meḍ 'iron, metal' (Ho.Mu.)

Ta. paṇṭi cart, waggon, carriage; vaṇṭi id., cartload; vaṇṭil cart, carriage, bandy, wheel; pāṇṭi cart with a top, bullock cart; pāṇṭil two-wheeled cart, horse-drawn chariotMa.vaṇṭi, vaṇṭil wheel, cart, bandy. Ko. vaṇḍy cart. To. poy bullock-cart. Ka. baṇḍi bandy, cart, carriage, wheel. Tu. baṇḍi, bhaṇḍi cart. Te. baṇḍi carriage, cart, any wheeled conveyance. Kol. baṇḍi bullock-cart for freight. Ga. (P. S.&super2;) bani cart. Kuwi (Su. Isr.) baṇḍi id. / Skt. (Hem. U. 608) Or. baṇḍi. Ultimately from Skt. bhāṇḍa- goods, wares, as carrying these; for an IE etymology for bhāṇḍa-,(DEDR 50)

Hieroglyph: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS pōlau, 'black drongo' rebus: pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), fuladh (Persian) folādī (Pashto).पोलाद [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel. (Marathi) bulad 'steel, flint and steel for making fire' (Amharic); fUlAd 'steel' (Arabic).

Hieroglyph: कोला (p. 105) kōlā m (Commonly कोल्हा) A jackal. For compounds see under कोल्हे. कोल्हा (p. 105) kōlhā m A jackal, Canis aureus. Linn. कोल्हें (p. 105) kōlhē n A jackal. Without reference to sex. Pr. अडलें कोल्हेंमंगळ गाय Even the yelling jackal can sing pleasantly when he is in distress. कोल्हें  Ta. kol working in iron, lacksmith; kolla blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. kole·l 
smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwala·l Kota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace; (Bell.; U.P.U.) konimi 
blacksmith (Gowda) kolla id. Ko. kollë blacksmith. Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy (Voc. 948). Kuwi 
(F.) kolhali to forge.(DEDR 2133)

Hieroglyph: barad, 'bullock': balivárda (balīv° ŚBr.) m. ʻ ox, bull ʼ TBr., balivanda- m. Kāh., barivarda -- m. lex. [Poss. a cmpd. of balín -- (cf. *balilla -- ) and a non -- Aryan word for ʻ ox ʼ (cf. esp. Nahālī baddī and poss. IA. forms like Sik. ō ʻ bull < *pāḍḍa -- : EWA ii 419 with lit.)]Pa. balivadda -- m. ʻ ox ʼ, Pk. balĭ̄vadda -- , balidda -- , baladda -- m. (cf. balaya -- m. < *balaka -- ?); L. baledā, mult. baled m. ʻ herd of bullocks ʼ ( S. aledo m.); P. bald,baldhbalhd m. ʻ ox ʼ, baledbaledā m. ʻ herd of oxen ʼ, ludh. bahldbalēd m. ʻ ox ʼ; Ku. balad m. ʻ ox ʼ, gng. bald, N. (Tarai) barad, A. balad(h), B. balad, Or. baada, Bi.barad(h), Mth. barad (hyper -- hindiism baad), Bhoj. baradh, Aw.lakh. bardhu, H. baladbarad(h), bardhā m. (whence baladnā ʻ to bull a cow ʼ), G. baad m. balivardin -- .Addenda: balivárda -- [Cf. Ap. valivaṇḍa -- ʻ mighty ʼ, OP. balavaṇḍā]: WPah.kc. bɔḷəd m., kg. bɔḷd m. (LNH 30 bŏd), J. bald m., Garh. bada ʻ bullock ʼ.(CDIAL 9176) Rebus: भरत (p. 353bharata n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c.;  भरती (p. 353bharatī a Composed of the metal भरत.; भरताचें भांडें (p. 353bharatācē mbhāṇḍē n A vessel made of the metal भरत. (Marathi) 

karukku-paṇi embossed work (Ma.)(DEDR 1280) Ka. paṇe ground that is worked, tillage, quarry; paṇṇeya, paṇya farm, landed estate. Tu. (B-K.) paṇe quarry. (DEDR 3891) Ta. paṇ service, work, business, employment, decoration; paṇi act, action, performance, work, service, decoration; paṇati workmanship, action, creation, ornament; paṇiti work, structure, ornament; paṇikkaṉ master-builder, carpenter; paṇikkam, paṇikku accuracy of design, elaboration in a work; paṇinar servants; paṇpu action, deed; paṇṇu (paṇṇi-) to make, effect, produce, adorn; paṉṉu (paṉṉi-) to do anything with consideration and skill. Ma. paṇi work, labour, service, building, exertion; paṇikkan workman, artificer; paṇiyuka to build; paṇiyan a caste of cultivators in hilly districts; game-trackers, living chiefly in Wynad; paṇṇuka, paṇṇikka vb. denoting coitus (obscene). Ko. paṇynman of a caste  at Gudalur in Wynad; fem. paṇc; ? paṇ anvil. To. poṇy work. Ka. paṇṇu to make ready, prepare, equip, decorate; paṇṇika, paṇṇige, paṇṇuge arranging, making ready, equipping. Ko. paṇi work. Tu. paṇipuni to give a shape (e.g. to a vessel). Te. pani work, labour, act, deed, workmanship, art; (inscr.) paṇi work; pannu to contrive, plan, design, invent; (K. also) be ready, make ready; (K. also) n. suitability. Kol. (SR.) pannī work, labour. Nk. pani work. Pa. panḍp- (panḍt-) to make, do. Ga. (Oll.) panḍ- to be able. Go. (LSI, Kōi) paṇi, (Grigson) paṛī, (Ko.) paṛi work (Voc. 2092); panḍ- (G.) to build (house), (Mu.) to make, build, repair, (Ma.) to make, construct; (L.) pandānā to make, repair (Voc. 2093). Kona pand- (-it-) to prepare, construct, devise, plan; paṇi work(DEDR 3884)

gaṇḍa set of four (Santali); rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar, furnace' (Santali) rebus: ṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’ (Marathi) खंडा [ khaṇḍā ] m A sort of sword. It is straight and twoedged. खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m A kind of sword, straight, broad-bladed, two-edged, and round-ended. खांडाईत [khāṇḍāītaa Armed with the sword called खांडा. (Marathi)

PLUS phain 'cobra hood' rebus: phai 'tin or lead foil'.

Hieroglyph: lo 'penis' Go<luGguj>(Z) [lUGguy']  {NB} ``male ^genitals, ^penis, ^scrotum''.(Munda etyma) loe 'penis' (Ho.) Rebus: loh 'copper, iron, metal' (Indian sprachbund, Meluhha) लोह [p= 908,3]mfn. (prob. fr. a √ रुह् for a lost √ रुध् , " to be red " ; cf. रोहि , रोहिण &c ) red , reddish , copper-coloured S3rS. MBh.made of copper S3Br. (Sch.)made of iron Kaus3.m. n. red metal , copper VS. &c

Hieroglyph: ``^penis'':So. laj(R)  ~ lij  ~ la'a'j  ~ laJlaj  ~ kaD `penis'.Sa. li'j `penis, esp. of small boys'.
Sa. lO'j `penis'.Mu. lOe'j  ~ lOGgE'j `penis'.  ! lO'jHo loe `penis'.Ku. la:j `penis'.@(C289) ``^penis'':
Sa. lOj `penis'.Mu. lOj `penis'.KW lOj@(M084) <lO?Oj>(D),,<AlAj>(L)//<lAj>(DL)  {N} ``^penis''.  #43901.
 <ului>(P),,<uluj>(MP)  {NB} ``^penis, male organ, male^genitals''.  Cf. <kOlOb>(P),<susu>(M) `testicle'; <kuLij>(M), <kuRij>(P) `vulva'.  *Sa., MuN<lO'j>, MuH, Ho<lo'e>,So.<laj-An>, U.Tem.<lo'> ??. %33271.  #33031.So<lO?Oj>(D),,<AlAj>(L)//<lAj>(DL)  {N} ``^penis''.
<lohosua>(D)  {NI} ``^dance''.  #20141. 

Hieroglyph: फणि 1 [p= 716,1] m. a serpent (only gen. pl. फण्/ईनाम्) Suparn2.; 
in comp. for फणिन् m. " hooded " , a serpent esp. Coluber नागKa1v. Katha1s. 
Pur.  phain ʻ hooded (of snake, esp. cobra) ʼ Kathās. [phaá -- 1] Pk. phai -- m. ʻ snake ʼ; P. phaī ʻ flat -- headed (of snake) ʼ; A. phanī ʻ snake ʼ; Or. phaī ʻ hooded ʼ, sb. ʻ snake ʼ; H. phanī ʻ hooded ʼ; G. phaī m. ʻsnake ʼ, Si. paiya.(CDIAL 9046) phaa1 m. ʻ expanded hood of snake (esp. of cobra) ʼ MBh. 2. *phēa -- 2. [Cf. phaa -- , *phēṭṭa -- 2 and *phaati2. -- For mng. ʻ shoulder -- blade ʼ &c. cf. association of shape in phaāphalaka -- Bhartr̥. ~ asaphalaká -- ŚBr. and cf. phēna -- n. ʻ cuttlefish bone ʼ Car.] 1. Pa. phaa -- m. ʻ expanded hood of snake ʼ, Pk. phaa -- m., °ā -- f.; Wg. pa -- šī ʻ big snake ʼ (+šai ʻ head ʼ? NTS xvii 287); K. phan m. ʻ expanded hood of snake ʼ, S. phai f., L.awā. pha, P. pha°u f., ludh. phan m., WPah. (Joshi) fa m., Ku. pha°i, N. phani, A. phanā, B. phan°nā, Or. phaā̆, Mth. phanā, Bhoj. phan, H. phan°nā m., G. phe (< *phai), phaī f., M. pha m., °ī f., Si. paapea. -- S. phai f. ʻshoulderblade ʼ; H. phanī f. ʻ wedge ʼ; G. phaṇɔ m. ʻ fore part of foot ʼ. 2. A. phenā ʻ expanded hood of snakeʼ, Or. pheā̆. phain -- , phaakara -- .phaá -- ʻ froth ʼ see phāita -- .Addenda: phaa -- 1: S.kcch. pha f. ʻ snake's hood, front part of foot ʼ, phaī f. ʻ weaver's toothed instrument for pressing and closing the woof ʼ; WPah.kg. phɔ́ m. ʻ cobra's hood ʼ; Garh. pha ʻ snake's hood ʼ. (CDIAL 9042)  phaṇakara m. ʻ cobra ʼ lex. [Cf. phaṇākara -- , phaṇa- dhara -- , phaṇādh° m. lex. -- phaṇa -- 1, kará -- 1]L. phaniar m., P. phanyar m., WPah. (Joshi) fanā'r m. (all with n, not ?).Addenda: phaṇakara -- : WPah.kṭg. phɔ́ṇər m. ʻ cobra ʼ, J. fanā'r m. (kṭg. phɔ́ṇir m. poss. ← P. Him.I 127). (CDIAL 9043)

Rebus 1: tin or metal foil: फणिन् [p= 716,2] n. (prob.) tin or lead Ka1lac.  panī f. ʻ tinfoil ʼ(Sindhi); P. pannā m. ʻleaf, page ʼ, pannī f. ʻ gilt leather ʼ; H. pān m. ʻ leaf ʼ, pannā m. ʻ leaf, page ʼ, pannī f. ʻ metal foil, grass for thatching ʼ; G. pānũ n. ʻ blade ʼ(CDIAL 7918) prāmāika ʻ founded on authority ʼ Dāyabh., m. ʻ chief of a trade ʼW. [pramāa-- ] B. pānīinpāin a surname?  (CDIAL 8949)

Rebus 2: पणि [p= 580,2] a market L.; N. of a class of envious demons watching over treasures RV. (esp. x , 108AV. S3Br.; m. a bargainer , miser , niggard (esp. one who is sparing of sacrificial oblations) RV. AV.
Rebus: <loha>(BD)  {NI} ``^iron''.  Syn. <luaG>(D).  *@.  #20131)  laúha -- ʻ made of copper or iron ʼGr̥Śr., ʻ red ʼ MBh., n. ʻ iron, metal ʼ Bhaṭṭ. [lōhá -- ] Pk. lōha -- ʻ made of iron ʼ; L. lohā ʻ iron -- coloured, reddish ʼ; P. lohā ʻ reddish -- brown (of cattle) ʼ.lōhá 11158 lōhá ʻ red, copper -- coloured ʼ ŚrS., ʻ made of copper ʼ ŚBr., m.n. ʻ copper ʼ VS., ʻ iron ʼ MBh. [*rudh -- ] Pa. lōha -- m. ʻ metal, esp. copper or bronze ʼ; Pk. lōha -- m. ʻ iron ʼ, Gy. pal. li°lihi, obl. elhás, as. loa JGLS new ser. ii 258; Wg. (Lumsden) "loaʻ steel ʼ; Kho.loh ʻ copper ʼ; S. lohu m. ʻ iron ʼ, L. lohā m., awā. ˋā, P. lohā m. ( K.rām. o. lohā), WPah.bhad. lɔ̃u n., bhal. lòtilde; n., pā. jaun. lōh, pa. luhā, cur. cam.lohā, Ku. luwā, N. lohu°hā, A. lo, B. lono, Or. lohāluhā, Mth. loh, Bhoj. lohā, Aw.lakh. lōh, H. lohlohā m., G. M. loh n.; Si. loho ʻ metal, ore, iron ʼ; Md.ratu -- lō ʻ copper ʼ.WPah.kg. (kc.) ɔ ʻ iron ʼ, J. lohā m., Garh. loho; Md.  ʻ metal ʼ. (CDIAL 11172).

lōhakāra m. ʻ iron -- worker ʼ, °rī -- f., °raka -- m. lex., lauhakāra -- m. Hit. [lōhá -- , kāra -- 1]Pa. lōhakāra -- m. ʻ coppersmith, ironsmith ʼ; Pk. lōhāra -- m. ʻ blacksmith ʼ, S. luhā̆ru m., L. lohār m., °rī f., awā. luhār, P. WPah.khaś. bhal. luhār m., Ku. lwār, N. B. lohār, Or. lohaa, Bi.Bhoj. Aw.lakh. lohār, H. lohārluh° m., G. lavār m., M. lohār m.; Si. lōvaru ʻ coppersmith ʼ.WPah.kg. (kc.) lhwāˋr m. ʻ blacksmith ʼ, lhwàri f. ʻ his wifeʼ, Garh. lwār m. (CDIAL 11159).lōhaghaa 11160 *lōhaghaa ʻ iron pot ʼ. [lōhá -- , ghaa -- 1]Bi. lohrā°rī ʻsmall iron pan ʼ.*lōhaphāla -- ʻ ploughshare ʼ. [lōhá -- , phāˊla -- 1]WPah.kg. lhwāˋḷ m. ʻ ploughshare ʼ, J. lohāl m. ʻ an agricultural implement ʼ Him.I 197; -- or < *lōhahala -- .(CDIAL 11160) lōhala ʻ made of ironʼ W. [lōhá -- ]G. loharlohariyɔ m. ʻ selfwilled and unyielding man ʼ.(CDIAL 11161).*lōhaśālā ʻ smithy ʼ. [lōhá-- , śāˊlā -- ]Bi. lohsārī ʻ smithy ʼ. (CDIAL 11162).lōhahaṭṭika 11163 *lōhahaṭṭika ʻ ironmonger ʼ. [lōhá -- , haṭṭa -- ] P.ludh. lōhiyā m. ʻ ironmonger ʼ.*lōhahala -- ʻ ploughshare ʼ. [lōhá -- , halá -- ]WPah.kg. lhwāˋḷ m. ʻ ploughshare ʼ, J. lohāl ʻ an agricultural instrument ʼ; rather < *lōhaphāla -- .(CDIAL 11163).
."ancing Gaṇeśa  sculpture from North Bengal, 11th century CE, Asian Art Museumof Berlin (Dahlem).
Gaṇapati, Madhya Pradesh, c. 750, India

The devatā of the Sukta is Brahmaaspati.

Brahmaaspati also called Gaapati is the chief leader of the heavenly bands; he is also a kavi, says RV 2.23.1 कवि mfn. ( √1. कू cf. 2. कव , /आकूत , /आकूति , काव्य Naigh. iii , 15 Nir. xii , 13 Un2. iv , 138) gifted with insight , intelligent , knowing , enlightened , wise , sensible , prudent , skilful , cunning; m. a thinker , intelligent man , man of understanding , leader; m. a wise man , sage , seer , prophet;m. a singer , bard , poet (but in this sense without any technical application in the वेद) RV. VS. TS. AV. S3Br. i , 4 , 2 , 8 Kat2hUp. iii , 14 MBh. Bhag. Bha1gP. Mn. vii , 49 R. Ragh.; m. N. of several gods , (esp.) of अग्नि RV. ii , 23 , 1 ; x , 5 , 4 , 3 ; iii , 5 , 1 ; i , 31 , 2 ; 76 , 5; m. of वरुण , इन्द्र , the अश्विन्s , मरुत्s , आदित्यs; m. of the सोमm. of the सोम priest and other sacrificers;m. of the ऋभुs (as skilful in contrivance); m. a keeper or herd RV. vii , 18 , 8; m. (fig.N. of the gates of the sacrificial enclosure TS. v , 11 , 1 , 2 (cf. कव्/अष्); m. the sun (Monier-Williams)

 




(Sayana/Wilson) RV 2.23
2.023.01 We invoke the Brahman.aspati, chief leaderof the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sage; aboundingbeyondmeasure in (every kind of) food;best lord of prayer; hearing our invocations, come with your protections, and sit down in the chamber of sacrifice. [Brahman.aspati = brahman.o annasya parivr.d.hasya karman.o va_ pa_layita_, the protector or cherisher of food,or of any great or solemn acts of devotion; he has other attributes in the text, as, gan.a_na_m gan.apatih, chief of the gan.as (inferior deities); jyes.t.hara_jam brahman.a_m, the best lord of mantras, or prayers: pras'asyam sva_minam mantra_n.a_m]. 
2.023.02 Br.haspati, destroyer of the asuras, through you the intelligent gods have obtained the sacrificialportion; in like manner as the adorable sun generates the (solar) rays by his radiance, so are you the generator of all prayers. [Br.haspati = Brahman.aspati; perhaps Br.haspati is of a more martial character; his protection is souhght for against enemies and evil spirits; perhaps, br.hata_m veda_na_m pa_lakah: br.hat = mantra, br.hato mantrasya, sva_min]. 
2.023.03 Having repelled revilers and (dispersed) the darkness you stand Br.haspati, on the radiant chariot of sacrifice, (which is) formidable (to foes), the humiliator of enemies, the destroyer of evil spirits, the cleaver of the clouds, the attainer of heaven. 
2.023.04 You lead men, Br.haspati, by virtuous instructions; you preserve them (from calamity); sin will never overtake him who presents (offerings) to you; you are the afflicter of him who hates (holy) prayers; you are the punisher of wrath; such is your great mightiness. [Him who hates holy prayers: brahmadvis.ah = those who hate either the bra_hman.as,or the mantras or prayers]. 
2.023.05 The man whom you, Brahman.aspati, a kind protector, defend, neither sorrow nor sin, nor adversaries nor dissemblers ever harm, for you drive away from him all injurious (things). 
2.023.06 You, Br.haspati, are our protector and the guide of (our) path; (you are) the discerner (of all things); we worship with praises for your adoration; may his own precipitate malice involve him (in destruction) who practises deceit against us. 
2.023.07 Turn aside from (the true) path, Br.haspati, the arrogant and savage man who advances to injure us, although unoffending and keep us in the right way for (the completion of) this offering to the gods. 
2.023.08 Br.haspati, defender (from calamity), we invoke you, the protector of our persons, the speaker of encouraging words and well disposed towards us; do you destroy the revilers of the gods; let not the malevolent attain supreme felicity. 
2.023.09 Through you, Brahman.aspati, (our) benefactor, may we obtain desirable wealth from men destroy those (our) unrighteous enemies, whether nigh or far off, who prevail against us. 
2.023.10 Through you, Br.haspati, (who are) the fulfiller of our desires; pure, and associated (with us), we possess excellent food; let not the wicked man who wishes to deceive us be our master; but let us, excelling in (pious) praises, attain (prosperity). 
2.023.11 You, Brahman.aspati, who have no requiter (of your bounty), who are the showerer (of benefits), the repairer to combat, the consumer of foes, the victor in battles, you are true, the discharger of debts, the humiliator of the fierce and of the exulting. 
2.023.12 Let not, Br.haspati, the murderous (weapon) of that man reach us, who, with unrighteous mind, seeks to harm us; who, fierce and arrogant, designs to kill (your) worshippers; may we baffle the wrath of the strong evil-doer]. 
2.023.13 Br.haspati is to be invoked in battles; he is to be approached with reverence; he who moves amidst combats, the distributor of repeated wealth; the lord Br.haspati has verily overturned all the assailing malignant (hosts), like chariots (overturned in battle). 
2.023.14 Consume with your brightest (weapon) the ra_ks.asas, who have held your witnessed prowess in disdain; manifest, Br.haspati, your glorified (vigour), such as it was (of old), and destroy those who speak against you. 
2.023.15 Br.haspati, born of truth, grant us that wonderful treasure, wherewith the pious man may worship exceedingly; that (wealth) which shines amongst men; which is endowed with lustre, (is) the means of (performing holy) rites, and invogirates (its possessor) with strength. [dravin.am citram = lit., various or wonderful wealth; in the Bra_hman.as it is interpreted as brahma varcas or tejas, brahmanical virtue or energy (cf. Yajus. 26.3; dravin.am = dhanam (Aitareya Bra_hman.a 4.11)]. 
2.023.16 Deliver us not to the thieves, the enemies delighting in violence, who seize ever upon the food (of others); those who cherish in their hearts the abandonment (of the gods); (they), Br.haspati, who do not know the extent of (your) power (against evil spirits). [Who do not know the extenf of your power: na parah sa_mno viduh = ye puma_msah sa_mnah sa_maya_t tvattah parah parasta_d anyadukr.s.t.am sa_ma yad raks.oghnam na ja_nanti, those men who do not know anything greater than the faculty of destroying ra_ks.asas, derived from you made up of that faculty; sa_ma vai raks.oha = sa_ma is the killer of ra_ks.asas]. 
2.023.17 Tvas.t.a_ engendered you (chief) amongst all beings, (whence) you are the reciter of many a holy hymn: Brahman.aspati acknowledges a debt to the performer of a sacred rite; he is the acquitter (of the debt), and the destoyer of the oppressor. [When you are the reciter: sa_mnah sa_mnah kavih, the reicter or another of every sa_ma, sarvasya sa_mnah ucca_rayita_ karta_si; or kavi refers to tvas.t.a_, further explained as the sage who created Brahman.aspati by the efficacy of the sa_ma: sa_mnah sa_ren.a tvam aji_janat; acknowledges a debt: r.n.acit stotr.ka_mam r.n.am iva cinoti, he takes the intention of the praiser as if it was a debt, or obligation; acquitter of the debt: r.n.aya is explained as the discharger or remover of the debt which is of the nature of sin: pa_paru_pasya r.n.asya pr.thak karta_]. 
2.023.18 When Br.haspati, descendant of An:giras, for your glory, Parvata had concealed the herd o fkine, you did set them free, and with thine associate, Indra, did send down the ocean of water which had been enveloped by darkness. 
2.023.19 Brahman.aspati, who are the regulator of this (world), understand (the purport) of (our) hymn, and grant us posterity; for all is prosperous that the gods protect; (and therefore) may we blessed with excellent descendants, glorify you at this sacrifice. [Yajus. 34.58; vadema = may we declare or glorify you; or, let us speak, let what we ask be given to us;let it be enjoyed by us: di_yata_m bhujyata_m ucca_rayema].


RV 2.23  Brahmanaspati. 23 (Griffith)

1. WE call thee, Lord and Leader of the heavenly hosts, the wise among the wise, the famousest of
all,
The King supreme of prayers, O Brahmanaspati: hear us with help; sit down in place of sacrifice.
Brhaspati, God immortal! verily the Gods have gained from thee, the wise, a share in holy rites.
As with great light the Sun brings forth the rays of morn, so thou alone art Father of all sacred
prayer.
3 When thou hast chased away revilers and the gloom, thou mountest the refulgent car of sacrifice;
The awful car, Brhaspati, that quells the foe, slays demons, cleaves the stall of kine, and finds
the light.
4 Thou leadest with good guidance and preservest men; distress overtakes not him who offers gifts
to thee.
Him who hates prayer thou punishest, Brhaspati, quelling his wrath: herein is thy great mightiness.
5 No sorrow, no distress from any side, no foes, no creatures doubletongued- have overcome the
man,
Thou drivest all seductive fiends away from him whom, careful guard, thou keepest Brahmanaspati.
6 Thou art our keeper, wise, preparer of our paths: we, for thy service, sing to thee with hymns
of praise.
Brhaspati, whoever lays a snare for us, him may his evil fate, precipitate, destroy.
7 Him, too, who threatens us without offence of ours, the evilminded, arrogant, rapacious man,
Him turn thou from our path away, Brhaspati: give us fair access to this banquet of the Gods.
8 Thee as protector of our bodies we invoke, thee, saviour, as the comforter who loveth us.
Strike, O Brhaspati, the Gods revilers down, and let not the unrighteous come to highest bliss.
9 Through thee, kind prosperer, O Brahmanaspati, may we obtain the wealth of Men which all desire:
And all our enemies, who near or far away prevail against us, crush, and leave them destitute.
10 With thee as our own rich and liberal ally may we, Brhaspati, gain highest power of life.
Let not the guileful wicked man be lord of us: still may we prosper, singing goodly hymns of
praise.
11 Strong, never yielding, hastening to the battlecry-, consumer of the foe, victorious in the
strife,
Thou art sins' true avenger, Brahmanaspati, who tamest even the fierce, the wildly passionate.
12 Whoso with mind ungodly seeks to do us harm, who, deeming him a man of might mid lords, would
slay,
Let not his deadly blow reach us, Brhaspati; may we humiliate the strong illdoers-' wrath.
13 The mover mid the spoil, the winner of all wealth, to be invoked in fight and reverently adored,
Brhaspati hath overthrown like cars of war all wicked enemies who fain would injure us.
14 Burn up the demons with thy fiercest flaming brand, those who have scorned thee in thy
manifested might.
Show forth that power that shall deserve the hymn of praise: destroy the evil speakers, O
Brhaspati.
15 Brhaspati, that which the foe deserves not which shines among the folk effectual, splendid,
That, Son of Law I which is with might refulgentthat- treasure wonderful bestow thou on us.
16 Give us not up to those who, foes in ambuscade, are greedy for the wealth of him who sits at
ease,
Who cherish in their heart abandonment of Gods. Brhaspati, no further rest shall they obtain.
17 For Tvastar, he who knows each sacred song, brought thee to life, preeminent over all the
things that be.
Guiltscourger-, guiltavenger- is Brhaspati, who slays the spoiler and upholds the mighty Law.
18 The mountain, for thy glory, cleft itself apart when, Angiras! thou openedst the stall of kine.
Thou, O Brhaspati, with Indra for ally didst hurl down waterfloods- which gloom had compassed
round.
19 O Brahmanaspati, be thou controller of this our hymn and prosper thou our children.
All that the Gods regard with love is blessed. Loud may we speak, with heroes, in assembly.


गणे* श m. (= °ण-नाथN. of the god of wisdom and of obstacles (son of शिव and पार्वती , or according to one legend of पार्वती alone ; though गणे* 
causes obstacles he also removes them ; hence he is invoked at the commencement of all undertakings and at the opening of all compositions with the words नमो गणे*शाय विघ्ने*श्वराय ; he is represented as a short fat man with a protuberant belly , frequently riding on a rat or attended by one , and to denote his sagacity has the head of an elephant , which however has only one tusk ; the appellation गणे* , with other similar compounds , alludes to his office as chief of the various classes of subordinate gods , who are regarded as शिव's attendants ; he is said to have written down the MBh. as dictated by व्यास MBh. i , 74 ff. ; persons possessed , by गणे* are referred to Ya1jn5. i , 270 ff.)(Monier-Williams)

गण m. a flock , troop , multitude , number , tribe , series , class (of animate or inanimate beings) , body of followers or attendants RV. AV. &c; troops or classes of inferior deities (especially certain troops of demi-gods considered as शिव's attendants and under the special superintendence of the god गणे* ; cf. -देवताMn. Ya1jn5. Lalit. &c; गणा f. N. of one of the mothers in स्कन्द's retinue MBh. ix , 2645 (cf. अहर्- , मर्/उद्- , व्/ऋष- , स्/अ- , सप्त्/अ- , स्/अर्व- ; देव-,महा- ,andविद-गण्/अ.) (Monier-Williams)

Atharva Veda XIX.22
A prose hymn of homage to various portions of the Atharva veda, to the Rishis, and to Brahma
[1902201] With the first five chapters of the Angirases, Hail! [p. 229]

[1902202] To the sixth, Hail!
[1902203] To the seventh and eight, Hail!
[1902204] The black clawed ones, Hail!
[1902205] To the golden hued ones, Hail!
[1902206] To the small ones, Hail!
[1902207] To those composed in strophes, Hail!
[1902208] To the first shells, Hail!
[1902209] To the second shells, Hail!
[1902210] To the third shells, Hail!
[1902211] To the penultimates, Hail.
[1902212] To the last ones, Hail!
[1902213] To the latter ones, Hail!
[1902214] To the Rishis, Hail!
[1902215] To those with hair in tufts, Hail!
[1902216] To the Ganas, Hail!
[1902217] To the great Ganas, Hail!
[1902218] To all the Vidagana Angirases, Hail!
[1902219] To those two with separate thousands, Hail!
[1902220] To Brahma, Hail!
[1902221] Collected manly powers are topped by Brahma.
Brahma at first spread out the loftiest heaven.
Brahma was born first of all things existing.
Who then is meet to be that Brahma s rival?


 Gaṇas are attendants of Shiva and live on Mount KailashGanesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇeśa or gaṇapati, "lord or leader of the ganas"...Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar used gana as:
संघोद्घौ गण प्रशंसयो Sanghoddhau gaṇa praśansayo... Nāradasmṛti mentions:that ganatantra (republic) system of rule was prevalent in India since ancient times...
The representative members of clans were known as ganas and their assembly as sanghas, there chief as ganadhipati or Ganesha and Ganapati...Bauddham text Mahabagga mentions that:
गण पूरकोवा भविस्सामीति Gaṇa pūrkovā bhavissāmīti
It indicates that an officer used to see the number of ganas and their koram in the Rajasabha (state assembly).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gana

Gana-Sangha[1] (Sanskrit: गणसङ्घ) or Gana-Rajya[2] (Sanskrit: गणराज्य), refers to a type of republic or oligarchy in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent.

Map of the 16 Mahājanapadas
Mahājanapadas
c. 600 BCE–c. 345 BCE
CapitalVarious
Common languagesPrakrits and Sanskrit
Religion
Vedic Hinduism
Śramaṇa (Buddhismand Jainism)
GovernmentRepublics
Monarchies
Historical eraIron Age
• Established
c. 600 BCE
• Disestablished
c. 345 BCE

(RV 3-26-6) uses the refrain: व्रातं व्रातं गणम् गणम् Vrātam Vrātam gaṇam gaṇam
Sangam literature of Tamil (c. 300 BCE – c. 300CE) describes the offerings for Ganas. In Silapathikaram one of the five epics of Tamil by Ilango Adigal saying the offering for eighteen kind of Ganas. (Silappadikaram by S. Krishnamoorthy. p. 35
)

A dancing gana, Deogarh

New Aryan Invasion Theory of Europe based on DNA evidence. Yamnaya murderous Indo-Germanics, Proto-Indo-Europeans swept on horsebacks into Europe. Was this the Aryan Invasion of Europe 5000 to 4800 years ago?

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Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population

By Ann Gibbons
Call it an ancient thousand man march. Early Bronze Age men from the vast grasslands of the Eurasian steppe swept into Europe on horseback about 5000 years ago—and may have left most women behind. This mostly male migration may have persisted for several generations, sending men into the arms of European women who interbred with them, and leaving a lasting impact on the genomes of living Europeans.
“It looks like males migrating in war, with horses and wagons,” says lead author and population geneticist Mattias Jakobsson of Uppsala University in Sweden.
Europeans are the descendants of at least three major migrations of prehistoric people. First, a group of hunter-gatherers arrived in Europe about 37,000 years ago. Then, farmers began migrating from Anatolia (a region including present-day Turkey) into Europe 9000 years ago, but they initially didn’t intermingle much with the local hunter-gatherers because they brought their own families with them. Finally, 5000 to 4800 years ago, nomadic herders known as the Yamnaya swept into Europe. They were an early Bronze Age culture that came from the grasslands, or steppes, of modern-day Russia and Ukraine, bringing with them metallurgy and animal herding skills and, possibly, Proto-Indo-European, the mysterious ancestral tongue from which all of today’s 400 Indo-European languages spring. They immediately interbred with local Europeans, who were descendants of both the farmers and hunter-gatherers. Within a few hundred years, the Yamnaya contributed to at least half of central Europeans’ genetic ancestry.
To find out why this migration of Yamnaya had such a big impact on European ancestry, researchers turned to genetic data from earlier studies of archaeological samples. They analyzed differences in DNA inherited by 20 ancient Europeans who lived just after the migration of Anatolian farmers (6000 to 4500 years ago) and 16 who lived just after the influx of Yamnaya (3000 to 1000 years ago). The team zeroed in on differences in the ratio of DNA inherited on their X chromosomes compared with the 22 chromosomes that do not determine sex, the so-called autosomes. This ratio can reveal the proportion of men and women in an ancestral population, because women carry two X chromosomes, whereas men have only one.
Europeans who were alive from before the Yamnaya migration inherited equal amounts of DNA from Anatolian farmers on their X chromosome and their autosomes, the team reports today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. This means roughly equal numbers of men and women took part in the migration of Anatolian farmers into Europe.
But when the researchers looked at the DNA later Europeans inherited from the Yamnaya, they found that Bronze Age Europeans had far less Yamnaya DNA on their X than on their other chromosomes. Using a statistical method developed by graduate student Amy Goldberg in the lab of population geneticist Noah Rosenberg at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, the team calculated that there were perhaps 10 men for every woman in the migration of Yamnaya men to Europe (with a range of five to 14 migrating men for every woman). That ratio is “extreme”—even more lopsided than the mostly male wave of Spanish conquistadores who came by ship to the Americas in the late 1500s, Goldberg says.
Such a skewed ratio raises red flags for some researchers, who warn it is notoriously difficult to estimate the ratio of men to women accurately in ancient populations. But if confirmed, one explanation is that the Yamnaya men were warriors who swept into Europe on horses or drove horse-drawn wagons; horses had been recently domesticated in the steppe and the wheel was a recent invention. They may have been “more focused on warfare, with faster dispersal because of technological inventions” says population geneticist Rasmus Nielsen of the University of California, Berkeley, who is not part of the study.
But warfare isn’t the only explanation. The Yamnaya men could have been more attractive mates than European farmers because they had horses and new technologies, such as copper hammers that gave them an advantage, Goldberg says.
The finding that Yamnaya men migrated for many generations also suggests that all was not right back home in the steppe. “It would imply a continuing strongly negative push factor within the steppes, such as chronic epidemics or diseases,” says archaeologist David Anthony of Hartwick College in Oneonta, New York, who was not an author of the new study. Or, he says it could be the beginning of cultures that sent out bands of men to establish new politically aligned colonies in distant lands, as in later groups of Romans or Vikings.

Posted in: 

·         Archaeology

doi:10.1126/science.aal0806

Ann Gibbons Ann is a contributing correspondent for Science.

https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/02/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population

The most violent group of people who ever lived: Horse-riding Yamnaya tribe who used their huge height and muscular build to brutally murder and invade their way across Europe than 4,000 years ago

  • Yamnaya people dominated Europe from between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago  
  • They had nutritionally rich diets and were tall, muscular and skilled horse riders 
  • It is believed they exploited a continent recovering from disease and death 
  • They spread rapidly, adapting and massacring their way throughout Europe 
  • Slaughtered Neolithic men in prehistoric genocide to ensure their DNA survived
  • They made their way to Britain and within a few generations there was no remains of the previous inhabitants who built Stonehenge in the genetic record 
A brutish tribe of people who lived in the Neolithic era more than 4,000 years ago is being touted as the most violent and aggressive society to ever live. 
A growing body of evidence is convincing archaeologists that the Yamnaya society   ruthlessly massacred opposing societies. 
It is believed the primitive society capitalised on disease, warfare and famine and unceremoniously swept through Europe, destroying entire civilisations and leaving destruction in their wake. 
DNA evidence from several prehistoric burial sites has revealed hoards of these tall, muscular and violent warriors would overwhelm other societies on horseback.
They would murder men and sire their own children so that within a few generations the presence of the previous societies is all but eradicated. 
Scroll down for video 
DNA evidence from several prehistoric burial sites has revealed hoards of these tall, muscular and violent warriors would overwhelm other societies on horseback. They started in the European steppe and ended up conquering most of Europe and preserving their own genetic lineage through brutal genocide of rival males
DNA evidence from several prehistoric burial sites has revealed hoards of these tall, muscular and violent warriors would overwhelm other societies on horseback. They started in the European steppe and ended up conquering most of Europe and preserving their own genetic lineage through brutal genocide of rival males 
Yamnaya people interbred with the Corded Ware people, who made the pictured pottery, in central Europe, with later generations inheriting a significant amount of Yamnaya DNA
Yamnaya people interbred with the Corded Ware people, who made the pictured pottery, in central Europe, with later generations inheriting a significant amount of Yamnaya DNA
Yamnaya people arrived in Eastern Europe approximately 5,000 years ago and their culture and customs spread rapidly to both the east and the west. 
They then interbred with the Corded Ware people in central Europe, with later generations inheriting a significant amount of Yamnaya DNA. 
Environments in these two locations were vastly different at this time in history with the European steppe and its shrubland giving way to forests and vast areas of greenery. 
Evidence of genetic remnants of these people so far away from their origin sparked confusion and outrage among many experts, who scrambled for an explanation to explain how the tribe moved so swiftly across the continent. 
Not only were the people spreading, but so were their customs. 
The Yamnaya buried their dead in easily identifiable ways, in 'pit graves' and not the common communal graves of the time. 
Wooden beams covered the grave and a mound of Earth, known as a kurgan, was created atop the burial site.  
These, and there artefacts and remains of the Yamnaya, have been found dotted around many other areas of the continent.  
Some experts claim the presence of their technology and rituals is proof of them preceding their actual migration but others claim they exploited a time when the rest of Europe was weak and vulnerable. 

A TIMELINE OF HOW THE YAMNAYA CONQUERED EUROPE

Arrive at the European steppe in the south-east of the continent 5,000 years ago. 
Reach the far more central areas which are vastly different and covered in forests in a mere 100 years. 
They interbred with the Corded Ware people.
Bell Beaker people appear in Iberia at this time in Iberia. 
Bell Beaker culture spreads eastwards over the next few centuries and is embraced by the Corded are people who carry the Yamnaya DNA. 
These then interbreed and the so-called Yamnays Beakers travelled to Britain using sea-faring knowledge garnered from the Iberian natives. 
They conquer Britain and within a handful of generations the people who built Stonehenge are eradicated form the genetic record. 
arious pieces of evidence from the archaeological record, DNA and isotope analysis and  even pollen from ancient sites has found the centuries before the dominance of the Yamnaya people to be a time of great suffering. 
Vast mega-settlements of the previous era had been razed to the ground after becoming a festering pit for disease and poverty. 
The earliest known relative of the black death was discovered dating back 5,700 years.
'These mega-settlements were beginning to be abandoned and burned down a little after 5700 years ago,' Professor Kristian Kristiansen at the University of Gothenburg told New Scientist. 
'By 5400 years ago, they were gone.' 
Such was the devastation and log-lasting impact of these disease-riddled settlements, evidence of the black death was found in Scandinavia 400 years after the last one was abandoned and destroyed. 
The remaining people to survive this bleak and elongated period of history were likely small and weakened from the ordeal. 
Carbon dating of a range of products, including arrowheads, bell-shaped pots (pictured) found the Iberian civilisation known as the Bell beaker people collided with the Yamnaya descendants
Carbon dating of a range of products, including arrowheads, bell-shaped pots (pictured) found the Iberian civilisation known as the Bell beaker people collided with the Yamnaya descendants  

WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT NEOLITHIC BRITAIN?

The Neolithic Revolution was the world's first verifiable revolution in agriculture.
It began in Britain between about 5000 BC and 4500 BC but spread across Europe from origins in Syria and Iraq between about 11000 BC and 9000 BC.
The period saw the widespread transition of many disparate human cultures from nomadic hunting and gathering practices to ones of farming and building small settlements.
Stonehenge, the most famous prehistoric structure in Europe, possibly the world, was built by Neolithic people, and later added to during the early Bronze Age
Stonehenge, the most famous prehistoric structure in Europe, possibly the world, was built by Neolithic people, and later added to during the early Bronze Age
The revolution was responsible for turning small groups of travellers into settled communities who built villages and towns.
Some cultures used irrigation and made forest clearings to better their farming techniques.
Others stored food for times of hunger, and farming eventually created different roles and divisions of labour in societies as well as trading economies.
In the UK, the period was triggered by a huge migration or folk-movement from across the Channel.
The Neolithic Revolution saw humans in Britain move from groups of nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled communities. Some of the earliest monuments in Britain are Neolithic structures, including Silbury Hill in Wiltshire (pictured)
The Neolithic Revolution saw humans in Britain move from groups of nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled communities. Some of the earliest monuments in Britain are Neolithic structures, including Silbury Hill in Wiltshire (pictured)
Today, prehistoric monuments in the UK span from the time of the Neolithic farmers to the invasion of the Romans in AD 43.
Many of them are looked after by English Heritage and range from standing stones to massive stone circles, and from burial mounds to hillforts.
Stonehenge, the most famous prehistoric structure in Europe, possibly the world, was built by Neolithic people, and later finished during the Bronze Age.
Neolithic structures were typically used for ceremonies, religious feasts and as centres for trade and social gatherings.
Yamnaya, untainted by the torrid events which occurred before their arrival, blossomed against the pitiful natives. 
Ancient DNA reveals these migrants were well nourished, tall and muscular. Some archaeologists also argue that the warrior tribe consisted of skilled horsemen. 
'It looks like they lived mostly on meat and milk products,' says Professor Kristiansen. 
'They were healthier and probably physically quite strong.' 
A controversial study from 2017 also claimed the burial rituals of the men and women differed in societies after the Yamnaya had invaded and succeeded. 
The men maintained their burial traditions while women were buried in the traditional ways of their local civilisation. 
This, some say, indicates the Yamnaya invade, massacred all the males and impregnated the women in order to rapidly further their bloodlines. 
Such aggressive and murderous behaviour would have inevitably caused some consternation among Neolithic societies struggling to hold back the powerful Yamnaya.  
Evidence of a fightback against the brutal folk comes from an archaeological site in Germany called Eulau.  
Here, graves were found where large amounts of women and children were buried together. 
Isotope analysis of the adults' teeth revealed they were in fact not local to the area and grew up elsewhere before moving to the region - likely women captured by the Yamnaya.
Of the 13 bodies at the site, five suffered injuries which were likely the cause f their death and experts claim this is evidence they were ambushed and massacred by rival tribes in a revenge attack.
The men of the tribe were likely away from the site at the time tending to the cattle when the raid was launched, leaving the women and children defenceless. 
Eulau is an example of a fightback from scorned locals, but experts caution that it was likely an anomaly. 
Genetic analysis found that the movement of the Yamnaya across the English Channel into England happened around 4,400 years ago and coincides with when the Britons of the time, who built Stonehenge (pictured), completely disappeared from the genetic record
Genetic analysis found that the movement of the Yamnaya across the English Channel into England happened around 4,400 years ago and coincides with when the Britons of the time, who built Stonehenge (pictured), completely disappeared from the genetic record 

WHO BUILT STONEHENGE?

Stonehenge was built thousands of years before machinery was invented. 
The heavy rocks weigh upwards of several tonnes each.
Some of the stones are believed to have originated from a quarry in Wales, some 140 miles (225km) away from the Wiltshire monument.
To do this would have required a high degree of ingenuity, and experts believe the ancient engineers used a pulley system over a shifting conveyor-belt of logs.
Historians now think that the ring of stones was built in several different stages, with the first completed around 5,000 years ago by Neolithic Britons who used primitive tools, possibly made from deer antlers.
Modern scientists now widely believe that Stonehenge was created by several different tribes over time.
After the Neolithic Britons - likely natives of the British Isles - started the construction, it was continued centuries later by their descendants. 
Over time, the descendants developed a more communal way of life and better tools which helped in the erection of the stones. 
Bones, tools and other artefacts found on the site seem to support this hypothesis.
Evidence is mounting to support the theory that the Yamnaya were accomplished warriors that defeated all comers in their journey across Europe, but archaeologists warn it may not be that simple and to believe a model based on a single assumption could be a tempting, but misleading, trap. 
Propagation of their DNA throughout the continent may have been aided by interceding with different cultures. 
Around 4,700 years ago, a population in modern-day Spain and Portugal called the Bell Beaker people were thriving. 
This group of people was also made of celebrated warriors who shared similar customs - such as burying their dead in single graves. 
Carbon dating of a range of products, including arrowheads, bell-shaped pots and copper daggers  proved their origin to be from the Iberian peninsula. 
But their culture - but not the people - then migrated west towards central Europe, where it collided with the Corded Ware people of Yamnaya descent heading in the opposite direction. 
There is currently no evidence of a conflict, instead the Corded Ware people appear to have embraced the notion 4,600 years ago.
'They simply take on part of the Bell Beaker package and become Beaker people,' says Professor Kristiansen. 
This ability to adapt allowed Yamnaya DNA to survive from the original society, into the Corded Ware people and then manifest again as the Beaker people. 
A genetic fork was forged by this mixing of the groups and created true Beaker people, who remained in Iberia, and the new branch in modern-day Netherlands with Yamnaya blood. 
This mixing was integral to the next step in the journey of these people as they used the sea-faring knowledge obtained from the Beaker people to cross the English Channel.
Once on English turf, the people went about their usual business and eradicated almost all the local inhabitants of the island. 
Genetic analysis found that this movement of the Yamnaya descendants happened around 4,400 years ago and coincides with when the Britons of the time, who built Stonehenge, completely disappeared. 
There is no remnants of their DNA in the genome of modern people, but more significantly, there is no proof of the original Brits even a handful or generations later. 
Evidence of a fightback against the brutal folk comes from an archaeological site in Germany called Eulau. Here, graves were found where large amounts of women and children were buried together after being massacred in retaliation. Pictured are the bodies of mothers embracing their children in a grave at the site in modern-day Germany
Evidence of a fightback against the brutal folk comes from an archaeological site in Germany called Eulau. Here, graves were found where large amounts of women and children were buried together after being massacred in retaliation. Pictured are the bodies of mothers embracing their children in a grave at the site in modern-day Germany 
The Yumnaya took over and erased all genetic evidence of the land's previous stewards. 
This theory is backed up by David Reich at Harvard Medical School who is due to release a piece of research stating the Yumnaya orchestrated a systematic genocide of Neolithic men. 
Original Bell Beaker people collided with the Yumnaya people 4,50 years ago and this provides some of the strongest evidence yet of their brutality. 
Forty per cent of all males had a Y chromosome linked to Yumnaya, indicating after the cultures met, only Yumnaya men were procreating. 
'The collision of these two populations was not a friendly one, not an equal one, but one where the males from outside were displacing local males and did so almost completely,' Reich told New Scientist Live in September. 
'It's the only way to explain that no male Neolithic lines survived.' 


Story of most murderous people of all time revealed in ancient DNA

Starting 5000 years ago, the Yamnaya embarked on a violent conquest of Europe. Now genetic analysis tells their tale for the first time
27 March 2019


Stonehenge artwork
Simon Pemberton

THE iconic sarsen stones at Stonehenge were erected some 4500 years ago. Although the monument’s original purpose is still disputed, we now know that within a few centuries it became a memorial to a vanished people. By then, almost every Briton, from the south coast of England to the north-east tip of Scotland, had been wiped out by incomers. It isn’t clear exactly why they disappeared so rapidly. But a picture of the people who replaced them is emerging.
The migrants’ ultimate source was a group of livestock herders called the Yamnaya who occupied the Eurasian steppe north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus mountains. Britain wasn’t their only destination. Between 5000 and 4000 years ago, the Yamnaya and their descendants colonised swathes of Europe, leaving a genetic legacy that persists to this day. Their arrival coincided with profound social and cultural changes. Burial practices shifted dramatically, a warrior class appeared, and there seems to have been a sharp upsurge in lethal violence. “I’ve become increasingly convinced there must have been a kind of genocide,” says Kristian Kristiansen at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. As he and others piece together the story, one question resounds: were the Yamnaya the most murderous people in history?
Before about 5000 years ago, Neolithic Europe was inhabited by people much like those who raised Stonehenge. They were farmers with an urge to work together and build large stone structures. “It looks like these people were quite communal,” says Kristiansen. And that community spirit continued into the afterlife: many of …


Ancient migration transformed Spain's DNA

Bronze Age male and female burials

Image copyrightL BENITEZ DE LUGO ENRICH - JOSE LUIS FUENTES SANCH
Image captionBronze Age burials: Iberia saw a dramatic genetic shift during this period

A migration from Central Europe transformed the genetic make-up of people in Spain during the Bronze Age, a study reveals.
DNA evidence shows the migrants streamed over the Pyrenees, replacing existing male lineages across the region within a space of 400 years.
It remains unclear whether violence played a role or whether a male-centric social structure was more important.
The result comes from the most extensive study of its kind.
Researchers reconstructed the population history of Iberia (modern Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar and Andorra) over 8,000 years - the biggest slice of time tackled by a single ancient DNA study. The region has been a crossroads for different cultures over time.
They extracted and analysed DNA from 403 Iberians who lived between 6,000 BC and AD 1,600.
The Bronze Age migrants traced some of their ancestry to Neolithic (Stone Age) farmers found throughout Europe - including Spain - while the rest of their genetic make-up was like that of people living at the time on the Russian steppe.
This steppe ancestry was introduced to Europe by nomadic herders who migrated west from Asia and the eastern fringes of Europe.

Stone Age crisis

One of the triggers may have been a crisis that caused population numbers to plunge in Europe towards the end of the Neolithic period (which preceded the Bronze Age). Recent studies suggest plague might have played a role.
As the steppe people moved west, they picked up elements of culture from people they mixed with along the way. In Central Europe, one such mixed culture known as the Bell Beaker tradition formed. The Beakers and their descendants may have established highly stratified (unequal) societies in Europe, including Iberia - where they start turning up from 2,500BC.

Bell beaker potteryImage copyrightMAN / MARIO TORQUEMADA
Image captionBronze Age Bell Beaker pottery from Camino de las Yeseras near Madrid

The researchers looked at the Y chromosome - a package of DNA passed down more or less unchanged from father to son. It can be used to track male-line inheritance. By about 2,000BC, local Y chromosome lineages had been eliminated from the Iberian gene pool, in favour of those carried by the newcomers.
When the team analysed DNA from across the genome - the full complement of genetic material found in the nuclei of cells - they found that later Iberians traced 40% of their ancestry to the new population.
The newcomers - of Bell Beaker origin - brought innovations such as bronze-working (including the manufacture of bronze weapons) and were probably riding horses. These may have given them a military advantage over Stone Age farming societies, but also probably conferred higher social status on males carrying these traditions.

Patterns of inheritance

Co-author Iñigo Olalde, from Harvard Medical School, US, said: "It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Iberian men were killed or forcibly displaced." He added: "The archaeological record gives no clear evidence of a burst of violence in this period."
Instead, the high social status of male newcomers may have been linked to greater reproductive success. "Their male descendants would have inherited the wealth and social status, and themselves also had much higher reproductive success," Dr Olalde told BBC News.
A system that emphasised male power and inheritance could have been key: "A patrilineal and possibly patriarchal social structure would further amplify the observed patterns, as possibly only the first-born son would inherit the clan's properties, whereas the other sons would move out and try to established their own clans, further spreading their Y lineages over new territories," he said.
An even more extreme pattern of replacement occurred at much the same time in Britain, where Beakers replaced 90% of the overall ancestry that was there before they arrived.

Fortified settlements

"At least in the east and the south-east, we see a change in the settlement patterns... which lasts until the arrival of the Romans," said co-author Dr Carles Lalueza-Fox, from the University of Barcelona.
In this region, the Iron Age Iberian culture established fortified settlements on high ground.
"The Iberians lived in hill settlements and were a violent society, structured along tribal lines. Something clearly changes the social structure that existed in the late Neolithic."

Dama de ElcheImage copyrightJEFF GREENBERG
Image captionThe Dama de Elche was a product of the Iberian culture on Spain's eastern coast

Looking at human remains from an earlier period, the study found that Stone Age hunter-gatherers who traced a significant percentage of their ancestry to some of Europe's earliest settlers, survived in southern Spain until the spread of farming 6,000 years ago.
The team also studied genome data from Moorish Spain (AD 711-1492), when parts of the peninsula were under the control of Muslim emirs of North African origin.

Court of the Lions, Alhambra, GranadaImage copyrightGETTY IMAGES
Image captionThe Alhambra palace in Granada, seat of the last muslim emirate in Iberia

North African influence was present in Iberia from at least the Bronze Age. But the researchers found a dramatic shift in the genetic make-up of people from Moorish-controlled regions after the medieval "Reconquista", when Christian armies seized back control of the peninsula. The conquerors expelled many Muslims, although some were allowed to stay if they converted to Christianity.
While many Moorish individuals analysed in the study seem to have been a 50:50 mix of North African and Iberian ancestry, North African ancestry in the peninsula today averages just 5%.
Modern Iberians derive about 50% of their ancestry from Neolithic farmers, 25% from ancient hunter-gatherers, and 20% from the steppe people.

Faces from Iberia's past

Severed heads

Iberian head, once nailed to someone's doorImage copyrightARCHIVO MUSEU D'ARQUOLOGIA DE CATALUNYA
Image captionSevered Iberian head probably exhibited as a war trophy. A hole in the forehead marks the place where a huge nail was hammered in

People from the Iron Age Iberian civilization of Spain's east coast generally cremated their dead. The cremation process prevented scientists from extracting DNA from these remains. While the culture was responsible for great works of art, such as the Dama de Elche sculpture, the Iberians also had a violent side. They hammered large nails through the severed heads of enemies killed in combat and exhibited them in public spaces as war trophies. Some 40 such heads were found in the Iberian settlement of Ullastret, allowing scientists to analyse DNA from them.
African ancestors
Two burials in the study were revealed to have high levels of black African ancestry. Both of the individuals were from Granada in southwest Spain, where the last Muslim emirate held out until it was conquered by Christians in 1492. One of the people came from a 10th Century cemetery where bodies were buried in the Islamic tradition - oriented in the direction of Mecca. The other individual is from the 16th Century, after the Christian conquest of Granada. This woman is thought to be from the Morisco community - former Muslims who converted to Christianity (only to be expelled from Spain later on).
Germanic migrants
After the fall of the Roman Empire, wandering tribes from northern and eastern Europe streamed into Iberia. The Visigoths, who spoke a language related to Swedish, German and English, assumed control of the region. They founded the Spanish monarchy that continues today and introduced laws that formed the basis of those used by later Christian kingdoms. Burials from Pla de l'Horta in northeastern Spain include a mother and daughter of Visigothic origin. Their genomes suggest they had recent ancestry from Eastern Europe, while DNA from the cell's batteries, or mitochondria - which is passed more or less unchanged from mother to children - is of a type associated with East Asian populations. It's a sign of the genetic complexity of the Eastern steppe region where their roots lay.

RIDE OR DIE 

Are the horse-riding Yamnaya tribe who brutally murdered their way across Europe the most violent people in history?

The powerfully built tribe swept into Europe between 4000 and 5000 years ago and their DNA lives on in us today

A TRIBE who swept into Europe thousands of years ago and whose descendants wiped out ancient Britons could be the most violent and aggressive society ever, it was claimed.
The Yamnaya were a group of livestock herders who lived north of the Black Sea and in the Caucasus mountains in modern day Russia and Ukraine.

 How Yamnaya and their ancestors swept through Europe
3
How Yamnaya and their ancestors swept through Europe

The group and their descendants arrived in Europe between 4000 and 5000 years ago, New Scientist reports.
At the time Europe had been ravaged by disease, eroding the population’s ability to resist the powerfully built and aggressive Yamnaya horseback warriors.
They overwhelmed smaller Europeans and the Yamnaya culture as well as their DNA soon spread throughout the continent.
According archaeologist Kristian Kristiansen, after they brought with their brutal practices there appears to have been a sharp upsurge in lethal violence.
Such was the extent of their brutality that he began to consider whether they were the most murderous people in history.
“I’ve become increasingly convinced there must have been a kind of genocide,” said Professor Kristiansen.
He said the Yamnaya lived mostly on meat and milk products which made them “healthier and probably physically quite strong”.

I’ve become increasingly convinced there must have been a kind of genocide
Professor Kristian Kristiansen
It has been claimed that when the Yamnaya invaded they massacred all the males and impregnated the women in order to rapidly further their bloodlines.
This would have caused panic and resistance in Neolithic societies struggling to hold back the Yamnaya.
Graves show the remains of the Eulau who were captured and massacred in retaliation.
It has been claimed that the Yamnaya are the missing third genetic component in Europeans.
A team led by Professor David Reich and his colleagues extracted DNA from remains found at archaeological sites around the continent, the BBC reported.
Their research showed that 7,000-8,000 years ago, a closely related group of early farmers moved into Europe from the Near East.
This group interbred with indigenous hunter-gatherers that they encountered as they spread around the continent and eventually the two groups melded.
But previous studies have found that this mixture of hunters and farmers wasn’t enough to explain the complexity of modern European and third group must have been present.
Professor Reich’s team said the Bronze Age Yamnaya were a good fit for the missing third genetic component in Europeans.
The Yamnaya’s DNA lived on the ancient Corded Ware and Beaker people - named for the pottery their produced.
The Beakers invaded Britain about 4500 years ago and wiped out the local population, studies have shown.
It is believed that Stonehenge may have been a memorial to the vanished people who perished after the brutal Yamnaya's descendants arrive on these shores.

 The face of Yamnaya was recreated in the 1930s
3
The face of Yamnaya was recreated in the 1930s
 Remains of Eulau people who were massacred by the Yamnaya
IMAGE HAS BEEN RECIEVED BY EMAIL CHECK BEFORE USING IMAGE.
Remains of Eulau people who were massacred by the Yamnaya

Germany’s Stonehenge reveals chilling secrets of human sacrifices in pits around the Pömmelte henge in Saxony
See the video at:


The Arrival of the Yamnaya

Luke Gomez 
Indo-Germanics, the most violent people who ever lived
Our distant ancestors were Indo-Europeans,
members of the horse-riding Yamnaya tribe used their huge height and muscular build to brutally murder and invade their way across Europe than 4,000 years ago
A growing body of evidence is convincing archaeologists that the Yamnaya society ruthlessly massacred opposing societies.
They would murder men and sire their own children so that within a few generations the presence of the previous societies is all but eradicated. 
They had nutritionally rich diets and were tall, muscular and skilled horse riders;
They made their way to Britain and within a few generations there was no remains of the previous inhabitants who built Stonehenge in the genetic record
This, some say, indicates the Yamnaya invade, massacred all the males and impregnated the women in order to rapidly further their bloodlines. 
'The collision of these two populations was not a friendly one, not an equal one, but one where the males from outside were displacing local males and did so almost completely,' Reich told New Scientist Live in September. 
'It's the only way to explain that no male Neolithic lines survived.'
Ha-ha-ha! That's *us*. I'm so proud of our ancestors. They took Europe, and later they also took North America. Of course, the media will twist our glorious history to brand us as Nazis. Again. Also note (((they))) are now using our success as a blueprint to erase us (make our boys gay, let the Apes rape our women). We MUST fight back.
BONUS
"'It looks like they [Nordic-Germanic people] lived mostly on meat and milk products,' says Professor Kristiansen. "
Mixtures of milk and meat are prohibited according to Jewish law.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk_and_meat_in_Jewish_law
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Mystery of ‘most murderous people of all time’ who wiped out builders of Stonehenge 

Rob Waugh

Monday 1 Apr 2019 8:48 am 

New DNA research is helping to unlock a dark chapter in Europe’s prehistory – when a murderous tribe swept across the continent, replacing the civilisations that existed before. Researchers are now convinced there was a ‘kind of genocide’, as the Yamnaya people swept across the continent, and into every part of Britain. 

The ancient people who built Stonehenge were among the victims, replaced by a different culture which prized war and violence – with its own warrior caste and different burial practices. DNA research is helping to unvravel the mystery of the Yamnaya (Getty) ‘I’ve become increasingly convinced there must have been a kind of genocide,’ says Kristian Kristiansen at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. 

Kristiansen said that the Yamnaya people lived on milk and meat products and were probably physically strong, in a New Scientist interview which describes the Yamnaya as ‘the most murderous people of all time.’ Dad throws coins at plane's engine for 'good luck' before flight The herders came from the Black Sea, and their DNA is still present in Europeans today. 

Researchers believe that the horse-riding Yamnaya may have massacred Neolithic populations as they spread across the continent. Within a few hundred years, the builders of Stonehenge were no more (Getty) In Britain, migrants almost completely supplanted the island’s existing inhabitants – the mysterious people who had built Stonehenge – within a few hundred years.

Indus Script and Mesopotamia got copper and metallurgy from India. Give up AIT into India. Need for a New Aryan Invasion Theory into Europe, to explain formation of Indian languages

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http://tinyurl.com/y5euao2s

This is an addendum to: 

 

  • http://tinyurl.com/y2uekds6
  • The monograph explains how Mari (Mesopotama) priest holds the standard of Indus Script, the one-horned bull holding the standard aloft in a procession. 

  • I submit that the so-called 'unicorn' on Indus Script Corpora is an orthographic composition (consistent with the styles of creating composite animals) which signifies a young bull, with characteristic orthographic ligatured of one horn, rings on neck, a pannier on shoulder. All these orthographic components are hypertexts read rebus in Meluhha readings for semantic determinatives signified by hieroglyphs: कोंद kōnda 'young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner' kundana 'fine gold' PLUS kōḍu'horn' rebus koḍ 'workplace' PLUS 
  • koḍiyum 'ring on neck' rebus:  koḍ 'workplace' PLUS  khōṇḍī खोंडी 'pannier sack' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner, fine gold'. Thus, the hypertext composition signifies workshop of a goldsmith, lapidary (turner, engraver). A remarkable cognate etymon signifying a young bull is seen in Telugu (Indian sprahbund, 'speech union'): kōḍe. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. కోడెదూడ. A young bull. కాడిమరపదగినదూడ. Plumpness, prime. తరుణము. జోడుకోడయలు a pair of bullocks. కోడె adj. Young. కోడెత్రాచు a young snake, one in its prime. "కోడెనాగముం బలుగుల రేడుతన్ని కొని పోవుతెరంగురామా. vi. కోడెకాడు kōḍe-kāḍu. n. A young man. పడుచువాడు. A lover విటుడు.

New Evidence Fuels Debate over the Origin of Modern Languages

Nomadic horse riders likely opened a “steppe bridge” between Europe and Asia, but recent genetic data raise more questions By  on 
New Evidence Fuels Debate over the Origin of Modern Languages
The earliest Proto-Indo-European speakers were likely nomadic horse riders. Credit: Chris Gash
Five thousand years ago nomadic horseback riders from the Ukrainian steppe charged through Europe and parts of Asia. They brought with them a language that is the root of many of those spoken today—including English, Spanish, Hindi, Russian and Persian. That is the most widely accepted explanation for the origin of this ancient tongue, termed Proto-Indo-European (PIE). Recent genetic findings confirm this hypothesis but also raise questions about how the prehistoric language evolved and spread.
No written record of PIE exists, but linguists believe they have largely reconstructed it. Some words, including “water” (wód), “father” (pH2-ter) and “mother” (meH2-ter), are still used today. Archaeologist Marija Gimbutas first proposed the Ukrainian origin, known as the kurgan hypothesis, in the 1950s. Gimbutas traced the language back to the Yamnaya people, herders from the southern grasslands of modern-day Ukraine who domesticated the horse.
In 2015 a series of studies sequenced the DNA of human bones and other remains from many parts of Europe and Asia. The data suggest that around 3500 B.C.—roughly the same time that many linguists place the origin of PIE and that archaeologists date horse domestication—Yamnaya genes replaced about 75 percent of the existing human gene pool in Europe. Together with the archaeological and linguistic evidence, the genetic data tipped the scales heavily in favor of the kurgan hypothesis. 
Credit: Tiffany Farrant-Gonzalez; Source: “Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family,” by Remco Bouckaert et al., in Science, Vol. 337; August 24, 2012
Newer findings complicate the story, however. In a study published last June in the Journal of Human Genetics, researchers sequenced the mitochondrial DNA of 12 Yamnaya individuals, along with their immediate predecessors and descendants. The remains were found in burial mounds, or kurgans (from which the theory takes its name), in modern-day Ukraine. They had been buried in layers atop one another from the end of the Stone Age through the Bronze Age, between about 4500 and 1500 B.C.—the same time as the genetic replacement event in Europe. The earliest and midrange specimens' mitochondrial DNA (which is inherited from the mother) was almost entirely local. But the mitochondrial DNA of the most recent specimens included DNA from central Europe, including present-day Poland, Germany and Sweden. This discovery indicates that “there were pendulum migrations back and forth,” says lead author Alexey Nikitin, a professor of archaeology and genetics at Grand Valley State University. In other words, he adds, “it wasn't a one-way trip.”
These findings give the kurgan hypothesis “a lot more credit,” Nikitin says. But he contends that his new results also show the migration was on a smaller scale than previously speculated; the more recent specimens apparently only made it as far as central Europe before returning, even though the language eventually spread as far as the British Isles. Nikitin also believes the dissemination was not as violent as it is often made out to be. “A military campaign would explain the genetic replacement. But that's [unlikely to have been] the case,” he says.
David Anthony, an anthropologist at Hartwick College, who co-authored several of the earlier genetic studies but was not involved in the latest work, calls the new findings very convincing. “The domestication of the horse created a steppe bridge into India and Iran on the one side and Europe on the other side,” Anthony says. “When [the] Yamnaya people moved into eastern and western Europe, their genetic signature was very different from what was there before,” he explains. “That's what makes it paint such a clear picture [of how the root language spread] and why you can really see the migrations so easily on a map.”
Yet Anthony disagrees with the interpretation that this was a small and mostly peaceful affair. Without written words, language transmission at the time would have depended largely on face-to-face contact, he says, suggesting the PIE speakers swept well across Europe and Asia. He believes linguistic and archaeological evidence, including weapons found in graves, suggests the language's progenitors had a warrior culture. Nikitin argues the ax-heads were purely “decorative,” however.
Both researchers caution against reading too much into genetic evidence alone. Many other social and cultural forces were at play. “Language shifts generally flow in the direction of groups that have higher economic status, more political power and higher prestige,” Anthony says. “And in the most brutal situations, it will flow in the direction of people who survived.”
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0318-12

A L Chavda quotes a paper by Klejn to show that Yamnaya and Corded Ware people were contemporaneous and Corded Ware did not descend from Yamnaya

 "Archaeologically, the European Bronze Age Corded Ware culture is practically contemporaneous with the Yamnaya culture. Therefore the geneticists’ claim that the former was descended from the latter is falsified. It is more likely that branches of one people migrated to both Yamnaya and the Corded Ware, which explains the observed genetic affinity between both."

A L Chavda mentions this in an article critiquing Tony Joseph's book “Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From” .

[quote]The older study by Reich’s team (Haak et al.) makes the dubious claim of being able to associate language (and culture) with DNA. It purports to support the hypothesis that the steppe Yamnaya culture represents the origin of Indo-European (IE) languages and culture.
The conclusions of Haak et al. are thoroughly demolished by the legendary Russian archaeologist Leo Klejn in two papers published in Acta Archaeologica [9] and the European Journal of Archaeology [10].
In the first paper, Klejn questions the circular argument the geneticists make: no-one has ever identified a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) culture, which invalidates the entire basis for the claim that massive migrations from one “home” brought Indo-European languages and culture to other regions. He raises the point that the Yamnaya culture may be Indo-Iranian or Indo-Aryan.
In the second paper, which is a discussion paper between Klejn, Reich et al. and Willerslev et al., Klejn reduces the geneticists’ arguments to complete rubble. The geneticists do not have answers to very basic questions, such as, what exactly is PIE. 

  1. Klejn, L. S. The steppe hypothesis of Indo-European origins remains to be proven. Acta Archaeologica 88,1,193-204 (2017). doi:10.1111/j.1600-0390.2017.12184.x
  1. Klejn, L. S. et al. Discussion: Are the Origins of Indo-European Languages Explained by the Migration of the Yamnaya Culture to the West? European Journal of Archaeology, 21(1), 3-17. doi:10.1017/eaa.2017.35
[unquote]


Acta Archaeologica
Original Article

THE STEPPE HYPOTHESIS OF INDO‐EUROPEAN ORIGINS REMAINS TO BE PROVEN

First published: 09 January 2018
 
Recent genetic studies have claimed to reveal a massive migration of the bearers of the Yamnaya culture (Pit‐grave culture) to the Central and Northern Europe. This migration has supposedly lead to the formation of the Corded Ware cultures and thereby to the dispersal of Indo‐European languages in Europe. The article is a summary presentation of available archaeological, linguistic, genetic and cultural data that demonstrates many discrepancies in the suggested scenario for the transformations caused by the Yamnaya “invasion” some 5000 years ago.

Discussion: Are the Origins of Indo-European Languages Explained by the Migration of the Yamnaya Culture to the West
European Journal of Archaeology, 2017
Wolfgang Haak
Morten Allentoft
Eske Willerslev
Martin SIkora
Lev Klejn
David Reich
Nicholas Patterson
Iosif Lazaridis

Lead isotope and chemical signature of copper from Oman and its occurrence in Mesopotamia and sites on the Arabian Gulf coast

ArticleinArabian archaeology and epigraphy 21(2):135 - 169 · October 2010
Abstract
Lead isotope data, together with an evaluation of previously published results for the chemical composition of Omani ores and copper-base artefacts are used to define a material signature of Omani copper. Absent from our group of Bronze Age metal (Umm an Nar and Wadi Suq periods) are the signature of ores from Masirah Island and also from the vast deposits in north Oman inland from Suhar. Contemporaneous copper from Bahrain and from Tell Abraq on the Gulf coast is consistent in its material signature with Omani copper; a derivation from Omani ores of this copper is highly likely. A few exceptions at Tell Abraq point to Faynan/Timna in the southern Levant as a possible source region. Among Mesopotamian artefacts the signature of Omani copper is encountered during all cultural periods from Uruk at the end of the fourth millennium BC to Akkadian 1000 years later. Oman/Magan appears to have been particularly important during Early Dynastic III and Akkadian when about half of the copper in circulation bears the Omani signature.
The alluvial plains of Mesopotamia do not harbour ore deposits in any sizable quantity-therefore, metals had to be imported from various sources (e.g., Begemann et al. 2010, passim). Geological and archaeometallurgical surveys of, for example, Turkey, Cyprus, the Sinai Peninsula, Jordan, Israel, Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Armenia, Iran, Oman, Yemen, and the Indus Valley have found numerous areas of metal mineralization that were exploited in antiquity (e.g., Abdel-Motelib et al. 2012;Begemann and Schmitt-Strecker 2009;Begemann et al. 2010;Gale and Stos-Gale 1982;Hauptmann et al. 1992;Liu et al. 2015;Meliksetian and Pernicka 2010;Molofsky et al. 2014;Nezafati et al. 2009;Pernicka et al. 2005;Sayre et al. 2001;Stacey et al. 1980;Weeks et al. 2009;Weisgerber 1978;Yener et al. 1989Yener et al. , 2015). Although they are potential sources, their existence alone does not ensure that they supplied Mesopotamia with metals. ...
... In addition, alum was imported from Egypt, Sn also from Iranian and Armenian mines ( Begemann et al. 2008;Helwing 2009;Nezafati et al. 2009;Oppenheim 1967), and Fe from Lebanon, Syria and Turkey (e.g., the region of Cilicia). Also, there are indications that building materials (Ferrara 1975) were imported through the Persian Gulf and might have come from Oman, as was the case with Omani Cu, dioritic and gabbroid rocks, traded via the island of Bahrain (e.g., Cornwall 1952;Begemann et al. 2010;Potts 1993). ...



... Northern Mesopotamia may have been an early centre for the development of metallurgy and perhaps glass/glaze production (e.g., Oppenheim 1973;Paynter and Tite 2001;Thornton 2009)-raw materials might have come from various sources and were together with finished products traded (far) early on (e.g., Cornwall 1952;Degryse et al. 2010;Henderson et al. 2010;Potts 1993;Pulak 2008). It was proposed that while Iran and Oman were important early source areas, there was a change in metal supply to Cypriot (Begemann et al. 2010, passim) and Turkish sources ( Hauptmann et al. 2002;Begemann et al. 2010) well before the in- vestigated Neo-Babylonian glazes were manufactured. 




The development of metallurgy in ancient Mesopotamia and the surrounding regions of the Ancient Near East to the end of the Neo‐Babylonian period (ca. 539 BCE) represented a largely unprecedented achievement that strongly influenced the evolution of technology in much of the ancient Old World. Although the alluvial plain of the Tigris and the Euphrates was lacking in the mineral resources and fuel required to extract metals, the rise of urban centers and long‐distance trade networks allowed this region to benefit from raw materials and expertise gathered over a wide area from the Aegean Sea to the Indus River valley. This technology required an investment in labor and materials that reached beyond the constraints of earlier industries and enabled advancements in many fields including agriculture, transportation, armament production and the visual arts. Although much has been learned from archaeological exploration, the study of ancient texts and the application of scientific analysis...(Lapérouse J.. (2008) Metallurgy: Early Metallurgy in Mesopotamia. In: Selin H. (eds) Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer, Dordrechthttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0
Title:
Metallurgy: Early Metallurgy in Mesopotamia
Author:
Jean‐François de Lapérouse
Publication:
Springer eBook
Publisher:
Springer Nature
Date:
Jan 1, 2008















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  40. Jean-Francois de Laperouse is the author of the following entry ‘Metallurgy: Early metallurgy in Mesopotamia’ in Encyclopedia of the history of Science, Technoogy, and Medicine in  Non-Western Cultures (Helaine Selin ed., Springer Science & Business Media, 12 March 2008)
      1. Jean-Francois de Laperouse, Metallurgy: Early metallurgy in Mesopotamia in: Encyclopedia of the History of Science, Technology and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, 2008, Helaine Selin (ed.), Springer, (pp.1624 to 1636)
      Helaine Selin, ed., 
      Springer Science & Business Media12-Mar-2008
    1. Front Cover
























    1. Note: Scanned pages from the Encyclopedia presented ih 2 columns are appended for cross reference (since the type is blurred, the above excerpts try to capture the key arguments offered by the author in the Encyclopedia article on Early Metallurgy in Mesopotamia).








    2.                                                                      
    1. Author(s): BEGEMANN, F. , SCHMITT-STRECKER, S. 
      Journal: 
      Iranica Antiqua
      Volume: 44   Date: 2009   
      Pages: 1-45
      DOI: 10.2143/IA.44.0.2034374
    2. Abstract :
      A l
      Iranica Antiqua
  41. Abstract :
    A lead isotope study »On the Early copper of Mesopotamia« reports on copper-base artefacts ranging in age from the 4th millennium BC (Uruk period) to the Akkadian at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Arguments are presented that, in the (tin)bronzes, the lead associated with the tin used for alloying did not contribute to the total in any detectable way. Hence, the lead isotopy traces the copper and cannot address the problem of the provenance of tin. The data suggest as possible source region of the copper a variety of ore occurrences in Anatolia, Iran, Oman, Palestine and, rather unexpectedly (by us), from India. During the earliest period the isotopic signature of ores from Central and North Anatolia is dominant; during the next millennium this region loses its importance and is hardly present any more at all. Instead, southeast Anatolia, central Iran, Oman, Feinan-Timna in the rift valley between Dead Sea and Red Sea, and sources in the Caucasus are now potential suppliers of the copper. Generally, an unambiguous assignment of an artefact to any of the ores is not possible because the isotopic fingerprints of ore occurrences are not unique. In our suite of samples bronze objects become important during ED III (middle of the 3rd millennium BC) but they never make up more than 50 % of the total. They are distinguished in their lead isotopy by very high 206Pb-normalized abundance ratios. As source of such copper we suggest Gujarat/Southern Rajasthan which, on general grounds, has been proposed before to have been the most important supplier of copper in Ancient India. We propose this Indian copper to have been arsenic-poor and to be the urudu-luh-ha variety which is one of the two sorts of purified copper mentioned in contemporaneous written texts from Mesopotamia to have been in circulation there concurrently.

King Solomon's Copper Mines?

Date:
October 28, 2008
Source:
University of California - San Diego
Summary:
Did the Bible's King David and his son Solomon control the copper industry in present-day southern Jordan? Though that remains an open question, the possibility is raised once again by research reported in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Industrial copper slag mound excavated at Khirbat en-Nahas. The building and layers above it date to the mid-9th century BCE; slag deposits below the building date to the 10th century BCE.
Credit: Photo by Thomas Levy, UC San Diego
Did the Bible's King David and his son Solomon control the copper industry in present-day southern Jordan? Though that remains an open question, the possibility is raised once again by research reported in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Led by Thomas Levy of UC San Diego and Mohammad Najjar of Jordan's Friends of Archaeology, an international team of archaeologists has excavated an ancient copper-production center at Khirbat en-Nahas down to virgin soil, through more than 20 feet of industrial smelting debris, or slag. The 2006 dig has brought up new artifacts and with them a new suite of radiocarbon dates placing the bulk of industrial-scale production at Khirbat en-Nahas in the 10th century BCE – in line with biblical narrative on the legendary rule of David and Solomon. The new data pushes back the archaeological chronology some three centuries earlier than the current scholarly consensus.
The research also documents a spike in metallurgic activity at the site during the 9th century BCE, which may also support the history of the Edomites as related by the Bible.
Khirbat en-Nahas, which means "ruins of copper" in Arabic, is in the lowlands of a desolate, arid region south of the Dead Sea in what was once Edom and is today Jordan's Faynan district. The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) identifies the area with the Kingdom of Edom, foe of ancient Israel.
For years, scholars have argued whether the Edomites were sufficiently organized by the 10th to 9th centuries BCE to seriously threaten the neighboring Israelites as a true "kingdom." Between the World Wars, during the "Golden Age" of biblical archaeology, scholars explored, as Levy describes it, with a trowel in one hand and Bible in the other, seeking to fit their Holy Land findings into the sacred story. Based on his 1930s surveys, American archaeologist Nelson Glueck even asserted that he had found King Solomon's mines in Faynan/Edom. By the 1980s, however, Glueck's claim had been largely dismissed. A consensus had emerged that the Bible was heavily edited in the 5th century BCE, long after the supposed events, while British excavations of the Edomite highlands in the 1970s-80s suggested the Iron Age had not even come to Edom until the 7th century BCE.
"Now," said Levy, director of the Levantine Archaeology Lab at UCSD and associate director of the new Center of Interdisciplinary Science for Art, Architecture and Archaeology (CISA3), "with data from the first large-scale stratified and systematic excavation of a site in the southern Levant to focus specifically on the role of metallurgy in Edom, we have evidence that complex societies were indeed active in 10th and 9th centuries BCE and that brings us back to the debate about the historicity of the Hebrew Bible narratives related to this period."
Khirbat en-Nahas, comprising some 100 ancient buildings including a fortress, is situated in the midst of a large area covered by black slag – more than 24 acres that you can clearly see on Google Earth's satellite imagery. Mining trails and mines abound. The size argues for industrial-scale production at Khirbat en-Nahas, Levy explained. And the depth of the waste at the site, more than 20 feet, he said, provides a "measuring stick" to monitor social and technological change during the Iron Age, which spans around 1200 to 500 BCE, a key period in the histories of ancient Israel and Edom.
The archaeological team, Levy said, used high-precision radiocarbon dating on date seeds, sticks of tamarisk and other woods used for charcoal in smelting (along with Bayesian analysis) to obtain the 10th- and 9th-century BCE dates. The analyses were carried out by Thomas Higham of the University of Oxford.
Additional evidence comes from ancient Egyptian artifacts found at the site. The artifacts, a scarab and an amulet, were in a layer of the excavation associated with a serious disruption in production at the end of the 10th century BCE – possibly tying Khirbat en-Nahas to the well-documented military campaign of Pharaoh Sheshonq I (aka "Shishak" in the Bible) who, following Solomon's death, sought to crush economic activity in the area.
For a comprehensive picture, the researchers marshaled the "the newest and most accurate digital archaeology tools," Levy said: electronic surveying linked to GIS that all but eliminates human error, as well as digital reconstruction of the site in the "StarCAVE," a 3-D virtual environment at UC San Diego's California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology.
The present findings, Levy noted, support early results he and his colleagues obtained from digs at Khirbat en-Nahas in 2002 and 2004.
"We can't believe everything ancient writings tell us," Levy said. "But this research represents a confluence between the archaeological and scientific data and the Bible.
"Our work also demonstrates methods that are objective and enable researchers to evaluate the data in a dispassionate way. This is especially important for 'historical archaeologies' around the world where sacred texts – whether the Mahabharata in India or the Sagas of Iceland – and the archaeological record are arenas for fierce ideological and cultural debates."
Future research at Khirbat en-Nahas, Levy said, will focus on who actually controlled the copper industry there – Kings David and Solomon or perhaps regional Edomite leaders (who had not been written about in the biblical texts) – and also on the environmental impacts of all this ancient smelting.
Meanwhile, Levy is working with the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature in Jordan and other organizations to have Khirbat en-Nahas and the more than 450-square mile ancient mining and metallurgy district declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, to protect it from possible mining in the future and preserve "its spectacular desert landscape and rare, ancient character."
The study was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation and the National Geographic Society.
Story Source:
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University of California - San Diego. "King Solomon's Copper Mines?." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 28 October 2008. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081027174545.htm>.

History of Copper

Copper has been an essential material to man since pre-historic times. In fact, one of the major "ages" or stages of human history is named for a copper alloy, bronze. Copper and its many alloys have played an important role in many civilizations, from the ancient Egyptians, Romans to modern day cultures around the world. Here, you will find a number of reference materials detailing the role that copper has played throughout human civilization for thousands of years.

Resources

  • Copper Timeline
    Scroll through the past 11,000 years on this powerful timeline to observe how copper has advanced human civilization – from the Stone Age to the Modern Age… and into the future. Browse important copper developments to explore how they integrated with major inventions and world events. Click on 175 stories and enjoy digging deeper with over 1,000 links to help satisfy your curiosity. Some stories are linked to YouTube® to provide an audiovisual perspective to learning.
  • Civilization and Copper: The Codelco Collection
    This attractively designed book published by the world's largest copper mining company describes and illustrates copper's use and heritage from antiquity to the 21st century, all around the world. Learn how civilizations used copper to make jewelry, ornaments, utensils, weapons, religious objects, money, scientific and musical instruments, machinery and artwork ­– as well as myriad new uses for copper that are innovating our world today.
  • 60 Centuries of Copper
    Intended for the reader who is interested in the general history of copper mining, the development of metal-working processes and the uses of copper through the past six thousand years. Based on Sixty Centuries of Copper by B Webster Smith which was published by the UK Copper Development Association in 1965.
  • The History of Copper in the U.S.
    This section covers the history of copper production and consumption throughout American history to present day.
    Copper nugget on Copper CreekCopper Nugget on Copper Creek
The information provided in this section has been collected from many varied sources and is true and accurate insofar as the Copper Development Association Inc. has been able to determine.

The Ancient History of Copper

ARTICLE TABLE OF CONTENTS

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bars of copper
•••
Copper is considered to be one of the first metals to be used by humans. The main reason for its early discovery and use is that copper can naturally occur in relatively pure forms.

Copper Findings

Although various copper tools and decorative items dating back as early as 9000 BC have been discovered, archaeological evidence suggests that it was the early Mesopotamians who, around 5000 to 6000 years ago, were the first to fully harness the ability to extract and work with copper.
Lacking modern knowledge of metallurgy, early societies, including the Mesopotamians, Egyptians, and Native Americans, prized the metal mostly for its aesthetic qualities, using it like gold and silver for producing decorative items and ornaments.
The earliest organized production and use of copper in different societies have been roughly dated as:
  • Mesopotamia, circa 4500 BC
  • Egypt, circa 3500 BC
  • China, circa 2800 BC
  • Central America, circa 600 AD
  • West Africa, circa 900 AD

Regular Use of Copper

Researchers now believe that copper came of regular use for a period—referred to as the Copper Age—prior to its substitution by bronze. The substitution of copper for bronze occurred between 3500 to 2500 BC in West Asia and Europe, ushering in the Bronze Age.
Pure copper suffers from its softness, making it ineffective as a weapon and tool. But early metallurgy experimentation by the Mesopotamians resulted in a solution to this problem: bronze. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was not only harder but also could be treated by forging (shaping and hardening through hammering) and casting (poured and molded as a liquid).
The ability to extract copper from ore bodies was well-developed by 3000 BC and critical to the growing use of copper and copper alloys. Lake Van, in present-day Armenia, was the most likely source of copper ore for Mesopotamian metalsmiths who used the metal to produce pots, trays, saucers, and drinking vessels. Bronze and copper alloy tools, including chisels, razors, harpoons, arrows, and spearheads, have been discovered that date to the third millennium BC.
A chemical analysis of bronze from the region indicates that common alloys of the time contained approximately 87 percent copper, 10 to 11 percent tin, and small amounts of ironnickellead, arsenic, and antimony.

Copper in Egypt

In Egypt, the use of copper was developing around the same period, although there is nothing to suggest any direct knowledge transfer between the two civilizations. Copper tubes for conveying water were used in the Temple of King Sa'Hu-Re in Abusir built around 2750 BC. These tubes were produced from thin copper sheets to a diameter of 2.95 inches (75mm), while the pipeline was nearly 328 feet (100m) in length.
The Egyptians also used copper and bronze for mirrors, razors, instruments, weights, and balances, as well as the obelisks and adornments on temples.
According to biblical references, massive bronze pillars, measuring 6 feet (1.83m) in diameter and 25 feet (7.62m) tall once stood upon the porch of King Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem (circa ninth century BCE). The interior of the temple, meanwhile, is recorded as containing the so-called 'Brazen Sea,' a 16,000-gallon bronze tank held aloft by 12 cast bronze bulls. New research suggests that copper for use in King Soloman's temple could have come from Khirbat en-Nahas in modern-day Jordan.

The Near East and Copper

Copper and, in particular, bronze items spread throughout the near east and pieces from this period have been uncovered in modern-day Turkey, Iran, Greece, and Azerbaijan.
By the second millennium BC, bronze items were also being produced in large quantities in areas of China. Bronze castings found in and around the provinces of Henan and Shaanxi are considered the beginning of China's bronze, although some copper and bronze artifacts used by the Majiayao have been dated as early as 3000 BC.
Literature from the era shows how developed Chinese metallurgy was, with detailed discussions of the exact proportion of copper and tin used to produce different alloy grades used for casting different items, including cauldrons and bells, axes, spears, swords, arrows, and mirrors.

Iron and the End of the Bronze Age

While the development of iron smelting put an end to the Bronze Age, the use of copper and bronze did not stop. In fact, the Romans expanded the use for, and extraction of, copper. The Romans engineering ability lead to new systematic extraction methods that particularly focused on gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead.
Previously local copper mines in Spain and Asia Minor began to serve Rome, and, as the empire's reach broadened, more mines were integrated into this system. At its peak, Rome was mining copper as far north as Anglesey, in modern day Wales, as far east as Mysia, in modern Turkey, as far west as the Rio Tinto in Spain, and could produce up to 15,000 tons of refined copper per annum.
Part of the demand for copper came from coinage, which had begun when Greco-Bactrian kings issued the first copper-containing coins around the third century BC. An early form of cupronickel, a copper-nickel alloy, was used in the first coins, but the earliest Roman coins were made of cast bronze bricks adorned with the image of an ox.
It is believed that brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, was first developed around this time (circa the third century BC), while its first use in widely circulated coinage was in Rome's dupondii, which were produced and circulated between 23 BC and 200 AD.
It is not surprising that the Romans, given their extensive water systems and engineering ability, made frequent use of copper and bronze in plumbing related fittings, including tubing, valves, and pumps. The Romans also used copper and bronze in armor, helmets, swords, and spears, as well as decorative items, including brooches, musical instruments, ornaments, and art. While the production of weapons would later shift to iron, decorative and ceremonial items continued to be made from copper, bronze, and brass.
As Chinese metallurgy led to different grades of bronze, so did Roman metallurgy develop new and varying grades of brass alloys that had varying ratios of copper and zinc for particular applications. One legacy from the Roman era is the English word 'copper.' The term copper is derived from the Latin word 'cyprium,' which appears in early Christian-era Roman writing and was likely derived from the fact that much Roman copper originated in Cyprus.
Sources:
Reardon, A.C. (Editor). Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist. Second Edition. ASM International (2011).
Smith, B. Webster. Sixty Centuries of Copper. UK Copper Development Association (1965)
Copper Development Association Inc. History of Copper.
URL: https://www.copper.org/education/history/
Science Daily. "King Soloman's Copper Mines?" October 28, 2008.
URL: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081027174545.htm




Trade contacts with Meluhha artisans in Mari for tin-bronze production in Mesopotamia proven by provenance studies and cuneiform texts

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-- Gudea's Cylinder A refers to trade contact with Meluhha; Begemann et al research finds provenance of copper from Gujarat for tin-bronze artifacts of Mesopotamia
-- I posit that tin used for tin-bronzes in Mesopotamia also came through Meluhha from the largest tin belt of the globe, Ancient Far East

These trade contacts and the Ancient Maritime Tin Route between Hanoi and Haifa through ancient Indian Himalayan waterways and Indian Ocean maritime routes, may explain the proclamation by Mari priest in a procession heralding the one-horned young bull on a culm-of-millet flagstaff which is the standard of Indus Script, of Sarasvati Civilization epigraphs which now number over 8000 inscriptions. The Mari standard has been read rebus in Meluhha (Indian sprachbund, 'speech union'); see decipherment at

 

  • http://tinyurl.com/y2uekds6 
  • I submit that the so-called 'unicorn' on Indus Script Corpora is an orthographic composition (consistent with the styles of creating composite animals) which signifies a young bull, with characteristic orthographic ligatured of one horn, rings on neck, a pannier on shoulder. All these orthographic components are hypertexts read rebus in Meluhha readings for semantic determinatives signified by hieroglyphs: कोंद kōnda 'young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner' kundana 'fine gold' PLUS kōḍu'horn' rebus koḍ 'workplace' PLUS koḍiyum 'ring on neck' rebus:  koḍ 'workplace' PLUS  khōṇḍī खोंडी 'pannier sack' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner, fine gold'. Thus, the hypertext composition signifies workshop of a goldsmith, lapidary (turner, engraver). A remarkable cognate etymon signifying a young bull is seen in Telugu (Indian sprahbund, 'speech union'): kōḍe. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. కోడెదూడ. A young bull. కాడిమరపదగినదూడ. Plumpness, prime. తరుణము. జోడుకోడయలు a pair of bullocks. కోడె adj. Young. కోడెత్రాచు a young snake, one in its prime. "కోడెనాగముం బలుగుల రేడుతన్ని కొని పోవుతెరంగురామా. vi. కోడెకాడు kōḍe-kāḍu. n. A young man. పడుచువాడు. A lover విటుడు
  • Hieroglyph: karba'culm of millet' rebus: karba 'iron'. 

  • The 'rein rings' which constitute the stand for the one--horned young bull held aloft, are read rebus: valgā, bāg-ḍora 'bridle' rebus (metath.) bagalā 'seafaring dhow'. See: Priests of Mohenjo-daro and Mari (Susa) are dhāvaḍ'iron smelters' http://tinyurl.com/ktafaud

The decipherment of the Mari standard held in a procession proves that Meluhha speakers (Meluhha artisans/merchants) who were also scribes/engravers with competence in Indus Writing System were in Mari, Mesopotamia.
The second kingdom during the reign of Iblul-Il
 





See: 

1.   https://tinyurl.com/y7l8r5tw Muhly, James. "Sources of Tin and the Beginnings of Bronze Metallurgy." American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 89, No. 2 (April 1985): 275-291. This article of James Muhly points to Meluhha as the source of tin in Ancient Near East. The problem of identifying sources of tin is as yet unresolved.


2.  http://tinyurl.com/y6blrmy9 I agree with the analysis of TE Potts (Potts, TF, 1994, Mesopotamia and the East. An archaeological and historical stuydy of foreign relations ca. 3400-2000 BCE, Oxford Committee for Archaeology Monograph 37, Oxford) that the tin for the tin-bronzes of ANE was sourced from the East. I further venture to posit that the tin came from the largest tin belt of the globe, through seafaring merchants of Ancient Far East (the Himalayan river basins of Mekong, Irrawaddy and Salween) mediated by Ancient India trade guilds of 4th to 2nd millennia BCE. See. Maritime Meluhha Tin Road links Far East and Near East -- from Hanoi to Haifa creating the Bronze Age revolution https://tinyurl.com/y9sfw4f8 This hypothesis is a work in process.


Copper from Gujarat used in Mesopotmia, 3rd millennium BCE, evidenced by lead isotope analyses of tin-bronze objects; report by Begemann F. et al.

  1. Abstract :
    A lead isotope study »On the Early copper of Mesopotamia« reports on copper-base artefacts ranging in age from the 4th millennium BC (Uruk period) to the Akkadian at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Arguments are presented that, in the (tin)bronzes, the lead associated with the tin used for alloying did not contribute to the total in any detectable way. Hence, the lead isotopy traces the copper and cannot address the problem of the provenance of tin. The data suggest as possible source region of the copper a variety of ore occurrences in Anatolia, Iran, Oman, Palestine and, rather unexpectedly (by us), from India. During the earliest period the isotopic signature of ores from Central and North Anatolia is dominant; during the next millennium this region loses its importance and is hardly present any more at all. Instead, southeast Anatolia, central Iran, Oman, Feinan-Timna in the rift valley between Dead Sea and Red Sea, and sources in the Caucasus are now potential suppliers of the copper. Generally, an unambiguous assignment of an artefact to any of the ores is not possible because the isotopic fingerprints of ore occurrences are not unique. In our suite of samples bronze objects become important during ED III (middle of the 3rd millennium BC) but they never make up more than 50 % of the total. They are distinguished in their lead isotopy by very high 206Pb-normalized abundance ratios. As source of such copper we suggest Gujarat/Southern Rajasthan which, on general grounds, has been proposed before to have been the most important supplier of copper in Ancient India. We propose this Indian copper to have been arsenic-poor and to be the urudu-luh-ha variety which is one of the two sorts of purified copper mentioned in contemporaneous written texts from Mesopotamia to have been in circulation there concurrently.


  2. A lead isotope study »On the Early copper of Mesopotamia« reports on copper-base artefacts ranging in age from the 4 th millennium BC (Uruk period) to the Akkadian at the end of the 3 rd millennium BC. Arguments are presented that, in the (tin)bronzes, the lead associated with the tin used for alloying did not contribute to the total in any detectable way. Hence, the lead isotopy traces the copper and cannot address the problem of the provenance of tin. The data suggest as possible source region of the copper a variety of ore occurrences in Anatolia, Iran, Oman, Palestine and, rather unexpectedly (by us), from India. During the earliest period the isotopic signature of ores from Central and North Anatolia is dominant; during the next millennium this region loses its importance and is hardly present any more at all. Instead, southeast Anatolia, central Iran, Oman, Feinan-Timna in the rift valley between Dead Sea and Red Sea, and sources in the Caucasus are now potential suppliers of the copper. Generally, an unambiguous assignment of an artefact to any of the ores is not possible because the isotopic fingerprints of ore occurrences are not unique. In our suite of samples bronze objects become important during ED III (middle of the 3 rd millennium BC) but they never make up more than 50% of the total. They are distinguished in their lead isotopy by very high 206 Pb-normalized abundance ratios. As source of such copper we suggest Gujarat/ Southern Rajasthan which, on general grounds, has been proposed before to have been the most important supplier of copper in Ancient India. We propose this Indian copper to have been arsenic-poor and to be the urudu-luh-ha variety which is one of the two sorts of purified copper mentioned in contemporaneous written texts from Mesopotamia to have been in circulation there concurrently.
From Gudea Cylinder A

Nanse instructs Gudea to build Ningirsu – a decorated chariot with emblem, weapons, and drums, which he does andtakes into the temple with "Ushumgalkalama", his minstrel or harp (bull-shaped harp sound-box pictured). He isrewarded with Ningirsu's blessing and a second dream where he is given more detailed instructions of the structure.Gudea then instructs the people of Lagash and gives judgement on the city with a 'code of ethics and morals'. Gudeatakes to the work zealously and measures the building site, then lays the first brick in a festive ritual. Materials forthe construction are brought from over a wide area including Susa, Elam, Magan Meluhha and Lebanon. Cedars ofLebanon are apparently floated down from Lebanon on the Euphrates and the "Iturungal" canal to Girsu. (p.320)

Provenance Determination of Archaeological Metal Objects

Chapter · January 2014 with 2,119 Reads
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-9017-3_11
Publisher: Provenance Determination of Archaeological Metal Objects
Publisher: Springer, Editors: B.W. Roberts, C. Thornton
Cite this publication
Abstract
Archaeometallurgy is one aspect of the widespread interdisciplinary field of science-based archaeology and is itself multifaceted (for a recent review, see Rehren and Pernicka 2008). This article deals mainly with the question of how to determine the provenance or origin of ancient metals, a subject that is undoubtedly of major importance in archaeology even though it has often been disputed. Here, a short history of the practice of provenance analysis of metals by chemical methods is presented. Studies in this direction were often loaded with high (and mostly unrealistic) expectations and were seemingly disappointing. Close to being regarded as a complete failure, provenance analysis of archaeological metal objects was revived through the introduction of lead isotope analysis, which itself went through a cycle of overly optimistic expectations, later condemnations and finally a realistic assessment of pros and cons. Combined with trace element patterns, lead isotopes do provide a tool with which to determine the provenance of most metals that were produced and used in antiquity. Not all problems can be solved, at least not in the near future, but this is not due to a wrong concept or methodology, but rather due to our limited ability to distinguish between ore deposits, and the imbalance between analyses of finished artefacts and those of archaeologically meaningful ore samples. More new parameters are emerging that also carry information on the provenance of a metal, and the methodology will be adjusted and improved for specific metal types. With realistic approaches and expectations, provenance studies of archaeological metal objects will remain a valuable component of archaeometallurgical and archaeological research. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights are reserved. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260095886_Provenance_Determination_of_Archaeological_Metal_Objects

TRADE, BRONZE, TIN AND MINING IN MESOPOTAMIA



TRADE IN MESOPOTAMIA


Dilmun-era Arabian ship
 Large scale trade was pioneered in Mesopotamia. Both luxury goods and raw materials circulated within Mesopotamia and were brought in from the outside as far away as India, Africa and Greece. The only goods available in abundance in Mesopotamia were mud, clay, reeds, palm, fish, and grain. To obtain other goods Mesopotamians needed to trade. Mesopotamians developed large scale trade. Ships brought in goods from distant lands. Labor and grain were exported. Metals were brought in overland routes and paid for with wool and grains. Goods were moved in jars and clay pots. Seals identified who they belonged to.
 Mesopotamia was where some of the first great trade routes were established. "Control of the Euphrates," an Italian archaeologist Paolo Matthiae told National Geographic, "meant control over the strategic traffic in metals from Anatolia and in wood from the Syrian forests near the Mediterranean, both natural resources essential to Mesopotamian economic life."
 The Sumerians established trade links with cultures in Anatolia, Syria, Persia and the Indus Valley. Similarities between pottery in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley indicate that trade probably occurred between the two regions. During the reign of the pharaoh Pepi I (2332 to 2283 B.C.) Egypt traded with Mesopotamian cities as far north as Ebla in Syria near the border of present-day Turkey.
 The Sumerians traded for gold and silver from Indus Valley, Egypt, Nubia and Turkey; ivory from Africa and the Indus Valley; agate, carnelian, wood from Iran; obsidian and copper from Turkey; diorite, silver and copper from Oman and coast of Arabian Sea; carved beads from the Indus valley; translucent stone from Oran and Turkmenistan; seashell from the Gulf of Oman. Raw blocks of lapis lazuli are thought to have been brought from Afghanistan by donkey and on foot. Tin may have come from as far away as Malaysia but most likely came from Turkey or Europe.
 Richard Covington wrote in Smithsonian Magazine: “The Sumerians likely bartered palm, fish and vegetable oil, wool and cloth, grain and other agricultural products for such items as gold from Egypt and central Turkey, wood from Iran, and copper and diorite from the Oman Peninsula. Raw blocks of lapis lazuli were transported by foot or donkey from northeastern Afghanistan to Mesopotamian palaces, where artisans fashioned them into sculptures, bowls and jewelry. Sailing across the Arabian Sea, merchants from the IndusValley converged on the bustling seaport of Dilmun, in present-day Bahrain, with their cargo of ivory combs and carnelian belts and beads to trade with buyers from Ur, 400 miles to the north” [Source: Richard Covington, Smithsonian Magazine, August 2003]

Assyrian cart
 Nearly half of the pieces at Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition called “Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus” “illustrate the aesthetic and cultural interchanges among the first cities. The artifacts are presented in a sweeping display, arranged in geographic progression from west to east. Elaborate gold earrings, hairpins and beaded necklaces from Troy resemble aspects of jewelry found in Greece, central Turkey, Mesopotamia and the IndusValley. Arustic banquet scene incised on a silver cup by a master craftsman from western central Asia echoes the banquet depicted on the Standard of Ur...A single carnelian bead, delicately etched with white circles, which was found on the Greek island of Aigina near Athens, 2,500 miles from its origin in the IndusValley, provides dramatic evidence of a trading network that linked the Aegean Sea to the IndusValley. “It was a shock to find it that far west," says Aruz. “Until now, the beads had never turned up west of the royal tombs of Ur. In another surprise, a three-foot-high figure of a nude man carved around 2500 B.C. on the island of Tarut, in the Arabian Gulf near Bahrain, bears a marked similarity to figures found 600 miles north at Khafajah, near today's Baghdad—an indication of the wide-ranging impact of Mesopotamian sculpture."
 Book: Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus edited by Joan Aruz and Romlad Wallenfels (Metropolitan Museum/ Yale University Press, 2003). It discusses art in Mesopotamia in its own right and as it relates to art in the Mediterranean region, ancient India and along the Silk Road. It has good sections on technologies such as sculpture production and metal making.
Websites and Resources on Mesopotamia: Ancient History Encyclopedia ancient.eu.com/Mesopotamia ; Mesopotamia University of Chicago site mesopotamia.lib.uchicago.edu; British Museum mesopotamia.co.uk ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Mesopotamia sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Louvre louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_periode.jsp ; Metropolitan Museum of Artmetmuseum.org/toah ; University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology penn.museum/sites/iraq ; Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago uchicago.edu/museum/highlights/meso ; Iraq Museum Databaseoi.uchicago.edu/OI/IRAQ/dbfiles/Iraqdatabasehome ; Wikipedia article Wikipedia ; ABZU etana.org/abzubib; Oriental Institute Virtual Museum oi.uchicago.edu/virtualtour ; Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur oi.uchicago.edu/museum-exhibits ; Ancient Near Eastern Art Metropolitan Museum of Art www.metmuseum.org
Archaeology News and Resources: Anthropology.net anthropology.net : serves the online community interested in anthropology and archaeology; archaeologica.org archaeologica.org is good source for archaeological news and information. Archaeology in Europe archeurope.com features educational resources, original material on many archaeological subjects and has information on archaeological events, study tours, field trips and archaeological courses, links to web sites and articles; Archaeology magazinearchaeology.org has archaeology news and articles and is a publication of the Archaeological Institute of America; Archaeology News Network archaeologynewsnetwork is a non-profit, online open access, pro- community news website on archaeology; British Archaeology magazine british-archaeology-magazine is an excellent source published by the Council for British Archaeology; Current Archaeology magazine archaeology.co.uk is produced by the UK's leading archaeology magazine; HeritageDaily heritagedaily.com is an online heritage and archaeology magazine, highlighting the latest news and new discoveries; Livescience livescience.com/ : general science website with plenty of archaeological content and news. Past Horizons : online magazine site covering archaeology and heritage news as well as news on other science fields; The Archaeology Channel archaeologychannel.org explores archaeology and cultural heritage through streaming media; Ancient History Encyclopedia ancient.eu : is put out by a non-profit organization and includes articles on pre-history; Best of History Websites besthistorysites.net is a good source for links to other sites; Essential Humanities essential-humanities.net: provides information on History and Art History, including sections Prehistory

Trade and the Hammurabi Code

 Claude Hermann and Walter Johns wrote in the Encyclopedia Britannica:“Trade was very extensive. A common way of doing business was for a merchant to entrust goods or money to a travelling agent, who sought a market for his goods. The caravans travelled far beyond the limits of the empire. The Code insisted that the agent should inventory and give a receipt for all that he received. No claim could be made for anything not so entered. Even if the agent made no profit he was bound to return double what he had received, if he made poor profit he had to make up the deficiency; but he was not responsible for loss by robbery or extortion on his travels. On his return, the principal must give a receipt for what was handed over to him. Any false entry or claim on the agent's part was penalised three-fold, on the principal's part six-fold. In normal cases profits were divided according to contract, usually equally."Source: Claude Hermann Walter Johns, Babylonian Law — The Code of Hammurabi. Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910-1911 <^>]
 “A considerable amount of forwarding was done by the caravans. The carrier gave a receipt for the consignment, took all responsibility and exacted a receipt on delivery. If he defaulted he paid five-fold. He was usually paid in advance. Deposit, especially warehousing of grain, was charged for at one-sixtieth. The warehouseman took all risks, paid double for all shortage, but no claim could be made unless be had given a properly witnessed receipt. Water traffic on the Euphrates and canals was early very considerable. Ships, whose tonnage was estimated at the amount of grain they could carry, were continually hired for the a transport of all kinds of goods. The Code fixes the price for building and insists on the builder's giving a year's guarantee of seaworthiness. It fixes the hire of ship and of crew. The captain was responsible for the freight and the ship; he had to replace all loss. Even if he refloated the ship he had to pay a fine of half its value for sinking it. In the case of collision the boat under way was responsible for damages to the boat at anchor. The Code also regulated the liquor traffic, fixing a fair price for beer and forbidding the connivance of the tavern-keeper (a female!) at disorderly conduct or treasonable assembly, under pain of death. She was to hale the offenders to the palace, which implied an efficient and accessible police system.
See Dillum Magan people, History

Dillum


Dilmun tomb areas on Bahrain
 Many goods that traveled through the Persian Gulf went through the island of Bahrain. There was an early Bronze Age trade network between Mesopotamia, Dilmun (Bahrain), Elam (southwestern Iran), Bactria (Afghanistan) and the Indus Valley. Ivory combs, carnelian belts and beads were carried by ship to Dilmun in Bahrain where buyers from Ur snapped them up the Euphrates and carried them to Mesopotamia.
 Dillum (Dilmun) was ancient Semitic-speaking, city-state and trade center centered mainly on the island of Bahrain that thrived from around 3200 B.C. to 1200 B.C. It was described in Sumerian literature as the city of the gods. Archeologists have found temples and settlements on Dillum, dated to 2200 B.C.
 Based on textual evidence, Dillum was located in the Persian Gulf, on a trade route between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilisation, and embraced Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and the coastal regions of present-day eastern Saudi Arabia."8] close to the sea and to artesian springs. At its height, it controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. Some scholars have theorized that the Sumerians regarded Dilmun as a sacred place, but there is no ancient textual evidence to back this up. Dilmun was mentioned by the Mesopotamians as a trade partner, a source of copper, and a trade entrepôt. It was among the lands conquered by King Sargon of Akkad and his descendants. The Sumerian tale of the garden paradise of Dilmun may have been an inspiration for the Garden of Eden story. [Source: Wikipedia]
 The Dilmunites is the name given to the people of Dillum. They were a maritime people who controlled Persian Gulf trade. Andrew Lawler wrote in Archaeology magazine: “ In the mythology of ancient Sumeria (modern Iraq), Dilmun is described as an Eden-like place of milk and honey. But by 2000 B.C., Dilmunites were leaving their homeland to become seagoing merchants and establish a powerful trading network that eventually stretched from India to Syria. Mesopotamian clay tablets refer to ships from Dilmun bringing wood, copper, and other goods from distant lands. [Source: Andrew Lawler, Archaeology February 11, 2013 /=\]

Dilmun Trade


copper bull head from Dilmun
 Many goods that traveled through the Persian Gulf went through the island of Bahrain. There was an early Bronze Age trade network between Mesopotamia, Dilmun (Bahrain), Elam (southwestern Iran), Bactria (Afghanistan) and the Indus Valley.
 "Persian Gulf" types of circular, stamped (rather than rolled) seals associated with Dilmun have been found at Lothal in Gujarat, India, and Failaka, as well as in Mesopotamia, This is regarded as fairly firm evidence that long-distance sea trade involving Dillum took place.. What was traded is less known but is believed to have included timber and precious woods, ivory, lapis lazuli, gold, and luxury goods such as carnelian and glazed stone beads, pearls from the Persian Gulf, shell and bone inlays, which were traded with Mesopotamia in exchange for silver, tin, woolen textiles, olive oil and grains. Copper ingots from Oman and bitumen from Mesopotamia is likely to have been exchanged for cotton textiles and domestic fowl from the Indus region as examples these as trade goods have been found. The weights and measurements used at Dilmun were identical to those used by the Indus, but different from those used in southern Mesopotamia. [Source: Wikipedia]
 The Sumerians established trade links with cultures in Anatolia, Syria, Persia and the Indus Valley. Similarities between pottery in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley indicate that trade probably occurred between the two regions. The Sumerians traded for gold and silver from Indus Valley, Egypt, Nubia and Turkey; ivory from Africa and the Indus Valley; agate, carnelian, wood from Iran; obsidian and copper from Turkey; diorite, silver and copper from Oman and coast of Arabian Sea; carved beads from the Indus valley; translucent stone from Oran and Turkmenistan; seashell from the Gulf of Oman. Raw blocks of lapis lazuli are thought to have been brought from Afghanistan by donkey and on foot. Tin may have come from as far away as Malaysia but most likely came from Afghanistan, Turkey or Europe.

Magan

 The ancient Magan culture thrived along the coasts of the Persian Gulf during the early Bronze Age (2500-2000 B.C.) in Oman and the United Arab Emirates. Ancient myths from Sumer refer to ships from Magan carrying valued woods, copper and diorite stone. Archeologists refers to people in Magan as the Barbar culture. Based on artifacts found at its archeological site it was involved in trade with Mesopotamia, Iran, Arabia, Afghanistan and the Indus Valley. Objects from the Indus Valley found at Magan sites in Oman include three-sided prism seals and Indus Valley pottery.
 Sumerian texts, dated to 2300 B.C., describe Magan ships, with a cargo capacity of 20 tons, sailing up the Gulf of Oman and stopping at Dilum to stock up on fresh water before carrying on to Mesopotamia. The texts also said Magan was south of Sumer and Dillum, was visited by travelers from the Indus Valley, and had high mountains, where diorite, or gabbro, was quarried to use to make black statues.
 The ancient Magan culture thrived along the coasts of the Persian Gulf during the early Bronze Age (2500-2000 B.C.) in Oman and the United Arab Emirates. Ancient myths from Sumer refer to ships from Magan carrying valued woods, copper and diorite stone. Archeologists refers to people in Magan as the Barbar culture.
 The Magan people subsisted on a diet of fish, shellfish, camel and goat meat, barley, wheat, dates and fruit. They made jewelry with beads made of agate, carnelian paste, steatite (soapstone), shell, bone and gold and produced small animal figures made from a lead-silver alloy.

Magan and Copper

 Samad Al Shaan is an ancient site with copper mines and smelting sites that have been dated to the third millennium B.C. Trade from Oman's ancient copper sources was controlled by the Magan culture, who dominated the copper trade in the ancient world. Copper was needed to make both copper and bronze tools and weapons.
 A number of Magan era (2500 to 2000 B.C.) copper slag heaps and un-shaped copper ignots have been found at the oasis village of Maysar in central-eastern Oman. A metal workshop was also found there.
 The ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia didn't have their own copper sources. Copper mined from mines in the hills around Wadi Jizzi near Sohar in Oman were exported at least as early as 2200 B.C. by the Magan to the Sumerian empire and Elam, another ancient civilization. As other copper sources were discovered and exploited, the influence of the Magan waned.

Indus Valley Trade

 The Indus Valley trade network stretched from India to Syria. The Indus people imported raw materials like lapis lazuli from Afghanistan; clam and conch shells from the Arabian Sea; timber from the Himalayas; silver, jade and gold from Central Asia; and tin, copper and green amozite, perhaps from Rajasthan or the Gujarat area of India. Evidence of maritime trade with Mesopotamia (about 1,500 miles form the Indus area) includes ivory, pearls, beads, timber and grain from the Indus area found in Mesopotamian tombs. Similarities between pottery in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley is further evidence of trade between the two regions.
 The presence of a standardized weight and measurement system shows that the trade system was sophisticated, extensive and organized. Certain towns became known for specialized crafts: for example, Lothal for carnelian beads; Balakot for bangles, and the Rohri Hills for flint blades and tools. Some large brick-making and pottery making factories were located in the Cholistan desert. At Shortugai in Afghanistan, the Harappans established a colony to mine lapis lazuli.
 Products brought from Mesopotamia, Iran and Central Asia were traded for raw material and precious metals. Based on its location on trade routes, Kenoyer told Discover, Harappa "was a mercantile base for rapid growth and expansion...The way I envision it. If you had entrepreneurial go-get-'em, and you had a new recourse, you could make a million in Harappa." There are number of archeological sites near Karachi that were probably used as ports.

Bronze Age Mesopotamia

 The Bronze Age in Mesopotamia (roughly 3200 B.C. to 1000 B.C.) has been characterized as a time of vibrant economic expansion, when the earliest Sumerian cities and the first great Mesopotamian empires grew and prospered. John Noble Wilford wrote in the New York Times, “After thousands of years in which copper was the only metal in regular use, the rising civilizations of Mesopotamia set off a revolution in metallurgy when they learned to combine tin with copper -- in proportions of about 5 to 10 percent tin and the rest copper -- to produce bronze. Bronze was easier to cast in molds than copper and much harder, with the strength of some steel. Though expensive, bronze was eventually used in a wide variety of things, from axes and awls to hammers, sickles and weapons, like daggers and swords. The wealthy were entombed with figurines, bracelets and pendants of bronze. [Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, January 4, 1994]
 Among the mysteries of ancient metallurgy include the question of how people first recognized the qualities of bronze made from tin and copper and how they mixed the alloy. For several centuries before the Bronze Age, metalsmiths in Mesopotamia were creating some tools and weapons out of a kind of naturally occurring bronze. The one used most frequently was a natural combination of arsenic and copper. The arsenic fumes during smelting must have poisoned many an ancient smith, and since the arsenic content of copper varied widely, the quality of the bronze also varied and must have caused manufacturing problems.
 Scholars have yet to learn how the ancient Mesopotamians got the idea of mixing tin with copper to produce a much stronger bronze. But excavations have produced tin-bronze pins, axes and other artifacts from as early as 3000 B.C. In the Royal Cemetery at the ancient city of Ur, 9 of 12 of the metal vessels recovered were made of tin-bronze, suggesting that this was the dominant alloy by the middle of the third millennium B.C.
 The Bronze Age could not continue forever, scholars say, in part because tin was so hard to get, contributing to the expense of the metal alloy. The age came to an end around 1100 B.C., when iron, plentiful and accessible just about everywhere, became the most important metal in manufacturing.

Metal production in the ancient Middle East

Sources of Mesopotamia-Era Tin in Afghanistan and Turkey

 One of the most enduring mysteries about ancient technology, Wilford wrote, “is where did the metalsmiths of the Middle East get the tin to produce the prized alloy that gave the Bronze Age its name. Digging through ruins and deciphering ancient texts, scholars found many sources of copper ore and evidence of furnaces for copper smelting. But despite their searching, they could never find any sign of ancient tin mining or smelting anywhere closer than Afghanistan. Sumerian texts referred to the tin trade from the east (thought to be Afghanistan). In the 1970s, Russian and French geologists identified several ancient tin mines in Afghanistan, where tin appears to be abundant . For many years that discovery seemed to resolve the issue of Mesopotamia's tin source. [Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, January 4, 1994]
 It seemed incredible though that such an important industry could have been founded and sustained with long-distance trade alone to places like Afghanistan. But where was there any tin closer to home? After systematic explorations in the central Taurus Mountains of Turkey, an archeologist at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago has found a tin mine and ancient mining village 60 miles north of the Mediterranean coastal city of Tarsus. This was the first clear evidence of a local tin industry in the Middle East, archeologists said, and it dates to the early years of the Bronze Age.
 The findings changed established thinking about the role of trade and metallurgy in the economic and cultural expansion of the Middle East in the Bronze Age. In an announcement made in January 1994, Dr. Aslihan Yener of the Oriental Institute reported that the mine and village demonstrated that tin mining was a well-developed industry in the region as long ago as 2870 B. C. She analyzed artifacts to re-create the process used to separate tin from ore at relatively low temperatures and in substantial quantities."Already we know that the industry had become just that -- a fully developed industry with specialization of work," Dr. Yener told the New York Times, "It had gone beyond the craft stages that characterize production done for local purposes only."
 Dr. Vincent C. Pigott, a specialist in the archeology of metallurgy at the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, said: "By all indications, she's got a tin mine. It's excellent archeology and a major step forward in understanding ancient metal technology." To Dr. Guillermo Algaze, an anthropologist at the University of California at San Diego and a scholar of Mesopotamian civilizations, the discovery is significant because it shows that bronze metallurgy, like agriculture and many other transforming human technologies, apparently developed independently in several places. Much of the innovation, moreover, seemed to come not from the urban centers of southern Mesopotamia, in today's Iraq, but from the northern hinterlands, like Anatolia, in what is now Turkey.
 Speaking of the ancient tin workers of the Taurus Mountains, Dr. Algaze said: "It's very clear that these are not just rustic provincials sitting on resources. They had a high level of metallurgy technology, and they were exploiting tin for trade all around the Middle East." The mine, at a site called Kestel, has narrow passages running more than a mile into the mountainside, with others still blocked and unexplored. The archeologists found only low-grade tin ore, presumably the remains of richer deposits that had been mined out.
 For this reason, Dr. James D. Muhly, a professor of ancient Middle Eastern history at the University of Pennsylvania, said he was skeptical of interpretations that Kestel was a tin mine. "They have identified the geological presence of tin," he contended. "Almost every piece of granite has at least minute concentrations of tin in it. But was there enough there for mining? I don't think they have found a tin mine." In her defense, Dr. Yener said: "His arguments are still based on an analysis of the mine and not the industry. He has to address the analysis of the crucibles." Although he was skeptical of Dr. Yener's claim to have found an ancient tin mine, Dr. Muhly praised her effort to find the sources of metals in the Middle East as "tremendously important archeology" because of the connection between the development and widening use of bronze and the emergence of complex societies, large urban centers, international trade and empires.

Mesopotamia-Era Tin-Mining Village in Turkey

 John Noble Wilford wrote in the New York Times, “On the hillside opposite the mine entrance, the archeologists found ruins of the mining village of Goltepe. Judging by its size, Dr. Yener said, 500 to 1,000 people lived in the village at any one time. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and the styles of pottery indicated that Goltepe was occupied more or less continuously between 3290 and 1840 B. C. It began as a rude village of pit-houses dug into the soft sedimentary slopes and later developed into a more substantial walled community. [Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, January 4, 1994]
 Scattered among the ruins were more than 50,000 stone tools and ceramic vessels, which ranged from the size of teacups and saucepans to the size of large cooking pots. The vessels were crucibles in which tin was smelted, Dr. Yener said, and they hold the most important clues to the meaning of her discovery and her answer to skeptics.
 Slag left over from the smelting, collected last summer from inside the crucibles and in surrounding debris, contained not low-grade tin ore but material with 30 percent tin content, good enough for the metal trade. This analysis, including various tests with electron microscopes and X-rays, was conducted with the assistance of technicians from Cornwall, a region of England famous for tin mining since ancient times.
 The tin-rich slag, Dr. Yener concluded, established beyond doubt that tin metal was being mined and smelted at Kestel and Goltepe. They could not have met all of the Middle East's tin needs in the Bronze Age, she said, but neither was all the tin imported, as had long been thought. By this time, the scientists realized the significance of all the stone tools and could reconstruct the methods of those ancient tin processors.

Mesopotamia-Era Tin Mining

 John Noble Wilford wrote in the New York Times, “The mining was done with stone tools and fire. Miners would light fires to soften the ore veins and make it easier to hack out chunks. Since the shafts were no more than two feet wide, the archeologists said, children may have been used for much of the underground work. This inference was reinforced by the discovery of several skeletons buried inside the mine; their ages at death were 12 to 15 years. Further examination should determine if they died of mining-related illnesses or injuries. [Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, January 4, 1994]
 Once extracted, the tin ore, or cassiterite, was apparently washed, much the way Forty-Niners in the American West panned for gold in streams, separating nuggets from the rest. Many of the stone tools at the site were used to grind the more promising pieces of ore into smaller fragments or powder.

Bronze, baked clay Lamma goddess from Iraq, 1800 BC
 Then crucibles, set in pits, were filled with alternating layers of hot charcoal and cassiterite powder. Instead of using bellows, workers blew air through reed pipes to increase the heat of the burning charcoal. Tests indicated that this technique could have produced temperatures of 950 degrees Celsius and perhaps as high as 1,100 degrees (1,740 to 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit), sufficient to separate the tin from surrounding ore. Droplets of tin were encased in molten slag. When this cooled, workers again used stone tools to crush the slag to release the relatively pure tin globules. Sometimes the slag was heated again to separate any remaining tin.
 If this site is typical of ancient tin processing, Dr. Yener concluded, then archeologists may have overlooked other local sources of Bronze Age tin. They had been searching for the remains of large furnaces for tin smelting, much as had already been found for copper smelting, and had not suspected that a major tin-processing operation could be conducted successfully with fairly low grades of ore and in small batches in crucibles. In this manner, with hard work and many people, tin might even be recovered at relatively low temperatures.
 The identity of these highland mining people is unknown, but their pottery betrays cultural ties to societies in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. The Taurus Mountains were known in the powerful cities of southern Mesopotamia as a rich source of metals, and Sargon the Great, founder of the Akkadian empire in the late third millennium B.C., wrote of obtaining silver there. Although Kestel was close to many ancient silver, gold and copper mines, no traces of copper were detected at the site, indicating that the processed tin was traded elsewhere for the production of bronze.

Obsidian

 Zach Zorich wrote in Archaeology: “Three small and apparently unremarkable pieces of obsidian, found in the palace courtyard of the ancient city of Urkesh in modern-day Syria, are changing ideas about trade networks at the height of the Akkadian Empire's power. Urkesh sits near a mountain pass by the border between the Bronze Age Hurrian and Akkadian empires—putting it in a natural position to be a trading center. [Source:Zach Zorich, Archaeology, December 19, 2012]
 According to Ellery Frahm of the University of Sheffield and Joshua Feinberg of the University of Minnesota, decades of studies had shown that nearly all of the obsidian used in Urkesh and sites throughout Mesopotamia came from volcanoes in what is now eastern Turkey. Frahm, however, tested this by analyzing the magnetic properties of 97 pieces of obsidian found throughout the city and learned that three of the pieces came from a volcano located much farther away, in central Turkey. These pieces were dated to around 2440 B.C., about the time that Emperor Naram-Sin expanded the Akkadian Empire to its peak influence. Frahm believes that the Akkadians were expanding their trade networks into new territory. The three pieces of obsidian may have been from items traded along with more valuable goods, such as metals. According to Frahm, “It shows that they were tapping into a trade network at that time that they weren't using before or after." [Ibid]

Trade or Colonialism Between Mesopotamia and Turkey?


Copper slag from Cyprus
 John Noble Wilford wrote in the New York Times, “On a limestone bluff overlooking the Euphrates in southeastern Turkey, a low mound spreads across several acres, blanketing the ruins of a settlement that bustled with life and trade in the late fourth millennium B.C. The ruins may tell a tale of how the world's first urban societies reached into the hinterlands for raw materials and thus started the earliest practice of colonialism."Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, May 25, 1993]
 Or it may turn out to be a somewhat different story. The first archeological excavations at the Turkish site of Hacinebi Tepe, begun last summer, have yielded surprising results. A preliminary examination of the stones, mud brick, ceramics and other artifacts suggests that the local people at Hacinebi may well have been trading with their supposed Mesopotamian masters as equals.
 If so, these new findings do more than provide additional evidence of the widespread Mesopotamian presence among their neighbors to the north; they also raise serious questions about the nature of that relationship. Were they really there as colonialists? Perhaps they were only merchants in a widening network of long-distance trade, asserting little or none of the political, military or economic dominance usually associated with colonialism. They might even have been there, in some cases, as refugees.
 Dr. Gil J. Stein, an anthropologist at Northwestern University who is directing the excavations, said the discoveries at Hacinebi are "provoking us to think of ancient colonization in a dramatically different way." Although other sites of Mesopotamian trading outposts and presumed colonies have been sampled before, this is the first one known to be superimposed on an existing local community. There is a well-preserved layer of artifacts of the people who lived there for generations before the Mesopotamians arrived. Immediately above it is a layer of indigenous artifacts and architectural remains mingled with clear evidence of a Mesopotamian presence.
 Dr. William Sumner, director of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, said this was the first opportunity for archeologists to investigate the role of the indigenous societies in these trading centers and determine their relationship with the foreigners. Dr. Guillermo Algaze, an anthropologist at the University of California at San Diego who specializes in the colonialism of ancient civilizations, said: "This site has great potential. We will be seeing to what extent the enterprise was exploitative or more reciprocal, and seeing the social and economic impact it had on the locals."

Resource Exploitation and Uruk in Mesopotamia


figure on a Uruk vase
 John Noble Wilford wrote in the New York Times, “A guiding hypothesis of ancient Mesopotamian studies has been that resource exploitation of foreign lands, not unlike modern colonialism, went hand in hand with the emergence of the first urban political states. This was happening in the midst of one of the most momentous transitions of antiquity, the beginning not just of history but also of civilization. [Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, May 25, 1993]
 Some 700 miles down river from Hacinebi, in the years between 3500 and 3100 B.C., people living along the lower Euphrates and Tigris Rivers were cultivating the fertile plains with increasing success. Their irrigated fields were producing grain surpluses, and their flocks were shorn for a growing textile industry. People congregated in towns, notably Uruk, where they erected walls and imposing buildings and learned to keep account of their surpluses and industries by methods that would soon lead to writing, and so the beginning of history.
 But these nascent city-states of southern Mesopotamia, in what is now Iraq, could not fill their need for metals and timber or their desire for semiprecious stones with which the elite could flaunt their rising status. For these goods, they had to look to the presumably less advanced but resource-rich societies on the plains and in the valleys of southwestern Iran and in the northern highlands of Syria and Turkey. Scholars described this outreach as the Uruk expansion.
 Writing in the June 1993 issue of American Anthropologist, Dr. Algaze compares Uruk's distant trading outposts to such modern examples as the Portuguese colony of Goa in India and the British colony of Hong Kong. The Uruk outposts, he said, "reflect a system of economic hegemony whereby early emergent states attempted to exploit less complex polities located well beyond the boundaries of their direct political control and that this system may be construed as imperialistic in both its extent and nature."
 Recent excavations in the archeology of colonialism have revealed the ruins of several such Uruk outposts on major trade routes. One of the best documented is Godin Tepe, sitting astride the Khorasan Road, the most important east-west route crossing the Zagros Mountains of Iran. Settlers from the Uruk world appeared to have lived inside a fort that was surrounded by a local community. Their remains include some of the earliest evidence of beer and wine.
 Since Godin Tepe must have existed far beyond Uruk's political control and presumably could not have survived for long without local acquiescence, archeologists have assumed this was not so much a colony as a trading post operated by Uruk merchants. One of the excavators, Dr. T. Cuyler Young Jr. of the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, likened Godin to an early operation of the Hudson Bay Company, where merchants set up shop in remote places and bought and sold or traded goods with the indigenous population of Canada.
 Archeologists think that Habuba Kabira had all the marks of a full-fledged colonial settlement. Situated on a bend of the upper Euphrates in Syria, just south of the Turkish border, this site appeared to be the hub of several nearby Uruk settlements. In the 1970's, German archeologists revealed Habuba Kabira to have been a fortified city with well-differentiated residential, industrial and administrative quarters apparently built as part of a single master plan. The architecture and artifacts leave no doubt that the inhabitants were colonists from southern Mesopotamia.

Hacinebi and Resource Exploitation in Mesopotamia

 John Noble Wilford wrote in the New York Times, “When Hacinebi was identified as a ruin from the period of Uruk expansion, archeologists saw it as an ideal site for addressing questions as to whether this was, in fact, an early form of colonialism. The site occupies a strategic position. It is only a few miles north of the ancient east-west river crossing point at the town of Birecik. It is also on the main north-south riverine trade route, linking the copper mines of Anatolia with the Mesopotamian heartland to the south. In the colonial hypothesis, places like Hacinebi served as outposts for procuring resources or as transshipment points for materials destined for the Mesopotamian cities. [Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, May 25, 1993]
 Digging there in the summer f 1993, American and Turkish archeologists found a layer of buried ruins containing bowls, cooking pots and other ceramics that were all in the local Anatolian style. So there definitely had been a village at Hacinebi before the Mesopotamians came looking for copper and timber.

Hacinebi in southern Turkey
 Moreover, Dr. Stein said, some of their artifacts could undermine the assumption by many scholars that Mesopotamian trade and colonization led to the emergence of complex societies in these resource-rich but relatively underdeveloped regions of Anatolia. A pendant made of soapstone, a product of southeast Iran, indicated that the villagers engaged in long-distance trade. Ruins of a monumental public building, the kind usually associated with more advanced urban centers, suggested that, as Dr. Stein said, these local people had evolved "a much more complex society than we've given them credit for up to now."
 Immediately above the Anatolian village strata was a bed of beveled rim ceramics in the Mesopotamian style and the remnants of buildings on a raised stone terrace, an unmistakable change in architecture. Mesopotamian and Anatolian pottery are mixed together; in one place, the foreign pottery is found on one side of a wall and the local pottery on the other.
 Dr. Stein said there are two ways of interpreting these findings. "One possibility is that a small group of Mesopotamians were living and trading inside the local settlement," he said. "Or perhaps the local people had come in close contact with the Mesopotamians and were emulating them."
 Also uncovered at the site were chunks of bitumen, a tar substance that was widely used by the Uruk culture for sealing and waterproofing ceramic containers. Bitumen is rarely found outside ancient Mesopotamia, and Dr. Stein said its use as a sealant suggests that goods were being received at Hacinebi from the outside world.
 The presence of embossed clay seals, Dr. Stein said, indicates that Hacinebi was somehow involved in administering the movement of goods. The seals were applied to the doors of storerooms and to ceramic storage jars to certify a transaction, mark the contents and prevent tampering. At least one of the seals was clearly stamped in the local manner, suggesting that local people, and not just Mesopotamians, participated in an official capacity in this trading system.
 "Several lines of evidence suggest that existing models of the Uruk expansion may have underestimated the role of the local cultures," Dr. Stein said. "First, the locals were already relatively developed before contact with the Uruk culture. Second, they were not pawns in the trading system, but more or less equal partners. So you see, the classic colonial model doesn't really work." In any event, the Uruk influence at Hacinebi lasted no more than 175 years, ending around 3100 B.C. Soon the Uruk culture would decline and be succeeded by the even more robust and innovative Sumerian civilization of the third millennium B.C.

Problems with Resource Exploitation Theory in Mesopotamia

 “Even before the Hacinebi discoveries," Wilford wrote in the New York Times, “some scholars were taking shots at the hypothesis that the Uruk expansion was the manifestation of an early empire and its faraway colonies. Not the least of the problems with the hypothesis, according to Dr. Susan Pollock, an anthropologist at the State University of New York at Binghamton, is the absence of trade goods in the archeological record. [Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, May 25, 1993]
 In an article last year in The Journal of World Prehistory, Dr. Pollock dismissed possible explanations that the goods were perishable or that as objects of trade, they would not have remained at the trading posts. It is assumed that textiles might have been a staple of trade from Uruk to the hinterlands, and so would have decayed over time. But the trade goods moving back to Uruk were supposedly such nonperishable materials as metal and semiprecious stones.
 True, copper was showing up in Mesopotamia about the time that Uruk styles were showing up at Hacinebi. But to Dr. Pollock it is "difficult to conceive of a situation in which the traders or colonists would not have taken advantage of the opportunities to exploit the situation for as much as they could get away with." If they had skimmed off some exotic goods, where were they in the ruins? The place to look, Dr. Pollock said, was in graves at the Uruk outposts. But few graves have been found so far.
 Even more emphatic in opposition is Dr. Gregory A. Johnson, an anthropologist at Hunter College in New York, who said the colonial hypothesis "simply doesn't hold water." Scholars tend to forget, Dr. Johnson said, that this was a period of severe population decline in many southern Mesopotamian cities, including Ur, Eridu and Nippur. "When you're losing half your population, something nasty must be going on," he said, and the collapse could be behind the sudden appearance of Mesopotamian settlements in the highlands. It was not an empire expanding, he said, but disintegrating.
 As a leading exponent of the idea that colonialism sprang almost inevitably from the rise of the first political states, Dr. Algaze is not backing down from his imperial interpretation of the Uruk expansion. Indeed, he has expanded his brief to show that similar expansionary dynamics had led four other early civilizations -- the Sumerians, Teotihuacan in Central Mexico, the Harappan culture in the Indus River basin of Pakistan and the predynastic Egyptians -- to reach out for resources and territory.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Mesopotamia sourcebooks.fordham.edu , National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, especially Merle Severy, National Geographic, May 1991 and Marion Steinmann, Smithsonian, December 1988, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, World Religions edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); History of Warfare by John Keegan (Vintage Books); History of Art by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton's Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.
Last updated September 2018

Positing an Ancient Maritime Tin Route from Ancient Far East to Ancient Near East, based on Archaeometallurgical provenance study of tin-bronze artifacts of Mesopotamia

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https://tinyurl.com/yyeyfkxu

This is an addendum to: 

 http://tinyurl.com/yxhfgnll whch included the following Abstract from Iranica Antiqua, 2009:
Copper from Gujarat used in Mesopotmia, 3rd millennium BCE, evidenced by lead isotope analyses of tin-bronze objects; report by Begemann F. et al.


  1. Geographical locations of sites of Mesopotamia from which artifacts were analyzed in this work (After Fig. 1 in Begemann, F. et al, 2009 loc.cit.) The conclusion is:                                             "Unsere bleiisotopische evidenz legt nahe, das in Mesopotamien fur legierung mit zinn verwendete kupfer urudu-luh-ha stamme aus Indien, was ebenfalls vertraglich ist mit einem import via dilmun." (Trans. Our lead isotope evidence suggests that the urudu-luh-ha copper used in Mesopotamia for tin alloying is from India, which is also contracted with an import via Dilmun.)" (opcit., p.28)
  2. A lead isotope study »On the Early copper of Mesopotamia« reports on copper-base artefacts ranging in age from the 4th millennium BC (Uruk period) to the Akkadian at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Arguments are presented that, in the (tin)bronzes, the lead associated with the tin used for alloying did not contribute to the total in any detectable way. Hence, the lead isotopy traces the copper and cannot address the problem of the provenance of tin. The data suggest as possible source region of the copper a variety of ore occurrences in Anatolia, Iran, Oman, Palestine and, rather unexpectedly (by us), from India. During the earliest period the isotopic signature of ores from Central and North Anatolia is dominant; during the next millennium this region loses its importance and is hardly present any more at all. Instead, southeast Anatolia, central Iran, Oman, Feinan-Timna in the rift valley between Dead Sea and Red Sea, and sources in the Caucasus are now potential suppliers of the copper. Generally, an unambiguous assignment of an artefact to any of the ores is not possible because the isotopic fingerprints of ore occurrences are not unique. In our suite of samples bronze objects become important during ED III (middle of the 3rd millennium BC) but they never make up more than 50 % of the total. They are distinguished in their lead isotopy by very high 206Pb-normalized abundance ratios. As source of such copper we suggest Gujarat/Southern Rajasthan which, on general grounds, has been proposed before to have been the most important supplier of copper in Ancient India. We propose this Indian copper to have been arsenic-poor and to be the urudu-luh-ha variety which is one of the two sorts of purified copper mentioned in contemporaneous written texts from Mesopotamia to have been in circulation there concurrently.


I am grateful to Prof. Nilesh Oak for identifying a brilliant piece of  archaeometallurgical provenance study which links Khetri copper mines --through Dholavira/Lothal and Persian Gulf -- with Mesopotamia. 

 http://tinyurl.com/yxhfgnll


I posit that, as argued in the above-cited monograph that the largest tin belt of the globe was in the river basins of Himalayan rivers Mekong, Irrawaddy and Salween which powered the Tin-Bronze Revolution of 3rd millennium BCE, evidenced in Mesopotamia. These rivers ground down granite rocks to accumulate placer deposits of cassiterite (tin ore) in these river basins thus facilitating an Ancient Maritime Tin Route which linked AFEwith ANE.






Map showing the location of known tin deposits exploited during ancient times


The jury is still out on the source of tin for the tin-bronze revolution. It appears that Ancient Indian artisans/merchants mediated in transferring tin ingots to ANE evidenced by four pure tin ingots found in a Haifa shipwreck, with Indus Script inscriptions which read: ranku dhātu mũh 'tin mineral ingot'.

It is likely that the tin used in Mesopotamia tin bronzes were also the tin routed from the largest tin belt of the globe (Mekong,Irrawaddy-Salween river basins) of Ancient Far East mediated by Indian merchant guilds. Our archaeometallurgists should launch a project to prove the source of tin which powered the First Tin-Bronze AgeIndustrial Revolution.

Sources:The ingots are in the Haifa Museum. 1. Madden R., Wheeler, I. and Muhly JD, 1977, Tin in the ancient near east: old questions and new finds, Expedition 19, pp. 45-47.
2. Michal Artzy, 1983, Arethusa of the Tin ingot, in Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 250 (Spring, 1983), pp. 51-55. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1356605 (embedded in this monograph for ready reference).
After the publication in 1977, of the two pure tin ingots found in a shipwreck at Haifa, Artzy published in 1983 (p.52), two more ingots found in a car workshop in Haifa which wasusing the ingots for soldering broken radiators. Artzy's finds were identical in size and shape with the previous two; both were also engraved with two marks. In one of the ingots, at the time of casting, a moulded head was shown in addition to the two marks. Artzy compares this head to Arethusa. (Artzy, M., 1983, Arethusa of the Tin Ingot, Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research, 250, p. 51-55). Artzy went on to suggest the ingots may have been produced in Iberia and disagreed with the suggestion that the ingot marks were Cypro-Minoan script.
My decipherment appeared in Journal of Indo-Judaic Studies.

My monograph on this conclusion has been published in Journal of Indo-Judaic Studies, Vol. 1, Number 11 (2010), pp.47-74 — The Bronze Age Writing System of Sarasvati Hieroglyphics as Evidenced by Two “Rosetta Stones” By S. Kalyanaraman (Editor of JIJS: Prof. Nathan Katz)http://www.indojudaic.com/index.php?option=com_contact&view=contact&id=1&Itemid=8 
The author Michal Artzy (opcit., p. 55) who showed these four signs on the four tin ingots to E. Masson who is the author of Cypro-Minoan Syllabary. Masson’s views are recorded in Foot Note 3: “E. Masson, who was shown all four ingots for the first time by the author, has suggested privately that the sign ‘d’ looks Cypro-Minoan, but not the otherthree signs.”
If all the signs are NOT Cypro-Minoan Syllabary, what did these four signs, together, incised on the tin ingots signify?
 
All these hieroglyphs on the three tin ingots of Haifa are read rebus in Meluhha:
Hieroglyph: ranku  = liquid measure (Santali)
Hieroglyph: raku m. ʻa species of deerʼ Vās.,  rankuka  id., Śrīkaṇṭh. (Samskrtam)(CDIAL 10559). raku m. ʻ a species of deer ʼ Vās., °uka -- m. Śrīkaṇṭh.Ku. N. ̄go ʻ buffalo bull ʼ? -- more prob. < raká-<-> s.v. *rakka -- .*rakha -- ʻ defective ʼ see *rakka -- .RAG ʻ move to and fro ʼ: rágati. -- Cf. rig, rikh2, *righ.(CDIAL 10559)
Rebus: ranku ‘tin’ (Santali) ragan. ʻ tin ʼ lex. Pk. raga -- n. ʻ tin ʼ; P. ̄g f., ̄gā m.ʻpewter, tinʼ ( H.); Ku.  ʻ tin, solder ʼ, gng. ̄k; N. o ʻ tin, solder ʼ, A. B. ; Or. ga ʻ tin ʼ, gā ʻ solder, spelter ʼ, Bi. Mth. ̄gā, OAw. ga; H. ̄g f., ̄gā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; Si. ran̆ga ʻ tin ʼ. (CDIAL 10562) 
Hieroglyph: dāu = cross (Telugu)
Rebus: dhatu = mineral ore (Santali) Rebus: dhānā to send out, pour out, cast (metal)’ (Hindi)(CDIAL 6771).
Hieroglyph: mũh 'a face' Rebus: mũh, 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time from the furnace’ (Santali)
Indus Script hypertexts thus read: Hieroglyphs: ranku 'liquid measure' or raku ʻa species of deerʼ PLUS u = cross  rebus: plain text: ranku 'tin' PLUS dhatu 'cast mineral' Thus, together, the plain text reads: tin mineral casting. The fourth ingot with the hieroglyph of a moulded head reads: mũh 'a face' Rebus: mũh, 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time from the furnace’ (Santali).
Thus, together, the message on the tin ingots discovered in the Haifa shipwreck is: ranku dhatu mũh 'tin mineral ingot'.
I ave posited an Ancient Maritime PLUS Himalayan Waterway Maritime Tin Route from Hanoi to Haifa, a trade route which predated the Silk Road by 2 millennia and be able to explain the Angus Madison bar chart which showed India accounting for 33% of Global GDP in 1 CE,mediated by ancient guilds of India.
See: 

 https://tinyurl.com/ybg3auhg


The full text of the article from ranica Antiqua Volume: 44    Date: 2009   
Pages1-45 is appended only for purposes of ready reference to buttress the arguments of this note related to 'Early copper of Mesopotamia' which seems to have arrived from Khetri Mines of India through Dholavira/Lothal ports and the Persian Gulf. Unfortunately, the archaeometallurgical provenance study could not advance on the source of tin in the Tin-Bronzes of Mesopotamia.















































Utsavabera, metalwork trade enterprise proclamations on Indus Script hypertexts on a Victory procession in Mari hoisting a one-horned young bull Mari standard

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The argument posited is that the processions signified on Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Mari are Indus Script Inscriptions with hypertexts in Meluhha to signify rebus rendering of trade enterprise proclamations of metalwork competence by the merchant-artisan guilds in these three fortifications which are called    S سنګر sangar, s.m. (2nd) A breastwork of stones, etc., erected to close a pass or road; lines, entrenchments. Pl. سنګرونه sangarūnah. See باره (Pashto) rebus: sangada 'joined parts of lathe PLUS portable gold furnace on the Indus Script Standard Device.



This monograph posits that the procession of standards in Mohenjo-daro, Mari and Harappa are utsavabera, trade enterprises and presents 

1) decipherment of Indus Script inscription on Tablet490 Mohenjo-daro, a procession of 4 standards held on flagposts;

2) decipherment of Indus Script inscription on Tablet 491Mohenjo-daro, a procession of 4 standards held on flagposts;
3) decipherment of Indus Script inscription on Tablet 196 Harappa, a flagpost bearer carrying a standard device of Indus Script Corporaon his shoulder;
4) a survey of Mari artifacts discovered mostly from Paro's excavations and evaluates the significance of Indus Script hypertexts deployed on some artifacts, which herald a metallurgical victory in Mari procession hoisting one-horned young bull Mari standard (this one-horned young bull on Mari standard is one f the standards signified on Tablet 490 Mohenjo-daro). 

The rebus readings of utsava bera are:



Hieroglyph/hypertext: uṟcava-pēram *உற்சவபேரம் uṟcava-pēramn. < ut-sava + bēra. Idol taken out in processions; உற்சவ விக்கிரகம்Loc.pēram பேரம்2 pēramn. < bēra. 1. Form, shape; வடிவம். (நன். 273, மயிலை.) 2. Body; உடம்பு. 3. Idol; விக்கிரகம். உத்ஸவபேரம்.


Rebus: பேரம்1 pēramn. < Pkt. bēra. [T. bēramu, K. bēra.] 1. Sale, trade; விற்பனை. 2. Bargaining, higgling and haggling; ஒப்பந்தத்திற்குமுன் பேசும் விலைப்பேச்சு. பேரஞ்சொல்லாமற் கறாராகச் சொல்லு. 3. High value; கிராக்கிThe procession carrying standards on flagposts is an ancient Indian tradition called utsavabera.  उत्सवः   utsavḥ उत्सवः [उद्-सू-अप्] 1 A festival, joyous or festive occasion, jubilee; रत˚ Ś.6.2; ...7 Enterprise. -8 An undertaking, beginning. -Comp. -उदयम् The height of the vehicle animal in comparison with that of the principal idol; मूलबेरवशं मानमुत्सवोदयमीरितम् (Māna- sāra.64.91-93). -विग्रहः Image for procession (Kondividu Inscription of Kriṣṇarāya).
Thus, the expression utsavabera signifies trade  enterprise in a festive mood. The processions shown on Indus Script inscriptions including the Mariprocession, thus signify trade proclamations of metallurgical competences and of metalwork enterprise by the artisan-/merchant- guilds.




Three procession standards discussed in this monograph relate to Mohenjo-daro (m490), Harappa (h196) and Mari processions or proclamations of metalwork compettence in utsavabera 'trade enterprise proclamation'.


Mohenjo-daro procession standard




Harappa procession standard



 Text 4309h196A, B 

Mari procession standard (See decipherment in:
http://tinyurl.com/y2uekds6 as kaba 'culm of millet' rebus: karba'iron' PLUS konda'youngbull' rebus: konda'engraver, worker in fine gold'

The artisan in conversation with the priest who bears the Mari standard is an artisan. The narrative seems to be that the priest is explaining to the artisan the significance of the metallurgical competence achieved by the engraver-blacksmith-goldsmith of Sarasvati Civilization in working with karba, 'iron'. The artisan seems to be a warrior carrying -- on other occasions -- a battle-axe and adze as shown in these artifacts unearthed by Parrot's excavations in Mari. On the procession frieze, the artisan carries a spear while adze/axe-carrying persons are seen in the procession.
Inlay elements Warrior with an Adze - busts of a man and a woman Around 2500 - 2400 BCE MariTemple of Ishtar Shell
Eléments d'incrustation
Guerrier à l'herminette - bustes d'un homme et d'une femme
Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.
Mari, temple d'Ishtar Coquille H. : 9,30 cm. : L. : 4,40 cm. ; Pr. : 0,70 cm.
Fouilles Parrot, 1934 - 1936 Vitrine 7 : Epoque des dynasties archaïques de Sumer, vers 2900 - 2340 avant J.-C. Antiquités de Mari (Moyen-Euphrate) 
Département des Antiquités orientales
AO 18215, AO 18237, AO 18250




 



Decipherment is presented in the following three sections


Section 1. Tablet 490 Mohenjo-daro 

Section 2. Tablet 491 Mohenjo-daro 
Section 3. H-196 tablet (Fig. 6c) showing standard device held aloft on a flagpost

These constitute addenda to the decipherment of Mari standard presented in 

 http://tinyurl.com/y2uekds6


One-horned bull is only one of the four standards heralded in Mohenjo-daro (Sarasvati Civilization) processions.

(After Fig. 6 in Parpola, 2018; a) A procession of four men holding up stands topped by various things including a ‘unicorn’ bull. Terracotta tablet-490 (HR 1443) from Mohenjo-daro (photograph by Jyrki Lyytikka; after Joshi and Parpola 1987: 120); b) Terracotta tablet-491 (HR 1546) fromMohenjo-daro (photograph by Jyrki Lyytikka; after Joshi and Parpola 1987:120); c) a unique tablet H-196 (2262) from Harappa (photograph by the Archaeological Survey of India; after Joshi and Parpola 1987: 212).(Joshi, JP and Parpola, A., 1987 Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions, Volume 1. Collections in India (Annaes Academiae Scientiarum Fennica3e, Ser.B239; Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. 86).Helsinki, Suomalainen tiedeaatemia.)




Section 1. Tablet 490 Mohenjo-daro 

Another photograph presented by JohnMarshall in 1931, is compared with the figure shown on 6(a) procession: 

The Mohenjo-daro tablet inscribes three glyphs carried on shoulders in a procession. [Mohenjo-daro. Terracotta tablet. After Marshall 1931, Pl. CXVIII,9]. 


Variant photograph for Mohenjodaro 490 tablet shown as Fig.6(a).

The carriers of the glyphs have upraised arms: eṛaka 'upraised arm' (Ta.); rebus: eraka 'metal infusion, metal casting, copper' (Kannada. Tulu.)

The flagposts are held by flag-post carriers: kárṇaka 'handle, ring on top' (Fig.1.1) rebus:  कर्णिक 'steersmankarṇī 'supercargo' karṇīka 'scribe'.

The hieroglyphs/hypertexts from right to left on Mohenjo-daro 490 tablet are: 1. (Perhaps) spoked wheel; 2. Scarf; 3. One-horned young bull; and  4. Standard device (which is a hypertext composed two hieroglyphs:top register, lathe; bottom register: portable gold furnace.

These hypertexts/hieroglyphs hoisted in a procession are deciphered from r.to l.:

1. Spoked wheel: eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'metal infusion, metal casting,copper'. arā 'spoke of wheel' rebus: āra 'brass'. 
Glyphic element: erako nave; era = knave of wheel. Glyphic element: āra ‘spokes’. Rebus: āra ‘brass’ as in ārakūṭa (Skt.) Rebus: Tu. eraka molten, cast (as metal); eraguni to melt (DEDR 866) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Kannada.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.); erako molten cast (Tulu)

2. Scarf. 



dhaṭu  m.  (also dhaṭhu)  m. ‘scarf’  (WPah.) (CDIAL 6707); 




Rebus: dhātu ‘mineral (Pali).

3. Hieroglyph: one-horned young bull: खोंड (p. 216) [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf.  Rebus: कोंद kōnda ‘turner, engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi); खोदगिरी [ khōdagirī ] f Sculpture, carving, engraving; kundaṇa 'fine gold'. 


4. Standard device which is a hypertext of two hieroglyphs: lathe PLUS portable gold furnace: 

3a) The composition is called sāṅgaḍaṇēṃ v c (सांगड) To link, join, or unite together (boats, fruits, animals) rebus: a) sanghāta 'adamantine glue for joining metals' ; b) संघात saṅghāta m S Assembly or assemblage; multitude or heap; a collection together (of things animate or inanimate); c) sangah 'fortification',; d) sangar 'trade'; e) jangada 'consignments on approval'; f) jangada Ferry-boat of two canoes with a platform thereon; இரட்டைத்தோணி, i.e. double-canoe;g) jangaḍia 'military guard accompanying treasure into the treasury'; h) sangara proclamation ; h)samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'. 

3b) Two hieroglyphs in the hypertext read rebus: kunda 'lathe' kunda 'treasure (of Kubera)' kundana 'fine gold' PLUS kammatamu 'portable gold furnace' rebus: kammata 'mint, coiner, coinage'. bottom bowl of rhe furnace; కమటము (p. 246) kamaṭamu kamaṭamu. [Tel.] n. A portable furnace for melting the precious metals. అగసాలెవాని కుంపటి. "చ కమటము కట్లెసంచియొరగల్లును గత్తెర సుత్తె చీర్ణముల్ ధమనియుస్రావణంబు మొలత్రాసును బట్టెడ నీరుకారు సా నము పటుకారు మూస బలునాణె పరీక్షల మచ్చులాదిగా నమరగభద్రకారక సమాహ్వయు డొక్కరుడుండు నప్పురిన్"హంస. ii. కమ్మటము (p. 247) kammaṭamu Same as కమటము. కమ్మటీడు kammaṭīḍu. [Tel.] A man of the goldsmith caste.  Rebus:  Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mintKa. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner.  (DEDR 1236). Potr̥'s soma vessel, purifier or cleaning instrument: पोतृ प्/ओतृ or पोतृm. "Purifier" , N. of one of the 16 officiating priests at a sacrifice (the assistant of the Brahman; = यज्ञस्यशोधयिट्रि Sa1y. RV. Br. S3rS. Hariv.;
Image result for gold pectoral mohenjodaroN. of विष्णु L. पोत्री f. N. of दुर्गा Gal. (cf. पौत्री). Associated in a fire Soma yajña, with cognate homonym pottige 'flaming, flame' (Kannada)(DEDR 4517). This etymon pottige 'flaming, flame' explains the smoke emerging out of the portable furnace on the standard device.

Thus, the field symbols signify kammaṭa mint of a goldsmith guild; మ్మటీడు kammaṭīḍu. [Tel.] A man of the goldsmith caste. 

On some inscriptions, the bottom component bowl (portable furnace) of the 'standard device' hypertext is overlayed with dotted circles while smoke emanates from the surfaceof te bowl. These orthographic indicators reinforce the semantics of smelting and crucible work: dhāv  'strand', dāya 'one in roll of dice' rebus; dhāi 'dhatu,mineral ore' PLUS vaṭa 'circle' togetherrebus: dhāva 'mineral ore smelter';  धावडी dhāvaḍī a Relating to the class धावड. Hence 2 Composed of or relating to iron.

This decipherment notes that the four hierroglyphs/hypertexts carried in a procession are proclamations of metalwork competence: 1. to create brass (copper PLUS zinc) alloys; 2. to smelt mineral ores; 3. to engrave and infifix gems after lathe-lapidary work; 4. trade on approval basis invoicing called jangad. The procession is an utsava bera, a procession intended to promote and market the products made in the mint of the artisan-smithy-smelter guilds. The metallurgical competence includes sanghāta 'adamantine glue for joining metals' in addition to creation of metal infusion for cire perdue metalcasting/sculpting work to produce artifacts like the bronze dancing-girl metal statuettes.

Section 2. Tablet 491 Mohenjo-daro 

Decipherment of procession on tablet m491 [Fig. 6(b) shown above.]

There is an orthographic variant shown on the hieroglyph which is the third from r. This hieroglyph shows a two-horned (perhaps buffalo) bovine instead of a one-horned young bull. This reads rebus: rango 'water buffalo' Rebus: rango ‘pewter’. ranga, rang pewter is an alloy of tin, lead, and antimony (anjana) (Santali).  Hieroglyhph: buffalo: Ku. N. rã̄go ʻ buffalo bull ʼ (or < raṅku -- ?).(CDIAL 10538, 10559) Rebus: raṅga3 n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. [Cf. nāga -- 2, vaṅga -- 1Pk. raṁga -- n. ʻ tin ʼ; P. rã̄g f., rã̄gā m. ʻ pewter, tin ʼ (← H.); Ku. rāṅ ʻ tin, solder ʼ, gng. rã̄k; N. rāṅrāṅo ʻ tin, solder ʼ, A. B. rāṅ; Or. rāṅga ʻ tin ʼ, rāṅgā ʻ solder, spelter ʼ, Bi. Mth. rã̄gā, OAw. rāṁga; H. rã̄g f., rã̄gā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; Si. ran̆ga ʻ tin ʼ.(CDIAL 10562) B. rāṅ(g) ʻ tinsel, copper -- foil ʼ.(CDIAL 10567). Thus, this procession composition 6(b) seems to point to metallurgical competence in creating metal alloys -- in addition to the rebus renderings of other three hieroglyphs/hypertexts as on tablet m490.


Section 3. H-196 tablet (Fig. 6c) showing standard device held aloft on a flagpost

Image result for gold pectoral mohenjodaroSee the dotted circle hieroglyph on the bottom of the sacred device, sangaḍa. The bottom vessel is kamatamu 'portable gold furnace' (Telugu) Rebus: కమటము 'a man of the goldsmith caste'.


See: Itihāsa, Standard device on Indus Script Corpora is सांगड sāṅgaḍa 'joined lathe, portable furnace' rebus: saṁghāṭa 'catamaran' (Rāmāyaṇa), sãghāṛɔ 'lathe' jangadiyo 'military guard' 



Hieroglyph: కమటము  kamaṭamu. [Tel.] n. A portable furnace for melting the precious metals. అగసాలెవాని కుంపటి. "చ కమటము కట్లెసంచియొరగల్లును గత్తెర సుత్తె చీర్ణముల్ ధమనియుస్రావణంబు మొలత్రాసును బట్టెడ నీరుకారు సా నము పటుకారు మూస బలునాణె పరీక్షల మచ్చులాదిగా నమరగభద్రకారక సమాహ్వయు డొక్కరుడుండు నప్పురిన్"హంస. ii. 

Rebus: కమ్మటము  Same as కమటము. కమ్మటీడు kammaṭīḍu. [Tel.] A man of the goldsmith caste. Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner.(DEDR 1236) కమ్మతము  Same as కమతము. కమ్మతీడు Same as కమతకాడు.కమతము  or కమ్మతము kamatamu. [Tel. n. Partnership. అనేకులు చేరిచేయుసేద్యము. The cultivation which an owner carries on with his own farming stock. Labour, tillage. కృషి, వ్యవసాయము. కమతకాడు or కమతీడు or కమతగాడు a labourer, or slave employed in tillage.


h98 decipherment of text

kanac (kana, kana kona) mũhã̄ 'corner ingot' rebus: kañcu mũhã̄ 'bell-metal ingot'. 


kuṭilika 'bent,curved' dula 'pair' rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin).


kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus:khaṇḍa 'implements' 


aya 'fish' rebus: ayas 'alloy metal' aya 'iron'


baṭa 'six' rebus: bhaṭa ... furnace' baṭa 'iron'



m0490At m0490B Mohenjodaro Tablet showing Meluhha combined standard of three standards carried in a procession, comparable to Tablet m0491.  The hieroglph multiplex: sãgaḍ 'lathe, portable furnace' PLUS a standing person with upraised arm: eraka 'upraised arm' rebus: eraka 'moltencast (metal)'. er-aka 'upraised hand' (Tamil) erhali to hold out the hand;(Kui) erke, erkelů rising (Tulu)(DEDR 905) Rebus: eṟaka, eraka any metal infusion (Kannada); moltencast, cast (as metal) (Tulu)(DEDR 86) ; molten state, fusion. 
saṁghāṭa m. ʻ fitting and joining of timber ʼ R. [√ghaṭ]Pa. nāvā -- saṅghāṭa -- , dāru -- s° ʻ raft ʼ; Pk. saṁghāḍa -- , °ḍaga -- m., °ḍī -- f. ʻ pair ʼ; Ku. sĩgāṛ m. ʻ doorframe ʼ; N. saṅār, siṅhār ʻ threshold ʼ; Or. saṅghāṛi ʻ pair of fish roes, two rolls of thread for twisting into the sacred thread, quantity of fuel sufficient to maintain the cremation fire ʼ; Bi. sĩghārā ʻ triangular packet of betel ʼ; H. sĩghāṛā m. ʻ piece of cloth folded in triangular shape ʼ; G. sãghāṛɔ m. ʻ lathe ʼ; M. sãgaḍ f. ʻ a body formed of two or more fruits or animals or men &c. linked together, part of a turner's apparatus ʼ, m.f. ʻ float made of two canoes joined together ʼ (LM 417 compares saggarai at Limurike in the Periplus, Tam. śaṅgaḍam, Tu. jaṅgala ʻ double -- canoe ʼ), sã̄gāḍā m. ʻ frame of a building ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ lathe ʼ; Si. san̆gaḷa ʻ pair ʼ, han̆guḷa, an̆g° ʻ double canoe, raft ʼ.Md. an̆goḷi ʻ junction ʼ?(CDIAL 12859)saṁghātá m. ʻ close union, mass ʼ TS., ʻ closing (a door) ʼ VS., ʻ dashing together ʼ MBh. [Cf. saṁhata<-> with similar range of meanings. -- ghāta -- ]Pa. saṅghāta -- m. ʻ killing, knocking together ʼ; Pk. saṁghāya -- m. ʻ closeness, collection ʼ; Or. saṅghā, saṅgā ʻ bamboo scaffolding inside triangular thatch, crossbeam of thatched house, copulation (of animals) ʼ; -- adj. ʻ bulled (of a cow) ʼ < *saṁghātā -- or saṁhatā -- ?(CDIAL 12862)



सं-घात  a company of fellow-travellers , caravan VP.


सं-घात (in gram.) a compound as a compact whole (opp. to its single parts) Ka1s3. on Pa1n2. 2-3 , 56; a vowel with its consonant (opp. to वर्ण , " a letter ") , Ka1ty.


सं-घात (in dram.) a partic. gait or mode of walking W.


सं-घात a [p= 1122,3] any aggregate of matter , body Bhag. Pur.; intensity R. Sus3r.; compressing , condensation , compactness , hardening Ya1jn5. Hariv. Sus3r. VarBr2S. close union or combination , collection , cluster , heap , mass , multitude TS. MBh. &c m. (rarely n. ; ifc. f(आ).) striking or dashing together , killing , crushing MBh. Sus3r. combat , war , battle VS. Ka1t2h. MBh. N. of a division of the infernal regions 


संहति [p= 1122,3] (cf. संहात) Ya1jn5. Buddh. f. striking together , closure Ka1v. S3a1rn3gS.compactness , solidity MBh. VarBr2S.thickening , swelling S3a1rn3gS.keeping together , saving , economy Ka1v.firm union or alliance , junction , joint effort , close contact or connection with (instr.) Ka1v. Pur. Ra1jat.a compact mass , bulk , heap , collection , multitude Ka1v. Katha1s. and C. सं-हत [p= 1122,3] mfn. struck together , closely joined or united with (instr.) , keeping together , contiguous , coherent , combined , compacted , forming one mass or body A1s3vS3r. Mn. MBh. &c accompanied or attended by (instr.) Mn. vii , 165become solid , compact , firm , hard MBh. Ka1v. &cstrong-limbed , athletic MBh.strong , intensive VarBr2S. (prob.) complex , composite , compound (said of a partic. tone and odour) MBh.n. a partic. position in dancing , Sam2gi1t.












The samAsa used by Varahamihira is vajrasanghAta, an adamantine glue. In archaeometallurgical terms, this is defined as a mixture consisting of eight parts of lead, two of bell-metal and one of iron dust.Varahamihira explains the phrase Vajra sanghAta as: 'adamantine glue' in archaeometallurgical terms which is consistent with the rendering of semantics of Bhāratam Janam as 'metalcaster folk' in Rigveda. 



When Gotama the Buddha spoke of the SanghAta Sutra, he was indeed referring to the standard device of lahe PLUS portable furnace, a frequent hieroglyphic multiplex on Indus Script Corpora: sangaDa.This is the same sanghAta mentioned by Varahamihira as an adamantine glue, describing th metallic form as vajra sanghAta, 'adamantine glue' -- a recognition in archaeometallurgy of nanotubes which constitute cementite bonding carbides to iron to create steel in a crucible. Now that it is evident that iron forging is dated to the 3rd millennium BCE, the use of hardened or carbide ferrous metal weapons cannot be ruled out. The ancient word which denoted such a metallic weapon is vajra in Rigveda, specifically described as Ayasam vajram, metallic weapon or metallic thunderbolt.
I suggest that the association of the gloss vajra with lightning becomes a metaphor to further define vajrasangAta 'adamantine glue' which creates a steel metallic form with nanotubes or cementite.

சங்குவடம் caṅkuvaṭam , n. < Port. jan- gada. [M. caṅṅāṭam.] Ferry-boat; தோணி வகை. Loc.
Marathi: सांगड [ sāgaa ] m f (संघट्ट S) A float composed of two canoes or boats bound together: also a link of two pompions &c. to swim or float by. 2 f A body formed of two or more (fruits, animals, men) linked or joined together. 3 That member of a turner's apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied. सांगडीस धरणें To take into linkedness or close connection with, lit. fig.

సంకరము (p. 1269) saṅkaramu sankaramu [Skt.] n. Mixing, blending. సంకలనము (p. 1269) saṅkalanamu san-kalanamu. [Skt.] n. Addition in Arithmetic, సంఖ్యలనుకూర్చుట. సంకలితము ṣankalitamu. adj. That which is added. Added together, as a figure, కూర్పబడిన (సంఖ్య.) 


सांगडणी [ sāgaaī ] f (Verbal of सांगडणें) Linking or joining
together.

सांगडणें [ sāgaaē ] v c (सांगड) To link, join, or unite together (boats, fruits, animals). 2 Freely. To tie or bind up or unto.

m0491
kõdā‘to turn in a lathe’(B.) कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi)
sãgaḍ ' part of a turner's apparatus.' (Gujarati) In Kashmiri, Grierson's lexicon has the following entry: sangāṭh संगाठ् । सामग्री m. (sg. dat. sangāṭas संगाटस्), a collection (of implements, tools, materials, for any object), apparatus, furniture, a collection of the things wanted on a journey, luggage, and so on. -- karun -- करुन् । सामग्रीसंग्रहः m.inf. to collect the ab. (L.V. 17).(Kashmiri). 

śagaḍī  = lathe (Gujarati) Rebus: Vajra Sanghāta 'binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue (mentioned by Varāhamihira in Bhatsamhitā
sãgaḍ ' part of a turner's apparatus.' (Gujarati) In Kashmiri, Grierson's lexicon has the following entry: sangāṭh संगाठ् । सामग्री m. (sg. dat. sangāṭas संगाटस्), a collection (of implements, tools, materials, for any object), apparatus, furniture, a collection of the things wanted on a journey, luggage, and so on. -- karun -- करुन् । सामग्रीसंग्रहः m.inf. to collect the ab. (L.V. 17).(Kashmiri). 

śagaḍī  = lathe (Gujarati) Rebus: Vajra Sanghāta 'binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue (mentioned by Varāhamihira in Bhatsamhitā



Tablets in bas-relief
 Text 4309h196A, B 
Inscribed Tablets. h196B is Pict-91 (Mahadevan) m0490At m0490B Mohenjodaro Tablet showing Meluhha combined standard of three standards carried in a procession, comparable to Tablet m0491.  The hieroglph multiplex: sãgaḍ 'lathe, portable furnace' rebus: samgraha, samgaha'arranger, manager' PLUS a standing person with upraised arm: eraka 'upraised arm' rebus: eraka 'moltencast (metal)'.

Decipherment of inscriptions on h 196A and h196B

eraka 'upraised hand' rebus: erako 'molten cast' eraka, arka 'copper, gold' PLUS 
 *skāndhika ʻ bearing on the shoulder ʼ. [In form cf. skāndhin -- ʻ descendant of Skandha ʼ Pāṇ.gaṇa. <-> skandhá -- ] S. kã̄dhī m. ʻ one who gives a shoulder to carry a corpse ʼ; G. khã̄dhiyɔ m. ʻ one who carries a bier ʼ; M. khã̄dyā m. ʻ fellow -- bearer (esp. of a bier or corpse) ʼ.Addenda: *skāndhika -- : S.kcch. kã̄dhyo m. ʻ one who carries corpse or bier to burning ground ʼ.(CDIAL 13648) rebus: khāṇḍā 'metal tools,implements, pots & pans'.

aḍaren, ḍaren 'lid, cover'  rebus: aduru 'native, unsmelted metal' PLUS koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop'. Thus, workshop for unsmelted metal. Vikalpa: 
ḍhaṁkaṇa'lid' rebus dhakka'excellent, bright, blazing metal 

kanka, karNaka, 'rim of jar' rebus: kaṇḍa kanka 'smelting furnace account (scribe), karṇīka, 'account, scribe', karṇī 'supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.'

ranku ‘liquid measure’ (Santali) Rebus: ranku ‘tin’ (Santali)

kuṭi 'curve; rebus: कुटिल kuṭila, katthīl (8 parts copper, 2 parts tin), thus, bronze PLUS खााडा [ kāṇḍā ] m A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or ʻswordʼ (Prakritam) rebus:  khāṇḍa, khaṇḍa 'implements, pots & pans, weapons'.
dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAu 'red mineral' PLUS chain, link: śã̄gal, śã̄gaḍ ʻchainʼ (WPah.) śr̥ṅkhala m.n. ʻ chain ʼ MārkP., °lā -- f. VarBr̥S., śr̥ṅkhalaka -- m. ʻ chain ʼ MW., ʻ chained camel ʼ Pāṇ. [Similar ending in mḗkhalā -- ]Pa. saṅkhalā -- , °likā -- f. ʻ chain ʼ; Pk. saṁkala -- m.n., °lā -- , °lī -- , °liā -- , saṁkhalā -- , siṁkh°siṁkalā -- f. ʻ chain ʼ Rebus: Vajra Sanghāta 'binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue. (Allograph) Hieroglyph: sãghāṛɔ 'lathe'.(Gujarati) dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. 

मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) mẽḍhā ʻcrook, hook',  rebus:  mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Santali.Mu.Ho.)

baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada) Rebus: baṭa = a kind of iron (Gujarati) bhaTa 'furnace' PLUS muka 'ladle' (Tamil)(DEDR 4887) Rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced from a furnace (Santali)

dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'
Crossing dATu 'cross' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal castings'. Thus, mineral ore metal castings.
dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal castings' PLUS baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada) Rebus: baṭa = a kind of iron (Gujarati) bhaTa 'furnace'. Thus, metal casting furnace. 



 h197 Text 5333 kolmo 'three' rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge' 
Hieroglyph: sãgaḍ 'lathe, portable furnace' rebus: samgraha, samgaha'arranger, manager' PLUS कर्णक kárṇaka, kannā 'legs spread', 'rim of jar', 'pericarp of lotus' karaṇī 'scribe, supercargo', kañi-āra 'helmsman' PLUS meḍ 'body' rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Santali.Mu.Ho.) PLUS koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop'. Thus, workshop supercargo, scribe in smithy, forge.

Image result for standard device meluhhaImage result for standard device meluhha
Carved ivory standard in the middle [From Richard H. Meadow and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Harappa Excavations 1993: the city wall and inscribed materials, in: South Asian Archaeology ; Fig. 40.11, p. 467. Harappa 1990 and 1993: representations of 'standard'; 40.11a: H90-1687/3103-1: faience token; 40.11bH93-2092/5029-1: carved ivory standard fragment (split in half, made on a lathe and was probably cylindrical in shape; note the incisions with a circle motif while a broken spot on the lower portion indicates where the stand shaft would have been (found in the area of the 'Mughal Sarai' located to the south of Mound E across the Old Lahore-Multan Road); 40.11c H93-2051/3808-2:faience token).


This monographs surveys the results of Parrot's excavations at Mari evidenced by the collection of artifacts in the Louvre Museum and posits that people with competence in Indus Script Cipher were involved in the use of Indus Script Hypertexts on many Mari Palaceand Ishtar Temple artifacts, including the renowned Mari Priest holding a Mari standard and celebrating in a 'victory procession'. 

This victory is a metallurgical breakthrough when a goldsmith-coppersmith guild of artisans of Sarasvati Civilization, graduates into iron smelting ad iron casting metalwork..


This is an addendum to the monograph at: "Positing an Ancient Maritime Tin Route from Ancient Far East to Ancient Near East, based on Archaeometallurgical provenance study of tin-bronze artifacts of Mesopotamia" https://tinyurl.com/yyeyfkxu

 کرئِي kar-aʿī, s.f. (6th) A ring, an ox muzzle, or halter for a horse. Sing. and Pl. (Pashto) S. karāī f. 'wrist'; karã̄ n. pl. ʻ wristlets, bangles ʼ.(Gujarati) (CDIAL 2779). Rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri).
Such a ring constitutes the base for the one-horned youngbull standard hoisted by Mari priest in a procession. This rebus reading is an addendum to the decipherment presented in 


1. Indus Script and Mesopotamia got copper and metallurgy from India. Give up AIT into India. Need for a New Aryan Invasion Theory into Europe, to explain formation of Indian languages 

http://tinyurl.com/y5euao2s


2. Identity and decipherment of 'unicorn' on Indus Script Corpora as a one-horned young bull, to signify workshop of a goldsmith, lapidary (turner, engraver). http://tinyurl.com/y2uekds6



 I submit that the use of culm of millet as a flagstaff is a clear hypertext in the tradition of Indus Script cipher. karba'culm of millet' rebus: karba 'iron'. Thus, karba + kundana = iron and gold. A goldsmith has graduated into an ironsmith.The procession is indeed a victory celebration in an archaeometallurgical time scale and methods of creating wealth of a nation through production technologies and metallurgical revolution signified by alloying and cire perdue techniques of metal castings of sculptures. Yes, Asko Parpola is right; it is a victory parade at Mari; a victory celebration of a metalwork breakthrough by 


 کرئِي kar-aʿī, s.f. (6th) 'ring' rebus; khār 'blacksmith'.




कोंद kōnda 'young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner' kundana 'fine gold' PLUS u'horn' rebus ko 'workplace' PLUS 


·         koiyum 'ring on neck' rebus:  ko 'workplace' PLUS  khōṇḍī खोंडी 'pannier sack' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner, fine gold'. Thus, the hypertext composition signifies workshop of a goldsmith, lapidary (turner, engraver). A remarkable cognate etymon signifying a young bull is seen in Telugu (Indian sprahbund, 'speech union'): e. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. కోడెదూడ. A young bull. కాడిమరపదగినదూడ. Plumpness, prime. తరుణము. జోడుకోడయలు a pair of bullocks. కోడె adj. Young. కోడెత్రాచు a young snake, one in its prime. "కోడెనాగముం బలుగుల రేడుతన్ని కొని పోవుతెరంగు" రామా. vi. కోడెకాడు e-kāu. n. A young man. పడుచువాడు. A lover విటుడు.
     
     
Bull's head Around 2500 - 2400 BCE Mari, Temple of Ishtar Pierre H. 2.50 cm. ; L.: 2.20 cm. ; Pr .: 1.40 cm. AO 18230
     
 
Heads of women wearing polos Around 2500 - 2400 BCE Mari, Temple of Ishtar Alabaster, eyes inlaid with shell H. 14.80 cm. ; L. 12.60 cm. ; Pr .: 8.80 cm.AO 18212, AO 17564

     

Female statuette head Early 2nd millennium BC Mari AlabasterH. 8.4 cm. AO 19521



     Mari woman with a turban



 
Head of a woman wearing a turban
Around 2500 - 2400 BC
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
Alabaster, lapis lazuli, limestone, bitumen
H. 6.60 cm.;L. 6.90 cm.;Pr.: 6.10 cm.AO 17563


 
Magical female statuette E 13495
6th - 7th century CE
tamarisk wood
H. 19.40 cm. ; l. : 5.80 cm. ; Pr .: 3.25 cm.

The series of dotted circles engraved on the body shows the points of magical spell.

Note the dotted circles which are Indus Script hypertexts shown on the two shoulders, on the legs below the knees and on thebuttocks of the magical female statuette of Mari.  kuṭhi 'vagina'; rebus: kuṭhi 'smelting furnace'. PLUS ṭaṅka 'leg' rebus: ṭaṅka 'mint'.  These dotted circles are thus semantic determinatives of the metalwork signified by the hypertexts.

ṭaṅka3 (a) ʻ *rod, spike ʼ, (b) m. ʻ leg ʼ lex. 2. ṭaṅga -- 3 m. ʻ leg ʼ lex. [Orig. ʻ stick ʼ? Cf. list s.v. *ḍakka -- 2] 1. (a) K. ṭang m. ʻ projecting spike which acts as a bolt at one corner of a door ʼ; N. ṭāṅo ʻ rod, fishing rod ʼ, °ṅi ʻ measuring rod ʼ; H. ṭã̄k f. ʻ iron pin, rivet ʼ (→ Ku. ṭã̄ki ʻ thin iron bar ʼ).(b) Pk. ṭaṁka -- m., °kā -- f. ʻ leg ʼ, S. ṭaṅga f., L. P. ṭaṅg f., Ku. ṭã̄g, N. ṭāṅ; Or. ṭāṅka ʻ leg, thigh ʼ, °ku ʻ thigh, buttock ʼ.2. B. ṭāṅṭeṅri ʻ leg, thigh ʼ; Mth. ṭã̄gṭãgri ʻ leg, foot ʼ; Bhoj. ṭāṅṭaṅari ʻ leg ʼ, Aw. lakh. H. ṭã̄g f.; G. ṭã̄g f., °gɔ m. ʻ leg from hip to foot ʼ; M. ṭã̄g f. ʻ leg ʼ. *uṭṭaṅka -- 2, *uṭṭaṅga -- . Addenda: ṭaṅka -- 3. 1(b): S.kcch. ṭaṅg(h) f. ʻ leg ʼ, WPah.kṭg. (kc.) ṭāṅg f. (obl. -- a) ʻ leg (from knee to foot) ʼ. 2. ṭaṅga -- 3: A. ṭāṅī ʻ wedge ʼ(CDIAL 5428) Rebus: ṭaṅkaśālā -- , ṭaṅkakaś° f. ʻ mint ʼ lex. [ṭaṅka -- 1, śāˊlā -- ] N. ṭaksāl°ār, B. ṭāksālṭã̄k°ṭek°, Bhoj. ṭaksār, H. ṭaksāl°ār f., G. ṭãksāḷ f., M. ṭã̄ksālṭāk°ṭãk°ṭak°. -- Deriv. G. ṭaksāḷī m. ʻ mint -- master ʼ, M. ṭāksāḷyā m.Addenda: ṭaṅkaśālā -- : Brj. ṭaksāḷī, °sārī m. ʻ mint -- master ʼ.(CDIAL 5434)

I submit that the dotted circle is an Indus Script hypertext to be read with the X hieroglyph on the base of the statue made of wood. Decipherment of hypetexts on the Mari Magical female statuette: kola 'woman' rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' PLUS dotted circles dhāv, dāya 'one in dice' + vaṭṭa 'circle' rebus धावड dhāvaḍa 'red ferrite ore smelter' . Thus, the hypertexts signify an iron smelter. The upraised hand is eraka 'upraised hand, shoulder' rebus; eraka 'metal infusion, metal casting'.

Abiding Indus Script hypertext dotted circle is dhāv, dāya 'one in dice' + vaṭṭa 'circle' rebus धावड dhāvaḍa 'red ferrite ore smelter'  https://tinyurl.com/y8fed8xd


Meluhha artisans, Indus script writers draw circles with small radii to signify dhātu, dhāv 'mineral' hypertexts

X hieroglyph signifies 'cross': dāu 'cross' rebus: dhātu 'mineral'.Thus,the X hieroglyph hsown on the base of the wooden statue of a woman signifies a semantic determinative of themineral ore signified by 'dotted circles' on the woman's chest.

See the decipherment of the two hieroglyphs on ivory rods in Mohenjo-daro.



 Ivory rod, ivory plaques with dotted circles. Mohenjo-daro (Musee National De Arts Asiatiques, Guimet, 1988-1989, Les cites oubliees de l’Indus Archeologie du Pakistan.] dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'. dATu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral'. Thus, the message signified by dotted circles and X hieroglyph refers to dhā̆vaḍ priest of 'iron-smelters'. The aquatic duck shown atop an ivory rod is:  karaṇḍa 'duck' (Sanskrit) karaṛa 'a very large aquatic bird' (Sindhi) Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) Thus, the metalworker (smelter) works with hard alloys (using carburization process). Three dotted circles: kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus working with minerals and hard alloys for smithy, forge.

See also dotted circles on a Mohenjo-daro ivory cube seal m1654
 m1654 Ivory cube with dotted circles Dotted circle hieroglyphs on each side of the cube (one dotted circle surrounded by 7 dotted circles): dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'.(smelter).


Dotted circle as Indus Script hypertext  धावड dhāvaa 'red ferrite ore smelter'
kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus, three dotted circles (trefoil) signify  

dhāvaa kolimi 'smelter smithy, forge'.

वृत्त [p= 1009,2] mfn. turned , set in motion (as a wheel) RV.; a circle; vr̥ttá ʻ turned ʼ RV., ʻ rounded ʼ ŚBr. 2. ʻ completed ʼ MaitrUp., ʻ passed, elapsed (of time) ʼ KauṣUp. 3. n. ʻ conduct, matter ʼ ŚBr., ʻ livelihood ʼ Hariv. [√vr̥t1] 1. Pa. vaṭṭa -- ʻ round ʼ, n. ʻ circle ʼ; Pk. vaṭṭa -- , vatta -- , vitta -- , vutta -- ʻ round ʼ; L. (Ju.) vaṭ m. ʻ anything twisted ʼ; Si. vaṭa ʻ round ʼ, vaṭa -- ya ʻ circle, girth (esp. of trees) ʼ; Md. va'ʻ round ʼ GS 58; -- Paš.ar. waṭṭəwīˊkwaḍḍawik ʻ kidney ʼ ( -- wĭ̄k vr̥kká -- ) IIFL iii 3, 192?(CDIAL 12069) வட்டம்போர் vaṭṭam-pōr, n. < வட்டு +. Dice-play; சூதுபோர். (தொல்எழுத். 418, இளம்பூ.)வட்டச்சொச்சவியாபாரம் vaṭṭa-c-cocca-viyāpāram, n. < id. + சொச்சம் +. Money-changer's trade; நாணயமாற்று முதலிய தொழில்Pondவட்டமணியம் vaṭṭa-maṇiyam, n. < வட் டம் +. The office of revenue collection in a division; வட்டத்து ஊர்களில் வரிவசூலிக்கும் வேலை. (R. T.) వట్ట (p. 1123) vaṭṭa vaṭṭa. [Tel.] n. The bar that turns the centre post of a sugar mill. చెరుకుగానుగ రోటినడిమిరోకలికివేయు అడ్డమానువట్టకాయలు or వట్టలు vaṭṭa-kāyalu. n. plu. The testicles. వృషణములుబీజములువట్టలుకొట్టు to castrate. lit: to strike the (bullock's) stones, (which are crushed with a mallet, not cut out.) వట్ర (p. 1123) vaṭra or వట్రన vaṭra. [from Skt. వర్తులము.] n. Roundness. నర్తులముగుండ్రనవట్రవట్రని or వట్రముగానుండే adj. Round. గుండ్రని.

धाव (p. 250) dhāva m f A certain soft, red stone. Baboons are said to draw it from the bottom of brooks, and to besmear their faces with it.  धवड (p. 249) dhavaḍa m (Or धावड) A class or an individual of it. They are smelters of ironधावड (p. 250) dhāvaḍa m A class or an individual of it. They are smelters of iron. धावडी (p. 250) dhāvaḍī a Relating to the class धावड. Hence 2 Composed of or relating to iron. 




Statuette of orante with clasped hands, wearing polos and wearing a dress and a cloak of kaunakès AO 17561
Around 2500 - 2400 BC
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
Alabaster
H. 16.50 cm. ; L. 5.40 cm. ; Pr .: 3.50 cm.

 
Statuette of orante sitting wearing polos and holding a branch in the left hand
Around 2500 - 2400 BC
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
Alabaster
H. 19.30 cm. ; L. 10.40 cm. ; Pr .: 10,20 cm.AO 18213

Statuette of praying with clasped hands wearing kaunakès skirt AO 17569
Around 2500 - 2400 BCE
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
Alabaster
38.8 H; 14.7 LA; 12.3 EP

AO 19486 Statue of Iddin-El, Shakkanakku of Mari
Shakkanakku period, circa 2090 BC
Mari, palace of Zimrî-Lîm
Steatite
41.5 H

Iddin-El (Idi-Ilum), prince-governor of Mari, dedicated this statue to the goddess Ishtar.
One of the oldest testimonies of the goddess Ishtar unveiling.

The goddess Maat
lapis lazuli
H. 5.90 cm. ; L. 2.85 cm. ; Pr .: 4 cm.

The lapis lazuli comes from Afghanistan, after a long road lined with shopping cities (Mari, Ebla in Syria).






La déesse Maât
lapis-lazuli
H. : 5,90 cm. ; L. : 2,85 cm. ; Pr. : 4 cm.
Le lapis-lazuli vient d'Afghanistan, après une longue route jalonnée de villes commerçantes (Mari, Ebla en Syrie).
Département des Antiquités égyptiennes E 10601



Statuette of orante with clasped hands, wearing polos and wearing a dress and a cloak of kaunakès AO 17561
Around 2500 - 2400 BC
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
Alabaster
H. 16.50 cm. ; L. 5.40 cm. ; Pr .: 3.50 cm.

 
Statuette of orante sitting wearing polos and holding a branch in the left hand
Around 2500 - 2400 BC
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
Alabaster
H. 19.30 cm. ; L. 10.40 cm. ; Pr .: 10,20 cm.AO 18213
AO 19486 Statue of Iddin-El, Shakkanakku of Mari
Shakkanakku period, circa 2090 BC
Mari, palace of Zimrî-Lîm
Steatite
41.5 H

Iddin-El (Idi-Ilum), prince-governor of Mari, dedicated this statue to the goddess Ishtar.
One of the oldest testimonies of the goddess Ishtar unveiling.

The goddess Maat
lapis lazuli
H. 5.90 cm. ; L. 2.85 cm. ; Pr .: 4 cm.

The lapis lazuli comes from Afghanistan, after a long road lined with shopping cities (Mari, Ebla in Syria).

Statuette of praying with clasped hands wearing kaunakès skirt AO 17569
Around 2500 - 2400 BCE
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
Alabaster
38.8 H; 14.7 LA; 12.3 EP




La déesse Ishtar Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C. Mari, temple d'Ishtar Coquille gravée
 H. : 3,10 cm. ; L. : 2,10 cm. ; Pr. : 0,20 cm.Une des plus anciennes attestations de la déesse Ishtar se dévoilant.
Fouilles Parrot, 1933 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales


Protecting deity, goddess Lama. Early 2nd m.BCE.Gypsum.

Divinité protectrice de rang mineur
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.
Mari
Gypse

La déesse Lama, les deux bras levés en signe d'intercession, introduit le fidèle auprès des dieux. "The goddess Lama, the two raised arms as a sign of intercession, introduces the faithful to the gods."
Fouilles Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales
AO 19077

Cup with floral decoration
Coupe à décor floral
Fritte de quartz
H. : 9,20 cm. ; D. : 16,40 cm.
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935 Vitrine 12 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 18235


Gobelet cylindrique terminé par un bouton
Bronze
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935
Département des Antiquités orientalesAO 19495
Herminette 
Milieu du IIIe millénaire avant J.-C. 
Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Cuivre

Miroir 
XIIIe - XIIe siècle avant J.-C. 
Pierre 
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales
Mari, tombe 236 AO 19081

Funnel-shaped strainer.Bronze
Passoire en forme d'entonnoir  Excavations A. Parrot, 1936
Department of Oriental Antiquities
Bronze Ao 29721
Adze
Mid 3rdm.BCE Mari Temple.Copper





Coupe hémisphérique
Bronze
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935
Département des Antiquités orientales Vitrine 12 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 
AO 19084


Magic All civilizations have known the stars, the philtres, the amulets and the magic formulas which make it possible to win a contest, to conquer an illness, to attach the heart of the beloved, to attract the rain or on the contrary to devastate the harvests, to spread an epizootic in the flocks, to kill a cumbersome husband. Soon Egypt contributed to magical practices, and quickly codified this parallel religion, dangerous manipulation for men. Despite the moral condemnations of the Church, magical activities remain alive in the Coptic world. Style and Calamine Case 6th century AD Antinoe leather with incised decoration On the face is represented St. Philotheus slaying the dragon; underneath, thirteen lines in a magical copte.



La magie
Toutes les civilisations ont connu les astres, les philtres, les amulettes et les formules magiques qui permettent de gagner un concours, de vaincre une maladie, de s'attacher le coeur de l'aimé, d'attirer la pluie ou au contraire de dévaster les récoltes, de répandre une épizootie dans les troupeaux, de faire mourir un mari encombrant.
Très tôt l'Égypte apporta sa contribution aux pratiques magiques, et codifia rapidement cette religion parallèle, de manipulation dangereuse pour les hommes.
Malgré les condamnations morales de l'Église, les activités magiques restent vivaces dans le monde copte.


Étui à styles et calames

VIe siècle après J.-C.
Antinoé  Vitrine M12 : La Magie 
cuir à décor incisé

Sur la face est représenté saint Philothée terrassant le dragon ; au-dessous, treize lignes en copte à caractère magique.

Sceau de Ana-Sin-Taklaku, fonctionnaire de Zimrî-Lîm usurpé par Adad-Sharrum

Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.
Mari
Hématite
Ce document est rattaché à :

Sceau de Ana-Sin-Taklaku, fonctionnaire de Zimrî-Lîm usurpé par Adad-Sharrum
AO 21988


Fouilles A. Gayet, 1896 / 1898
Département des Antiquités égyptiennes

Mace-heads

Masses d'armes 
Milieu du IIIe millénaire avant J.-C. 
Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Pierre Fouilles Parrot, 1935
Département des Antiquités orientales,
AO 18243, AO 18219



























Cylinder sealEighteenth century BCHematite and gold for the mount
The great Syrian gods face to face: El, under the aspect of the Babylonian god of the waves, and Ba'al, god of the storm, 
standing on the mountains. Vertical cuneiform inscription in the name of a servant of Hadni-Addu, 
head of a Syrian town known by the royal archives of Mari. AO 1634



Cylinder seal. 18th cent. BCE. Hematite. Syrian goddess naked, standing on a bull held by a small figure, and two characters with Egyptian hair styles separated by a small monkey.AO 6178


Two Syrian kings with high tiara holding an ax, and four characters passing to the right under two lions. AO 22366


Cylindeer seal. 15th cent. BCE. Brownmarble. Winged genius and hero mastering an animal. Stylized tree and goats on each side.AO 2189
Sceau-cylindre
XXVe - XXIVe siècle avant J.-C.
Serpentine
Décor en deux registres de scènes de combat entre héros et animaux. AO 6672
Cylinder sealEighteenth century BCHematite



[quote]
Syrian Glyptic in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE. The first seals, used from the seventh millennium, were seals. The first footprints show that the seals were printed on earth bubbles as marks of property. The cylinder-shaped seals appeared at the same time time as writing, in the last quarter of the fourth millennium. With the development of the administration, the seals were used to authenticate various documents on cuneiform tablets. Tools of the administration of the temple or palace, they were at the same time testimonies of ideologies Contemporary. Cylinder seals are classified in three chronological groups according to criteria stylistic. 1st group: 3rd millennium BC (lower row) The subjects of most seals of the third millennium are animal-inspired, but There are often reminders of mythology in genies and monsters. The fighting monsters, animals and men (AO 6672) seem to evoke a elementary mythology, popular, symbol of natural forces and the annual cycle of sun and vegetation. The gods appear for the first time at this time. In Syria, the liturgical banquet scenes and the scenes with the god-ship experienced a great popularity. 2nd group: classical Syrian style, 18th-17th century BC (four rows intermediate) The political influence of the first Babylonian dynasty brings to Syria a style of engraving evolved and standardized that mixes with the creativity of Amorite populations. It results cylinders of an original style, called "classical Syrian", because it is at the origin of a a tradition that will spread throughout Syria for many centuries. The cylinders of the estern Syria are also marked by Egyptian art (political influence of Egypt In the region). Scenes of presentation or worship rendered by a king to a deity are widespread in Syria and Mesopotamia. But the Syrian repertoire differs deeply of that of Babylon, even if some characters like the goddess they are taken back. The deities represented are Addu or Adad, the god of the storm, and El, the great god represented in the aspect of the god of the waves (AO 1634). The goddess Syrian "is represented in many ways, corresponding to personalities distinct, celestial or warlike. She reveals herself or is completely naked, she can be winged and represented standing on a bull (AO 6178).
The most famous character is the king (AO 22366): he is wearing the ovoid and clothed tiara of the heavy-rimmed Syrian mantle as on the bronze of Mishrifé-Qatna (showcase 3) and on the painting of the investiture of Zimri Lim de Mari (room 3). 3rd group: Mitannian style, 16th-14th century BC (upper row)
Most of these seals belong to the so-called Mitannian style of the name of the empire most powerful in the region in the middle of the second millennium, the Mitanni. There are two groups main: one on stone, refined style, and another on faience and other materials, a sloppy bill. The persistence of old styles makes dating very difficult. There is a change in the engraving because the traces of the mechanical tools are very
visible. In iconography, monsters and genies often replace divinities; plant motifs, and especially the stylized tree of life (AO 2189), are widely used.


Archaic dynasties III, around 2500 - 2400 BCE

Le dieu-bateau
Dynasties archaïques III, vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.
Mari
Coquille










Cylinder seals Mari. Shell.




The god-ship

Fouilles (Excavations of) Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 18356




Cylinder seal
Sceaux-cylindres
 
Combat de héros et d'animaux

Dynasties archaïques II, vers 2600 avant J.-C
Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Calcédoine

Inscription  "IL me-shar''.
Fouilles Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 19811

Fragile cylinder seal
Archaic dynasties II, around 2600 BC
Mari
Bone

Median register: fight of heroes and animals and human mask framed by two friezes of lion's heads.AO 19809

Six boucles d'oreilles (Six earrings)

XIIIe - XIIe siècle avant J.-C. 
Mari

Or (Gold) AO 26624


Seal-cylinder: worship scene
Early 2nd millennium BC
Mari Palace
Hematite AO 18360

eyes
Late third millennium BC
Mari, temple terrace with lions
Limestone and shale
5.6H; 9.7 L; 5.1 EP AO 19504, AO 19505

Dozens of pairs of eyes of this type, belonging to animal-guards, were found on the esplanade in front of the lion temple. They probably belonged to lions of the same type as the one exhibited in the hall (AO 19520 - 19824).

AO 19520 Lion statue
This lion, as well as another copy preserved in the Aleppo Museum, was found inside the temple dedicated to a deity referred to as "King from the country ". One of the foundation deposits of this temple, built by Sakkanakku Ishtup-Ilum, is exposed showcase 9. The two animals were sitting next to each other on a podium on the left from the entrance of the sanctuary, the rear part of the two sculptures was embedded in the wall so that the two lions seemed to emerge from the wall, threatening, ready to leap into the temple. Head turned to the right, they watched the visitors at the entrance and the exit: this particular position makes them think that might have a different function than the classic guardian animals of door. According to a technique well attested in the Middle East, the lion's body is composed of copper plates fastened with nails on a wooden soul which has now gone. The eyes, encrusted with limestone and shale, and the dentition bones that garnished the roaring mouth of the beast helped to accentuate the character realistic of this exceptional piece.
http://cartelen.louvre.fr/pub/fr/pdf/25691_lion.PDF?nothing=

The feline paw is an Indus Script hieroglyph read rebus in Meluhha: panja 'feline paw' rebus: panja 'furnace' PLUS kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron'kolhe'smelter'arye 'lion' rebus: āra 'brass'.



Cylinder seal
Eighteenth century BC
Mari  (palace, hallway 152)
Pink gypsum

Adad, god of the storm, a character passing towards a coniferous and a prancing goat.AO 19818

Cylinder seal
Sceaux-cylindres


Combats de héros et d'animaux

Dynasties archaïques III, vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.
Mari
Calcaire
Fouilles Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 18359





Quiver; decorations of bands and circles in relief, the superimposed edges


Carquois ; décorations de bandes et cercles en relief, les bords superposés
XIIIe - XIIe siècle avant J.-C.
Mari, tombe 134
Bronze ? Vitrine 12 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935 - 1936 
Département des Antiquités orientales AI 18484


See on 'embossed metalwork' in Sarasvati Civilization referenced in gveda:

Ṛgveda & Sarasvati Script Corpora evidence ayohata,अयो-हत 'embossed alloy metalwork'  http://tinyurl.com/hle4udk

अयो--हत [p= 85,1] (/अयो.) mfn. embossed in iron-work RV. ix , 1 , 2 and 80 , 2. (Monier-Williams) ayas अयस्-हत a. Ved. embossed in iron-work, made by a priest who wears a golden ring on his finger (B. and R.) (Apte). The reference to 'iron' in both lexicons may signify ayas, 'alloy metal'. (Note: It is remarkable that both occurrences of the expression ayo-hata'embossed alloy metal' in the Somapavamāna maṇḍala IX of gveda.)

Creation of embossed alloyed metalwork in the days of 
gveda is a stunning metallurgical competence. While aya- in compound expressions is used as metaphors in chandas of ca-s (see embedded terms from Samskrtam glosses), these two occurrences of the expression, अयो-हत ayo-hata are directly related to metalwork.


RV 9.80.2
RV 9.1.2
RV 9.80.2 Anvaya (the natural order or connection of words in a sentence , syntax , construing): vājin = O possessor of foog grain; Soma = Soma; aghnyā = by the unviolated (ca or Mantra); yam = whom; tvā = you; abhi anūata = praise; vṛṣā = showerer (of boon); dyumān = bright; madah = delightful (sah = that); (tvam = you); ayohatam = embossed alloy metal (gold); yonim = in the place (pitcher); ā rohasi = climbs (and) maghonām = of the rich; mahi = great; śravah = fame (and) āyu = Age; pratiran = enhancing; indrāya = For Indra; pavase = flow Meaning: The possessor of good grain, O Soma ! The showerer of boon, the bright, the delightful, you, to whom the unviolated hymns praise, climb in the pitcher made of embossed alloy metal (gold) and enhancing the great fame and age of the rich, flow for Indra.

RV 9.1.2: Anvaya (the natural order or connection of words in a sentence , syntax , construing): viśvacaraih = All-seeing; rakohā = destroyer of the demon; (Somah = Soma); droa jars (Special containers for Soma, kept near the altar during the religious yāga); yonim = in the place; abhi ā asadat = may sit. Meaning: May the destroyer of demon, the all-seeing Soma sit in the place pressed by embossed alloy metal (gold) alongside the Droa jars.

Image result for raised script indus copper tablet
Copper tablet (H2000-4498/9889-01) with raised script found in Trench 43.
"30% of the 177 copper artifacts from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro demonstrated tin, arsenic, nickel or lead alloying, of which tin is the most common. The amount of tin has ranged from 1 to 12% in the bronze artifacts studied. Besides copper, the Harappans worked with gold, silver and lead." https://www.harappa.com/blog/copper-harappan-age Vasant Shinde, 2016, Current Perspectives on the Harappan Civilization, in Gwen Robbins Schug and Subhas R. Walimbe (eds.), A Companion to South Asia in the Past, John Wiley & Sons, Sussex, UK, p. 132.
Harappa Raised Script. H94-2198. (After Fig. 4.14 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Eight inscribed copper tablets were found at Harappa and all were made with raised script, a technique quite different from the inscribed copper tablets.

The inscription on the cast copper tablet is read as: dul 'cast metal', khoT 'alloy ingot', bharata, 'alloy of coper, pewter, tin'. HierMohenjo-daro. Copper seal. National Museum, New Delhi (Source: Page 18, Fig. 8A in: Deo Prakash Sharma, 2000, Harappan seals, 
sealings and copper tablets, Delhi, National Museum).
dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal'; goT 'seed' Rebus: khoT 'alloy ingot'. खोट (p. 212) [ khōa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. (Marathi) baraDo 'spine' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c. (Marathi) karava 'pot' Rebus: kharva 'wealth'; karba 'iron'; karNaka 'rim of jar' Rebus: karNI 'supercargo'; karnIka 'scribe'.
Mohenjo-daro silver seal. m1199 Mackay 1938, vol. 2, Pl. XC,1; XCVI, 520  karaNika 'rim of jar' rebus: karaNika 'helmsman, supercargo' karã̄ n. pl. wristlets, bangles (Gujarati) rebus: khAr 'blacksmith' ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'alloy metal'  khambhaā'fish-fin' rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.


Foundation nail
Clou de fondation
Vers 2500 avant J.-C.
Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Cuivre Vitrine 8 : Epoque des dynasties archaïques de Sumer, vers 2900 - 2340 avant J.-C. Antiquités mésopotamiennes de diverses provenances. 

Fouilles Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 24409

Vitrine 11 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 
Necklace elements, lapis lazuli

Eléments de collier
Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.
Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Lapis-lazuli
Fouilles Parrot, 1934 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 18314, 18315


Colliers
XIIIe - XIIe siècle avant J.-C.
Mari, tombe, 119 et 236
Cornaline Vitrine 11 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 19037, AO 19082
Necklace
Collier

XIIIe - XIIe siècle avant J.-C.
Mari, tombe 236
Or, agate, turquoise et cornaline
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 19080

Foundation nail
Clou de fondation
Vers 2500 avant J.-C.
Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Cuivre Vitrine 8 : Epoque des dynasties archaïques de Sumer, vers 2900 - 2340 avant J.-C. Antiquités mésopotamiennes de diverses provenances. 

Fouilles Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 24409

Vitrine 11 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 
Necklace elements, lapis lazuli

Eléments de collier
Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.
Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Lapis-lazuli
Fouilles Parrot, 1934 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 18314, 18315


Colliers (Necklaces)
XIIIe - XIIe siècle avant J.-C.
Mari, tombe, 119 et 236
Cornaline Vitrine 11 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 19037, AO 19082
Necklace
Collier

XIIIe - XIIe siècle avant J.-C.
Mari, tombe 236
Or, agate, turquoise et cornaline
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 19080



Mission Archéologique de Mari. Volume III (only): Les Temples D'Ishtarat et de Ninni-Zaza



Mission Archéologique de Mari. Volume III (only): Les Temples D'Ishtarat et de Ninni-Zaza. PARROT André.
M4039c.jpg



Related imageRelated image
Related image
See details at pdf Maquette des ruines du palais de Mari d’après les fouilles d’A. Parrot (1935 - 1938) et J. Margueron (depuis 1979)
http://cartelen.louvre.fr/pub/fr/pdf/25700_maquette.PDF?nothing=

AO 29918
Model of the ruins of the palace of Mari after the excavations of A. Parrot (1935 - 1938) and J. Margueron (since 1979)

The model gives an image of the palace in its final state. The construction of this vast complex is spread over several centuries, from the founding at the time of Shakkanakku, or "governors" of Mari (end of the third millennium - beginning of the second millennium), the short period of Yahdun-Lim ( circa 1810 - circa 1794), the period of the Assyrian dynasty in the time of Shamshi-Adad (1792 - 1775) and the final destruction by Hammurabi of Babylon in the time of the last ruler, Zimri-Lim (1775 - 1762). The absolute chronology is being revised, these dates are given for information only.

Model made 1 / 100th by F. Vuillet workshop
Execution plans: M. Renisio (Pylone agency)
Department of Oriental Antiquities

The painting of the Investiture

Second half of the nineteenth century BC
Mari royal palace
Tempera paint over lime earth

This large panel, older than the entire south wall decor, was located to the right of the door opening on the antechamber of the throne room.

It is framed by a festoon that evokes the edge of a carpet. In the center, the goddess Ishtar, standing on her lion, hands the ring and the stick, insignia of power, to the king; deities of lower rank attend the meeting. Below, two goddesses, similar to the statue found in the vestibule of the throne room, hold a vase from which flow streams of living water, symbols of fertility; on either side are guardian monsters, two tall palm trees laden with dates and two large Lama goddesses framing the scene.
This original composition, which stands out from the traditional friezes, wants to offer a synthetic vision of the three spaces of the official sector: Cour du Palmier, vestibule and throne room in the center. It is a figurative evocation of the divine foundation of the royal power guaranteeing the prosperity of the country. The painting suffered a lot from the fire of the palace, but we guess a varied palette and bright colors: turquoise blue, green, red. The contours of the figures are engraved at the point and then underlined with black. (Translation from Frenc http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=24657&langue=fr )


Fouilles (Excavations) A. Parrot, 1935 - 1936 
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 19826







Disque inscrit de Yahdun-Lîm, roi de Mari  Vers 1800 avant J.-C.  Terre cuite




Fouilles A. Parrot, 1935 Vitrine 10 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 18236



Inscribed record of Yahdun-Lîm, King of Mari
Around 1800 BC
Terracotta
 
This disc is actually the head of a large "nail" clay intended to be embedded in a masonry. 
It was found in the palace of Zimrî-Lîm.
"Yahdun-liim, son of Yaggid-liim, king of Mari, Tuttul, and the land of Hana, a strong king who 
controls the banks of the Euphrates. [The god] Dagan proclaimed my kingship. 
The powerful weapon that kills my enemies, he gave it to me. In consequence of which, seven 
kings, in truth, who had fought against me, I made prisoners. Their country I annexed. The damage 
of the banks of the Euphrates I erased and my country in peace I made remain. Channels I opened. 
I made my country lose the habit of fetching water. I built Mari's wall and dug her ditch. Moreover,
 in burnt land, in a place of thirst, to which never a king had given name, where no king had built a city,
 I a desire I conceived; I built a city, I dug the ditch ... I expanded my country, the foundations of Mari a
nd my country I affirm. So I seared my name." Translation fromFrench 
http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=24685&langue=fr

Contract for donating a field by Ishih-Dagan, King of Hana


Contrat concernant le don d'un champ par Ishih-Dagan, roi du pays de Hana

Milieu du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.  Vitrine 10 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C.  Vitrine 10 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 

4 H ; 7 LA.3.3 EP


Acquisition 1952
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 20162


















Contract concerning the royal gift of a house in the Terqa region, with an imprint in the name of Ishar-Lîm, king of the land of Hana












Contrat concernant le don royal d'une maison dans la région de Terqa, avec empreinte au nom de Ishar-Lîm, roi du pays de Hana

Milieu du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.

H. : 9,80 cm. ; L. : 7,70 cm. ; Pr. : 3,30 cm.



Acquisition 1896
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 2673



Vitrine 10 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 











Brique de fondation de la construction du temple de Shamash, dieu-Soleil et de la justice, par Yahdun-Lîm, roi de Mari

1825 - 1810 avant J.-C.

Terre cuiteVitrine 10 : Mari : le mobilier des tombes médio-assyriennes. XIIIe - XIIe siècles avant J.-C. 

Le texte célèbre les hauts faits guerriers et religieux du roi. Il débute par un hymne « à Shamash, le roi du ciel et de la terre, le juge des dieux et des hommes, qui a l'équité en partage et à qui la vérité a été donnée en présent, le pasteur des Têtes Noires [nom que se donnaient eux-mêmes les anciens Mésopotamiens], le dieu resplendissant, le juge des êtres vivants, qui agrée la supplication, qui écoute les prières, qui accueille la lamentation, qui donne une vie heureuse pour toujours à ceux qui le vénèrent, lui qui est le Seigneur de Mari ... »



Acquisition 1965
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 21815

 "The text celebrates the warrior and religious achievements of the king. It begins with a hymn "to Shamash, the king of heaven and earth, the judge of the gods and men, who has equity in sharing and to whom the truth has been given in present, the pastor of the Black Heads [ the name given to them by the ancient Mesopotamians], the resplendent god, the judge of living beings, who accepts supplication, listens to prayers, welcomes lamentation, and gives a happy life forever to those who worship him, he who is the Lord of Mari."

































Ebih-He, the steward Period of archaic dynasties, around 2400 BCE, Temple of Ishtar Gypsum lapis lazuli shell











Ebih-Il, l'intendant

Epoque des dynasties archaïques, vers 2400 av. J.-C.

Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Gypse, lapis-lazuli, coquille
H. : 52,50 cm. ; L. : 20,60 cm. ; Pr. : 30 cm.



Fouilles A. Parrot, 1934 - 1935
Département des Antiquités orientales



AO 17551












Buste d'orant

Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.

Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Albâtre gypseux, yeux incrustés de nacre fixée par du bitume
H. : 14,70 cm. ; L. : 10,40 cm. ; Pr. : 7,40 cm. Vitrine 7 : Epoque des dynasties archaïques de Sumer, vers 2900 - 2340 avant J.-C. Antiquités de Mari (Moyen-Euphrate) 



Fouilles Parrot, 1935 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales


AO 19071










Buste d'orant barbu

Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.

Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Albâtre gypseux, traces de bitume dans les cavités de la barbe
H. : 12,80 cm. ; L. : 7,90 cm. ; Pr. : 5,70 cm.Vitrine 7 : Epoque des dynasties archaïques de Sumer, vers 2900 - 2340 avant J.-C. Antiquités de Mari (Moyen-Euphrate) 



Fouilles Parrot, 1933
Département des Antiquités orientales


AO 17557








Buste de femme

Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.

Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Stéatite
H. : 10,80 cm. ; L. : 13 cm. ; Pr. : 7,50 cm. Vitrine 8 : Le royaume amorrite de Mari. Première moitié du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. 



Fouilles Parrot, 1933 - 1934

Département des Antiquités orientales AO 17554







Masse d'armes miniature décorée de trois têtes animales 

Milieu du IIIe millénaire avant J.-C. 

Mari, maisons présargoniques AO  18275


Pierre 




Fouilles Parrot, 1935
Département des Antiquités orientalesMiniature mass of arms decorated with three animal heads Mid  m.BCE

Mari, Pre-Sargonic houses











Masks-pendants in the shape of a female face

13th - 12th century BCE

Mari, graves 255 and 236

Glazed quartz frit and bitumen

H. 9.10 cm. ; L. 6.50 cm. ; Pr .: 4.10 cm.



The masks were fixed on the bodies. The mask AO 19078 was found on the sternum of a female skeleton.


Masques-pendentifs en forme de visage féminin 

XIIIe - XIIe siècle avant J.-C. 

Mari, tombes 255 et 236
Fritte de quartz glaçurée et bitume
H. : 9,10 cm. ; L. : 6,50 cm. ; Pr. : 4,10 cm.


Les masques étaient fixés sur les corps. Le masque AO 19078 a été trouvé sur le sternum d'un squelette de femme.








Musée du Louvre, Atlas database: entry 24873









Mésopotamie, room 3: Mésopotamie, IIe millénaire avant J.-C.Richelieu, ground floor. 

This work is part of the collections of the Louvre (Department of Near Eastern Antiquities).





Pendant mask representing a female face, found on the sternum of a female skeleton. From the Middle-Assyrian necropolis in Mari, tomb 236.


Français : Masque-pendentif en forme de visage féminin, découvert sur le sternum d'un squelette féminin. Découvert dans la nécropole médio-assyrienne à Mari, tombe 236.



Date: between circa 1299 and circa 1100


Medium: quartz frit and bitumen


Height: 9.1 cm (3.5 ″); Width: 6.5 cm (2.5 ″); Depth: 4.1 cm (1.6 ″) 1935–1936: excavated by André Parrot.

















Couple de musiciens

Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.

Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Albâtre
H. : 23,10 cm. ; L. : 13,40 cm. ; Pr. : 5,60 cm.



Fouilles Parrot, 1933
Département des Antiquités orientales Vitrine 7 : Epoque des dynasties archaïques de Sumer, vers 2900 - 2340 avant J.-C. Antiquités de Mari (Moyen-Euphrate) 




AO 17568











Frieze of a mosaic panel
Around 2500 - 2400 BC
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
Shell shale





Frise d'un panneau de mosaïque

Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.

Mari, temple d'Ishtar
Coquille, schiste Vitrine 7 : Epoque des dynasties archaïques de Sumer, vers 2900 - 2340 avant J.-C. Antiquités de Mari (Moyen-Euphrate) Showcase 7: Period of the Archaic Dynasties of Sumer, circa 2900 - 2340 BC Antiquities of Mari (Middle Euphrates)


Tentative de reconstitution d'une scène de victoire.



Fouilles Parrot, 1934 - 1936
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 19820


















Galet A de fondation d'Eanatum


Vers 2450 avant J.-C.

Tello
Pierre
29 H ; 19.5 LA ; 18 EP


L'Inscription, en sumérien, énumère les constructions du prince à l'occasion de ses victoires. L'objet est dédicacé au dieu Ningirsu, dieu tutélaire de l'Etat de Lagash.
"... l'Elamite se rua sur Eanatum : il refoula l'Elamite dans son pays... Eanatum, le prince de Lagash, qui subjugue les pays (au nom) de Ningirsu, vainquit l'Elam... (et) vainquit Kish, Akhsak (et Mari)... Eanatum, celui qui occupe les pensées de Ningirsu... a bâti (pour Ningirsu) le palais de Tiras. Il est le fils d'Akurgal, prince de Lagash ; son grand père était Ur-Nanshe, prince de Lagash".



Don du Sultan Abdul Hamid, 1896
Département des Antiquités orientales AO2677



Eanatum Foundation Roller A Around 2450 BC Tello Pierre 29 H; 19.5 LA; 18 EP The Inscription, in Sumerian, enumerates the constructions of the prince on the occasion of his victories. The object is dedicated to the god Ningirsu, tutelary god of Lagash State. "... the Elamite rushed upon Eanatum: he drove back the Elamite to his land ... Eanatum, the prince of Lagash, who subjugates the lands (in the name) of Ningirsu, defeated Elam ... (and ) defeated Kish, Akhsak (and Mari) ... Eanatum, who occupies the thoughts of Ningirsu ... built (for Ningirsu) the palace of Tiras He is the son of Akurgal, prince of Lagash, his grandfather was Ur-Nanshe, Prince of Lagash ". Gift of Sultan Abdul Hamid, 1896 Department of Oriental Antiquities











 









Figurine féminine

Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.

Mari
Terre cuite
6 H ; 4.4 LA



Fouilles Parrot
Département des Antiquités orientales




AO 18393
















Fragment of mass of weapons: god-mountain and goddess with gushing streams Early 2nd millennium BCE Fragment de masse d'armes : dieu-montagne et déesse aux flots jaillissants Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. Mari  Pierre Fouilles Parrot, AO 19810
 
Figurines-plaquettes: divine couple, passing lion Early 2nd millennium BCE
Figurines-plaquettes : couple divin, lion passant
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.
Mari Terre cuite H. : 7 cm. ; L. : 4,80 cm.
Fouilles Parrot, 1936 - 1937
Département des Antiquités orientales
AO 19512, AO 19000
Roaring lion's head Early 2nd millennium BC H Palace Terracotta 10.1 H; 10.2 L; 9.1 LAAO 18227
Fragment of vase decorated with a leontococephalic eagle
Imported from eastern Iran
Around 2500 - 2400 BC
Mari, Temple of Ishtar
chlorite
Fragment de vase décoré d'un aigle léontocéphale
Importé d'Iran oriental
Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.
Mari, temple d'Ishtar Chlorite
Fouilles Parrot, 1933 - 1934
Département des Antiquités orientales
AO 17553
Statue de lion
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. 
Mari, "temple aux lions'' Cuivre H. : 40 cm. ; L. : 70 cm.
Fouilles A. Parrot, 1936 - 1937
Département des Antiquités orientales
AO 19824, 19520 "This lion, as well as another copy preserved in the Aleppo Museum, was
found inside the temple dedicated to a deity referred to as "King from the country ". One of the foundation deposits of this temple, built by Sakkanakku Ishtup-Ilum, is exposed showcase 9. The two animals were sitting next to each other on a podium on the left from the entrance of the sanctuary, the rear part of the two sculptures was embedded in the wall so that the two lions seemed to emerge from the wall, threatening, ready to leap into the temple. Head turned to the right, they watched the visitors at the entrance and the exit: this particular position makes them think that might have a different function than the classic guardian animals of door. According to a technique well attested in the Middle East, the lion's body is composed of copper plates fastened with nails on a wooden soul which has now gone. The eyes, encrusted with limestone and shale, and the dentition bones that garnished the roaring mouth of the beast helped to accentuate the character  realistic of this exceptional piece." (Translation from  French 
Bol décoré de deux lions
Vers 2600 avant J.-C.
Mari, temple d'Ishtar Calcaire
Fouilles Parrot, 1933
Département des Antiquités orientales
Ibex head
Around 2500 - 2400 BC
Mari, Presargonic House
Terracotta
H. 6.50 cm. ; l. : 6.30 cm. ; L. 5.10 cm.AO 18389
Animal Figurine: hedgehog or turtle Early 2nd millennium BCE Mari
Figurine animale : hérisson ou tortue
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.
Mari Terre cuite 5.8 H ; 8.6 LA ; 4.8 EP

Fouilles Parrot
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 18408
Circular mold decorated with concentric circles and a quadruped round
Early 2nd millennium BCE Mari Palace. Room 77  Terracotta AO 18912

Moule circulaire décoré d'une ronde de quadrupèdes Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. Mari, palais - salle 77 Terre cuite25.8 D ; 4 EP AO 18907

Moule en forme de lion Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. Mari, palais - salle 77 Terre cuiteLong. 27.5 cm ; Larg. 10 cm ; Ep. 8.6 cmAO 18908
Rectangular mold decorated with a frieze of goats and a lion attacking a bovine Moule rectangulaire décoré d'une frise de capridés et d'un lion attaquant un bovidé 
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. 
Mari, palais - salle 77 Terre cuite19.3 H ; 22.5 LA ; 7.9 EPAO 18902

 
Bull's muzzle. Limestone
Mufle de taureau 
Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C. 
Mari Calcaire H. : 7 cm. ; L. : 8 cm. ; Pr. : 6,30 cm. AO 18216
Fish-shaped mould
Moules en forme de poisson 
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. 
Mari, palais - salle 77 Terre cuite 29.5 H ; 11.7 LA ; 5.7 EP AO 18915a, b
Circular mold decorated with ibexes standing on both sides of a "sacred tree"
Early 2nd millennium BCE. Terracotta.
Moules Ces moules servaient vraisemblablement à la préparation de pains ou de pâtisseries destinés à la table royale. Ils ont été découverts (ainsi qu'une quarantaine d'autres du même type) dans une salle du palais contiguë à une cour où se trouvaient plusieurs fours. Cette zone de services était toute proche de la grande salle du trône où se déroulaient, outre les audiences royales et les cérémonies officielles, de fastueux banquets. 
Moule circulaire décoré de bouquetins dressés de part et d'autre d'un « arbre sacré » 
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. 
Mari, palais - salle 77 Terre cuite 19.4 D ; 3.2 EP
Parrot excavations, 1935 - 1936
Department of Oriental Antiquities AO 18903
Bélier à roulettes
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.
Mari Terre cuite 5.2 H ; 5.9 L ; 4.7 LA
Fouilles Parrot
Département des Antiquités orientales AO 18401
Bloc décoré d'un serpent
Vers 2500 - 2400 avant J.-C.
Mari, temple d'Ishtar Calcaire, incrustations de schiste et de lapis-lazuli
Fouilles Parrot, 1933
Département des Antiquités orientales
AO 18214
Capridé
Début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C.
Mari Terre cuite H. : 5,80 cm. ; l. : 8,30 cm. ; L. : 3,30 cm.
Fouilles Parrot
Département des Antiquités orientales
AO18394








Decipherment of Indus Script Inscription on a Louvre Cylinder seal, made in Meluhha, of śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master'

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-- The seal is of śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' who is also a ċiməkára 'coppersmith', sēṇi 'guild' khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (deploying orthography of an 'ant' hieroglyph)

The monograph presents decipherment of three hieroglyphs on the Louvre Museum cylinder seal in the following Annexes:


Annex A Decipherment of 'ladder' hieroglyph 
Annex B Decipherment of 'squirrel' hieroglyph 
Annex C Decipherment of 'ant' hieroglyph

The rebus readings inMeluhha (Indian sprachbund, language union) established in these annexes are:

sēṇi 'ladder' rebus: sēṇi 'guild'
khār 'squirrel'śrēṣṭhin 'squirrel'  rebu: khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' 
ċima 'ant' rebus: ċiməkára 'coppersmith'



Sign  on the text message  on the cylinder seal could be a variant of the 'squirrel' hieroglyph, following examples from the Indus Script Corpora.

 

  •  Reading of the inscription text as recorded in ASI 1977 Concordance List (Mahadevan)
    Susa, Iran; steatite cylinder seal.Cylinder seal carved with an elongated buffalo (should read 'bull') and a Harappa inscription circa 2600-1700 BCE; Susa, Iran; Fired steatite; H. 2.3 cm; Diam. 1.6 cm; Jacques de Morgan excavations, Susa; Sb 2425; Near Eastern Antiquities; Richelieu wing; Ground floor; Iran and Susa during the 3rd millennium BC; Room 8.
  • Marshall comments on a Susa cylinder seal: “…the occurrence of the same form of manger on a cylinder-seal of bone found at Susa leaves no doubt, I think, that this seal either came from India in the first instance, or, as is suggested by its very rough workmanship, was engraved for an Indian visitor to Susa by an Elamite workman…One of these five (Mesopotamian seals with Indus script) is a bone roll cylinder found at Susa, apparently in the same strata as that of the tablets in Proto-Elamitic script of the second period of painted ware. Scheil, in Delegation en Perse, vol. xvii, assigns this group of tablets and painted pottery to the period of Sargon of Agade, twenty-eighth century BCE, and some of the tablets to a period as late as the twenty-fourth century. The cylinder was first published by Scheil in Delegation en Perse ii, 129, where no precise field data by the excavator are given. The test is there given as it appears on the seal, and consequently the text is reversed. Louis Delaporte in his Catalogue des Cylindres Orientaux…du Musee du Louvre, vol. I, pl. xxv, No. 15, published this seal from an impression, which gives the proper representation of the inscription. Now, it will be noted that the style of the design is distinctly pre-Sargonic: witness the animal file and the distribution of the text around the circumference of the seal, and not parallel to its axis as on the seals of the Agade and later periods…It is certain that the design known as the animal file motif is extremely early in Sumerian and Elamitic glyptic; in fact is among the oldest known glyptic designs. But the two-horned bull standing over a manger was a design unknown in Sumerian glyptic, except on the small round press seal found by De Sarzec at Telloh and published by Heuzey, Decouvertes en Chaldee, pl. xxx, fig. 3a, and by Delaporte, Cat. I, pl. ii, t.24. The Indus seals frequently represent this same bull or bison with head bent towards a manger…Two archaeological aspects of the Susa seal are disturbing. The cylinder roll seal has not yet been found in the Indus Valley, nor does the Sumero-Elamitic animal file motif occur on any of the 530 press seals of the Indus region. It seems evident, therefore, that some trader or traveler from that country lived at Susa in the pre-Sargonic period and made a roll seal in accordance with the custom of the seal-makers of the period, inscribing it with his own native script, and working the Indian bull into a file design after the manner of the Sumero-Elamitic glyptic. The Susa seal clearly indicated a period ad quem below which this Indian culture cannot be placed, that is, about 2800 BCE. On a roll cylinder it is frequently impossible to determine where the inscription begins and ends, unless the language is known, and that is the case with the Susa seal. However, I have been able to determine a good many important features of these inscriptions and I believe that this text should be copied as follows: 

  • The last sign is No. 194 of my list,  variant of No. 193, which is a post-fixed determinative, denoting the name of a profession, that is ‘carrier, mason, builder’, ad invariably stands at the end. (The script runs from right to left.)”[Catalogue des cylinders orient, Musee du Louvre, vol. I, pl. xxv, fig. 15. See also J. de Morgan, Prehistoric Man, p. 261, fig. 171; Mem. Del. En Perse, t.ii, p. 129.loc.cit.,John Marshall, 1931, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, Delh, AES, Repr., 2004, p.385; pp. 424-425 Note: Five cylinder seals hav since been found at Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan.] The seal's chalky white appearance is due to the fired steatite it is made of. Craftsmen in the Indus Valley made most of their seals from this material, although square shapes were usually favored. The animal carving is similar to those found in Harappa works. The animal is a bull with no hump on its shoulders, or possibly a short-horned gaur. Its head is lowered and the body unusually elongated. As was often the case, the animal is depicted eating from a woven wicker manger."

    • Sceau-cylindre : buffle très étiré et inscription harapéenne
    • (Cylinder seal with Harappan inscription, shows elongated bull, not a buffalo)
  • Stéatite cuite
    H. 2.3 cm; Diam. 1.6 cm
  • Fouilles J. de Morgan
    Sb 2425
  • Image result for bharatkalyan97 cylinder seal elongated buffalo
  • Herbin Nancie's note on the Louvre Museum websie:
    This cylinder seal, carved with a Harappan inscription, originated in the Indus Valley. It is made of fired steatite, a material widely used by craftsmen in Harappa. The animal - a bull with no hump on its shoulders - is also widely attested in the region. The seal was found in Susa, reflecting the extent of commercial links between Mesopotamia, Iran, and the Indus.

    A seal made in Meluhha

    The language of the inscription on this cylinder seal found in Susa reveals that it was made in Harappa in the Indus Valley. In Antiquity, the valley was known as Meluhha. The seal's chalky white appearance is due to the fired steatite it is made of. Craftsmen in the Indus Valley made most of their seals from this material, although square shapes were usually favored. The animal carving is similar to those found in Harappan works. The animal is a bull with no hump on its shoulders, or possibly a short-horned gaur. Its head is lowered and the body unusually elongated. As was often the case, the animal is depicted eating from a woven wicker manger.

    Trading links between the Indus, Iran, and Mesopotamia

    This piece can be compared to another circular seal carved with a Harappan inscription, also found in Susa. The two seals reveal the existence of trading links between this region and the Indus valley. Other Harappan objects have likewise been found in Mesopotamia, whose sphere of influence reached as far as Susa.

    The manufacture and use of the seals

    Cylinder seals were used mainly to protect sealed vessels and even doors to storage spaces against tampering. The surface of the seal was carved. Because the seals were so small, the artists had to carve tiny scenes on a material that allowed for fine detail. The seal was then rolled over clay to produce a reverse print of the carving. Some cylinder seals also had handles.                                                                                                              
    Bibliography                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Amiet Pierre, L'Âge des échanges inter-iraniens : 3500-1700 av. J.-C., Paris, Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 1986, coll. "Notes et documents des musées de France", p. 143 et p. 280, fig. 93.
    Borne interactive du département des Antiquités orientales.
    Les cités oubliées de l'Indus : archéologie du Pakistan, 
    cat. exp. Paris, Musée national des arts asiatiques, Guimet, 
    16 novembre 1988-30 janvier 1989, sous la dir. de Jean-François Jarrige, Paris, Association française d'action artistique, 1988, pp. 194-195, fig. A5.

    http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/cylinder-seal-carved-elongated-buffalo-and-harappan-inscription
    Gensheimer, TR, 1984, The role of shell in Mesopotamia: evidence for trfade exxchange with Oman and the Indus Valley, in: Paleorient, Vol. 10, Numero 1, pp. 65-73 
    http://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1984_num_10_1_4350
    http://www.archive.org/download/mmoires01franuoft/mmoires01franuoft.pdf  Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1897-1898 et 1898-1899, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires I, 1990
    http://www.archive.org/download/mmoires07franuoft/mmoires07franuoft.pdf Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1899-1902, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires VII, 1905
    TR Gensheimer reports:"Turbinella pyrum, has a much more massive columella and medium to large shells can easily produce a cylinder that is 30 mm in diameter and upto 50 mm in length. A preliminary study of the large cylinder seals from the graves at Ur suggess that they could only have been made from T. pyrum. Other isolated examples of such large shell cylinder seals are reported from Tepe Gawra and Susa and together they indicate that Mesopotamian workshops were obtaining T.pyrum columella or rough cylinders through trade contacts with the Indus Valley. Prior to this availability, large shell cylinders were apparently made by joining sections of shell together as is seen in cylinder seal #U-9907 from the Royal Cemetery." http://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1984_num_10_1_4350

    Kenoyer, JM 1985, Shell working industries of the Indus civilisation: An archaeological and ethnographic perspective, PhD thesis, UC Berkeley, 363; Woolley L, 1934, Excavations at Ur 1931-34. Antiquities Journal 14.4, Pl. 99a
  • Annex A Decipherment of 'ladder' hieroglyph

    See:  http://tinyurl.com/hrud9v4


    sãgaḍ f. ʻa body formed of two or more fruits or animals or men &c. linked together' (Marathi). This gloss sãgaḍ as a body of written or pictorial material of hieroglyphs (voiced in Meluhha speech) can be used to create a ciphertext with elements of enhanced cyber-security encryptions. This ciphertext can be called: Hieroglyphmultiplextext. Rebus 1: sãgaḍ māṇi 'alloying adamantine glue, सं-घात caravan standard' -- vajra saṁghāṭa in archaeometallurgy, deciphered in Indus Script Corpora. Enhanced encryption cyber-security. Rebus 2: जांगड [jāṅgaḍa] ad Without definitive settlement of purchase--goods taken from a shop. जांगड [ jāṅgaḍa ] f ( H) Goods taken from a shop, to be retained or returned as may suit: also articles of apparel taken from a tailor or clothier to sell for him. 2 or जांगड वही The account or account-book of goods so taken.Rebud 3: sangaDa 'a cargo boat'. Rebus 4: sangaRh 'proclamation'.

    śrēṇikā -- f. ʻ tent ʼ lex. and mngs. ʻ house ~ ladder ʼ in *śriṣṭa -- 2, *śrīḍhi -- . -- Words for ʻ ladder ʼ see śrití -- . -- √śri]H. sainī, senī f. ʻ ladder ʼ; Si. hiṇi, hiṇa, iṇi ʻ ladder, stairs ʼ (GS 84 < śrēṇi -- ).(CDIAL 12685). Woṭ. Šen ʻ roof ʼ, Bshk. Šan, Phal. Šān(AO xviii 251) Rebus: seṇi (f.) [Class. Sk. Śreṇi in meaning “guild”; Vedic= row] 1. A guild Vin iv.226; J i.267, 314; iv.43; Dāvs ii.124; their number was eighteen J vi.22, 427; VbhA 466. ˚ -- pamukha the head of a guild J ii.12 (text seni -- ). — 2. A division of an army J vi.583; ratha -- ˚ J vi.81, 49; seṇimokkha the chief of an army J vi.371 (cp. Senā and seniya). (Pali)

    *śrētrī ʻ ladder ʼ. [Cf. śrētr̥ -- ʻ one who has recourse to ʼ MBh. -- See śrití -- . -- √śri]Ash. ċeitr ʻ ladder ʼ (< *ċaitr -- dissim. from ċraitr -- ?).(CDIAL 12720) *śrēṣṭrī2 ʻ line, ladder ʼ. [For mng. ʻ line ʼ conn. with √śriṣ2 cf. śrḗṇi -- ~ √śri. -- See śrití -- . -- √śriṣ2]Pk. sēḍhĭ̄ -- f. ʻ line, row ʼ (cf. pasēḍhi -- f. ʻ id. ʼ. -- < EMIA. *sēṭhī -- sanskritized as śrēḍhī -- , śrēṭī -- , śrēḍī<-> (Col.), śrēdhī -- (W.) f. ʻ a partic. progression of arithmetical figures ʼ); K. hēr, dat. °ri f. ʻ ladder ʼ.(CDIAL 12724) Rebus:  śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, °nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- ]Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., °iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ, seṭhaṇ°ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., °ṭhan f.; G. śeṭhśeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M.śeṭh°ṭhīśeṭ°ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭuhi° ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?)(CDIAL 12726)

    This denotes a mason (artisan) guild -- seni -- of 1. brass-workers; 2. blacksmiths; 3. iron-workers; 4. copper-workers; 5. native metal workers; 6. workers in alloys.

    The core is a glyphic ‘chain’ or ‘ladder’. Glyph: kaḍī a chain; a hook; a link (G.); kaḍum a bracelet, a ring (G.) Rebus: kaḍiyo [Hem. Des. kaḍaio = Skt. sthapati a mason] a bricklayer; a mason; kaḍiyaṇa, kaḍiyeṇa a woman of the bricklayer caste; a wife of a bricklayer (G.) The glyphics are:
    1.     Glyph: ‘one-horned young bull’: kondh ‘heifer’. kũdā‘turner, brass-worker’.
    2.     Glyph: ‘bull’: ḍhangra ‘bull’. Rebus: ḍhangar ‘blacksmith’. koD 'horns' rebus: koD 'workshop'
    3.     Glyph: ‘ram’: meḍh ‘ram’. Rebus: meḍ ‘iron
    4.         Glyph: ‘antelope’: mr̤eka ‘goat’. Rebus: milakkhu ‘copper’. Vikalpa 1: meluhha ‘mleccha’ ‘copper worker’. Vikalpa 2: meṛh ‘helper of merchant’.
    5.         Glyph: ‘zebu’: khũ ‘zebu’. Rebus: khũṭ ‘guild, community’ (Semantic determinant of the ‘jointed animals’ glyphic composition). kūṭa joining, connexion, assembly, crowd, fellowship (DEDR 1882)  Pa. gotta ‘clan’; Pk. gotta, gōya id. (CDIAL 4279) Semantics of Pkt. lexeme gōya is concordant with Hebrew ‘goy’ in ha-goy-im (lit. the-nation-s). Pa. gotta -- n. ʻ clan ʼ, Pk. gotta -- , gutta -- , amg. gōya -- n.; Gau.  ʻ house ʼ (in Kaf. and Dard. several other words for ʻ cowpen ʼ > ʻ house ʼ: gōṣṭhá -- , Pr. gūˊṭu ʻ cow ʼ; S. g̠oṭru m. ʻ parentage ʼ, L. got f. ʻ clan ʼ, P. gotargot f.; Ku. N. got ʻ family ʼ; A. got -- nāti ʻ relatives ʼ; B. got ʻ clan ʼ; Or. gota ʻ family, relative ʼ; Bhoj. H. got m. ʻ family, clan ʼ, G. got n.; M. got ʻ clan, relatives ʼ; -- Si. gota ʻ clan, family ʼ ← Pa. (CDIAL 4279). Alternative: adar ḍangra ‘zebu or humped bull’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.); ḍhangar ‘blacksmith’ (H.)
    6.     The sixth animal can only be guessed. Perhaps, a tiger (A reasonable inference, because the glyph ’tiger’ appears in a procession on some Indus script inscriptions. Glyph: ‘tiger?’: kol ‘tiger’.Rebus: kol ’worker in iron’. Vikalpa (alternative): perhaps, rhinocerosgaṇḍa ‘rhinoceros’; rebus:khaṇḍ ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’. Thus, the entire glyphic composition of six animals on the Mohenjodaro seal m417 is semantically a representation of a śrḗṇi, ’guild’, a khũ , ‘community’ of smiths and masons.
     bhaTa 'warrior' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace' Also, baTa 'six' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace'.
  • Annex B Decipherment of 'squirrel' hieroglyph 

                                                                                                                           https://tinyurl.com/y9ug5h9y


    Longest inscription m0314 of Indus Script Corpora is catalogue of a guild-master. The guild master is signified by Indus Script hypertext 'squirrel' hieroglyph 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Rebus: plaintext: khār 'blacksmith' śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa).

      The guild-master signs off on the inscription by affixing his hieroglyph: 
    palm squirrel,Sciurus palmarum'








    m0314 Seal impression, Text 1400 Dimension: 1.4 sq. in. (3.6 cm) Marshall 1931 (Vol. II, p. 402). 

    This is perhaps the longest inscriptionof Indus Script Corpora.

    m0314 The indus script inscription is a detailed account of the metal work engaged in by the Indus artisans. It is a professional calling card of the metalsmiths' guild of Mohenjodaro used to affix a sealing on packages of metal artefacts traded by Meluhha (mleccha)speakers.
     The last sign is wrongly identified in Mahadevan concordance. This hieroglyph is Squirrel as shown on Seal impressionFlipped vertically is likey to signify 'squirrel' as on Nindowari-damb seal 01

    All hieroglyphs are read from r. to l. 

    Line 1:

    eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, moltencast copper workshop.

    Fish + lid: aya dhakka,Rebus: aya dhakka 'bright iron/alloy metal'.

    Fish + fin:  aya khambhaṛā rebus: aya kammaṭa 'alloy metal mint, coiner, coinage'

    Fish + sloping stroke, aya dhāḷ ‘metal ingot’ (Vikalpa: ḍhāḷ = a slope; the inclination of a plane (G.) Rebus: : ḍhāḷako = a large metal ingot (G.)

    khaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements' 

    Thus, line 1 reads: bright iron/alloy metal, alloy metal mint, large metal ingot (ox-hide)

    Line 2:

    मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick, horn &c.) and attrib. such a stick, horn, bullock. मेढा [ mēḍhā ] m A stake, esp. as forked. Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) The circumscript is composed of four 'splinters': gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements', kanda 'fire-altar' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, this hieroglyph-multiplex or hypertext signifies: iron implements workshop.

    S. baṭhu m. ‘large pot in which grain is parched, Rebus; bhaṭṭhā m. ‘kiln’ (P.) baṭa = a kind of iron (G.) Vikalpa: meṛgo = rimless vessels (Santali) bhaṭa ‘furnace’ (G.) baṭa = kiln (Santali); baṭa = a kind of iron (G.) bhaṭṭha -- m.n. ʻ gridiron (Pkt.) baṭhu large cooking fire’ baṭhī f. ‘distilling furnace’; L. bhaṭṭh m. ‘grain—parcher's oven’, bhaṭṭhī f. ‘kiln, distillery’, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭh m., ṭhī f. ‘furnace’, bhaṭṭhā m. ‘kiln’; S. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ‘distil (spirits)’. (CDIAL 9656) Rebus: meḍ iron (Ho.) PLUS  muka 'ladle' rebus; mū̃h 'ingot', quantity of metal got out of a smelter furnace (Santali).Thus, this hieroglyph-multiplex (hypertext) signifies: iron ingot.

    kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metalcasting'. Thus, metalcasting smithy/forge.

    kanka, karṇaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo', 'engraver, scribe, account'

    Thus line 2 signifies metal products -- iron ingots, metalcastings (of smithy/forge iron metals workshop) handed over to Supercargo, (a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale).

    Line 3:

    kolmo ‘three’ (Mu.); rebus: kolami ‘smithy’ (Telugu)

    A. goṭ ‘a fruit, whole piece’, °ṭā ‘globular, solid’, guṭi ‘small ball, seed, kernel’; B. goṭā ‘seed, bean, whole’; Or. goṭā ‘whole, undivided’, goṭi ‘small ball, cocoon’, goṭāli ‘small round piece of chalk’; Bi. goṭā ‘seed’; Mth. goṭa ‘numerative particle’ (CDIAL 4271) Rebus: koṭe ‘forging (metal)(Mu.) Rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (G.) PLUS infix of sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, the hieroglyph-multiplex or hypertext signifies: forged silver workshop.

    m009

    Hieroglyph is a loop of threads formed on a loom or loose fringes of a garment. This may be seen from the seal M-9 which contains the sign: 

     धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu  *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773)

    Rebus: M. dhāūdhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; (CDIAL 6773) धातु  primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral, ore (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh. &c element of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]) (Monier-Williams. Samskritam)

    Thus, this hieroglyph signifies three types of ferrite ore: magnetite, hematite and laterite (poLa, bicha, goTa). Vikalpa: Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271) Rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (G.)

    Hieroglyph: Archer with bow and arrow on one hand:  kamāṭhiyo = archer; kāmaṭhum = a bow; kāmaḍ, kāmaḍum = a chip of bamboo (G.) kāmaṭhiyo a bowman; an archer (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kammaṭi a coiner (Ka.); kampaṭṭam coinage, coin, mint (Ta.) kammaṭa = mint, gold furnace (Te.)

    kolom 'rice plant' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge'.

    kanac 'corner' rebus: kañcu 'bronze' Vikalpa: (A.) kũdār, kũdāri (B.); kundāru (Or.); kundau to turn on a lathe, to carve, to chase; kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven image (Santali) kunda a turner's lathe (Skt.)(CDIAL 3295).

    Hieroglyph: squirrel:  *śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1]Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: guild master khāra, 'squirrel', rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri)*śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1] Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? (CDIAL 12723) Rebus: śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, °nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- ] Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., °iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ,seṭhaṇ°ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., °ṭhan f.; G. śeṭhśeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M. śeṭh°ṭhīśeṭ°ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭuhi° ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?) (CDIAL 12726) I suggest that the šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? is read rebus: śeṭhīśeṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ (Marathi) or eṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ(Prakrtam)

    Thus, line 3 signifies: bronze guild master of smithy/forge, mint for three types of ferrite mineral (magnetite, hematite, laterite)

    The three lines together, the engtire inscription of m0314 is a metalwork cagtalogue of a guild-master of workshops working in: 

    (1) native unsmelted metal, metal mint, large metal ingot (oxhide)

    (2) metal products -- iron ingots, metalcastings (of smithy/forge iron metals workshop) handed over to Supercargo, (a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale)

    (3)smithy/forge, mint for three types of ferrite mineral (magnetite, hematite, laterite)

     
    Long Indus Script inscription compares with Nindowari0-damb seal 01 which also shows 'squirrel'šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻflying squirrelʼ,'guild master'.

    kanac 'corner' rebus: kañcu 'bronze' 

    मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick, horn &c.) and attrib. such a stick, horn, bullock. मेढा [ mēḍhā ] m A stake, esp. as forked. Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) The circumscript is composed of four 'splinters': gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements', kanda 'fire-altar' 

    खााडा [ kāṇḍā ] 'A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon)' Rebus: kaNDa 'implements' (Santali).

    kole.l 'temple' rebus: kole.l 'smithy, forge'

    kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metalcasting'. Thus, metalcasting smithy/forge.

    kanka, karNaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo', 'engraver, scribe, account'

    Hieroglyph: 8 short strokes: gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements'PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, this hieroglyph-multiplex or hypertext signifies: iron implements workshop.

    Hieroglyph: squirrel:  *śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1]Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: guild master khāra, 'squirrel', rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri)*śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? (CDIAL 12723) Rebus: śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, °nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., °iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ,seṭhaṇ°ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., °ṭhan f.; G. śeṭhśeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M. śeṭh°ṭhīśeṭ°ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭuhi° ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?) (CDIAL 12726) I suggest that the šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? is read rebus: śeṭhīśeṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ (Marathi) or eṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ(Prakrtam) Hypertext of Indus Script: šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄  'flying squirrel' rebus: śrēṣṭhin 'foreman of a guild'. 
    Image result for palm squirrelIndian palm squirrel, Funambulus Palmarum There are also other seals with signify the 'squirrel' hieroglyph. 
    Nindowari-damb seal Nd0-1; Mohenjo-daro seal m-1202; Harappa tablet h-771; Harappa tablet h-419 

    m1634 ceramic stoneware bangle (badge)
     Read from r. to l.: 
    Vikalpa: The prefixSign 403: Hieroglyph: bārī , 'small ear-ring': H. bālā m. ʻbraceletʼ (→ S. ḇālo m. ʻbracelet worn by Hindusʼ), bālībārī f. ʻsmall ear -- ringʼ, OMārw. bālī f.; G. vāḷɔ m. ʻ wire ʼ, pl. ʻ ear ornament made of gold wire ʼ; M. vāḷā m. ʻ ring ʼ, vāḷī f. ʻ nose -- ring ʼ.(CDIAL 11573) Rebus: bārī 'merchant' vāḍhī, bari, barea 'merchantbārakaśa 'seafaring vessel'. If the duplication of the 'bangle' on Sign 403 signifies a plural, the reading could be: karã̄ n. pl. wristlets, bangles Rebus: khār 'blacksmith, iron worker'.

    Sign 403 is a duplication of  bun-ingot shape. This shape is signified on a zebu terracotta pratimā found at Harappa and is consistent with mūhā mẽṛhẽt process of making unique bun-shaped ingots (See Santali expression and meaning described below):


     I suggest that Sign 403 is read: dul mūhā mẽṛhẽt 'cast iron ingot'. 


    Thus, the hypertext may read: 


    1. dul mūhā mẽṛhẽt uukku 'cast iron ingot,steel' or 2. khār uukku 'blacksmith, steel'. 




    If he squirrel is read as šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻflying squirrel' rebus: śrēṣṭhin 'guild master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa), the reading of the hypertext is: 


    1. dul mūhā mẽṛhẽt śrēṣṭhin 'cast iron ingot, guild-master' or 2. khār śrēṣṭhin 'blacksmith, guild-master'. 


    Slide 33. Early Harappan zebu figurine with incised spots from Harappa.पोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu' Rebus: magnetite, citizen.(See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/08/zebu-archaeometallurgy-legacy-of-india.html )




     mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali) खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. (Marathi)

    An alternative reading for 'squirrel' hieroglyph is also suggested:

    The sequence of hieroglyphsSquirrel + Sign 403 signifies two professional responsibilities/functions  1. khār  'blacksmith'; 2. seṭhi ʻwholesale merchant' (Sindhi).


    Alternatively, 1. dul mūhā mẽṛhẽt 'cast iron ingot'; 2. khār  'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) or seṭhi ʻwholesale merchant' (Sindhi) or śrēṣṭhin 'guild master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa)




    Thus, two readings are possible for the 'squirrel' hieroglyph: khār  'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) and/or seṭhi ʻwholesale merchant' (Sindhi) orśrēṣṭhin 'guild master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa)




    Hieroglyph: squirrel (phonetic determinant): खार [ khāra ] A squirrel, Sciurus palmarum. खारी [ khārī ] (Usually खार) A squirrel. (Marathi) 


    A homonymous hieroglyph or allograph: arms with bangles: karã̄ n. pl. ʻwristlets, banglesʼ.(Gujarati)(CDIAL 2779) Rebus: khār खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b,l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta 'bellows of blacksmith'.with inscription.


    *śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1]Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: guild master:
    *śrēṣṭrī2 ʻ line, ladder ʼ. [For mng. ʻ line ʼ conn. with √śriṣ2 cf. śrḗṇi -- ~ √śri. -- See śrití -- . -- √śriṣ2]Pk. sēḍhĭ̄ -- f. ʻ line, row ʼ (cf. pasēḍhi -- f. ʻ id. ʼ. -- < EMIA. *sēṭhī -- sanskritized as śrēḍhī -- , śrēṭī -- , śrēḍī<-> (Col.), śrēdhī -- (W.) f. ʻ a partic. progression of arithmetical figures ʼ); K. hēr, dat. °ri f. ʻ ladder ʼ.(CDIAL 12724) Rebus: śrḗṣṭha ʻ most splendid, best ʼ RV. [śrīˊ -- ]Pa. seṭṭha -- ʻ best ʼ, Aś.shah. man. sreṭha -- , gir. sesṭa -- , kāl. seṭha -- , Dhp. śeṭha -- , Pk. seṭṭha -- , siṭṭha -- ; N. seṭh ʻ great, noble, superior ʼ; Or. seṭha ʻ chief, principal ʼ; Si. seṭa°ṭu ʻ noble, excellent ʼ. śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, °nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- ]Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., °iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ, seṭhaṇ°ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., °ṭhan f.; G. śeṭhśeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M. śeṭh°ṭhīśeṭ°ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭuhi° ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?)(CDIAL 12725, 12726) 

        
    Nindowari seal Nd-1
    From l. to r.:
    Squirrel 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Indus Script hypertext is khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa)
    Vikalpa: tuttha 'squirrel' Rebus: tuttha 'pewter, zinc alloy'; dhAL 'slanted stroke'
    Rebus: dhALako 'large ingot' khANDa 'notch' Rebus: khANDa 'metal implements'; 
    kolmo 'rice plant' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'; dula 'two, pair'
    Rebus: dul 'cast metal'; kanda kanka 'rim of pot' Rebus: khaNDa 'implements'
    karNI 'supercargo, scribe'; maṇḍā 'warehouse, workshop' (Konkani); koDa 'one'
    Rebus: koD 'workshop'; aya 'fish' Rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal'; kanac 'corner'
    Rebus: kancu 'bronze'. konda 'young bull' Rebus: kondar 'turner' koD 'horn'
    Rebus: koD 'workshop' sangaDa 'lathe, portable furnace'
    Rebus: sangar 'fortification' sanghAta 'adamantine glue' (Varahamihira)



    m1202
    From r. to l.:
    barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: bharat 'alloy of copper, pewter, tin' (Marathi) pattar 'trough' Rebus: pattar 'goldsmith guild'
    muhA 'ingot'; dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' muhA 'ingot' (Together, dul muhA  'cast iron ingot');
    Squirrel 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Indus Script hypertext is khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa) Vikalpa: tuttha 'squirrel' Rebus: tuttha 'pewter, zinc alloy'; 

    kanda kanka 'rim of pot' Rebus: khaNDa 'implements' karNI 'supercargo, scribe'; 
    aduru 'harrow' Rebus: aduru 'native unsmelted metal';bhaTa 'warrior' Rebus: bhaTa 'furnace';  
    kanda kanka 'rim of pot' Rebus: khaNDa 'implements' karNI 'supercargo, scribe'; muhA 'ingot, 
    quantity of iron ore smelted out of the smelter'.
    h771
    dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' muhA 'ingot' (Together, dul muhA  'cast iron ingot'); 
    Squirrel 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Indus Script hypertext is khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa) Vikalpa: tuttha 'squirrel' Rebus: tuttha 'pewter, zinc alloy'; 
    dula 'two' Rebus: dul 'cast metal or casting'. 
    Thus, the epigraph with three hieroglyph-multiplexes read rebus: metal castings, cast metal ingot, guild-master (pewter-zinc alloy.)
    h419
    Squirrel 'khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄' Indus Script hypertext is khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa) Vikalpa: tuttha 'squirrel' Rebus: tuttha 'pewter, zinc alloy'; 
    maṇḍā 'warehouse, workshop' (Konkani). 
    Thus, guild-master's warehouse.


    Lexis for squirrel

    tuttūḍ "squirrel' (Sora) Rebus: tuth 'blue vitriol or sulphate of copper'(Bengali) తుత్తినాగము [ tuttināgamu ] tutti-nāgamu. [Chinese.] n. Pewter. Zinc. లోహవిశేషము (Telugu)

    tsāni, tsānye ‘squirrel’ (Kon.) caṇila squirrel (To.); Vikalpa: sega ‘a species of squirrel’ (Santali) rebus: śannī a small workshop (WPah) śannī f. ʻ small room in a house to keep sheep in ‘ (WPah.) Bshk. šan, Phal.šān ‘roof’ (Bshk.)(CDIAL 12326). seṇi (f.) [Class. Sk. śreṇi in meaning "guild"; Vedic= row] Woṭ. šen ʻ roof ʼ, Bshk. šan, Phal. šān(AO xviii 251, followed by Buddruss Woṭ 126, < śar(a)ṇa -- ); WPah. (Joshi) śannī f. ʻ small room in a house to keep sheep in ʼ. Addenda: śaraṇá -- 2. 2. *śarṇa --WPah. kṭg.śɔ́nni f. ʻ bottom storey of a house in which young of cattle are kept ʼ. śaraṇá ʻ protecting ʼ, n. ʻ shelter, home ʼ RV. 2. *śarṇa -- . [√śar] 1. Pa. Pk. saraṇa -- n. ʻ protection, shelter, house ʼ; Ḍ. šərṓn m. ʻ roof ʼ (← Sh.?), Dm. šaran; P. saraṇ m. ʻ protection, asylum ʼ, H. saran f.; G. sarṇũ n. ʻ help ʼ; Si.saraṇa ʻ defence, village, town ʼ; -- < *śarāṇa -- or poss. *śāraṇa -- : Kho. šarān ʻ courtyard of a house ʼ, Sh. šarāṇŭ m. ʻ fence ʼ. (CDIAL 12326)

    Note: -ūsuffix in Sora gloss tuttūfinds expression in the following etyma:

    றுத்தை uṟuttai, n. [T. uṟuta, K. uḍute.] Squirrel; அணில். (W.)
    Ta. uukku (uukki-) to jump, leap over; uuttai squirrel. Te. uu to retreat, retire, withdraw; 
    uuku to jump, run away; uuta squirrel. Kona uRk- to run away. Kuwi (Isr.) urk- (-it-) to dance.(DEDR 713) 
    Ka. uute squirrel. Te. uuta id.(DEDR 590) 

    Ta. uruku (uruki-) to dissolve (intr.) with heat, melt, liquefy, be fused, become tender, melt (as the heart), be kind, glow with love, be emaciated; urukku (urukki-) to melt (tr.) with heat (as metals or congealed substances), dissolve, liquefy, fuse, soften (as feelings), reduce, emaciate (as the body), destroy; n. steel, anything melted, product of liquefaction; urukkam melting of heart, tenderness, compassion, love (as to a deity, friend, or child); urukkiṉam that which facilitates the fusion of metals (as borax). Ma. urukuka to melt, dissolve, be softened; urukkuka to melt (tr.); urukkam melting, anguish; urukku what is melted, fused metal, steel. Ko. uk steel. Ka. urku, ukku id. Koḍ. ur- (uri-) to melt (intr.); urïk- (urïki-) id. (tr.); ukkï steel. Te. ukku id. Go. (Mu.) urī-, (Ko.) uṛi- to be melted, dissolved; tr. (Mu.) urih-/urh- (Voc. 262).
    Konḍa (BB) rūg- to melt, dissolve. Kui ūra (ūri-) to be dissolved; pl. action ūrka (ūrki-); rūga (rūgi-) to be dissolved. Kuwi (Ṭ.) rūy- to be dissolved; (S.) rūkhnai to smelt; (Isr.) uku, (S.) ukku steel. (DEDR 661)  Te. uḍuku to boil, seethe, bubble with heat, simmer; n. heat, boiling; uḍikincu, uḍikilu, uḍikillu to boil (tr.), cook. Go. (Koya Su.) uḍk ēru hot water. Kuwi (S.) uḍku heat. Kur. uṛturnā to be agitated by the action of heat, boil, be boiled or cooked; be tired up to excitement. Ta. (Keikádi dialect; Hislop, Papers relating to the Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces, Part II, p. 19) udku (presumably uḍku) hot (< Te.) (DEDR 588)


    tuttū "squirrel' (Sora):So. tuttUD(R)  ~ tuttum(R) `squirrel'. Sa. toR `a squirrel (%Sciurus_tristiatus, %Sciurus_palmarum)'.Mu. tuRu `a squirrel (%Sciurus_tristiatus, %Sciurus_palmarum)'.Ho tu `a squirrel (%Sciurus_tristiatus, %Sciurus_palmarum)'.Bh. tuR `a squirrel (%Sciurus_tristiatus, %Sciurus_palmarum)'.KW tu`Ru`Ku. tur `a squirrel (%Sciurus_tristiatus, %Sciurus_palmarum)'.@(V243,M072)(Munda etyma) tarukuTi 'squirrel' (Kannada)

    The glosses 1. खार [ khāraA squirrel, Sciurus palmarum. खारी [ khārī ] (Usually खार) 
    A squirrel. (Marathi) and 2. urukku 'to jump, leap over'finds a parallel in Proto-Mon-khmer See: Thai kra-rook:
     
    412 *prɔɔk squirrel.A: (Bahnaric, Khmuic, Palaungic, Viet-Mương, North & Central Aslian). Sre pro (→ Stieng prɔh?), 
    Chrauprɔːʔ, Biat, Bahnar prɔːk, Jeh proːk (GRADIN & GRADIN 1979), Kammu-Yuan prɔːk, Palaung [ə]prɔʔ(MILNE 1931), 
    Vietnamese [con] sóc, Sakai prōkn (i.e. Semai; SKEAT & BLAGDEN 1906 M 136 (c)); →Lao, Ahom *rook (BENEDICT 1975 226, bat…); 
    Cham, Jarai prɔːʔ, Röglai proʔ, North Röglai proːʔ.Cf. Khmer kɔmprok, apparently < *koːn prɔːk, for which 
    cf. Vietnamese; → Thai krarɔ̂ɔk (with kr- by hypercorrection) at early stage. 
    http://sealang.net/monkhmer/sidwell2007proto.pdf
    Sidwell, Paul, Proto-Mon-khmer vocalism: moving on from short's 'alternances'.




    Distribution of seals/tablets within House AI, Block 1, HR at Mohenjodaro (After Jansen, M., 1987, Mohenjo-daro -- a city on the Indus, in Forgotten Cities on the Indus (M. Jansen, M. Mulloy and G. Urban Eds.), Mainz, Philip Von Zabern, p. 160). Jansen speculated that the house could have been a temple. 





    One of the seals discovered in HR 116 which may signify a 'squirrel' hypertext.


    kolom 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' karã̄ n. pl. wristlets, banglesRebus:khār 'blacksmith, iron worker' ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' karNaka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' *śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1]Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: guild master khāra, 'squirrel', rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri). Thus, the inscription signifies: blacksmith guild-master working in iron in smithy/forge, metal castings handed over to Supercargo for shipment. 




    Note on tuttha


    तुत्थ tuttha [p= 450,2] n. (m. L. ) blue vitriol (used as an eye-ointment) Sus3r.; fire;
    n. a rock Un2. k. (Monier-Williams) upadhātuउपधातुः An inferior metal, semi-metal. 
    They are seven; सप्तोपधातवःस्वर्णंमाक्षिकंतारमाक्षिकम् तुत्थं कांस्यंरातिश्चसुन्दूरंशिलाजतु
    (Apte. Samskritam) Ta. turu rust, verdigris, flaw; turucu, turuci blue vitriol, spot, dirt, 
    blemish, stain, defect, rust; turicu fault, crime, sorrow, affliction, perversity, blue vitriol; 
    tukku, tuppu rust. Ma. turiśu blue vitriol; turumpu, turuvu rust. Ka. tukku rust of iron; 
    tutta, tuttu, tutte blue vitriol. Tu. tukků rust; mair(ů)suttu, (Eng.-Tu. Dict.
    mairůtuttu blue vitriol. Te. t(r)uppu rust; (SAN) trukku id., verdigris. / 
    Cf. Skt.tuttha- blue vitriol; Turner, CDIAL, no. 5855 (DEDR 3343). 
    tutthá n. (m. lex.), tutthaka -- n. ʻ blue vitriol (used as an eye ointment) ʼ
    Suśr., tūtaka -- lex. 2. *thōttha -- 4. 3. *tūtta -- . 4. *tōtta -- 2
    [Prob.  Drav. T. Burrow BSOAS xii 381; cf. dhūrta -- 2 n. ʻ iron filings ʼ lex.]
    1. N. tutho ʻ blue vitriol or sulphate of copper ʼ, B. tuth.2. K. thŏth, dat. °thas m., 
    P. thothā m.3. S. tūtio m., A. tutiyā, B. tũte, Or. tutiā, H. tūtātūtiyā m., M. tutiyā m.
    4. M. totā m.(CDIAL 5855) तुतिया [ tutiyā ] m ( H) Blue vitriol, sulphate of copper.
    तुत्या [ tutyā ] m An implement of the goldsmith.तोता [ tōtā ] m ( H) (Properly तुतिया) 
    Blue vitriol.(Marathi) <taTia>(M),,<tatia>(P)  {N} ``metal ^cup, ^frying_^pan''.  
    *Ho<cele>, H.<kARahi>, Sa.<tutiA> `blue vitriol, bluestone, sulphate of copper',
    H.<tutIya>.  %31451.  #31231. Ju<taTia>(M),,<tatia>(P)  {N} ``metal ^cup, 
    ^frying_^pan''.  *Ho<cele>, H.<kARahi>,Sa.<tutiA> `blue vitriol, bluestone, 
    sulphate of copper', (Munda etyma) توتیا totī-yā, s.f. (6th) Tutty, protoxyd of zinc. (E.) 
    Sing. and Pl.); (W.) 
    Pl. توتیاوي totīʿāwīنیل توتیا nīl totī-yā, s.f. (6th) Blue vitriol, sulphate of copper. سبز توتیا sabz totī-yā, s.f. (6th) Green vitriol, or sulphate of iron.(Pashto)
    thŏth 1 थ्वथ् । कण्टकः, अन्तरायः, निरोध, शिरोवेष्टनवस्त्रम् m. (sg. dat. thŏthas थ्वथस्), blue vitriol, 
    sulphate of copper (cf. nīla-tho, p. 634a, l. 26)(Kashmiri)
  • Annex C Decipherment of 'ant' hieroglyph      Ant hieroglyph, examples from Indus Script Corpora                                  
     h151 5057Text
    h144 4280Text


    h131 4271Text 

    చీమ [ cīma ] chīma. [Tel.] n. An ant. కొండచీమ. the forest ant. రెక్కలచీమ a winged ant. పారేచీమను వింటాడు he can hear an ant crawl, i.e., he is all alive.చీమదూరని అడవి a forest impervious even to an ant. చలిచీమ a black antపై పారేపక్షి కిందపారే చీమ (proverb) The bird above, the ant below, i.e., I had no chance with him. చీమంత of the size of an ant. చీమపులి chīma-puli. n. The ant lion, an ant-eater.

    చీముంత [ cīmunta ] chīmunta.. [Tel.] n. A metal vesselచెంబు.

    cīmara -- ʻ copper ʼ in mara -- kāra -- ʻ coppersmith ʼ in Saṁghāṭa -- sūtra Gilgit MS. 37 folio 85 verso, 3 (= zaṅs -- mkhan in Tibetan Pekin text Vol. 28 Japanese facsimile 285 a 3 which in Mahāvyutpatti 3790 renders śaulbika -- BHS ii 533. But the Chinese version (Taishō issaikyō ed. text no. 423 p. 971 col. 3, line 2) has t'ie ʻ iron ʼ: H. W. Bailey 21.2.65). [The Kaf. and Dard. word for ʻ iron ʼ appears also in Bur. čhomārčhumər. Turk. timur (NTS ii 250) may come from the same unknown source. Semant. cf. lōhá -- ]Ash. ċímäċimə ʻ iron ʼ (ċiməkára ʻ blacksmith ʼ), Kt. čimé;, Wg. čümāˊr, Pr. zíme, Dm. čimár(r), Paš.lauṛ. čimāˊr, Shum. čímar, Woṭ. Gaw. ċimár,Kalčīmbar, Kho. čúmur, Bshk. čimerTorčimu, Mai. sē̃war, Phal. čímar, Sh.gil. čimĕr (adj. čĭmārí), gur. čimăr m., jij. čimer, K. ċamuru m. (adj.ċamaruwu).(CDIAL 14496)


     
    Kalibangan 080 Seal impression 8120 Text

    m0143 Mohenjo-Daro seal 2002 Text 

  • Alternative readibng: piparā 'ant' (Assamese) Rebus: pippala 'knife' (Prakritam) pipīlá m. ʻ ant ʼ RV., °laka -- m. ʻ large black ant ʼ ChUp., pipīˊlikā -- f. ʻ small red ant ʼ AV., pīlaka -- m. ʻ ant ʼ lex. 2. *piphīla -- . 3. *pippīla -- . 4. *pipphīla -- . 5. *pippīḍa -- . 6. *pilīla -- . [Variety of MIA. and NIA. forms for ʻ ant ʼ may be due partly to its (unknown) nonAryan origin (EWA ii 285), partly to contamination with kīṭá -- and kŕ̊mi -- , but mainly to some sort of taboo for a noxious insect. Although there appear to be six main types, not all NIA. forms can be grouped exactly under them]1. Pa. pipīlikā -- , pipillikā -- f. ʻ ant ʼ, Pk. pipīliā -- f., °lia<-> m., pivīliā -- f., Wg. pīmilīˊkpilīˊk, Gaw. pilo, Tor. pel f.; -- dissim. of p -- p (Wackernagel AiGr i Nachträge 158) or X kīṭá -- : Pa.kipillaka -- m., °likā -- f., Aś. kq. aṁbā -- kipilikā nom. pl., top. -- kapīlika, rdh. -- kapilika ʻ a kind of ant ʼ, S. kiulī f., kĩulī f. (X kŕ̊mi -- ?); L. kavīlī f. ʻ small red ant ʼ; N. kamilo, (< *kãwilorather than < karmín -- ).2. Kal.urt. phīwilík ʻ ant ʼ; L. pehlā m. ʻ large black ant ʼ, °lī f. ʻ small red ant ʼ (< *pahĭ̄l -- ), awāṇ. pḕlā°lī; WPah.śeu. priùli ʻ ant ʼ, l.rudh. priv̀lli (X *priśu -- ?), khaś. h.rudh. biùli.3. Or. pipīḷi ʻ ant ʼ; -- P. piplīhī f. (cf. Pk. forms with -- p -- in 1 ab.).4. Dm. phipilīˊphempilī ʻ ant ʼ.5. OB. piṁpaḍā ʻ ant ʼ, MB. pĩpīṛā, B. pĩp(i)ṛāpipiṛā, Or. pimpuṛi, Mth. pipṛī; H. pipṛā m. ʻ large black ant ʼ, °ṛī f. ʻ small red ant ʼ; -- Pk. pippaḍā -- f. ʻ a kind of ant ʼ (cf. *pippa -- 2); A. piparā ʻ ant ʼ (paruwā ʻ ant ʼ < *pawarā < *papaḍa -- ?).6. Kal.rumb. pilīˊly*lk ʻ ant ʼ, Kho. pilíli, Bshk. pilíl, Phal. pilīˊlu m.; -- Sh. phĭlīli̯ f.Addenda: pipīlá -- . 1. WPah.kṭg. phímpəṛi f. ʻ butterfly ʼ, J. fimfṛi f.; -- kṭg. kimblikhímbli f. ʻ ant ʼ with dissimilation of ph -- p to kh -- b as bh -- ph to g -- ph in †*bāhuṣphara -- .5. *pippīḍa -- : A. also pipãrā (AFD 211), OA. pimparā ʻ ant ʼ.(CDIAL 8201)
    pippalaka m. ʻ pin ʼ Car.Pa. pippalaka -- n. (?) ʻ scissors (?) ʼ; Pk. pippala-<-> ʻ knife ʼ; H. pīplā m. ʻ striking part of a sword (about a span from point), end or point of sword, metallic tip of sheath ʼ; M. pĩpiḷā m. ʻ instrument for cutting plaintain leaves (sometimes fastened to a stick) ʼ.(CDIAL 8206)  இறும்பி iṟumpi, n. < எறும்பு. [K. iṟumpu, M. iṟumbu.] Ant; எறும்பு. (யாழ். அக.) இரும்பு irumpu, n. < இரு-மை. cf. செம்பு for செம்மை. [T. inumu, M. irumbu.] 1. Iron, literally, the black metal; கரும்பொன். (தேவா. 209, 3.) 
  • See: 


    An additional argument to authenticate the use of Indus Script in Ancient Susa and Mesopotamia region is provided by a Susa pot in the Louvre Museum with Indus Script inscription, Fish is a frequently signified hieroglyph in Indus Script Corpora. The Susa pot deployed the 'fish' hieroglyph to authenticate the contents of the storage pot which contained 'metalware,metal implements'. This is validation of the argument posited that Meluhha artisans/merchants had settled in Susa/Mesopotamia; this is also attested in cuneiform texts. See also 
    http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=12280&langue=fr Cylinders of Gudea


    This indication of the occurrence, together, of two or more 'fish' hieroglyphs with modifiers is an assurance that the modifiers ar semantic indicators of how aya 'metal' is worked on by the artisans.

    āĩsa ʻfish' (Oriya): āmiṣá n. ʻ flesh ʼ, āˊmiṣ -- n. ʻ raw flesh, dead body ʼ RV.Pa. āmisa -- n. ʻ raw meat, bait ʼ; Pk. āmisa -- n. ʻ flesh ʼ; B. ã̄is ʻ scales of fish ʼ; Or. āĩsa ʻ flesh, fish, fish scales ʼ; M. ã̄vas n. ʻ flesh of a kill left by a tiger to be eaten on the following day ʼ; Si. äma ʻ bait ʼ; -- der. A. ã̄hiyā ʻ having the smell of raw flesh or fish ʼ, B. ã̄ste (Chatterji ODBL 491(CDIAL 1256)

    Munda: So. ayo `fish'. Go. ayu `fish'. Go <ayu> (Z), <ayu?u> (Z),, <ayu?> (A) {N} ``^fish''. Kh. kaDOG `fish'. Sa. Hako `fish'. Mu. hai (H) ~ haku(N) ~ haikO(M) `fish'. Ho haku `fish'. Bj. hai `fish'. Bh.haku `fish'. KW haiku ~ hakO |Analyzed hai-kO, ha-kO (RDM). Ku. Kaku`fish'.@(V064,M106) Mu. ha-i, haku `fish' (HJP). @(V341) ayu>(Z), <ayu?u> (Z)  <ayu?>(A) {N} ``^fish''. #1370. <yO>\\<AyO>(L) {N} ``^fish''. #3612. <kukkulEyO>,,<kukkuli-yO>(LMD) {N} ``prawn''. !Serango dialect. #32612. <sArjAjyO>,,<sArjAj>(D) {N} ``prawn''. #32622. <magur-yO>(ZL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. *Or.<>. #32632. <ur+GOl-Da-yO>(LL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. #32642.<bal.bal-yO>(DL) {N} ``smoked fish''. #15163. Vikalpa: Munda: <aDara>(L) {N} ``^scales of a fish, sharp bark of a tree''.#10171. So<aDara>(L) {N} ``^scales of a fish, sharp bark of a tree''.
    Indian mackerel Ta. ayirai, acarai, acalai loach, sandy colour, Cobitis thermalisayilai a kind of fish. Ma.ayala a fish, mackerel, scomber; aila, ayila a fish; ayira a kind of small fish, loach (DEDR 191) 

    aduru native metal (Ka.); ayil iron (Ta.) ayir, ayiram any ore (Ma.); ajirda karba very hard iron (Tu.)(DEDR 192). Ta. ayil javelin, lance, surgical knife, lancet.Ma. ayil javelin, lance; ayiri surgical knife, lancet. (DEDR 193). aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddhānti Subrahmaya’ Śastri’s new interpretation of the AmarakoŚa, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p.330); adar = fine sand (Ta.); ayir – iron dust, any ore (Ma.) Kur. adar the waste of pounded rice, broken grains, etc. Malt. adru broken grain (DEDR 134).  Ma. aśu thin, slender;ayir, ayiram iron dust.Ta. ayir subtlety, fineness, fine sand, candied sugar; ? atar fine sand, dust. அய.³ ayir, n. 1. Subtlety, fineness; நணசம. (__.) 2. [M. ayir.] Fine sand; நணமணல. (மலசலப. 92.) ayiram, n.  Candied sugar; ayil, n. cf. ayas. 1. Iron; 2. Surgical knife, lancet; Javelin, lance; ayilava, Skanda, as bearing a javelin (DEDR 341).Tu. gadarů a lump (DEDR 1196) áyas n. ʻ metal, iron ʼ RV.Pa. ayō nom. sg. n. and m., aya -- n. ʻ iron ʼ, Pk. aya -- n., Si. ya.ayaścūrṇa -- , ayaskāṇḍa -- , *ayaskūṭa -- .Addenda: áyas -- : Md. da ʻ iron ʼ, dafat ʻ piece of iron ʼ.ayaskāṇḍa m.n. ʻ a quantity of iron, excellent iron ʼ Pāṇ. gaṇ. [áyas -- , kāˊṇḍa -- ]Si. yakaḍa ʻ iron ʼ.(CDIAL 590, 591)
    The vase a la cachette, shown with its contents. Acropole mound, Susa. Old Elamite period, ca. 2500 - 2400 BCE. Clay. H 201/4 in. (51 cm) Paris. http://www.louvre.fr/oeuvre-notices/vase-la-cachette
    Indus Script hieroglyphs painted on the jar are: fish, quail and streams of water; 
    aya 'fish' (Munda) rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Rigveda) 
    baTa 'quail' Rebus: baTa 'furnace'.
    kāṇḍa 'water' Rebus: kāṇḍa 'implements'.
    Thus, read together, the proclamation on the jar by the painted hieroglyphs is: baTa ayas  kāṇḍa 'metal implements out of the furnace (smithy)'.
    A quail'; painted on the top register of the jar.
     
     Fish painted on the rim and top segment of the storage pot.

    • Jarre et couvercle
    • Terre cuite peinte
      H. : 51 cm. ; D. : 26 cm.
    • Sb 2723, Sb 2723 bis
    • Aile Richelieu
      Rez-de-chaussée
      Iran, Suse au IIIe millénaire avant J.-C.
      Salle 8
      Vitrine 2 : Le Vase à la Cachette. Suse IVA (vers 2450 avant J.-C.). Fouilles Jacques de Morgan, 1907, tell de l'Acropole.

    Notes by Nancie Herbin (Translated) on the treasure of copper and bronze objects: 
    This jar covered with a bowl contained, and a second pottery, buried treasure by its owner on the tell of the Acropolis of Susa. The set includes objects of various shapes and materials typical of an era when Susa, dominated by its Mesopotamian neighbors, kept numerous exchanges with areas ranging from the Gulf to the Indus.
    A treasure hidden in a jar
    This is a jar closed with a ducted bowl. The treasure called "vase in hiding" was initially grouped in two containers with lids. The second ceramic vessel was covered with a copper lid. It no longer exists leaving only one. Both pottery contained a variety of small objects form a treasure six seals, which range from proto-Elamite period (3100-2750 BC.) To the oldest, the most recent being dated to 2450 BC. AD (First Dynasty of Ur). Therefore it is possible to date these objects, this treasure. Everything included 29 vessels including 11 banded alabaster, mirror, tools and weapons made of copper and bronze, 5 pellets crucibles copper, 4 rings with three gold and a silver, a small figurine of a frog lapis lazuli, gold beads 9, 13 small stones and glazed shard. Metal objects, including tools used may have weight or exchange currency. For some reason we do not know, this treasure has been hidden by its owner but may not get it back. According to Pierre Amiet, it may have been a vassal tribute to the local prince.
    A wide variety of shapes and materials
    The large number and variety of copper objects testify to the importance of this metal in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. J-C. The shapes are inspired by the craftsmanship of the neighboring regions such as Luristan and Mesopotamia. The presence of four bronze objects indicates that this alloy began to be controlled by the artisans of the region. However, the small number of objects in precious metals and stones contrast with the richness of the materials used in the Sumerians. Copper came from Oman while lapis lazuli was mined Afghan mountains. The alabaster vases imported objects are either Sistan or Lut desert, the Susian artisans using a coarser material. Such vases were found in large numbers in the city of Ur and show a taste for the exotic which is found until the beginning of the second millennium.
    A new cultural momentum
    At that time, the Susa region is successively under the aegis of the Mesopotamian kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad. Suse likely begins to emerge from the isolation in which she was to enter a new cultural phase. Although still on the fringes of commercial circuits, a network of exchanges, particularly with regard to materials, is set up with neighboring regions such as Southeast Iran and the Gulf countries, or slightly more distant as the Indus valley.
    Bibliography
    AMIET × P., Age of inter-Iranian Trade, Paris: Meeting of National Museums, 1986, p.125-126; Fig. 96, 1-9, (Notes and documents of the Museums of France).

    AMIET P. Susa 6000 years of history, Paris: Meeting of National Museums, 1988, p.64-65; Fig. 26.

    A. BENOIT, The Civilizations of the former Prochre East Paris: Ecole du Louvre, 2003, p.252-253; Fig. 109 (Manuals Ecole du Louvre, Art and Archaeology).
    Sb 2723 (After Harper, Prudence Oliver, Joan Aruz, Francoise Tallon, 1992, The Royal city of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre, Metropolitan Musem of Art,  New York.)http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/07/rosetta-stones-for-deciphered-indus.html

    Sargon (2334-2279 BCE) founded the Akkad dynasty which saw inter-regional trade routes, from Dilmun and Magan to Susa and Ebla. Later Naram-Sin (c. 2254-2218 BCE) conquered the cities of Mari and Ebla. Agade of Sargon boasted of gold, tin and lapis lazuli brought from distant lands. A description (Kramer, Samuel Noah, 1958: History Begins at Sumer (London: Thames & Hudson,  289-290) reads:

    When Enlil had given Sargon, king of Agade,
    Sovereignty over the high lands and over the low lands
    ...
    under the loving guidance of its divine patron Inanna.
    Its houses filled with gold, silver, copper, tin, lapis lazuli;
    ...
    The Martu (Amorites) came there, that nomadic people from the west,
    'who know not wheat' but who bring oxen and choice sheep;
    The folk from Meluhha came, 'the peole of the black lands',
    Bearing their exotic products;
    The Elamites came and the Sabareans, peoples from the East and the North,
    With their bundles like 'beasts of burden'...

    In this narrative, Meluhha folk from the black lands were those who required a translator. (Se Shu-ilishu cylinder seal of an Akkadian translator).

    King Manistusu commemorates the import of diorite for royal statuary and other stone. Arrival in Sumer ports of boats from Meluhha are said to bring in ivory, copper, precious stones and timber (Leemans, WF, 1960, Foreign trade in the Old Babylonian period as revealed by texts from Southern Mesopotama (Leiden): 27-30). A tamkarum from Umma and his three sons were engaged in the trade of wool, cereals, fruit, sesame oil and copper (Foster, B., 1993, International trade at sargonic Susa, AoF 20 : 62-63). It is possible that this colony of merchants in Susa were seafaring merchants from Meluhha.

    "In the third millennium Sumerian texts list copper among the raw materials reaching Uruk from Aratta and all three of the regions Magan, Meluhha and Dilmun are associated with copper, but the latter only as an emporium. Gudea refers obliquely to receiving copper from Dilmun: 'He (Gudea) conferred with the divine Ninzaga (= Enzak of Dilmun), who transported copper like grain deliveries to the temple builder Gudea...' (Cylinder A: XV, 11-18, Englund 1983, 88, n.6). Magan was certainly a land producing the metal, since it is occasionally referred to as the 'mountain of copper'. It may also have been the source of finished bronze objects." (Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart, 1999, Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and industries: the archaeological evidence, Eisenbrauns, p.245).

    Tin for Mesopotamia from southeast Asia or Central Asia?

    Daniel T. Potts discounts the possibility that Meluhha was the source of tin. 

    "Tin. The sources of Mesopotamia's tin...have been sought from Southeast Asia to Cornwall. With regard to the former possibility, it has always proved difficult to establish any sort of an archaeological link between Burma, Thailand or any other part of mainland Southeast Asia and the Indian sub-continent, supposing that this was the location of Meluhha from which Gudea (Cyl B XIV.13) claims to have imported tin. As the Indian subcontinent has no tin itself, Meluhha's tin must have been acquired elsewhere and then trans-shipped to Mesopotamia, just as Dilmun's copper was acquired in Magan during the early second millennium BCE. With a view to examining the evidence for a connection between the tin-rich regions of Southeast Asia and the Indus Valley, it is interesting to note that some years ago the claim was made that etched carnelian beads, a particularly diagnostic type fossil of the Harappan civilization, had been found at the early tin-bronze producing site of Ban Chiang in Thailans. This made the likelihood that Meluhhan tin was southeast Asian in origin less far-fetched than previously thought. In fact, however, scholars who have actually seen the Ban Chiang beads have confirmed that they are not Harappan at all, but date rather to the last centuries BCE or first centiries CE when different types of etched carnelian beads, clearly distinct from those of the earlier Harappan period, were manufactured. For the time being, therefore, we should not consider southeast Asia a likely tin source based on this now discredited piece of evidence...Since lapiz lazuli, which certainly originated in Afghanistan (Badakshan), is said by Gudea to have been acquired from Meluhha, it is quite probable that the tin which he received from that country originated in Central Asia as well."(Potts, Daniel T., 1997, Mesopotamian civilization: the material foundations, A&C Black, pp.266-269)

    With the recognition of Indus Script hieroglyphs on cire perdue cast Dong Son Bronze drums, the possibility that Meluhha merchants functioned as the intermediaries for the tin from the Tin Belt of Mekong delta should be re-evaluated to validate Gudea's reference to Meluhha in the context of carnelian and tin imports.

    Gudea Cylinder B, column 14.13 [Jacobsen , T.,1987, The Harps that once...Sumerian poetry in translation: New Haven (Yale University Press): 437]:

    Beside copper, tin, slabs of lapis lazuli,
    refined silver and pure Meluhhan carnelian,he set up a huge copper pail...

    See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/12/tin-road-from-meluhha-to-ancient-near.htmlhttp://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/12/tin-road-from-meluhha-to-ancient-near.html

    Reference in some Sumerian texts to acquisition of lapis lazuli and gold from Meluhha suggest that the sea route through the Persian Gulf was used by Meluhha merchants.
    Seal of Shu-ilishu showing a Meluhha merchant. The rollout of Shu-ilishu's Cylinder seal. Courtesy of the Department des Antiquites Orientales, Musee du Louvre, Paris. http://a.harappa.com/content/shu-ilishus-cylinder-seal

    There are two Indus Script hieroglyphs which signify possible trade transactions on this seal: 1. the goat carried by the Meluhha merchant; and 2. the liquid-container carried by the lady accompanying the merchant.

    1. Hieroglyph: mlekh 'goat' (Brahui) Rebus: milakkhu 'copper' (Pali) 
    2. Hieroglyph: ranku 'liquid measure' Rebus: ranku 'tin'. 

    If these rebus renderings are valid, the seal may be evidence of trade in copper and tin being negotiated by the Meluhha merchant with the Akkadian merchant. Shu-ilishu lived in Mesopotamia during the Late Akkadian period (ca. 2020 BCE.

    Fish glyph on a Susa pot has been decoded as Indus script. See http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/11/decoding-fish-and-ligatured-fish-glyphs.html That the pot came from Meluhha has been further substantiated by analysing Susa-Indus interaction areas. 

    In particular, there is a bronze sculpture excavated in Susa, called Sit Shamshi. "Sunrise (ceremony)" This large piece of bronze shows a religious ceremony. In the center are two men in ritual nudity surrounded by religious furnishings - vases for libations, perhaps bread for offerings, steles - in a stylized urban landscape: a multi-tiered tower, a temple on a terrace, a sacred wood. In the Middle-Elamite period (15th-12th century BC), Elamite craftsmen acquired new metallurgical techniques for the execution of large monuments, statues and reliefs. http://tinyurl.com/coobwur

    I suggest that this religious ceremony in front of a ziggurat is a sandhyavandanam (morning prayer to the sun) by the metallurgist artisan from Meluhha. The prayer is a veneration of the ancestors whose remains are interned in the ziggurat/stupa. Further researches have to be done on the continuance of similar traditions in the metal smelting areas on Ganga valley, sites such as Lohardiwa, Malhar, and Raja-nal-ki-tila (where Rakesh Tiwari has found evidence of iron smelting in ca. 18th century BCE).
  • L'art des sceaux de l'empire d'Akkad
    Vers 2350 - 2200 avant J.-C.

    Les rois sémites d'Akkad, en fondant le premier empire "universel", prirent en main les arts plastiques comme instrument de leur idéologie. Les ateliers de graveurs de sceaux qu'ils patronnèrent créèrent un style nouveau en organisant le décor animalier traditionnel autour de l'inscription, prise pour centre de la composition. Et les figures reçurent un aspect plus sculptural. D'autre part, un répertoire nouveau fut créé afin d'illustrer une riche mythologie, calquée sur l'ordre du monde tel qu'il se renouvelle chaque année en un éternel retour. Le panthéon se réduit à quelques figures reconnaissables à leurs tiares à cornes et à leurs attributs, symboliques des éléments du monde : le dieu de l'abîme des eaux qui jaillissent de son corps et d'un petit vase. C'est le père et le chef du panthéon, qui préside sans agir.
    La grande déesse-mère est garante de la fertilité et de la fécondité. Le jeune dieu paré de flammes personnifie le soleil aussi bien que les puissances du renouveau en général. Son image ressemble à celle du roi vainqueur. Le dieu de la végétation est reconnaissable aux rameaux qui poussent de son corps comme du tronc d'un arbre. L'ordre du monde est présenté soit comme une monarchie, avec un dieu trônant seul, soit comme le fruit du mariage d'un couple divin. Plus souvent, il est conçu de façon dramatique, soit comme l'action combinée de plusieurs dieux spécialisés, soit comme un combat où triomphe généralement le dieu-soleil.


    La naissance de l'enfant divin
    Schiste
    La naissance de l'enfant divin, symbole de la renaissance de la nature à l'aube de chaque année. Sceau d'un "interprète du pays de Meluhha", c'est à dire de l'Inde ou de l'Iran oriental avec qui l'empire d'Akkad noua des relations importantes.
    Don H. de Boisgelin 1967
    Ancienne collection De Clercq
    Département des Antiquités orientales
    AO 22310

    Translation from French                                                                              
    The art of the seals of the Akkad Empire Around 2350 - 2200 BC

    The Semitic kings of Akkad, founding the  first "universal" empire, took over the plastic arts as an instrument of their ideology. The seal engravers they patronized created a new style by organizing the traditional animal decor around the inscription, taken as the center of the composition. And the figures received a more sculptural appearance. On the other hand, a new repertoire was created to illustrate a rich mythology, modeled on the order of the world as it is renewed every year in an eternal return. The pantheon is reduced to a few figures recognizable by their horned tiaras and their attributes, symbolic of the elements of the world: the god of the abyss of the waters that spring from his body and a small vase. It is the father and the head of the pantheon, who presides without acting.
    The great mother goddess guarantees fertility and fertility. The young god adorned with flames personifies the sun as well as the powers of renewal in general. His image resembles that of the victorious king. The god of vegetation is recognizable by the branches that grow from his body like the trunk of a tree. The order of the world is presented either as a monarchy, with a god enthroned alone, or as the fruit of the marriage of a divine couple. More often, it is conceived in a dramatic way, either as the combined action of several specialized gods, or as a fight where the sun-god generally triumphs.

    The birth of the divine child
    schist

    The birth of the divine child, symbol of the rebirth of nature at the dawn of each year. Seal of an "interpreter of the country of Meluhha", that is to say of India or Eastern Iran with which the empire of Akkad knotted important relations.
  • Image result for ibni sharrum cylinderHéros acolytes d'Ea abreuvant des buffles
  • Diorite
    H. 3.9 cm; Diam. 2.6 cm
  • Don H. de Boisgelin 1967. Ancienne collection De Clercq , 1967
    AO 22303
  • Fine engraving, elegant drawing, and a balanced composition make this seal one of the masterpieces of glyptic art. The decoration, which is characteristic of the Agade period, shows two buffaloes that have just slaked their thirst in the stream of water spurting from two vases held by two naked kneeling heroes. 

    A masterpiece of glyptic art

    This seal, which belonged to Ibni-Sharrum, the scribe of King Sharkali-Sharri, who succeeded his father Naram-Sin, is one of the most striking examples of the perfection attained by carvers in the Agade period. The two naked, curly-headed heroes are arranged symmetrically, half-kneeling. They are both holding vases from which water is gushing as a symbol of fertility and abundance; it is also the attribute of the god of the river, Enki-Ea, of whom these spirits of running water are indeed the acolytes. Two arni, or water buffaloes, have just drunk from them. Below the scene, a river winds between the mountains represented conventionally by a pattern of two lines of scales. The central cartouche bearing an inscription is held between the buffaloes' horns.

    A scene testifying to relations with distant lands

    Buffaloes are emblematic animals in glyptic art in the Agade period. They first appear in the reign of Sargon, indicating sustained relations between the Akkadian Empire and the distant country of Meluhha, that is, the present Indus Valley, where these animals come from. These exotic creatures were probably kept in zoos and do not seem to have been acclimatized in Iraq at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Indeed, it was not until the Sassanid Empire that they reappeared. The engraver has carefully accentuated the animals' powerful muscles and spectacular horns, which are shown as if seen from above, as they appear on the seals of the Indus.

    The production of a royal workshop

    The calm balance of the composition, based on horizontal and vertical lines, gives this tiny low relief a classical monumental character, typical of the style of the late Akkadian period. Seals of this quality were the preserve of the entourage of the royal family or high dignitaries and were probably made in a workshop whose production was reserved for this elite.

    Bibliography

    Amiet Pierre, Bas-reliefs imaginaires de l'ancien Orient : d'après les cachets et les sceaux-cylindres, exp. Paris, Hôtel de la Monnaie, juin-octobre 1973, avec une préface de Jean Nougayrol, Paris, Hôtel de la Monnaie, 1973. 
    Amiet Pierre, L'Art d'Agadé au musée du Louvre, Paris, 
    Éditions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 1976.
    Art of the First Cities, New York, 2003, n 135.
    Boehmer Rainer Michael, Die Entwicklung der Glyptik während der Akkad-Zeit, Berlin, W. De Gruyter und C , 1965, n 724, fig. 232. 
    Boehmer Rainer Michael, Das Auftreten des Wasserbüffels 
    in Mesopotamien in historischer Zeit und sein sumerische Bezeichnung, 
    ZA 64 (1974), pp. 1-19.
    Clercq Louis (de), Collection de Clercq. Catalogue méthodique et raisonné. Antiquités assyriennes, cylindres orientaux, cachets, briques, bronzes, 
    bas-reliefs, etc., t. I, Cylindres orientaux, avec la collaboration de Joachim Menant, Paris, E. Leroux, 1888, n 46.
    Collon Dominique, First Impressions : cylinder seals in the Ancient 
    Near-East, Londres, British museum publications, 1987, n 529.
    Frankfort Henri, Cylinder Seals, Londres, 1939, pl XVIIc.
    Zettler Richard L., "The Sargonic Royal Seal. A Consideration of Sealing in Mesopotamia", in Seals and Sealing in the Ancient Near East, 
    Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 6, Malibu, 1977, pp. 33-39.
  •  

    https://tinyurl.com/y9l5hkn8

    This is a continuation of the monograph: Overflowing pot on tens of Ancient Near East artifacts, an Indus Script hypertext signifies production of metal implements https://tinyurl.com/y8kq53kl which deciphered the rebus reading of overflowing pot: lokhãḍ 'tools,iron, ironware'. This decipherment is validated by the decipherment of Indus Script hypertexts of Ibni-sharrum cylinder seal (ca. 2200 BCE).
    There are some seals with clear Indus themes among Dept. of Near Eastern Antiquities collections at the Louvre in Paris, France, among them the Cylinder Seal of Ibni-Sharrum, described as "one of the most striking examples of the perfection attained by carvers in the Agade period [2350–2170 BCE].
    https://www.harappa.com/category/blog-subject/seals
    Image result for ibni sharrum indus script
    Ibni-Sharrum cylinder seal shows a kneeling person with six curls of hair.Cylinder seal of Ibni-sharrum, a scribe of Shar-kali-sharri (left) and impression (right), ca. 2183–2159 B.C.; Akkadian, reign of Shar-kali-sharri. Lower register signifies flow of water.

    Numeral bhaṭa 'six' is an Indus Script cipher, rebus bhaṭa ‘furnace’; baṭa 'iron'. Rebus: bhaḍa -- m. ʻ soldier ʼ, bhuaga 'worshipper in a temple' (Note the worshipful pose of the person offering the overflowing pot).

    bhr̥ta ʻ carried, brought ʼ MBh. 2. ʻ hired, paid ʼ Mn., m. ʻ hireling, mercenary ʼ Yājñ.com., bhr̥taka -- m. ʻ hired servant ʼ Mn.: > MIA. bhaṭa -- m. ʻ hired soldier, servant ʼ MBh. [√bhr̥1. Ash. 3 sg. pret. bəṛə, f. °ṛī ʻ brought ʼ, Kt. bŕå; Gaw. (LSI) bṛoet ʻ they begin ʼ.2. Pa. bhata -- ʻ supported, fed ʼ, bhataka -- m. ʻ hired servant ʼ, bhaṭa -- m. ʻ hireling, servant, soldier ʼ; Aś.shah. man. kāl. bhaṭa -- ʻ hired servant ʼ, kāl. bhaṭaka -- , gir. bhata -- , bhataka -- ; Pk. bhayaga -- m. ʻ servant ʼ, bhaḍa -- m. ʻ soldier ʼ, bhaḍaa -- m. ʻ member of a non -- Aryan tribe ʼ; Paš. buṛīˊ ʻ servant maid ʼ IIFL iii 3, 38; S. bhaṛu ʻ clever, proficient ʼ, m. ʻ an adept ʼ; Ku. bhaṛ m. ʻ hero, brave man ʼ, gng. adj. ʻ mighty ʼ; B. bhaṛ ʻ soldier, servant, nom. prop. ʼ, bhaṛil ʻ servant, hero ʼ; Bhoj. bhar ʻ name of a partic. low caste ʼ; G. bhaṛ m. ʻ warrior, hero, opulent person ʼ, adj. ʻ strong, opulent ʼ, ubhaṛ m. ʻ landless worker ʼ (G. cmpd. with u -- , ʻ without ʼ, i.e. ʻ one without servants ʼ?); Si. beḷē ʻ soldier ʼ < *baḷaya, st. baḷa -- ; -- Pk. bhuaga -- m. ʻ worshipper in a temple ʼ, G. bhuvɔ m. (rather than < bhūdēva -- ). *bhārta -- ; abhr̥ta -- ; subhaṭa -- .Addenda: bhr̥ta -- : S.kcch. bhaṛ ʻ brave ʼ; Garh. (Śrīnagrī dial.) bhɔṛ, (Salānī dial.) bhe ʻ warrior ʼ.(CDIAL 9588)


    Hieroglyhph: buffalo: Ku. N. rã̄go ʻ buffalo bull ʼ (or < raṅku -- ?).(CDIAL 10538, 10559) Rebus: raṅga3 n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. [Cf. nāga -- 2, vaṅga -- 1] Pk. raṁga -- n. ʻ tin ʼ; P. rã̄g f., rã̄gā m. ʻ pewter, tin ʼ (← H.); Ku. rāṅ ʻ tin, solder ʼ, gng. rã̄k; N. rāṅrāṅo ʻ tin, solder ʼ, A. B. rāṅ; Or. rāṅga ʻ tin ʼ, rāṅgā ʻ solder, spelter ʼ, Bi. Mth. rã̄gā, OAw. rāṁga; H. rã̄g f., rã̄gā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; Si. ran̆ga ʻ tin ʼ.(CDIAL 10562) B. rāṅ(g) ʻ tinsel, copper -- foil ʼ.(CDIAL 10567) తుత్తము [ tuttamu ] or తుత్తరము tuttamu. [Tel.] n. sulphate of zinc. మైలతుత్తము sulphate of copper, blue-stone.తుత్తినాగము [ tuttināgamu ] tutti-nāgamu. [Chinese.] n. Pewter. Zinc. లోహవిశేషము (Telugu) (Spelter is commercial crude smelted zinc.
    • a solder or other alloy in which zinc is the main constituent.)

    Note on spelter: "Spelter, while sometimes used merely as a synonym for zinc, is often used to identify a zinc alloy. In this sense it might be an alloy of equal parts copper and zinc, i.e. a brass, used for hard soldering and brazing, or as an alloy, containinglead, that is used instead of bronze. In this usage it was common for many 19th-century cheap, cast articles such as candlesticks and clock cases...The word "pewter" is thought to be derived from the word "spelter". Zinc ingots formed by smelting might also be termed spelter.Skeat, Walter William (1893), An etymological dictionary of the English language (2nd ed.), Clarendon Press, pp. 438–439. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelter French Bronze is a form of bronze typically consisting of 91% copper, 2% tin, 6% zinc, and 1% lead.(Ripley, George; Dana, Charles Anderson (1861). The New American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge 3. D. Appleton and Co. p. 729.) "The term French bronze was also used in connection with cheap zinc statuettes and other articles, which were finished to resemble real bronze, and some older texts call the faux-bronze finish itself "French bronze". Its composition was typically 5 parts hematite powder to 8 parts lead oxide, formed into a paste with spirits of wine. Variations in tint could be obtained by varying the proportions. The preparation was applied to the article to be bronzed with a soft brush, then polished with a hard brush after it had dried." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Bronze ( Watt, Alexander (1887). Electro-Metallurgy Practically Treated. D. Van Nostrand. pp. 211–212.)

     "The term latten referred loosely to the copper alloys such as brass or bronze that appeared in the Middle Ages and through to the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was used for monumental brasses, in decorative effects on borders, rivets or other details of metalwork (particularly armour), in livery and pilgrim badges or funerary effigies. Metalworkers commonly formed latten in thin sheets and used it to make church utensils. Brass of this period is made through the calamine brass process, from copper and zinc ore. Later brass was made with zinc metal from Champion's smelting process and is not generally referred to as latten. This calamine brass was generally manufactured as hammered sheet or "battery brass" (hammered by a "battery" of water-powered trip hammers) and cast brass was rare. "Latten" also refers to a type of tin plating on iron (or possibly some other base metal), which is known as white latten; and black latten refers to laten-brass, which is brass milled into thin plates or sheets. The term "latten" has also been used, rarely, to refer to lead alloys. In general, metal in thin sheets is said to be latten such as gold latten; and lattens (plural) refers to metal sheets between 1/64" and 1/32" in thickness." ( Funerary crozier of the Bishops of St Davids, on display at St David's Cathedral, West Wales) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latten

    Cylinder seal impression of Ibni-sharrum, a scribe of Shar-kalisharri ca. 2183–2159 BCE The inscription reads “O divine Shar-kali-sharri, Ibni-sharrum the scribe is your servant.” Cylinder seal. Serpentine/Chlorite. AO 22303 H. 3.9 cm. Dia. 2.6 cm.  

    <lo->(B)  {V} ``(pot, etc.) to ^overflow''.  See <lo-> `to be left over'.  @B24310.  #20851. Re<lo->(B)  {V} ``(pot, etc.) to ^overflow''.  See <lo-> `to be left over'. (Munda ) Rebus: loh ‘copper’ (Hindi) Glyph of flowing water in the second register: காண்டம் kāṇṭam , n. < kāṇḍa. 1. Water; sacred water; நீர்; kāṇṭam ‘ewer, pot’ கமண்டலம். (Tamil) Thus the combined rebus reading: Ku. lokhaṛ  ʻiron tools ʼ; H. lokhaṇḍ  m. ʻ iron tools, pots and pans ʼ; G. lokhãḍ n. ʻtools, iron, ironwareʼ; M. lokhãḍ n. ʻ iron ʼ(CDIAL 11171). The kneeling person’s hairstyle has six curls. bhaṭa ‘six’; rebus: bhaṭa‘furnace’. मेढा mēḍhā A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl. (Marathi) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.) Thus, the orthography denotes meḍ bhaṭa ‘iron furnace’.

    Akkadian Cylinder Seal (c. 2200 B.C. showing Gilgamesh slaying the bull of heaven, with Enkidu? Also from Dury; both in British Museum.
    Akkadian Cylinder Seal (c. 2200 B.C. showing Gilgamesh slaying the bull of heaven, with Enkidu? Also from Dury; both in British Museum)


    Gilgamesh and Enkidu struggle of the celestial bull and the lion (cylinder seal-print Approx. 2,400 BC, Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore)

    http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1999.325.4 (Bos gaurus shown with greater clarity) http://art.thewalters.org/viewwoa.aspx?id=33263 In the two scenes on this cylinder seal, a heroic figure with heavy beard and long curls holds off two roaring lions, and another hero struggles with a water buffalo. The inscription in the panel identifies the owner of this seal as "Ur-Inanna, the farmer."

    Clay sealing from private collection with water buffalo, crescent-star, apparently Akkadian period.

    मेढ [ mēḍha ]The polar star. (Marathi) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Munda.Ho.) 
    मेंढसर [mēṇḍhasara] m A bracelet of gold thread. (Marathi) 


    On many hierolyph multiplexes, water-buffalo (rã̄go) is associated with kANDa 'overflowing water'. The rebus renderings are: rāṅgā khaNDA 'zinc alloy implements'. The semantics of khaNDa 'implements' is attested in Santali: me~r.he~t khaNDa 'iron implements'. 


    Santali glosses

    A lexicon suggests the semantics of Panini's compound अयस्--काण्ड [p= 85,1]  m. n. " a quantity of iron " or " excellent iron " , (g. कस्का*दि q.v.)( Pa1n2. 8-3 , 48)(Monier-Williams).


    From the example of a compound gloss in Santali, I suggest that the suffix -kANDa in Samskritam should have referred to 'implements'. Indus Script hieroglyphs as hypertext components to signify kANDa 'implements' are: kANTa, 'overflowing water' kANDa, 'arrow' gaNDa, 'four short circumscript strokes'.

    Mohenjodaro seal m0304
    This profile of face on m0304 compares with the three faces topped by a horn PLUS twigs, on another seal. Material: tan steatite; Dimensions: 2.65 x 2.7 cm, 0.83 to 0.86 thickness Mohenjo-daro, DK 12050 Islamabad Museum, NMP 50.296 Mackay 1938: 335, pl. LXXXVII, 222 Hypertext: three faces, mũh 'face' Rebus mũhã̄ 'iron furnace output' kolom 'three' (faces) rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' *tiger's mane on face: The face is depicted with bristles of hair, representing a tiger’s mane. ḍā, cūlā, cūliyā tiger’s mane (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4883) Rebus: cuḷḷai = potter’s kiln, furnace (Ta.); cūḷai furnace, kiln, funeral pile (Ta.); cuḷḷa potter’s furnace; cūḷa brick kiln (Ma.); cullī fireplace (Skt.); cullī, ullī id. (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4879; DEDR 2709). sulgao, salgao to light a fire; sen:gel, sokol fire (Santali.lex.) hollu, holu = fireplace (Kuwi); soḍu fireplace, stones set up as a fireplace (Mand.); ule furnace (Tu.)(DEDR 2857). 

    Hypertext: shoggy face with brisltles of hair on the face of the person: sodo bodo, sodro bodro adj. adv. rough, hairy, shoggy, hirsute, uneven; sodo [Persian. sodā, dealing] trade; traffic; merchandise; marketing; a bargain; the purchase or sale of goods; buying and selling; mercantile dealings (G.lex.)sodagor = a merchant, trader; sodāgor (P.B.) id. (Santali)

    Hypertext: wristlets on arms: karã̄ n. pl. wristlets, bangles (Gujarati) rebus: khār 'blacksmith'.



    Image result for pasupati indus sealHseal (m0304). Image result for bharatkalyan97 haystackThe platform is a plank atop a pair of haystacks. Indus Script hypertexts of the bottom register: polā 'haystacks' rebus: polā 'magnetite, ferrite ore'. The plank or slab of the platform is pāṭa ʻ plain, throne ʼ (Oriya), paṭṭa rebus: फड phaḍa 'metals manufactory guild'. miṇḍāl 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Munda.Ho.) PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. Thus, iron castings.

    Hypertext: kũdā kol 'tiger jumping' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter'

    Hypertext: कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 कर्णक kárṇaka, kannā 'legs spread' rebus: कर्णक kárṇaka, 'helmsman' kannā 'legs spread' rebus: karṇadhāra m. ʻ helmsman ʼ Suśr. [kárṇa -- , dhāra -- 1]Pa. kaṇṇadhāra -- m. ʻ helmsman ʼ; Pk. kaṇṇahāra -- m. ʻ helmsman, sailor ʼ; H. kanahār m. ʻ helmsman, fisherman ʼ.(CDIAL 2836)

    Hieroglyph: karabha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' ibbo 'merchant'

    Hieroglyph: kaṇḍa 'rhinoceros' gaṇḍá4 m. ʻ rhinoceros ʼ lex., °aka -- m. lex. 2. *ga- yaṇḍa -- . [Prob. of same non -- Aryan origin as khaḍgá -- 1: cf. gaṇōtsāha -- m. lex. as a Sanskritized form ← Mu. PMWS 138] 1. Pa. gaṇḍaka -- m., Pk. gaṁḍaya -- m., A. gãr, Or. gaṇḍā.2. K. gö̃ḍ m., S. geṇḍo m. (lw. with g -- ), P. gaĩḍā m., °ḍī f., N. gaĩṛo, H. gaĩṛā m., G. gẽḍɔ m., °ḍī f., M. gẽḍā m.
    Addenda: gaṇḍa -- 4. 2. *gayaṇḍa -- : WPah.kṭg. geṇḍɔ mirg m. ʻ rhinoceros ʼ, Md. genḍā ← H.(CDIAL 4000) rebus: kāṇḍa 'implements'

    Hieroglyph:  rã̄go 'water-buffalo' rebus: Pk. raṅga 'tin' P. rã̄g f., rã̄gā m. ʻ pewter, tin ʼ Ku. rāṅ ʻ tin, solder ʼOr. rāṅga ʻ tin ʼ, rāṅgā ʻ solder, spelter ʼ, Bi. Mth. rã̄gā, OAw. rāṁga; H. rã̄g f., rã̄gā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼraṅgaada -- m. ʻ borax ʼ lex.Kho. (Lor.) ruṅ ʻ saline ground with white efflorescence, salt in earth ʼ  *raṅgapattra ʻ tinfoil ʼ. [raṅga -- 3, páttra -- ]B. rāṅ(g)tā ʻ tinsel, copper -- foil ʼ.(CDIAL 10562) ranga 'alloy of copper, zinc, tin'

    Hypertext: penance; kamaḍha 'penance', rebus: kammaṭa = mint, gold furnace (Te.) 'mint, coiner, coinage' Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner.(DEDR 1236)

    Hypertext: ṭhaṭera ‘buffalo horns’ rebus: hã̄ṭhāro, ṭhaṭherā 'brassworker';  haṭṭhāra 'brass worker' (Prakritam) K. hö̃hur m., S. hã̄ṭhāro m., P. hahiār°rā m.2. P. ludh. haherā m., Ku. hahero m., N. haero, Bi. haherā, Mth. haheri, H. haherā m(CDIAL 5473).

    Hypertext: bunch of twigs on horns: The bunch of twigs = kūdīkūṭī (Samskrtam) kūdī (also written as kūṭī in manuscripts) occurs in the Atharvaveda(AV 5.19.12) and KauśikaSūtra (Bloomsfield's ed.n, xliv. cf. Bloomsfield,American Journal of Philology, 11, 355; 12,416; Roth, Festgruss anBohtlingk, 98) denotes it as a twig. This is identified as that of Badarī, the jujube tied to the body of the dead to efface their traces. (See Vedic Index, I, p. 177).rebus: kuṭhi 'smelting furnace‘; koṭe ‘forged metal’ (Santali)

    See: 

     http://tinyurl.com/h4a3qwf


    त्रि--शिरस् [p= 460,3] mfn. n. कुबेर L.; three-pointed MBh. xiii R. iv; three-headed (त्वाष्ट्र , author of RV. x , 8.) Ta1n2d2yaBr. xvii Br2ih. KaushUp. MBh. Ka1m. (Monier-Williams) Triśiras, son of tvaṣṭṛ त्वष्टृ m. [त्वक्ष्-तृच्] 1 A carpenter, builder, workman, त्वष्ट्रेव विहितं यन्त्रम् Mb.12.33.22. -2 Viśvakarman, the architect of the gods. [Tvaṣtṛi is the Vulcan of the Hindu mythology. He had a son named Triśiras and a daughter called संज्ञा, who was given in marriage to the sun. But she was unable to bear the severe light of her husband, and therefore Tvaṣtṛi mounted the sun upon his lathe, and carefully trimmed off a part of his bright disc; cf. आरोप्य चक्रभ्रमिमुष्णतेजास्त्वष्ट्रेव यत्नो- ल्लिखितो विभाति R.6.32. The part trimmed off is said to have been used by him in forming the discus of Viṣṇu, the Triśūla of Śiva, and some other weapons of the gods.] पर्वतं चापि जग्राह क्रुद्धस्त्वष्टा महाबलः Mb.1.227. 34. -3 Prajāpati (the creator); यां चकार स्वयं त्वष्टा रामस्य महिषीं प्रियाम् Mb.3.274.9. -4 Āditya, a form of the sun; निर्भिन्ने अक्षिणी त्वष्टा लोकपालो$विशद्विभोः Bhāg.3.6.15.

    Thus, the messsage of the Mohenjo-daro seal is a proclamation by the scribe, of iron workings displayed on the bottom register of the seal with a slab atop haystacks.

    Decipherment the text of the inscription on seal m0304:
    Text 2420 on m0304


    Line 2 (bottom): 'body' glyph. mēd ‘body’ (Kur.)(DEDR 5099); meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.)

    Line 1 (top):

    'Body' glyph plus ligature of 'splinter' shown between the legs: mēd ‘body’ (Kur.)(DEDR 5099); meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.) sal ‘splinter’; Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (Santali) Thus, the ligatured glyph is read rebus as: meḍ sal 'iron (metal) workshop'.

    Sign 216 (Mahadevan). ḍato ‘claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs’; ḍaṭom, ḍiṭom to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions; ḍaṭkop = to pinch, nip (only of crabs) (Santali) Rebus: dhatu ‘mineral’ (Santali) Vikalpa: erā ‘claws’; Rebus: era ‘copper’. Allograph: kamaṛkom = fig leaf (Santali.lex.) kamarmaṛā (Has.), kamaṛkom (Nag.); the petiole or stalk of a leaf (Mundari.lex.) kamat.ha = fig leaf, religiosa (Skt.)

    Sign 229. sannī, sannhī = pincers, smith’s vice (P.) śannī f. ʻ small room in a house to keep sheep in ‘ (WPah.) Bshk. šan, Phal.šān ‘roof’ (Bshk.)(CDIAL 12326). seṇi (f.) [Class. Sk. śreṇi in meaning "guild"; Vedic= row] 1. a guild Vin iv.226; J i.267, 314; iv.43; Dāvs ii.124; their number was eighteen J vi.22, 427; VbhA 466. ˚ -- pamukha the head of a guild J ii.12 (text seni -- ). -- 2. a division of an army J vi.583; ratha -- ˚ J vi.81, 49; seṇimokkha the chief of an army J vi.371 (cp. senā and seniya). (Pali)

    Sign 342. kaṇḍa kanka 'rim of jar' (Santali): karṇaka rim of jar’(Skt.) Rebus: karṇaka ‘scribe, accountant’ (Te.); gaṇaka id. (Skt.) (Santali) copper fire-altar scribe (account)(Skt.) Rebus: kaṇḍ ‘fire-altar’ (Santali) Thus, the 'rim of jar' ligatured glyph is read rebus: fire-altar (furnace) scribe (account) karNI 'supercargo' (Marathi)

    Sign 344. Ligatured glyph: 'rim of jar' ligature + splinter (infixed); 'rim of jar' ligature is read rebus: kaṇḍa karṇaka 'furnace scribe (account)'. 

    sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.); Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (Santali) *ஆலை³ ālai, n. < šālā. 1. Apartment, hall; சாலை. ஆலைசேர் வேள்வி (தேவா. 844. 7). 2. Elephant stable or stall; யானைக்கூடம். களிறு சேர்ந் தல்கிய வழுங்க லாலை (புறநா. 220, 3).ஆலைக்குழி ālai-k-kuḻi, n. < ஆலை¹ +. Receptacle for the juice underneath a sugar-cane press; கரும்பாலையிற் சாறேற்கும் அடிக்கலம்.*ஆலைத்தொட்டி ālai-t-toṭṭi, n. < id. +. Cauldron for boiling sugar-cane juice; கருப்பஞ் சாறு காய்ச்சும் சால்.ஆலைபாய்-தல் ālai-pāy-, v. intr. < id. +. 1. To work a sugar-cane mill; ஆலையாட்டுதல். ஆலைபாயோதை (சேதுபு. நாட்டு. 93). 2. To move, toss, as a ship; அலைவுறுதல். (R.) 3. To be undecided, vacillating; மனஞ் சுழலுதல். நெஞ்ச மாலைபாய்ந் துள்ள மழிகின்றேன் (அருட்பா,) Vikalpa: sal ‘splinter’; rebus: workshop (sal)’ ālai ‘workshop’ (Ta.) *ஆலை³ ālai, n. < šālā. 1. Apartment, hall; சாலை. ஆலைசேர் வேள்வி (தேவா. 844. 7). 2. Elephant stable or stall; யானைக்கூடம். களிறு சேர்ந் தல்கிய வழுங்க லாலை (புறநா. 220, 3).ஆலைக்குழி ālai-k-kuḻi, n. < ஆலை¹ +. Receptacle for the juice underneath a sugar-cane press; கரும்பாலையிற் சாறேற்கும் அடிக்கலம்.*ஆலைத்தொட்டி ālai-t-toṭṭi, n. < id. +. Cauldron for boiling sugar-cane juice; கருப்பஞ் சாறு காய்ச்சும் சால்.ஆலைபாய்-தல் ālai-pāy-, v. intr. < id. +. 1. To work a sugar-cane mill; ஆலையாட்டுதல். ஆலைபாயோதை (சேதுபு. நாட்டு. 93) Thus, together with the 'splinter' glyph, the entire ligature 'rim of jar + splinter/splice' is read rebus as: furnace scribe (account workshop). Sign 59. ayo, hako 'fish'; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) Sign 342. kaṇḍa karṇaka 'rim of jar'; rebus: 'furnace scribe (account)'. Thus the inscription reads rebus: iron, iron (metal) workshop, copper (mineral) guild, fire-altar (furnace) scribe (account workshop), metal furnace scribe (account) As the decoding of m0304 seal demonstrates, the Indus hieroglyphs are the professional repertoire of an artisan (miners'/metalworkers') guild detailing the stone/mineral/metal resources/furnaces/smelters of workshops (smithy/forge/turners' shops).

Varāha is yajña puruṣa; he signifies in Indus Script Cipher baḍhia 'boar' rebus baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' vāḍhī 'merchant'

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https://tinyurl.com/y2f2eocc

Thanks to Manasataramgini for the breath-taking sculpture and profound insights.
See:

 https://tinyurl.com/y84vj7ff

vāḍhī 'merchant' (Old Gujarati)

baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: baḍhi 'a caste who work both in iron and wood'  వడ్రంగి, వడ్లంగి, వడ్లవాడు (p. 1126) vaḍraṅgi, vaḍlaṅgi, vaḍlavāḍu or వడ్లబత్తుడు vaḍrangi. [Tel.] n. A carpenter. వడ్రంగము, వడ్లపని, వడ్రము or వడ్లంగితనము vaḍrangamu. n. The trade of a carpenter. వడ్లవానివృత్తి. వడ్రంగిపని. వడ్రంగిపిట్ట or వడ్లంగిపిట్ట vaḍrangi-piṭṭa. n. A woodpecker. దార్వాఘాటము. వడ్లకంకణము vaḍla-kankaṇamu. n. A curlew. ఉల్లంకులలో భేదము. వడ్లత or వడ్లది vaḍlata. n. A woman of the carpenter caste. vardhaki m. ʻ carpenter ʼ MBh. [√vardh] Pa. vaḍḍhaki -- m. ʻ carpenter, building mason ʼ; Pk. vaḍḍhaï -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, °aïa -- m. ʻ shoemaker ʼ; WPah. jaun. bāḍhōī ʻ carpenter ʼ, (Joshi) bāḍhi m., N. baṛhaïbaṛahi, A. bārai, B. bāṛaï°ṛui, Or. baṛhaï°ṛhāi, (Gaṛjād) bāṛhoi, Bi. baṛa, Bhoj. H. baṛhaī m., M. vāḍhāyā m., Si. vaḍu -- vā.(CDIAL 11375)

    1. New conversation
      The archaic skandapurANa has a presentation of the tusk of varAha as astra-s. Here the brahmashiras is considered a different one from the pAshupata
    2. The first varAha found Dudhai like from the pratihAra age.
    3. The second macrotherian varAha from Dudhai as recorded in the field by the ASI

Svastika hieroglyph on Indus Script Corpora signifies zinc; validated by Ancient coins from Ancient India Mints and wealth of Ancient India

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Why is svastika shown on thousands of ancient coins of Ancient India Mints? The alternating arms of svastika are an orthographic signifier of early alchemical operations of transmutation of metals to transmut base metasls into metals of exchange value to enhance wealth of a nation. Ancient India was the superpower, richest nation on the globe, contributing to 33% of world GDP in 1 CE (pace Angus Maddison). Working with metals was a major factor which explains this status of Ancient India in Sarasvati Civilization era from 7th millennium BCE.


This monograph posits that the use of svastika in coins of ancient mints proves the decipherment of Indus Script inscriptions detailed in over 1500 monograpjs at https://independent.academia.edu/SriniKalyanaraman

This monograph posits that the decipherment of svastika as 'zinc' is validated by the use of svastika hieroglyph on the coins used in the monetary system of ancient times. Zinc is added to copper to create the alloy calledd brass. This alloy metal was a major component of the First Industrial Revolution of the Tin-Bronze Age from 3rd millennium BCE.

Other symbols used on early coins of Ancient India are also Indus Script hieroglyphs which are read rebus in Meluhha as related to wealth-accounting metalwork ledgers. For e.g. 

tree: kuṭi 'tree' rebus kuṭhi 'smelter'
wheel: eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper'; arā 'spoke of wheel' rebus: āra 'brass'
lion: arya 'lion' rebus: āra 'brass'
fish: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'iron, alloy metal' PLUS PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-finrebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' Thus, aya kammaa 'iron mint'
markhor: miṇḍā́l 'markhor' rebus: meḍho a ram, a sheep rebus मृदु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'metal', iron'
mountain range: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'
portable furnace: kammaa 'portable furnace' rebus: kammaa 'mint'
woman: kola 'woman' rebus:kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smekter'
face: mũh ''face' rebus:  mũh (copper) ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes
liquid measue: ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin (ore)'


This is an addendum to 

1.   Svastika, fish, anchor Indus Script hieroglyphs on ancient Thrace coins 450 BCE, Indian Parataraja, Sri Lanka coins signify metalwork wealth-accounting ledgers. https://tinyurl.com/y6xezmqr

2.   2.Alternating arms of Svastika orthography signify alchemical transformation and Hindu rasavāda, alchemical tradition https://tinyurl.com/y4kt2a97


About 50 seals of Indus Script Corpora signify right-handed and left-handed svastika hypertexts.

Image result for svastika british museum


Image result for svastika bharatkalyan97



Eran, anonymous 1/2 AE karshapana,  four punch 'symbol type'
Weight:  4.39 gm., Dimensions: 19x18 mm.
Railed tree on top left, flower on top right; at the bottom 'Ujjain symbol' on the right
      and closed semicircle with two fish inside and two svastikas above on the left.
Blank reverse
Reference: BMC, pl. XVIII, no.12/ Pieper 484 (plate coin)



Ujjain coins ca.200 BCE. Śiva with three heads. Tree in railing.Two svastikas. Spoked wheel with eight arrows emanating from the knave of wheel.
Image result for ujjain coins swastika
Ujjain, 200-100 BCE, Copper, 3.80g, Śiva type, Svastika within orbs of Ujjain symbol (Rev)

Image result for ujjain coins swastika
Vidarbha, 200 BCE, Cast Copper, 3.86g, Swastika with Taurine symbol

INDIA, SAURASHTRA: Copper coin with swastika. Scarce and CHOICE.

Ancient Coins - INDIA, SAURASHTRA: Copper coin with swastika. Scarce and CHOICE.
zoom view
Ancient Gujarat (Saurashtra)
c. 1st century BC
AE coin (14 mm, 1.79 g)
 
Obverse: Svastika with a taurine at each arm
Reverse: Standard with taurine on top; six-armed symbol on left and crude human figure on right; indradhvaja at the bottom
Ref: Pieper 428
https://www.vcoins.com/es/stores/ganga_numismatics/216/product/india_saurashtra_copper_coin_with_swastika_scarce_and_choice/890437/Default.aspx 

Kuninda coins
Silver coin of the Kuninda Kingdom, c. 1st century BCE. These coins followed the Indo-Greek module.[1]
Obv: Deer standing right, crowned by two cobras, attended by Lakshmi holding a lotus flower. Legend in Prakrit(Brahmi script, from left to right): Rajnah Kunindasya Amoghabhutisya maharajasya ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas").
Rev: Stupa surmounted by the Buddhist symbol triratna, and surrounded by a swastika, a "Y" symbol, and a tree in railing. Legend in Kharoshti script, from right to left: Rana Kunidasa Amoghabhutisa Maharajasa, ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas").

Coin of the Kunindas.
Obv Śiva standing with battle-axe trident in right hand and leopard skin in left hand. Legend Bhagavato Chatreswara Mahatana.
Rev Deer with symbols.
Śiva with trident, Kuninda, 2nd century CE.
Ujjain region, c/m anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana
Weight: 3.96 gm., Diameter: 17x17 mm.
Standing male figure holding kamandalu (water-pot) and danda (stick);
    wheel above six-armed symbol on left; three-arched hill with crescent
    on top right; countermark on top right depicting a bull with svastika and
    taurine.
Blank reverse.
Reference: Pieper 417 (plate coin) / see Kothari 267 for undertype


Central India, AE 1/8 karshapana,'fish-holding Vasudhara'
Weight: 1.01 gm., Diameter: 8x8 mm.
Standing goddess Vasudhara holding a pair of fish with her outstretched
     right, left hand akimbo; she wears large earrings and pinned up hair (as
     if wearing a vessel on her head); svastika on the top left.
Lion standing to right
Reference: Pieper 452 (plate coin)





Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana,'Balarama & ass-demon'
Weight: 3.86 gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm.
Human figure on left holding stick and kamandalu standing towards a 
     horse-like animal which faces him from right; palm tree on right; Ujjain
     symbol on top; a taurine above the animal and taurine and svastika at
     the bottom.
Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb and taurines in the angles.
Reference: Pieper 346

In a note to the SACG website Shailendra Bhandare suggested the scene on this coin representing the mythical story of 'Balarama killing the ass demon' and the depiction seems to reflect that story indeed quite well- even if the deity on this coin has no specific Vaishnavite attributes. We are told that there had been a large grove where there were palmyras bearing delicious fruits. But nobody dared to go there because the site was guarded by Dhenuka, a demon in the form of an ass. Finally Balarama, inseparable companion of Krishna, killed the demon by crashing him against one of the palm trees. In his contribution to 'Between the Empires' Bhandare discusses the story of 'Balarama killing the ass-demon' in the context of the coinage of Erikachha where the palm-tree and ass had been characteristic coin devices. Typologically this coin type may thus rather belong to Erikachha than to Ujjain.



Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/4 karshapana, 'taurine-holding deity'
Weight: 3.00gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm.
Frontally standing female figure holding taurine in raised left, right akimbo;
     chakra above Ujjain symbol on left; svastika above railed tree on right.
Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb.
Reference: Pieper 298 (plate coin)/ BMC pl.XXXVII, no.8
The identity of this taurine holding female remains uncertain at the moment.

Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/4 karshapana, 'six-headed Shashthi type'
Weight: 1.95 gm., Diameter: 14x12 mm.
Simplified female figure frontally standing, both arms hanging down; railed
     tree on right; river line at the bottom.
Ujjain symbol with svastika in each angle.
Reference: Pieper 300 (plate coin)
http://coinindia.com/galleries-ujjain2.html
ujjain379
Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 4.22 gm., Diameter: 18 mm.
Centrally placed Ujjain symbol; svastika and Indradhvaja on right and
    railed tree on left; fish-tank above the Ujjain symbol and parts of
    chakra on top right; river at the bottom.
Double-orbed Ujjain symbol
Reference: Pieper 379 (plate specimen)
ujjain380
Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 4.97 gm., Diameter: 16 mm.
As previous coin but the railing has nine compartments and the svastika
has been exchanged for a taurine symbol.
Reference: Pieper 380 (plate specimen)
ujjain381Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 4.64 gm., Diameter: 13 mm.
Railed tree in center; on the left shrivatsa above svastika; on the right
    chakra above fish-tank.
Double-orbed Ujjain symbol.
ujjain382
Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/8 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 1.32 gm., Diameter: 10x10 mm.
Obv.: Indradhvaja , three-arched hill, six-armed symbol, sun , svastika
 Rev.: Ujjain symbol with a dot inside each orb.
Reference: Pieper 382
ujjain383Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/8 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 1.30 gm., Diameter: 11x11 mm.
Railed tree on right; Ujjain symbol above horizontally placed Indradhvaja
    on left; taurine below and svastika above the Ujjain symbol.
Ujjain symbol with a dot inside each orb.
Reference: Pieper 383 (plate specimen)
ujjain384

Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/4 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 5.98 gm., Diameter: 17x15 mm.
Six-armed symbol in center; svastika and taurine above a railed tree on
    the left; Ujjain symbol above Indradhvaja on the right; river at the
    bottom; above the six-armed symbol is a square tank with two fishes
    and two turtles.
Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb.
Reference: Pieper 384 (plate specimen)
ujjain395
Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/ 8 karshapana, tree type
Weight: 1.11 gm., Diameter: 10x8 mm.
Obv.: Railed tree with large crescent above; svastika above taurine on r.
Rev.: Ujjain symbol
Reference: Pieper 395 (plate specimen)
ujjain400
Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, tree type
Weight: 4.19 gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm.
Obv.: Tree-on-hill on right and six-armed symbol on left.
Rev.: Ujjain symbol with alternating taurines and svastikas in the orbs.
Reference: Pieper 400
ujjain401

Ujjain, anonymous lead 1/2 karshapana, tree type
Weight: 4.37 gm., Diameter: 16x16 mm.
Obv.: Railed tree on the right; on the left six-armed symbol above Indra-
     dhvaja; taurine left and svastika right of the Indradhvaja.
Rev.: Double-orbed Ujjain symbol with a taurine in each angle.
Reference: Pieper 401 (plate specimen)
http://coinindia.com/galleries-ujjain4.html

Itihāsa. BJP’s 2019 Lok Sabha election manifesto Full text

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Click to see pdf doc
Manifesto 2019 (English)

Prefatory note

Under the Section ‘Foundation for New India’, see items 10, 11 and 12. Together, I would call this a National Water Grid for Bharat. Achieving this by 2024 will take Bharat to the status of Bhārata rāṣṭram defined by Veda, Vedānga texts See: http://tinyurl.com/y5lm3xyt

10. Jal Shakti
Water is a critical resource but its management is spread across various depa ments, even at the Central level. We will form a new Ministry of Water unifying the water management functions to approach the issue of water management holistically and ensure beer coordination of es. The Ministry will expeditedly take forward the ambitious programme, conceptualized by Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee, for linking rivers from dierent pas of the country and ensure a solution to the problems of drinking water and irrigation. We will initiate work on this programme by constituting an authority.
11, We will launch ‘Jal Jivan Mission’ under which, we will introduce a special programme, ‘Nal se Jal’ to ensure piped water for every household by 2024.12. We will ensure sustainability of water supply through special focus on conservation of rural water bodies and groundwater recharge.

S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Centre

Union minister Rajnath Singh said the Modi govt is fully committed on nationalism and have zero tolerance towards terrorism.

Updated: 8 April, 2019 2:14 pm IST





Rajnath Singh, PM Modi and Amit Shah launching the BJP manifesto
Rajnath Singh, PM Modi and Amit Shah launching the BJP manifesto | Twitter/BJP4India

New Delhi: The BJP released its manifesto for the Lok Sabha elections, set to begin this week, and outlined its plans for a “New India”. Calling it a “vision document”, head of the party’s manifesto committee Rajnath Singh on Monday said Narendra Modi government was fully committed on nationalism and zero tolerance towards terrorism.
The BJP manifesto was released by Modi on Monday in the presence of the party’s top brass.
At the launch, BJP chief Amit Shah, Rajnath Singh and PM Modi spoke on national security, employment, farmer distress and water resources.
Singh also said the BJP was committed towards implementing a Uniform Civil Code in the country and all alternative options will be explored for the construction of a Ram temple at Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh in the most conducive manner.


The saffron party would ensure the passage of the Citizenship Amendment Bill in Parliament with utmost respect to every state’s cultural values, Singh said.
For rural development, the BJP promised to spend Rs 25 lakh crore in the next five years.
“Will give Rs 6,000 yearly income support to farmers and pension to small and marginal farmers above 60 years of age,” Singh said.
Read the full manifesto here: 

https://theprint.in/politics/full-text-of-bjps-2019-lok-sabha-election-manifesto/218518/

Itihāsa. S. Kalyanaraman happy with BJP Manifesto -- Headline on Daily Pioneer report, Page 7 April 9, 2019

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Let us pray and hope that NaMo will be back in power after LS elections. He will accomplish the project in 5 years. It will be an unprecedented revolution for the Rāṣṭrram राष्ट्रं;see: http://tinyurl.com/y5lm3xyt The mission नल से जल is a National Water Grid which will rival and surpass the historic achievement of Pres. Eisenhower after the Second World War when he engaged the returning soldiers on National Highways projects interlinking all cities of USA through highways which are the lifeline of the nation.

Kalyanaraman

S Kalyanaraman happy with BJP manifesto

 |  | CHENNAI

No person could be more happy than S Kalyanaraman, director, Saraswathi Research Centre, Chennai with the sankalap patra or the election manifesto of the BJP which was released on Monday.
The manifesto has three suggestions by Kalyanaraman, former banker of Asian Development Bank, to Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Kalyanaraman has been writing continuously to the Prime Minister about the need to interlink the major rivers, making water available all over the country at the turn of a tap and for the setting up of National Water Authority to manage the country’s waterways. All three suggestions are incorporated in the Sankalp Patra.
A long standing demand by the farmers of the State, the Interlinking of Rivers finds the pride of place in the manifesto. The party has sworn that it would implement the scheme, the dream project of former Prime Minister late Atal Bihari Vajpayee, which hit the road block in 2004 with the change of Government at the Centre.
The project visualises the inter linking of major rivers in the country with a network of canals to address the acute water shortage faced by many regions even as some States reel under severe flood.
For example, the Brahmaputra gets flooded during the Indian summer while the States of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangama face severe draught and crop failure. The surplus flood waters in north Indian rivers could be diverted to south Indian rivers to resolve the floods as well as draught that simultaneously ravage the country.
“It is a good project about which we have been hearing a lot . But when are they launching the project?”, asked Kattumannarkoil Kannan, a farmer leader in the Cauvery Delta Region of Tamil Nadu.

Dholavira signboard on अर्क शाल 'goldsmith workshop' and Mehrgarh spoked copper alloy wheel proclaim akṣaracaṇa 'scribe' the metallurgical competence of artisans to engrave on metal

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https://tinyurl.com/y6fp3zkq

The refrain of repeated occurrence of spoked wheel on Dholavira signboard is: eraka'nave of wheel' rebus arka'copper, gold', 'eaka, eraka any metal infusion; molten state' fusion (Kannada), eraka molten, cast (as metal); eraguni to melt (Tulu). dula'two' rebus dul'metal casting'. The key is lid hieroglyph ^ hakaa'lid' rebus dhakka'excellent, bright, blazing metal article'. Proclamation of metal artifacts, par excellence. Another key is 'claws of crab' hieroglyph: aom, iom to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions; rebus: dhatu 'mineral (ore)'.kanac 'corner' rebus: kañcu 'bronze'; loa 'ficus' rebus: loh 'copper, metal' PLUS karna 'ear'rebus: karna 'scribe' Smelters of ores, forgers of inscribed metal alloy wares.. What a proclamation of ca. 2500 BCE !!!

See: 

Unfolding of the discovery of Dholavira sign board. Proclamation of Bronze, alloy metalwork competence. https://tinyurl.com/y59y7bvh

Image result for dholavira signboard bharatkalyan97

Mehergarh, 5th millennium BCE. 2.2 cm dia. 5 mm reference scale. Perhaps coppper alloyed with lead. It is remarkable, that this six-spolked cire perdue copper alloy wheels made in Mehrgarh becomes a hieroglyph of Indus Script on Dholavira signboard. 


I suggest that the so-called ak'amulet' made in cire perdue (lost-wax) technique in Mehrgarh (5th millennium BCE) is NOT merely an amulet worn by the owner as a necklace tied to a string, but is a professional calling card, a proclamation in Indus Script hypertext writing, of Sarasvati Civilization early metalwork artisan's competence. Similarly, the Shahi Tump lead weight (4th millennium BCE) is not merely a signifier of weight standard of 15 kg. but a proclamation of accounting ledgers of wealth created by metalwork artisans of Sarasvati Civilization. This monograph posits that 1. the cire perdue copper alloy object is an Indus Script Hypertext to signify akaracaa 'scribe' (Kannada); and 2. Indus Script Hypertexts on the cire perdue copper alloy lead weight of Shahi Tump signify wealth accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues.

The entire signboard proclamation is a hoarding to announce that the fortification is a smithy/workshop of a goldsmith:akkasāle, arkaśāla अर्क शाल m. (also written साल) , an enclosure , court , fence , rampart , wall (Inscriptions काव्य literature); mfn. (fr. शृ for श्रि) being in a house &c(
शतपथ-ब्राह्मण)(Monier-Williams)

Sign 391 The hieroglyph together with  Ka. cāṇa, cāna, cēṇa a small chisel. Tu. cēṇů, cēnů awl, chisel. Te. sēnamu id (DEDR 2445) is a  Meluhha rebus rendering, a proclamation of akṣaracaṇa'scribe'.

As a hieroglyph/hypertext, akṣa signifies a wheel.अक्ष m. an axle , axis (in this sense also n.; a wheel , car, cart (Monier-Williams) Rebus: akṣa signifies a weight called कर्ष , equal to 16 माषs and also refers to an ancient coin called akkam, 1/12 of  कर्ष (which is the root word for English 'cash').The pinnacle of achievement in Bronze Age Revolution relates to the invention of cire perdue technique of metal castings to produce metal alloy sculptures of breath-taking beauty. The quantum leap in knowledge systems occurred when the artifact was designed to signify in an Indus Script hypertext writing system, a goldsmith's workshop. 

The Mehrgarh artifacts attempt to delineate the centre,middle of the wheel in the spoked-wheel copper alloy artifacts.
Sign 391

The suffix -caṇa in akṣaracaṇa 'scribe' signifies the centre,middle; क्षण the centre , middle (Monier-Williams)

चण mfn. ifc. ( Pa1n2. 5-2 , 26 ; = चञ्चु) renowned or famous for (हेमचन्द्र 's परिशिष्टपर्वन् viii , 195) cañcu चञ्चु a. [चञ्च्-उन्] 1 Celebrated, renowned, known. -2 Clever (as अक्षरचञ्चु); ओष्ठेन रामो रामोष्ठबिम्बचुम्बनचञ्चुता Śi.2.14; see चुञ्चु. -ञ्चुः 1 A deer. (Apte)

The spoked wheel made of copper alloy signifies akṣaracaṇa 'scribe'; and agasāle 'goldsmith, i.e. one who has a shop working with gold'.(Kannada) 

 
śāˊlā f. ʻ shed, stable, house ʼ AV., śālám adv. ʻ at home ʼ ŚBr., śālikā -- f. ʻ house, shop ʼ lex.Pa. Pk. sālā -- f. ʻ shed, stable, large open -- sided hall, house ʼ, Pk. sāla -- n. ʻ house ʼ; Ash. sal ʻ cattleshed ʼ, Wg. šāl, Kt. šål, Dm. šâl; Paš.weg. sāl, ar. šol ʻ cattleshed on summer pasture ʼ; Kho. šal ʻ cattleshed ʼ, šeli ʻ goatpen ʼ; K. hal f. ʻ hall, house ʼ; L. sālh f. ʻ house with thatched roof ʼ; A. xālxāli ʻ house, workshop, factory ʼ; B. sāl ʻ shed, workshop ʼ; Or. sāḷa ʻ shed, stable ʼ; Bi. sār f. ʻ cowshed ʼ; H. sāl f. ʻ hall, house, school ʼ, sār f. ʻ cowshed ʼ; M. sāḷ f. ʻ workshop, school ʼ; Si. sal -- aha° ʻ hall, market -- hall ʼ.(CDIAL 12414) शाला f. (ifc. also n(शाल).) a house , mansion , building , hall , large room , apartment , shed , workshop , stable AV. &c ([cf. Germ. saal ; Eng.hall])

The cire perdue spoked wheel of copper+lead alloy was NOT an amulet, it was a metal artifact, a metal coin, akkam; it was a compartmental Harappa seal with Harappa (Indus) Script hieroglyph. May or may not have been used as a coin to value and exchange goods but a proclamation of the metallurgical excellence achieved by Bharatam Janam of 4th millennium BCE and the invention of writing by akṣaracaṇa 'scribe' (Kannada) signified by the Mehrgarh spoked wheel amulet. I also suggest that the invention of the Indus Script Hypertext of a spoked wheel to signify a 'scribe' is an invention by a goldsmith, akkasāliga.(an expression derived from the root akṣa अक्ष m. an axle , axis (in this sense also n.); a wheel , car , cart [cf. Lat. axis ; Old Germ.ahsa ; Mod. Germ. Achse; Lith. assis.]; a weight called कर्ष , equal to 16 माषs (Monier-Williams) akṣḥ अक्षः [अश्-सः] 1 An axis, axle, pivot; अक्षभङ्गे च यानस्य....न दण्डं मनुरब्रवीत् Ms.8.291,292; दृढधूः अक्षः Kāś. V. 4.74; Śi.12.2, 18.7; ज्योतिश्चक्राक्षदण्डः Dk. 1 Axle-pole. -2 The pole of a cart. -3 A cart, car; also a wheel; -चक्रम् the circle of sensual passions. दृढनियमित ˚क्रः K.37 (also axis and wheels);  -वाटः [अक्षाणां पाशकक्रीडानां बाटः वासस्थानम्] 1 a gambling house; the gambling table. -2 [अक्षस्य रथचक्रस्य क्षुण्णस्थानस्य इव वाटः] a place of contest, arena, wrestling ground (तत्र हि रथचक्रक्षुण्णपांशुसदृशपांशुम- त्त्वात् तत्सदृशत्वम् Tv.) -विदa. skilled in gambling. -वृत्त a. [अक्षे वृत्तः व्यापृतः स. त.] engaged in, addicted to, gambling; what has occurred in gambling (Apte) अक्ष m. an axle , axis (in this sense also n.; a wheel , car , cart (Monier-Williams).

अर्क m. ( √ अर्च्) , Ved. a ray , flash of lightning RV. fire RV. ix , 50 , 4; fire (शतपथ-ब्राह्मण; बृहद्-ारण्यक-उपनिषद्); the sun (RV). Rebus: अर्क a learned man (cf. RV. viii , 63 , 6) Rebus: अर्क copper; அருக்கம்¹arukkam, n. < arka. (நாநார்த்த.) 1. Copper; செம்பு. 2.Crystal; பளிங்குஅக்கம்&sup4; akkam , n. < arka. An ancient coin = 1/12 காசுஒரு பழைய நாணயம். (S. I. I. ii. 123.)

akka-cālai *அக்கசாலை akka-cālain. < arka +. 1. Metal works; பொன் முதலிய உலோக வேலை செய்யு மிடம். (சிலப். 16, 126, உரை.) 2. Mint; நாணயசாலை. (W.) 
Image result for dholavira signboard bharatkalyan97

Harappa (Indus) script hieroglyph: eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, metal infusion'; era 'copper'. āra'spokes' arā 'brass' erako molten cast (Tulu) Ka. eṟe to pour any liquids, cast (as metal); n. pouring; eṟacu, ercu to scoop, sprinkle, scatter, strew, sow; eṟaka, eraka any metal infusion; molten state, fusion.Tu. eraka molten, cast (as metal); eraguni to melt (DEDR 866)  

agasāle, agasāli, agasālevāḍu <arka sAle= a goldsmith (Telugu) 

అగసాలి agasāli or అగసాలెవాడు agasāli. [Tel.] n. A goldsmith. కంసాలివాడు.

Kannada Glosses 

erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Kannada) cf. eruvai = copper (Tamil)


ákṣa1 m. ʻ axle ʼ RV., ʻ collar -- bone ʼ ŚBr., ʻ temporal bone ʼ Yājñ., akṣaka -- m.n. ʻ collar -- bone ʼ Suśr. [Perh. conn. ákṣu -- ]Pa. akkha -- m. ʻ axle ʼ, °aka -- m. ʻ collar-bone ʼ; Pk. akkha<-> m. ʻ collar-bone ʼ, KharI. akha -- ; Or. akha ʻ axle-tree ʼ; Bi. akhaut ʻ axle of grain -- husker ʼ, akhautā ʻ do. of brick -- crusher ʼ (+ ?); G. ã̄k m. ʻ axle ʼ, M. āsã̄s m. ʻ axle, temple of head ʼ (→ G. ã̄s m. ʻ axis ʼ), ã̄kh m. ʻ axle ʼ; Si. aka ʻ axle ʼ, akuva ʻ collar -- bone ʼ (< akṣaka -- Geiger GS 30).(CDIAL 21)*akṣakīla cf. akṣāgrakīla -- , °aka -- m. ʻ lynch -- pin ʼ lex. [ákṣa -- 1, kīla -- ]Bi. (Patna) akhailā ʻ axle of brick -- crusher ʼ.(CDIAL 26)akṣadhur f. ʻ pin or pole of axle ʼ. [ákṣa -- 1, dhúr -- ]M. ākhrīakh° f. ʻ beam over the axle on which the frame of the cart rests ʼ; Si. akura ʻ axle of a wheel ʼ.(CDIAL 31)*akṣākāra ʻ shaped like a die ʼ. [akṣá -- 2, ākāra -- ]H. akhār m. ʻ a small lump of clay placed in the centre of a potter's wheel ʼ.(CDIAL 40)  आस or आंस āsa or āṃsa m (अक्ष S) An axle. (Marathi)
[quote]Bourgarit and Mille (Bourgarit D., Mille B. 2007. Les premiers objets métalliques ont-ils été fabriqués par des métallurgistes ? L’actualité Chimique . Octobre-Novembre 2007 - n° 312-313:54-60) have  reported the finding (probably in the later still unreported excavation period) of small Chalcolithic “amulets” which they claim to have been produced by the process of Lost Wax. According to them, “The levels of the fifth millennium Chalcolithic at Mehrgarh have delivered a few amulets in shape of a minute wheel, while the technological study showed that they were made by a process of lost wax casting. The ring and the spokes were modelled in wax which was then coated by a refractory mould that was heated to remove the wax. Finally, the molten metal was cast in place of the wax. Metallographic examination confirmed that it was indeed an object obtained by casting (dendrite microstructure). This discovery is quite unique because it is the earliest attestation of this technique in the world.” They then, further on, state that “The development of this new technique of lost wax led to another invention, the development of alloys...Davey (Davey C. 2009.The Early History of Lost-Wax Casting, in J. Mei and Th. Rehren (eds), Metallurgy and Civilisation: Eurasia and Beyond Archetype, pp. 147-154. London: Archetype Publications Ltd.) relies only upon these Mehrgarh findings , as well as on the Nahal Mishmar hoard, to claim that Lost Wax casting began in the Chalcolithic period before 4000 BCE.” [unquote]  (Shlomo Guil) 

Six bronze stamps (a-b) circular with pin-wheel design recalling a svastika (c) square with heart-shaped pattern; broken lug on the back (d-f) broken with radiating spokes; one with broken lug. British Museum No.1880.3710.a-f







Curator's comments: IM.Metal.154. C. Fabrègues: Together with 1880.3710.b-c, the object belongs to the large class of compartmented seals. Such partitioned seals are characteristic of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as the Oxus Civilization), the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age culture located along the upper Amu Darya (Oxus River) in present-day Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan. The BMAC may have extended as far as southern Afghanistan and Baluchistan, which have also yielded artefacts typical of the culture. 'Six bronze stamps for impressing designs'. That is, these objects could also have served as seals to impress on objects produced for trade by metalworking artisans. Compartmented seals have been found in large numbers in these areas, both from clandestine diggings in the 1970s (Pottier 1984, Tosi 1988, fig.11, Salvatori 1988) and from scientific excavations. Known sites where examples have been excavated are: Namazga on the banks of the Murghab river (Masson and Sarianidi 1972) Togolok (Sarianidi 1990) and Gonur Tepe in Margiana (Sarianidi 1993, 2002), Dashly Tepe (Masson and Sarianidi 1972) and Mundigak (Casal 1961) in Afghanistan, Dabar Kot, Rana Gundai and Shahi Tump (Amiet 1977, p.117), and the Mehrgarh-Sibri complex (Sarianidi 1993, p.37) in Baluchistan. These seals depict geometrical motifs, like 1880.3710.a–c, and also floral motifs, crosses, animals such as goats, snakes and scorpions, birds (primarily eagles with spread wings), human figures and fantastic dragons. 1880.3710.a, c closely resemble some examples from plundered tombs in Bactria, now in the Louvre Museum (Amiet 2002, p.168, fig.13.h, l) and 1880.3710.c an example said to come from southern Bactria, now in a private collection (Salvatori 1988, p.183, fig.49, bottom right). Impressions of such seals have been found on pottery. Scholars disagree about their use. It has been suggested that they were used for administrative control of trade and production (Hiebert 1994, p. 380); were related to a well organised trade system which involved transporting and transacting goods over long distances (Salvatori 1988, p.163); were symbols of power and property, or, since a large number have similar images, they may have served as amulets protecting their owners from evil rather than as symbols of ownership (Sarianidi 2002, p.41). Compartmented seals have been variously dated to the end of the 3rd/beginning of the 2nd millennium (Amiet 1977, p.119, Salvatori 1988), or to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC (Tosi 1988, p.123, Sarianidi 1993, p.36). According to Amiet (1977, p.117, 1988, pp.166, 169), they originated in Iranian Sistan: at Shar-i-Sokhta their development can be charted throughout the 3rd millennium BC from steatite prototypes and it is only here and at Shahdad, on the other side of the Lut desert in the Kerman region, that they are known to have been used as marks on pottery (Hakemi and Sajjadi 1988, pp.145, 150). Sarianidi considers this a purely local invention (2002, p.41).The Begram seals add to the number of examples already available, provide an exact provenance for some varieties and evidence that the Begram plain had interaction with the BMAC."


http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?assetId=297337001&objectId=179600&partId=1#more-views


Later, from Shahi Tump were recovered 'Shahi Tump amulets' and also another unique cire perdueobject made of copper and lead, called a lead-weight weighing 15 kg.
Leopard weight. Shahi Tump. H.16.7cm; dia.13.5cm; base dia 6cm; handle on top.  Seashells inlays on frieze. The pair of leopard and ibex is shown twice, separated by stylized flies.

Shahi Tump Leopard weight of Shahi Tump (Balochistan), National Museum, Karachi. The artefact was discovered in a grave, in the Kech valley, in Balochistan. ca. 4th millennium BCE. 200 mm. h. 13.5kg wt. The shell has been manufactured by lost-wax foundry of a copper alloy (12.6% Pb, 2.6% As), then it has been filled up through lead (99.5%) foundry. The shell is engraved with figures of leopards hunting wild goats, made of polished fragments of shellfishes. No identification of the artefact's use has been given. (Scientific team: B. Mille, D. Bourgarit, R. Besenval, Musee Guimet, Paris. Source: https://www.academia.edu/8164498/Early_lost-wax_casting_in_Baluchistan_Pakistan_the_Leopards_Weight_from_

Shahi Tump. Kech valley, Makran division, Baluchistan, Pakistan (After Fig. 1 in Thomas et al) 

Benoit Mille calls the bronze stamps of Shahi-Tump 'amulets' (made from copper alloyed with lead). Mehrgarh is well recognised
as a centre for early pyrotechnologies.The wax models of the stamps would have   been solid and     may have had a simple core inserted.This is perhaps the first stage in the technology:

"Small copper-base wheel-shaped “amulets” have been unearthed from the Early Chalcolithic levels at Mehrgarh in Balochistan (Pakistan), dating from the late fifth millennium B.C. Visual and metallographic examinations prove their production by a lost-wax process—the earliest evidence so far for this metalworking technique. Although a gap of more than 500 years exists between these ornaments from Mehrgarh and the later lost-wax casts known in the Indo-Iranian world, the technological and compositional links between these artefacts indicate a similar tradition. We already know that the lost-wax process was commonly used during the second half of the fourth millenium B.C, as exemplified by figurative pinheads and compartmented seals, the latter of which were produced and distributed across the region until the early second millennium B.C. Most, if not all, of these artefacts were made using the lost-wax technique. This intensive practice of lost-wax  lasting certainly stimulated the technical development of the process, allowing the elaboration of more complex and heavier objects. The “Leopards Weight” (Balochistan, late fourth or early third millennium B.C.) is one of the best examples of these developments: the lost-wax copper jacket, with its opened hollow shape, constitutes an extraordinary technical achievement.(Mille, B., Bourgarit, D., and Besenval, R. 2005. 'Metallurgical study of the 'Leopards weight' from Shahi-Tump (Pakistan)', in C. Jarrige and V. Lefevre, eds., South Asian Archaeology 2001, Editions Recherches sur les Civilisations, Paris: 237-44) True hollow casting does not appear until the third millennium B.C., as illustrated by the manufacture of statuettes, including the Nausharo bull figurine (Balochistan, 2300–2100 B.C.), or those from BMAC sites in Central Asia (based upon analyses of items in the Louvre collections). The birth of the lost-wax casting process can also be paralleled with the first emergence of alloying in South Asia, as many of these early lost-wax cast artefacts were made of a copper-lead alloy (c. 10–40 wt% Pb and up to 4 wt% As). Significantly, it seems that the copper-lead alloy was solely dedicated to artefacts made using the lost-wax technique, a choice no doubt driven by the advantageous casting properties of such an alloy." (Mille, Benoit, On the origin of lost-wax casting and alloying in the Indo-Iranian world, in: Lloyd Weeks, 2007, The 2007 Early Iranian metallurgy workshop at the University of Nottingham)

https://www.academia.edu/3858109/The_2007_workshop_on_early_Iranian_metallurgy_at_the_University_of_Nottingham 

Decipherment of Indus Script Hypertexts on Shahi Tump lead weight

Hieroglyphs of Indus Script Cipher are sitnified on the Shahi Tump leopard weight which has been produced using the lost-wax casting method. The hieroglyphs are: 1. leopard; 2. ibex or antelope; 3. bees (flies). The rebus-metonymy readings in Meluhha are:

karaḍa  ‘panther’; karaḍa tiger (Pkt); खरडा [ kharaḍā ]  A leopard. खरड्या [ kharaḍyā ] m or खरड्यावाघ m A leopard (Marathi). Kol. keḍiak  tiger. Nk.  khaṛeyak  panther.  Go. (A.) khaṛyal tiger; (Haig) kariyāl panther Kui kṛāḍi, krānḍi tiger, leopard, hyena.  Kuwi (F.) kṛani tiger; (S.) klā'ni tiger, leopard; (Su. P. Isr.) kṛaˀni (pl. -ŋa) tiger. / Cf. Pkt. (DNM) karaḍa- id. (DEDR 1132).Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi)  kharādī ' turner, a person who fashions or shapes objects on a lathe' (Gujarati)

Hieroglyph: miṇḍāl 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Munda.Ho.) mr̤eka, melh 'goat' (Telugu. Brahui) Rebus: melukkha 'milakkha, copper'. If the animal carried on the right hand of the Gudimallam hunter is an antelope, the possible readings are: ranku 'antelope' Rebus: ranku 'tin'.

Ka. mēke she-goat; mē the bleating of sheep or goats.  Te. mē̃ka,  mēka goat. 
Kol. me·ke id. Nk. mēke id. Pa. mēva, (S.) mēya she-goat. Ga. (Oll.)mēge, (S.) mēge goat. Go. (M) mekā, (Ko.) mēka id. ? Kur. mēxnā (mīxyas) to call, call after loudly, hail. Malt. méqe to bleat. [Te. mr̤ēka (so correct) is of unknown meaning. Br. mēḻẖ is without etymology; see MBE 1980a.] / Cf. Skt. (lex.) meka- goat. (DEDR 5087). Meluhha, mleccha (Akkadian. Sanskrit). Milakkha, Milāca ‘hillman’ (Pali) milakkhu ‘dialect’ (Pali) mleccha ‘copper’ (Prakritam).

The bees are metaphors for wax used in the lost-wax casting method. 

Hieroglyph: माक्षिक [p= 805,2] mfn. (fr. मक्षिका) coming from or belonging to a bee Rebus: ‘pyrites’: माक्षिक [p= 805,2] n. a kind of honey-like mineral substance or pyrites MBh. उपधातुः An inferior metal, semi-metal. They are seven; सप्तोपधातवःस्वर्णं माक्षिकं तारमाक्षिकम्  तुत्थं कांस्यं  रातिश्च सुन्दूरं  शिलाजतु  उपरसः uparasḥउपरसः 1 A secondary mineral, (red chalk, bitumen, माक्षिकशिलाजित &c).(Samskritam)  

mákṣā f., mákṣ -- m. f. ʻ fly ʼ RV., mákṣikā -- f. ʻ fly, bee ʼ RV., makṣika -- m. Mn.Pa. makkhikā -- f. ʻ fly ʼ, Pk. makkhiā -- f., macchī -- , °chiā -- f.; Gy. hung. makh ʻ fly ʼ, wel. makhī f., gr. makí f., pol. mačin, germ. mačlin, pal. mắki ʻ mosquito ʼ,măkīˊla ʻ sandfly ʼ, măkīˊli ʻ house -- fly ʼ; Ash. mačī˜ˊ ʻ bee ʼ; Paš.dar. mēček ʻ bee ʼ, weg. mečīˊk ʻ mosquito ʼ, ar. mučəkmučag ʻ fly ʼ; Mai. māc̣hī ʻ fly ʼ; Sh.gil.măṣīˊ f., (Lor.) m*lc̣ī ʻ fly ʼ (→ Ḍ. m*lc̣hi f.), gur. măc̣hīˊ ʻ fly ʼ (ʻ bee ʼ in gur. măc̣hi̯kraṇ, koh. măc̣hi -- gŭn ʻ beehive ʼ); K. mȧchi f. ʻ fly, bee, dark spot ʼ; S. makha,makhi f. ʻ fly, bee, swarm of bees, sight of gun ʼ, makho m. ʻ a kind of large fly ʼ; L. (Ju.) makhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, khet. makkīˊ; P. makkh f. ʻ horsefly, gnat, any stinging fly ʼ, m. ʻ flies ʼ, makkhī f. ʻ fly ʼ; WPah.rudh. makkhī ʻ bee ʼ, jaun. mākwā ʻ fly ʼ; Ku. mākho ʻ fly ʼ, gng. mã̄kh, N. mākho, A. mākhi, B. Or. māchi, Bi. māchī, Mth. māchī,mã̄chīmakhī (← H.?), Bhoj. māchī; OAw. mākhī, lakh. māchī ʻ fly ʼ, ma -- mākhī ʻ bee ʼ (mádhu -- ); H. māchīmākhīmakkhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, makkhā m. ʻ large fly, gadfly ʼ; G. mākhmākhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, mākhɔ m. ʻ large fly ʼ; M. mās f. ʻ swarm of flies ʼ, n. ʻ flies in general ʼ, māśī f. ʻ fly ʼ, Ko. māsumāśi; Si. balu -- mäkka, st. -- mäki -- ʻ flea ʼ, mässa, st. mäsi -- ʻ fly ʼ; Md. mehi ʻ fly ʼ.
*makṣātara -- , *mākṣa -- , mākṣiká -- ; *makṣākiraṇa -- , *makṣācamara -- , *makṣācālana -- , *makṣikākula -- ; *madhumakṣikā -- .
Addenda: mákṣā -- : S.kcch. makh f. ʻ fly ʼ; WPah.kṭg. mákkhɔmáṅkhɔ m. ʻ fly, large fly ʼ, mákkhi (kc. makhe) f. ʻ fly, bee ʼ, máṅkhi f., J. mākhī f.pl., Garh. mākhi. (CDIAL 9696) 
mākṣiká ʻ pertaining to a bee ʼ MārkP., n. ʻ honey ʼ Suśr. 2. *mākṣa -- . [mákṣā -- ]
1. WPah.bhad. māċhī ʻ bee ʼ, khaś. mākhī; -- Pk. makkhia -- , macchia -- n. ʻ honey ʼ; Ash. mačimačík ʻ sweet, good ʼ, mačianá ʻ honey ʼ; Wg. mác̣imäc̣ ʻ honey ʼ, Kt. mac̣ī˜, Pr. maṭék, Shum. mac̣hī, Gaw. māc̣hī, Kal.rumb. Kho. mac̣hí, Bshk. mē̃c̣h, Phal. mn/ac̣hīmḗc̣hī, Sh. măc̣hīˊ f., S. L. mākhī f., WPah.bhiḍ. māċhī n., H.mākhī f.
2. K. mã̄ch, dat. °chas m. ʻ honey ʼ, WPah.bhal. māch n. -- For form and meaning of Paš. māšmōṣ ʻ honey ʼ see NTS ii 265, IIFL iii 3, 126.
*mākṣakulika -- , *mākṣikakara -- , *mākṣikamadhu -- .Addenda: mākṣika -- : Kho. mac̣hi ʻ honey ʼ BKhoT 70.(CDIAL 9989)*mākṣikakara or *mākṣakara -- ʻ bee ʼ. [Cf. madhu- kara -- m. ŚārṅgP., °kāra -- m. BhP., °kārī -- f. R. <-> mākṣiká -- , kará -- 1]
Ash. mačarīk°čerīˊk ʻ bee ʼ, Wg. mac̣arīˊk, Kt. mačerík NTS ii 265, mac̣e° Rep1 59, Pr. mučeríkməṣkeríkmuṭkurīˊk, Shum. mã̄c̣hāˊrik, Kal.rumb. mac̣hḗrik, Bshk.māˊc̣ēr, Phal. māc̣hurīˊ f.; Sh.koh. măc̣hāri f. ʻ bee ʼ, gil. (Lor.) m*lc̣hari ʻ bee, wasp, hornet ʼ (in latter meaning poss. < *makṣātara -- ); P. makhīr m. ʻ bee ʼ, kgr. ʻ honey ʼ; -- Gaw. mã̄c̣(h)oṛík with unexpl. --  -- . (CDIAL 9990)  *mākṣikamadhu ʻ honey ʼ. [mākṣiká -- , mádhu -- ]
P. mākhyō̃ f., mākho m. ʻ honey, honeycomb ʼ.(CDIAL 9991) مچئِي mac̱ẖaʿī, s.f. (6th) A bee in general. Sing. and Pl. سره مچئِي saraʿh-mac̱ẖaʿī, s.f. (6th). Sing. and Pl.; or دنډاره ḏḏanḏḏāraʿh, s.f. (3rd) A hornet, a wasp. Pl. يْ ey. See ډنبره (Pashto) माक्षिक [p= 805,2] mfn. (fr. मक्षिका) coming from or belonging to a bee Ma1rkP. मक्षिकः makṣikḥ मक्षि makṣi (क्षी kṣī) का kāमक्षिकः मक्षि (क्षी) का A fly, bee; भो उपस्थितं नयनमधु संनिहिता मक्षिका च M.2.-Comp.-मलम् wax.  madhu

मधु a. -मक्षः, -क्षा, -मक्षिका a bee. (Samskritam) )


माक्षिक [p= 805,2] n. a kind of honey-like mineral substance or pyrites MBh. उपधातुः An inferior metal, semi-metal. They are seven; सप्तोपधातवः स्वर्णं माक्षिकं तारमाक्षिकम् । तुत्थं कांस्यं च रातिश्च सुन्दूरं च शिलाजतु ॥ उपरसः uparasḥउपरसः 1 A secondary mineral, (red chalk, bitumen, माक्षिक, शिलाजित &c).(Samskritam) மாக்கிகம் mākkikam, n. < mākṣika. 1. Bismuth pyrites; நிமிளை. (நாமதீப. 382.) 2. Honey; தேன். (நாமதீப. 410.) செம்புத்தீக்கல் cempu-t-tīkkal
n. < செம்பு +. Copper pyrites, sulphide of copper and iron; இரும்புஞ்செம்புங்கலந்த உலோகக்கட்டி. Loc.

The method of cire perdue is recorded on a Chinese text:

"The “Leopards Weight” (Balochistan, late fourth or early third millennium B.C.) is one of the best examples of these developments: the lost-wax copper jacket, with its opened hollow shape, constitutes an extraordinary technical achievement.(Mille, B., Bourgarit, D., and Besenval, R. 2005. 'Metallurgical study of the 'Leopards weight' from Shahi-Tump (Pakistan)', in C. Jarrige and V. Lefevre, eds., South Asian Archaeology 2001, Editions Recherches sur les Civilisations, Paris: 237-44) True hollow casting does not appear until the third millennium B.C., as illustrated by the manufacture of statuettes, including the Nausharo bull figurine (Balochistan, 2300–2100 B.C.), or those from BMAC sites in Central Asia (based upon analyses of items in the Louvre collections). The birth of the lost-wax casting process can also be paralleled with the first emergence of alloying in South Asia, as many of these early lost-wax cast artefacts were made of a copper-lead alloy (c. 10–40 wt% Pb and up to 4 wt% As). Significantly, it seems that the copper-lead alloy was solely dedicated to artefacts made using the lost-wax technique, a choice no doubt driven by the advantageous casting properties of such an alloy." (Mille, Benoit, On the origin of lost-wax casting and alloying in the Indo-Iranian world, in: Lloyd Weeks, 2007, The 2007 Early Iranian metallurgy workshop at the University of Nottingham)  

Novel imaging approach reveals how ancient amulet was made

November 15, 2016, CNRS
Novel imaging approach reveals how ancient amulet was made
Photograph of the MR2 archaeological site at Mehrgarh occupied from 4 500 to 3 600 BC, where the amulet was found. Credit: C. Jarrige, Mission archéologique de l'Indus

At 6000 years old, this copper amulet is the earliest lost-wax cast object known. Now, researchers have finally discovered how it was made, using a novel UV-visible photoluminescence spectral imaging approach. All the parameters of elaboration process, such as the purity of the copper, and melting and solidification temperatures, are now accurately known. This work has enabled the scientists to solve the mystery of the invention of lost-wax casting, a technique that led to art foundry. Resulting from a collaboration1 between researchers from the CNRS, the French Ministry of Culture and Communication and the SOLEIL synchrotron, the work is published on 15 november 2016 in the journal Nature Communications.

The researchers examined a  amulet, discovered in the 1980s at a site that was occupied 6,000 years ago and had been a focal point for innovation since Neolithic times: Mehrgarh, in today's Pakistan. The shape of the object shows that it was designed using the earliest known precision casting technique, lost-wax casting (still in use today). The process begins with a model formed in a low melting point material such as beeswax. The model is covered with clay, which is heated to remove the wax and then baked. The mould is filled with  and then broken to release the metal object. This was all that was known about the process used to make the copper amulet until it was subjected to a novel photoluminescence approach, which revealed that it had an unexpected internal structure.
Although the amulet today consists mainly of copper oxide (cuprite), it emits a non-uniform response under UV-visible illumination. Between the dendrites formed during initial solidification of the molten metal, the researchers found rods that were undetectable using all other approaches tested. The shape and arrangement of the rods enabled the team to reconstruct the process used to make the amulet with an unprecedented level of detail for such a corroded object.


Novel imaging approach reveals how ancient amulet was made
Photograph of the Mehrgarh amulet, the oldest known example of lost-wax casting. Credit: D. Bagault, C2RMF


6,000 years ago, following high-temperature solidification of the copper forming it, the amulet was made up of a pure copper matrix dotted with cuprite rods, resulting from the oxidizing conditions of the melt. Over time, the copper matrix also corroded to cuprite. The contrast observed using photoluminescence results from a difference in crystal defects between the two cuprites present: there are oxygen atoms missing in the cuprite of the rods, a defect that is not present in the cuprite formed by corrosion.
This innovative imaging technique, with high resolution and a very wide field of view, made it possible to identify the ore used (extremely pure copper), the quantity of oxygen absorbed by the molten metal, and even the melting and solidification temperatures (around 1072 °C). The discovery illustrates the potential of this new analytical approach, which can be applied to the study of an extremely wide range of complex systems, such as semiconducting materials, composites and, of course, archaeological objects.


Novel imaging approach reveals how ancient amulet was made
A collection of small lost-wax cast ornamental objects found during excavations at the MR2 site at Mehrgarh (early Chalcolithic, end of period III, 4500-3600 BC). Credit: D. Bagault, B. Mille, C2RMF
Novel imaging approach reveals how ancient amulet was made
Comparison of high spatial dynamics-photoluminescence (PL, top), and optical microscopy (bottom) images. The area imaged corresponds to part of one of the spokes of the amulet. The PL image reveals a eutectic rod-like structure that is undetectable using all other tested techniques. The image at last made it possible to explain the process used to make the amulet. Credit: T. Séverin-Fabiani, M. Thoury, L. Bertrand, B. Mille, IPANEMA, CNRS / MCC / UVSQ, Synchrotron SOLEIL, C2RMF


Image result for bharatkalyan97 dholavira signboard
The Signboard was discovered lying on the ground,near the gateway of Dholavira.
The three-part proclamation message of the Dholavira Signboard transcribed:


Image result for dholavira signboard bharatkalyan97
There are three proclamations on the signboard with three segments of messages.
Sign 391 is the opening statement of each of the three segments of Dholavira signboard message. This is a ligatured hieroglyph. ara 'spoke' rebus: ara 'brass'. era, er-a = eraka =?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.)[Note Sign 391 and its ligatures Signs 392 and 393 may connote a spoked-wheel,nave of the wheel through which the axle passes; cf. ara_, spoke]erka = ekke (Tbh.of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal);crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = anymetal infusion (Ka.Tu.); erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) Rebus: eraka= copper (Ka.)eruvai =copper (Ta.); ere - a dark-red colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). eraka, era, er-a= syn. erka, copper, weapons (Ka.)Vikalpa: ara, arā (RV.) = spokeof wheel  ஆரம்² āram , n. < āra. 1. Spokeof a wheel.See ஆரக்கால்ஆரஞ்சூழ்ந்தவயில்வாய்நேமியொடு (சிறுபாண்253). Rebus: ஆரம் brass; பித்தளை.(அகநி.) pittal is cognate with 'pewter'.

Segment 1
  a. eraka, arā  b. khuṇṭa  c. loa karaṇika 

erakaarā 'nave of wheel, spoke' rebus: eraka moltencast,  arā 'brass'
khuṇṭa 'peg'; khũṭi = pin (Marathi.)  Rebuskuṇṭha munda (loha) 'hard iron (native metal)' (Munda)
loa 'ficus gloomerata' (Santali) Rebus: loh 'copper (metal)' PLUS karaṇika 'ears' rebus: karaṇika engraver, 'writer' (Telugu)

Thus, segment 1 reads: moltencast brass, hard metal, copper (metal) engraver; 

An alternative reading of Signs 391 and 256 on Segment 1 of the signboard proclamation is possible based on the appended report on cire perdue spoked wheels made in Mehrgarh. The two signs can be read as the expression akṣaracaṇa 'scribe'; the early Meluhha rendering of the expression could be arkārācaṇa.
arka'wheel' rebus: aksara'scribe' akṣára ʻ indestructible ʼ, n. ʻ word, syllable ʼ RV., ʻ letter of the devanāgarī syllabary ʼ; -- cf. ákṣarā -- f. ʻ word, speech ʼ RV. [kṣará -- ]Pa. akkhara -- ʻ lasting ʼ, n. pl. ʻ syllables, words ʼ; Pk. akkhara -- m.n. ʻ written syllable ʼ; K. achur, pl. -- ar m. ʻ letter of the alphabet ʼ, S. akharu m., L. P. WPah. bhiḍ. akkhar m.; Ku. ã̄khar ʻ letter ʼ, pl. ʻ writing ʼ; N. ākhar ʻ any small marks or lines ʼ; A. ākhar ʻ letter of the alphabet ʼ, B. ākharã̄khar, Or. ākhara, OMth. ã̄khara, Mth. ākhar, OAw. ākhara; H. ākhar m. ʻ letter ʼ, ã̄khar m. ʻ mystical formula or spell ʼ; Si. akuraakara ʻ letter ʼ.nirakṣara -- , sākṣara -- .Addenda: akṣára -- : WPah.kṭg. ákkhər m. ʻ letter of the alphabet ʼ, ɔ́kkhər m. (X ɔkśər ← Sk.), Garh. ākhar.(CDIAL 38) 
Ka. cāṇa, cāna, cēṇa a small chisel. Tu. cēṇů, cēnů awl, chisel. Te. sēnamu id (DEDR 2445) A reinforcing word which signifies an 'awl' (which is orthographed by the spokes of the wheel in the adjacent hieroglyph) is: āˊrā f. ʻ shoemaker's awl ʼ RV.Pa. Pk. ārā -- f. ʻ awl ʼ; Ash. arċūˊċ ʻ needle ʼ; K. örü f. ʻ shoemaker's awl ʼ, S. āra f., L. ār f.; P. ār f. ʻ awl, point of a goad ʼ; N. āro ʻ awl ʼ; A. āl ʻ sharp point, spur ʼ; B. ārā ʻ awl ʼ, Or. āraāri, Bi. āraraīaruā, (Patna) arauā ʻ spike at the end of a driving stick ʼ, Mth. aruā, (SETirhut) ār ʻ cobbler's awl ʼ; H. ār f. ʻ awl, goad ʼ, ārī f. ʻ awl ʼ, araī ʻ goad ʼ, ārā m. ʻ shoemaker's awl or knife ʼ; G. M. ār f. ʻ pointed iron spike ʼ; M. ārīarī ʻ cobbler's awl ʼ.*kāṇḍārā -- , *taptārā -- , *sūtrārā -- .ārāˊt see ārá -- 1.Addenda: āˊrā -- : S.kcch. ār f. ʻ pointed iron spike ʼ.(CDIAL 1313)
 आर--कूट 'a king of brass' (Monier-Williams)

The suffix कूट  signifies an alloy: cf. N. kã̄so ʻ bronze, pewter, white metal ʼ, kas -- kuṭ ʻ metal alloy ʼ(CDIAL 2987) L. khoṭ f. ʻ alloy, impurity ʼ, ˚ṭā ʻ alloyed ʼ, awāṇ. khoṭā ʻ forged ʼ; P. khoṭ m. ʻ base, alloy ʼ (PhonPj 117 < kauṭya -- ), f. ʻ vice, blemish ʼ, khoṭṭā ʻ vicious, impure ʼ; Ku. N. khoṭ ʻ fault ʼ; H. khoṭ m.f. ʻ deceit ʼ, ˚ṭā ʻ false, base ʼ; Marw. khoṭo ʻ bad ʼ; OG. khoṭaüṁ ʻ untrue ʼ, G. khoṭ f. ʻ mistake, loss, want ʼ, ˚ṭī f. ʻ waste of time ʼ, ˚ṭũ ʻ alloyed, bad, lazy ʼ; M. khoṭ f. ʻ falsehood, loss in trade ʼ, ˚ṭā ʻ false, alloyed ʼ, ˚ṭī ʻ delayed ʼ.(CDIAL 3931) 

Segment 2
Sign 261 is a variant of Sign 267 kanac (kana, kana kona) mũhã̄ 'corner ingot' rebus: kañcu mũhã̄ 'bell-metal ingot'. Pa. kuṭila— 'bent', n. 'bend'(CDIAL 3231) Rebus: kuṭila 'bronze'. कुटिल  kuṭila, katthīl (8 parts copper, 2 parts tin),
kana, kanac 'corner' (Santali); kañcu  'bronze' (Telugu) kan- 'copper work' (Tamil).

Sign 134 is hakaa 'lid' rebus dhakka 'excellent, bright, blazing metal article'.

a. eraka, arā, b. kañcu mũhã̄  kuṭila c. dhakka d. khāṇḍā 
a. erakaarā 'nave of wheel, spoke' rebus: eraka moltencast,  arā 'brass'
b. kanac 'corner', mũhã̄ 'bun ingot, lozenge shape',kuṭila— 'bent' Rebus: kañcu mũhã̄  kuṭila 'bell-metal ingot, bronze'


c. hakaa 'lid' rebus dhakka 'excellent, bright, blazing metal article'.






d. खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). Rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements' 



Thus, segment 2 reads: bright blazing moltencast bell-metal ingot, bronze, equipment

Segment 3
First two signs a, b.dul eraka, arā c. dhatu
a, b: erakaarā 'nave of wheel, spoke' rebus: eraka moltencast,  arā 'brass'
Reading of a pair of 'spoked wheel hieroglyphs as hypertext': dula 'two, pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS erakaarā 'nave of wheel, spoke' rebus: eraka moltencast,  arā 'brass'
c. ḍato 'claws or pincers (chelae) of crab Rebus: dhatu 'mineral' (Santali) 

Thus, segment 3 reads together: metalcasting moltencast brass, minerals

https://tinyurl.com/yblannfg This is an addendum to: Wealth accounting classification ledgers & Arthaśāstra Economics 101 Indus Script dictionary https://tinyurl.com/yctvpzgk With the Indus Script Dictionary made available, some of the 10 'hieroglyphs/hypertexts' of the Dholavira signboard have been read rebus with variant expressions (plain texts).https://tinyurl.com/y8xt9qrk The message of the Signboard of Dholavira is a proclamation of metallurgical competence of the metalsmiths of Dholavira, who produce qualty metal castings, metalware and also engrave on copper (metal).
Image result for dholavira signboard bharatkalyan97
Dholavira Signboard inscription of gypsum inlays on wood measures 3 m. long. Each of the 10 signs is 37 cm. high and 25 to 27 cm. wide and made of pieces of white gypsum inlays; the signs were apparently inlaid in a wooden plank. The conjecture is that this wooden plank was mounted on the Northern Gateway as a Signboard. The message is intended to be a proclamation for seafaring merchants to see from across the PErsian Gulf as they approach the Dholavira citadel. 
Dholavira signboard is a three-part message, each segment starts with a spoked-wheel hieroglyph. 
Hence, Dholavira Signboard is read from left to right.

आर n. v.l. for अर q.v. , a spoke MBh. i , 1498 (ed. Bomb. i , 33 , 4 reads अर). ará m. ʻ spoke of a wheel ʼ RV. 2. āra -- 2 MBh. v.l. [√]1. Pa. ara -- m., Pk. ara -- , ˚ga -- , ˚ya -- m.; S. aro m. ʻ spoke, cog ʼ; P. arm. ʻ one of the crosspieces in a cartwheel ʼ; Or. ara ʻ felloe of a wheel ʼ; Si. ara ʻ spoke ʼ.2. Or. āra ʻ spoke ʼ; Bi. ārā ʻ first pair of spokes in a cartwheel ʼ; H. ārā m. ʻ spoke ʼ, G. ārɔ m.(CDIAL 594)*nēmiyāra ʻ felly -- spoke ʼ. [*nēmiya -- , ará -- ]Bi. (Shahabad) lewārā ʻ second pair of spokes of a cartwheel ʼ, Mth. (SE Tirhut) nĕbārā; -- Bi. nimārā< *niṽ -- or poss. < *nēmyāra -- . -- H. niwār see *nēmiyākāra (CDIAL 7595) आर a corner; an angle; m. a bore

Rebus: आर n. brass (भागवत-पुराण x , 41 , 20); iron;

*varta2 ʻ circular object ʼ or more prob. ʻ something made of metal ʼ, cf. vartaka -- 2 n. ʻ bell -- metal, brass ʼ lex. and vartalōha -- . [√vr̥t?]Pk. vaṭṭa -- m.n., ˚aya -- m. ʻ cup ʼ; Ash. waṭāˊk ʻ cup, plate ʼ; K. waṭukh, dat. ˚ṭakas m. ʻ cup, bowl ʼ; S. vaṭo m. ʻ metal drinking cup ʼ; N. bāṭā, ʻ round copper or brass vessel ʼ; A. bāṭi ʻ cup ʼ; B. bāṭā ʻ box for betel ʼ; Or. baṭā ʻ metal pot for betel ʼ, bāṭi ʻ cup, saucer ʼ; Mth. baṭṭā ʻ large metal cup ʼ, bāṭīʻ small do. ʼ, H. baṭṛī f.; G. M. vāṭī f. ʻ vessel ʼ.Addenda: *varta -- 2: Md. vař ʻ circle ʼ (vař -- han̆du ʻ full moon ʼ).(CDIAL 11347)

Cognate word is:"Orichalcum or aurichalcum /ˌɔːrɪˈkælkəm/ is a metal mentioned in several ancient writings, including the story of Atlantis in the Critias of Plato. Within the dialogue, Critias (460 – 403 BC) claims that orichalcum had been considered second only to gold in value and had been found and mined in many parts of Atlantis in ancient times..The name is derived fromthe Greek ὀρείχαλκοςoreikhalkos (from ὄροςoros, mountain 
and χαλκόςchalkos, copper), meaning literally "mountain copper"....The Romans transliterated "orichalcum" as "aurichalcum", which was thought to literally mean "gold copper". It is known from the writings of Cicero that the metal which they called orichalcum resembled gold in color but had a much lower value. Orichalcum has been held to be either a gold-copper alloy, a copper-tin or copper-zinc brass, or a metal or metallic alloy no longer known...Aristotle in De mirabilibus auscultationibus (62) describes a type of copper that is "very shiny and white, not because there is tin mixed with it, but because some earth is combined and molten with it." This might be a reference to orichalcum obtained during the smelting of copper with the addition of "cadmia", a kind of earth formerly found on the shores of the Black Sea, which is attributed to be zinc oxide."(Zhirov, Nicholas F. (2001). Atlantis: Atlantology: Basic Problems. The Minerva Group, Inc. p. 46. )

Copper-based alloys 
Copper forms alloys more freely than most metals and with a wide range of alloying elements to produce the following alloys:
Brass is the generic term for a range of copper-zinc alloys with differing combinations of properties, including strength, machinability, ductility, wear-resistance, hardness, colour, hygienic, electrical and thermal conductivity, and corrosion-resistance. 
Bronze alloys are made from copper and tin, and were the first to be developed, about four thousand years ago. They were so important that they led to a period in time being named the Bronze Age. 
Gunmetals are alloys of copper with tin, zinc and lead and have been used for at least 2000 years due to their ease of casting and good strength and corrosion resistance. 
Copper-nickel alloys have excellent resistance to marine corrosion, high thermal conductivity and low susceptibility to attachment of marine macro-oragnisms. The addition of nickel to copper improves strength and corrosion resistance, but good ductility is retained.
Nickel-silver alloys are made from copper, nickel and zinc, and can be regarded as special brasses. They have an attractive silvery appearance rather than the typical brassy colour. 

Beryllium-copper is the hardest and strongest of any copper alloy, in the fully heat treated and cold worked condition. It is similar in mechanical properties to many high strength alloy steels but, compared to steels, it has better corrosion resistance. 

There are more than 400 copper alloys, each with a unique combination of properties, to suit many applications, manufacturing processes and environments.

"Brass is a metal alloy that is always made with a combination of copper and zinc. By varying the amount of copper and zinc, brass can be made harder or softer. Other metals — such as aluminumlead, and arsenic — may be used as alloying agents to improve machinability and corrosion resistance.https://www.thebalance.com/composition-of-common-brass-alloys-2340109

To Make Brass and Alloys
·          
The fusion of metals and the mode of mixing them in the crucible to form alloys require much care, because alloys are very difficult to make, especially when the metals, of which they are composed are of such a character as have a kind of antipathy for each othersuch, for instance, as copper and lead. The method to pursue in mixing them is as follows :First, melt the least fusible of the metals (that requiring the highest temperature) of which the alloy is to be composed, and after it is fused, keep up the heat until the metal acquires such a temperature as will bear the introduction of the other metals without instantaneous and sensible cooling. After this, introduce the other metals in the order of their inf usibilitythe most difficult to melt first. Whatever may be the proportions of the metals, it is indispensable to melt the most refractory first, and especially when it is to be the principal base, such as copper in all bl8sses. The liquidity of this metal gives, indeed, the measure of the temperature necessary to complete the alloy All the metals to be added, after the most refractofY is first added, should be heated in the flame of the furnace, in order to elevate their temperature, so that there should be as little difference as possible between the heat of the molten metal in the crncible, and that to be added to it. This is especially necessary when a volatile metal, like zinc, is to be added to copper, because when it is melted very suddenly, it is liable to crack the crucible. The contents of the crucible must be stirred well after the introduction and fusion of each of the component parts of the alloy. When all are added, the crucible is covered, and an increased heat given to the fireintense according to the difficulty with which the metals enter into fusion. In alloys containing a large proportion of zinc, the surface of the metal in the crucible should be covered with a thin layer of charcoal powder. This precaution is not necessary, unless the alloy contains a metal requiring a high temperature for its fusion, as, for instance, copper or iron. In alloys oontaining tin, however, a laler of charcoal placed in the crucible is liable to convert part of the metal into dross, therefore ground clean sand should be used in place of it. All alloys should be vigorously stirred when run into molds. The crucibles employed should be thoroughly cleaned after each operation. Such are the general conditions which should be followed in making alloys. Copper melts at 1920 Fah. ; zinc at 700 Fah. ; lead at 590 Fah. ; tin at 450 Fah. ; cast-iron at 2100 Fah. A dull red heat is estimated at 1489 Fah. ; a bright red heat at 1830 Fah., and a white heat at 2910 Fah. In practice it is generally found that a minute q11antity of old, introduced into a new alloy imparts to the composition greater homogenety. Alloys should be first cast into ingots, then re-melted to be cast into boxes, or any article for which they are required. Why this should be done is simply a matter of practical experience, it having been found that castings of bronze and brass give, at the second melting (when the proportions of the metal are correct), a cast of a superior grain and a greater soundness. An alloy composed of zinc, tin, lead and copper, should be made by forming the three first metals into an alloy and casting them into ingots, then melting the copper, and adding this alloy to it. By this mode of making the copper alloy, a very superior casting is obtained. In England where the manufacture of brass is carried on very extensively, the furnaces employed for smelting have movable covers of a dome shape. The crucibles employed are of Stourbridge clay, one foot deep and eight inches in diameter, each furnace holding nine crucibles. The duration of a charge is twelve hours ; the fuel used is coal and coke, and 64 pounds of copper and 88 pounds of ground calamine (zinc ore) are thc proportions of each charge. When a heat of twelve hours is completed, the crucibles are taken out with tongs, the brass is skimmed to remove the slag, and the molten alloy then run into ingot molds. Muntz metal, so well known, is composed of 60 parts copper and 40 parts of zinc. Muntz obtained a patent in England for the application of brass sheathing for ships, and when he died a few years since, he left a fortune of 600,000about three millions of dollarsall made by his patent. He was an able business man, and knew how to work his patent to the best advantage, hence his great success. A brass composed of 4.69 copper and 31 zinc is very suitable for hammering. A brass of 5.64 copper and 36 zinc is usefulfor brazing iron ; 6.75 copper and 25 zinc ; 7.5It copper, and 27t zinc. In general, common brass may be calculated to contain 2 parts of copper and 1 of zinc. Dutch metal is composed of 84.5 copper and 15.5 of zinc. It is of a pale yellow color, and so malleable as to be capable of beating out into leaves, and so thin as to be employed for cheap gilding. Chinese brass is composed of 56.9 copper, 38.27 zinc, 3.30 lead, 1.08 tin, and 1,48 iron. It is very strong and durable. A little lead improves bradS for turning purposes, and it is usual to put it in just before pouring out, and about three ounces of lead to ten pounds of brass is the amount used. Fine brass wire is woven into fabrics liKe those of cotton yarn for sieves, bolting cloths, &c. Tin wire is made into a warp for the loom, the weft wound on a spool, and placed in a shuttle which is thrown by the weavers by hand, from side to side, in the same manner that old-fashioned hand loom cloth weaving was executed. Two men are necessary to work one loom, each throwing the shuttle -alternately. Brass wire has s?me peculiar properties. When annealed it is very soft, easily bent, and woven in the loom, but it must be rendered elastic for common use. The elasticity or spring is imparted to it by stretching and heating in a frame ; in other words, "the spring is licked into it." When kept fa- a considerable length of time in a state of hikh tension, brass wire is liable to snap suddeaty. It should therefore never be employed, as it oftentimes is, for suspending chandeliers and such like objects. ------------- . ,--------- Nitre Beds.At Bahie, in the Brazils, near Sao Francisco river, 180 leagues from the city of Bahia, a great natural deposit of nitrate of soda has been discovered, extending sixty miles along the valley.

This article was originally published with the title "To make Brass and Alloys" in Scientific American 13, 48, 381 (August 1858)
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican08071858-381a







Itihāsa. Potsherd of Rojdi with Indus Script inscription shows Ujjaini symbol; the hieroglyph reads in Meluhha rebus dhāvaḍ kaṇḍa 'smelter implements'

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Thanks to Nirjhar Mukhopadhyay for this brilliant insight, identifying a Rojdi potsherd with an Indus Script inscription. The hieroglyph used on the potsherd is used as Ujjaini symbol on thousands of ancient mint coins from Ujjain and Eran. Clearly, the hieroglyph signifies the wealth of metalwork in mints. See: 

 https://tinyurl.com/yaljqnhb https://www.facebook.com/srini.kalyanaraman/posts/10156412261649625


Coins from Ujjain depicting the famous 'Ujjaini symbol' [a], which is a really frequent symbol from coins and seals of central-west India during early historic period (~200 BCE).Same symbol could be traced back to the Harappan period [b]. It is also seen in other Chalcolithic cultures like from Navdatoli [c]. It may have been a regional/tribal symbol from Harappan era which survived till early historic era.The hypertext of Ujjain symbol with four arms lf + ligatured to dotted circle is explained as: धवड dhavaḍa, 'smelter' PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: khaṇḍa
'implements'.  dhã̄i'strand' rebus: dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stoneʼdhatu'mineral ore' PLUS vaṭa'string'vaa 'circle' together rebus expression: dhāvaḍ 'smelter'. Thus, the Ujjaini symbol used as an Indus Script hypertext on Rojdi potsherd reads: dhāvaḍ kaṇḍa'smelter implements'.

One-horned young bull PLUS spoked wheel signifies कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, turner' and akṣaracaṇa 'scribe' working with eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus 'molten cast, metal infusion'

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Field Symbol 3 [ASI 1977 Concordance (Mahadevan)]
One-horned young bull hypertext/hyperimage signifies a goldsmith, lapidary: कोंद kōnda ‘young bull' कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, turner'.  कुलालादिकन्दुः f. a kiln; a potter's kiln; kō̃da कोँद 'potter's kiln'  (Kashmiri) Thus, an iron turner (in smithy/forge).Ta. kuntaṉam interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (< Te.). Ka. kundaṇa setting a precious stone in fine gold; fine gold; kundana fine gold. Tu. kundaṇa pure gold. Te. kundanamu fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold. (DEDR 1725)

The text message on the inscription reads rebus: kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze' sal 'splinter' rebus sal 'workshop' kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy'.

See 

Itihāsa. One-horned young bull of Indus Script read rebus as fine gold lapidary. Archaeological context of Toda Munda, Sumer mudhif, Vedic house https://tinyurl.com/y7luteyr


What does the spoked wheel on the neck of the young bull on FS 3 signify?

I suggest that it has the same significance as the four spoked wheels which appear on Dholavira signboard. See: 
Dholavira signboard on अर्कशाल'goldsmith workshop' and Mehrgarh spoked copper alloy wheel proclaim akṣaracaṇa 'scribe' the metallurgical competence of artisans to engrave on metal 



The lapidary, goldsmith (signified by the young bull) is a scribe and has a goldsmith workshop: 

 https://tinyurl.com/y6fp3zkq





Wikipedia or Trashpedia? -- Subhash Kak

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Sahasralinga.Kapotesvara. Chejarla in Guntur District has a temple. See inscription of Mahendra Pallava, 7th cent. CE: 

http://sarasvatam.in/en/2015/12/05/chejerla-inscription-of-mahendra-pallava-i/ I don't think the Wikipedia has any entry related to this linga.

Wikipedia or Trashpedia?

Wikipedia has the nickname Trashpedia because it has much false information. Its use in scholarly articles is unacceptable due to the unreliability of its contents.
The basic idea of Wikipedia is flawed. It allows anyone to edit entries, and although that may include well informed scholars, and enthusiasts who can bring the outsider’s fresh view, it also includes bigots, racists, amateurs, and evil people who wish to spread misinformation.
A well-known example of malicious content was an article in 2005 on the American journalist John Siegenthaler, who was once assistant to US Senator Robert Kennedy. The article suggested that Siegenthaler may have a suspect in the assassinations of Robert Kennedy and that of his brother, John Kennedy.
There are any number of stories of individuals writing malicious content on business and academic rivals and presenting their own material in a positive light.
Like other social media platforms, Wikipedia has evolved into an echo chambers where the user is presented with only one type of content instead of being shown a balanced narrative. This amounts to disinformation since users do not see other sources that disagree with the article, and this is obviously most significant in topics on history, culture, politics, and religion.
Since Wikipedia is convenient to use, it continues to spread wrong ideas. People who depend only on it are often appallingly misinformed.
The contents of Wikipedia are also flawed because the editors are predominantly from the West and under the cloak of anonymity the worst of the lot are perpetuating normally concealed attitudes of racism and Eurocentrism, and giving oxygen to theories that good scholars no longer accept.
Some editors of Wikipedia are failed academics who wish to conquer anonymously what they were unable to do in their normal careers. And spending much of their working life editing Wikipedia articles they have obtained administrative status which entitles them to block opposing views. The anonymous persona of the editors and the low stakes have made Wikipedia politics much more vicious than real politics.
Frustrated by this system, the entire Indian subcontinent has simply opted out. The numbers tell the story:
According to Ethnologue, a language reference publication, Hindi has almost 600 million total speakers again 1.1 billion for English. The total number of articles in English Wikipedia is nearly 6 million, whereas, shockingly, in Hindi it is a mere 130,000. Bengali (official language of Bangladesh) with nearly 300 million speakers has only 60,000 articles; the encyclopedias in Urdu (official language of Pakistan), Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and the rest fare no better.
Scrutiny of social media
Wikepedia is a social media company. Other such companies are under intense scrutiny for problems related to malicious and false content, sale of private information, and letting bots and fake agents have free play. Social media is being exploited by extremist political groups, terrorists, pornographers, hostile state actors, and criminals. Rumors spread by social media have caused deadly riots in countries like Sri Lanka, Myanmar, India, and France. Conservative political and cultural groups accuse the companies of blocking content that is favorable to them.
Initially there was much expectation from social media platforms, which were lauded for the Arab Spring and the Russian protests of 2011 and 2012. But now the violent “yellow vest” protests in France are not getting the same praise, because they are against the establishment in the West.They have been used by terrorist groups to recruit members and radicalize vulnerable groups, and also to plan and execute terrorist attacks. Hostile actors like anarchists and religious extremists use online disinformation to undermine democratic values and principles.
The dangers inherent in letting the social networks run without controls are becoming clear. They are used for trolling, child pornography, promotion of gang culture and violence. There is other criminal activity facilitated by social media in conjunction with the Dark Web.
Serious proposals for active regulation are being considered. The regulation that is being discussed is generally mentioned in relation to Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, due to their impact on current events. Wikipedia is also doing serious damage but it appears to have escaped serious scrutiny.
As a sidelight, the Chinese Wikipedia is banned in China, as are most other Western social media companies, but that may be because China has largely split off from the rest of the Internet. Here are some of the Chinese versions of the most popular social media applications.
1.WeChat: Not Just the Chinese Facebook
2. Sina Weibo: Twitter of China
3. Tencent QQ: Popular Instant Messaging App
4. Toudou Youku: Youtube of China
5. Baidu Tieba: A Search Engine Forum
6. Douban: Lifestyle Discussion Platform
7. Zhihu: The Quora of China
8. Meituan — Dianping: The Chinese Versions of Yelp
9. Momo: Tinder of China
10. Meitu: From the Creators of Meipai
Regulatory bodies
The UK Government on April 8, 2019 published a White Paper called Online Harms to develop laws to regulate social media companies and fine them if they do not police their contents. The idea is to have an independent regulator to monitor internet companies and hold even senior management personally liable for activity and content that cause harm to users.
The regulator will have punitive powers to force social media companies to publish annual transparency reports on the harmful content on their platforms and how they are addressing it. The office will also have the power to issue “substantial fines, block access to sites and potentially impose liability on individual members of senior management”, if rules are broken.
We don’t know how much the regulation being proposed in England will help in making social media more responsible. There is also danger that it will have a chilling effect on media freedom by handing extraordinary powers to the regulator, for give censors an inch and they will take a mile. In any event, it will have practically no impact on Wikipedia whose influence is more insidious.
A New Beginning
An anonymous encyclopedia will never be reliable. Nevertheless, a resource at one’s fingertips can be valuable for raw information on places and people. Perhaps such a resource should only be devoted to basic facts with links to different signed articles by different experts.
The problem of the Indian subcontinent is unique. Racists and Eurocentrists in Europe and America are not as concerned with the past and the cultures of East Asia because their languages are different. India is important to them because the languages of north and west India belong to the same overarching family as that of Europe and therefore they wish to control its information.
Since Vedic wisdom and Yoga are much the fashion across the world these days, they must show that these were brought from Europe by migrants who then occupied India, even though India was the most densely populated region of the ancient world and the supposed migrants were few in number.
We need an online encyclopedia where the edits are by real people. The story on the three-way splitting of the Internet portends great change in the worldwide use of information technology. This is part of the struggle and strategic positioning by the three great powers US, China, and Europe.
Since Indian economy will soon be somewhat of a similar size as the other three, India needs to have a strategic vision on these technologies. An Indian version of the Wikipedia which is edited responsibly should be part of that vision.https://medium.com/@subhashkak1/wikipedia-or-trashpedia-4198e2c78e59

Speculating on chronology of early writing systems. Spoked wheel on Indus Script, is it adapted from a chariot wheel or a potter's wheel?

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http://tinyurl.com/y6jymj68

This monograph is a speculation on the chronology of the early writing systems, based on the orthography of  Sign 391 on Indus Script Corpora (which now contains over 8000 inscriptions from 4th m.. BCE.

This is an addendum to:

 https://tinyurl.com/y2ongqg6

Field Symbol 3 (ASI 1977, Mahadevan Concordance)
Dholavira signboard on अर्क शाल 'goldsmith workshop' and Mehrgarh spoked copper alloy wheel proclaim akṣaracaṇa 'scribe' the metallurgical competence of artisans to engrave on metal https://tinyurl.com/y6fp3zkq
It is possible that the potter's spoked wheel pre-dates the spoked wheel of a cart or chariot. The presence of cire perdue copper alloy spoked wheel shapes of a very early date ca. 4h or 5th m. BCE (called amulets by British Museum and Indus Script hypertexts by me) is also an indicator that the shape was adopted as a hieroglyph/hypertext on Indus Script inscriptions. I am speculating on the chronology of the evolution of early writing systems. See also the spoked wheels on artifact from Bhirrana which dates from 7th m BCE.
The spoked-wheel sign appears four times on Dholavira Signboard proclamation.
Image result for dholavira signboard bharatkalyan97Speculative reconstruction.of the signboard on a gateway, Dholavira.
Image result for dholavira signboard bharatkalyan97

The earliest writing sample is dated to ca. 3300 BCE on a potsherd with Indus Script from Harappa by HARP team).. If this date is validated further, this may signify the earliest writing system on the globe.



Mehergarh, 5th millennium BCE. 2.2 cm dia. 5 mm reference scale. Perhaps coppper alloyed with lead. It is remarkable, that this six-spolked cire perdue copper alloy wheels made in Mehrgarh becomes a hieroglyph of Indus Script on Dholavira signboard. 

Six bronze stamps (a-b) circular with pin-wheel design recalling a svastika (c) square with heart-shaped pattern; broken lug on the back (d-f) broken with radiating spokes; one with broken lug. British Museum No.1880.3710.a-f

Curator's comments: IM.Metal.154. C. Fabrègues: Together with 1880.3710.b-c, the object belongs to the large class of compartmented seals. Such partitioned seals are characteristic of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as the Oxus Civilization), the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age culture located along the upper Amu Darya (Oxus River) in present-day Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan. The BMAC may have extended as far as southern Afghanistan and Baluchistan, which have also yielded artefacts typical of the culture. 'Six bronze stamps for impressing designs'. That is, these objects could also have served as seals to impress on objects produced for trade by metalworking artisans. Compartmented seals have been found in large numbers in these areas, both from clandestine diggings in the 1970s (Pottier 1984, Tosi 1988, fig.11, Salvatori 1988) and from scientific excavations. Known sites where examples have been excavated are: Namazga on the banks of the Murghab river (Masson and Sarianidi 1972) Togolok (Sarianidi 1990) and Gonur Tepe in Margiana (Sarianidi 1993, 2002), Dashly Tepe (Masson and Sarianidi 1972) and Mundigak (Casal 1961) in Afghanistan, Dabar Kot, Rana Gundai and Shahi Tump (Amiet 1977, p.117), and the Mehrgarh-Sibri complex (Sarianidi 1993, p.37) in Baluchistan. These seals depict geometrical motifs, like 1880.3710.a–c, and also floral motifs, crosses, animals such as goats, snakes and scorpions, birds (primarily eagles with spread wings), human figures and fantastic dragons. 1880.3710.a, c closely resemble some examples from plundered tombs in Bactria, now in the Louvre Museum (Amiet 2002, p.168, fig.13.h, l) and 1880.3710.c an example said to come from southern Bactria, now in a private collection (Salvatori 1988, p.183, fig.49, bottom right). Impressions of such seals have been found on pottery. Scholars disagree about their use. It has been suggested that they were used for administrative control of trade and production (Hiebert 1994, p. 380); were related to a well organised trade system which involved transporting and transacting goods over long distances (Salvatori 1988, p.163); were symbols of power and property, or, since a large number have similar images, they may have served as amulets protecting their owners from evil rather than as symbols of ownership (Sarianidi 2002, p.41). Compartmented seals have been variously dated to the end of the 3rd/beginning of the 2nd millennium (Amiet 1977, p.119, Salvatori 1988), or to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC (Tosi 1988, p.123, Sarianidi 1993, p.36). According to Amiet (1977, p.117, 1988, pp.166, 169), they originated in Iranian Sistan: at Shar-i-Sokhta their development can be charted throughout the 3rd millennium BC from steatite prototypes and it is only here and at Shahdad, on the other side of the Lut desert in the Kerman region, that they are known to have been used as marks on pottery (Hakemi and Sajjadi 1988, pp.145, 150). Sarianidi considers this a purely local invention (2002, p.41).The Begram seals add to the number of examples already available, provide an exact provenance for some varieties and evidence that the Begram plain had interaction with the BMAC."


http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?assetId=297337001&objectId=179600&partId=1#more-views



A logo-semantic writing system Indus Script can be called अ-क्षर-संस्थानम् [अक्षराणां संस्थानं यत्र] arrangement of letters, writing, alphabet'

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http://tinyurl.com/y2wwv358

--अ-क्षर  is a word in Indus Script Cipher mlecchita vikalpa (mentioned by Vātsyāyana as one of the 64 fine arts learnt by youth), can be called अ-क्षर-संस्थानम्[अक्षराणां संस्थानं यत्र] arrangement of letters, writing, alphabet'.

The cognate word is ākhar ʻ any small marks or lines ʼ in Nepali.The semantics match with the purport of the hieroglyphs/hypertexts of field symbols and 'signs' on Indus Script Corpora which now consist of over 8000 inscriptions. The key ākhar 'orthographic shape' which is read rebus both for the pictograph and also for the rebus metalwork, wealth-accounting ledger entry word or expression. Hence, the Indus Script Cipher is composed NOT of syllables but words. So,the Indus Script can be called logo-semantic. For example, the standard device part can be called sangada 'lathe' and also rebus sangada 'combination of parts' rebus jangad 'invoiced on approval basis' سنګر sangar, s.m. (2nd) A breastwork of stones, etc., erected to close a pass or road; lines, entrenchments. Pl. سنګرونه sangarūnah. See باره (Pashto) This evokes a citadel part of a Sarasvati Civilization which is fortified with stone or brick ramparts or entrenchments. Another part of the standard device is a portable gold furnace which is called kampaṭṭa read rebus kampaṭṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.
An example of अ-क्षर-संस्थानम्, 'arrangement of writing'


अ-क्षर n. a letter ([m. रामतापनीय-उपनिषद्]); mfn. imperishable; unalterable;a syllable;  the syllable ओम् (मनु-स्मृति); a vowel, a sound, a word, n. an indelible mark incised on metal or stone; n. water RV. i , 34 , 4 and i , 164 , 42; N. of a सामन् (आर्षेय-ब्राह्मण)(Monier-Williams)

akṣára ʻ indestructible ʼ, n. ʻ word, syllable ʼ RV., ʻ letter of the devanāgarī syllabary ʼ; -- cf. ákṣarā -- f. ʻ word, speech ʼ RV. [kṣará -- ]Pa. akkhara -- ʻ lasting ʼ, n. pl. ʻ syllables, words ʼ; Pk. akkhara -- m.n. ʻ written syllable ʼ; K. achur, pl. -- ar m. ʻ letter of the alphabet ʼ, S. akharu m., L. P. WPah. bhiḍ. akkhar m.; Ku. ã̄khar ʻ letter ʼ, pl. ʻ writing ʼ; N. ākhar ʻ any small marks or lines ʼ; A. ākhar ʻ letter of the alphabet ʼ, B. ākharã̄khar, Or. ākhara, OMth. ã̄khara, Mth. ākhar, OAw. ākhara; H. ākhar m. ʻ letter ʼ, ã̄khar m. ʻ mystical formula or spell ʼ; Si. akuraakara ʻ letter ʼ.
nirakṣara -- , sākṣara -- .Addenda: akṣára -- : WPah.kṭg. ákkhər m. ʻ letter of the alphabet ʼ, ɔ́kkhər m. (X ɔkśər ← Sk.), Garh. ākhar.(CDIAL 38)

akṣara अक्षर a. [न क्षरतीति; क्षर् चलने अच्-न. त.] 1 Imperishable, indestructible, undecaying, epithet of the Supreme as well as the Individual soul; यमक्षरं क्षेत्रविदो विदुस्तमात्मानमात्मन्यवलोकयन्तम् Ku.3.5; द्वाविमौ पुरुषौ लोके क्षरश्चाक्षर एव च । क्षरः सर्वाणि भूतानि कूटस्थो$क्षर उच्यते Bg.15.16. यस्मात्क्षरमतीतो$हमक्षरादपि चोत्तमः । अतो$स्मि लोके वेदे च प्रथितः पुरुषोत्तमः Bg.15.18; the unconcerned (Spirit); अक्षरं ब्रह्म परमभ् Bg.8.3. -2 Fixed, firm, unalterable. -रः 1 Śiva. -2 Viṣṇu. -3 A sword. -रा Sound, word, speech (Ved.). -रम् [अश्-सरः Uṇ.3.7, अशेः सरः; अश्नुते व्याप्नोति वेदादिशास्त्राणि.] 1 (a) A letter of the alphabet; अक्षराणामकारो$स्मि Bg.1.33; मुद्राक्षराणि, मधुर˚, त्र्यक्षर &c. (b) a syllable; एकाक्षरं परं ब्रह्म Ms.2.83 the monosyllable; गिरामस्म्येकमक्षरम् Bg.1.25, Ms. 2.78,84,125 (sacred syllable). Hence (c) a word or words, speech collectively; प्रतिषेधाक्षरविक्लवाभिरामम् Ś.3.24; अहो संदापनान्यक्षराणि U.4; भर्तुरेतानि प्रणयमयान्यक्षराणि M.3 words; ब्राह्मणसंक्रमिताक्षरेण पितामहेन V.3; अक्षंर वर्णनिर्माणं वर्णमप्यक्षरं विदुः । अक्षरं न क्षरं विद्यादश्नोतेर्वा सरो$क्षरम् ॥ -2 A document (letter &c.), sacred writing; writing in general (in pl.); तत्र भुक्तिः प्रमाणं स्यान्न साक्षी नाक्षराणि च Pt.3.93; तत्रभवत्या अक्षराणि विसृष्टानि स्युः V.2. -3 The highest deity or Godhead, the indestructible spirit, Brahman (परमब्रह्मन्, मूलकारणम्); अक्षरं ब्रह्म परमम् Bg.8.3; कर्म ब्रह्मोद्भवं विद्धि ब्रह्माक्षरसमुद्भवम् 3.15; यथा सतः पुरुषात्केशलोमानि तथाक्षरात्संभवतीह विश्वम् Chān. Up. -4 Religious austerity, penance. -5 Sacrifice. -6 Water. ततः क्षरति अक्षरम् Rv. 1.164.42. -7 The sky. -8 Final beatitude, emancipation from further transmigration. -9 Continuance, permanence. -1 Right, justice (Ved. in these two senses). -11 N. of a plant, Achyranthes Aspera. (अपामार्ग Mar. अघाडा.) -12 A measure of time, equal to one-fifth of a Kāṣṭhā. -Comp -अक्षरः a kind of religious meditation; Kāraṇḍavyūha (Metrical recension) -अङ्गम् 1. a part of a syllable. -2. alphabet. -अर्थः [ष. त.] meaning (of words); किं तावत् गीत्या अवगतो$क्षरार्थः Ś.5. -च (ञ्चुं) ञ्चुः -ञ्चणः, -नः [अक्षरेण वर्णविन्यासलिप्या वित्तः अक्षर -चणप् or चु (ञ्चुं) ञ्चुप् तेन वित्तश्चुञ्चुप् चणपौ; P. V. 2.26.] a scribe, writer, copyist; so ˚जीवकः, -जीवी, अक्षरेण जीवति; जीव् णिनि or ण्वुल्; also ˚जीविकः. -च्युतकम् [अक्षरं च्युतं लुप्तं यत्र; ब कप्] getting out a different meaning by the omission of a letter (e. g. कुर्वन् दिवाकरश्लेषं दधच्चरणडम्बरम् । देव यौष्माकसेनयोः करेणुः प्रसरत्यसौ where another meaning may be got by omitting क in करेणुः i. e. by taking रेणुः). -छन्दस् n. -वृत्तम् a metre regulated by the number of syllables it contains; छन्दस्तु द्विविधं प्रोक्तं वृत्तं जातिरिति द्विधा । वृत्तमक्षरसंख्यातं जातिर्मात्राकृता भवेत् ॥ unshaken resolve, resolute (अक्षरं निश्चलं छन्दो$भिप्रायो यस्य); -जननी, -तूलिका [अक्षराणां जननीव; तल्लिपिलेखानां तूलिकेव वा साधनत्वात्] a reed or pen. -जीवकः or -जीविन् m. 'One who lives by writing', a scribe. -(वि) न्यासः [ष. त. भावे घञ्] 1 writing, arrangement of letters; भूर्जपत्रगतो ˚सः V.2. -2 the alphabet. -3 scripture. -4 हृदयाद्याधारस्पर्शपूर्वकं तदक्षराणां स्मरणोच्चारणरूपस्तन्त्रप्रसिद्धो वर्णन्यासः पङ्क्ति a. 1. having 5 syllables (पङ्क्ति = Gr. pentas-five) सु मत् पद् वग दे इत्येष वै यज्ञो$क्षरपङ्क्तिः Ait. Br. (तान्येतान्यक्षराणि होतृज- पादौ प्रयोक्तव्यानि). -2 N. of a metre of four lines (द्विपदा विराज्) each having five syllables (one dactyl and one spondee). -भाज् a. having a share in the syllables (of a prayer ?). -भूमिका tablet; न्यस्ताक्षरामक्षरभूमिकायाम् R.18. 46. -मुखः [अक्षराणि तन्मयानि शास्त्राणि वा मुखे यस्य] a scholar, student. -खम् [ष. त.] the beginning of the alphabet; the letter अ. -मुष्टिका 'finger-speech', speaking by means of finger-signs. -वर्जित a. unlettered, illiterate, not knowing how to read or write. a. of an epithet of परमात्मन्. -व्यक्तिः f. [ष. त.] distinct articulation of syllables. -शिक्षा [ष. त.] the science of (mystic) syllables; theory of ब्रह्म (ब्रह्मतत्त्व); मह्यं ˚क्षां विधाय Dk.11. -संस्थानम्[अक्षराणां संस्थानं यत्र] arrangement of letters, writing, alphabet. (Apte)

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