Meluhha (Mleccha) language of ca. 4th millennium BCE: resources
Delineating Meluhha (Mleccha) language of ca. 4th millennium BCE, a date of Bronze Age which produced evidence of the earliest writing on a Harappa potsherd is a philological challenge.
Harappa. Potsherd. Indus writing (HARP) dated to ca. 3500 BCE. tagaraka 'tabernae montana' rebus: tagara 'tin'.
Attempts can be made to respond to this challenge using a variety of textual resources available, apart from using the Indus Writing corpora as a frame of reference to validate the Meluhha (Mleccha) words. This note discusses some resources provided by studies related to ancient Indian languages which contributed to the Indian sprachbund.
Ancient arts related to communicating ideas
Vātsyāyana’s Kāmasūtra refers to a cipher called mlecchita vikalpa (alternative representation in writing of mleccha (Meluhha) language) as one of the 64 arts to be learnt by youth. Vātsyāyana also uses the phrase deśabhāṣā jñānam referring to the learning of vernacular languages and dialects. deśabhāṣā is also variously referred to as deśī or deśya. He also uses the phrase akṣara muṣṭikā kathanam as another of the 64 arts. This is a reference to karaṇa or karaṇīmentioned in Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra as gesticulation or articulation in dance using positions of finger-knuckles and wrists to convey messages or bhāvá‘thought or disposition’. akṣara muṣṭikā is explained by Monier-Williams (p. 3) as: ‘the art of communicating syllables or ideas by the fingers (one of the 64 kalās, Vātsyāyana)’.
करण the occupation of this class is writing , accounts (Monier-Williams, p. 254) n. (in law) an instrument , document , bond Mn. viii , 51 ; 52 ; 154. m. writer , scribe. n. the special business of any tribe or caste
करणी f. a particular position of the fingers (Monier-Williams, p. 254) n. pronunciation , articulation , APrāt.करण n. the act of making , doing , producing , effecting S3Br. MBh. &c (very often ifc. e.g. मुष्टि-क्° , विरूप-क्°) Pori ‘the joints of a bamboo, a cane, or the fingers’ (Maltese)(DEDR 4541). Pkt. pora- joint (CDIAL 8406).
Meluhha is cognate mleccha. Mleccha were island-dwellers (attested in Mahabharata and other ancientIndian sprachbund texts). Their speech did not conform to the rules of grammar (mlecchāḥ mā bhūma iti adhyeyam vyākaraṇam) and had dialectical variants or unrefined sounds in words (mlecchitavai na apabhāṣitavai) (Patanjali: Mahābhāṣya).
Prākṛitarūpāvatāra literally means ‘the descent of Prākṛit forms’. Pischel noted: “…the Prākṛitarūpāvatāra is not unimportant for the knowledge of the declension and conjugation, chiefly because Simharāja frequently quotes more forms than Hēmachandra and Trivikrama. No doubt many of these forms are theoretically inferred; but they are formed strictly according to the rules and are not without interest.” (Pischel, 1900, Grammatik der Prākṛit-Sprachen, Strassburg, p.43). Pischel also had written a book titled, Hēmachandra's Prākṛit grammar, Halle, 1877. The full text of the Vālmīkisūtra, with gaṇas, dēśīyas, and iṣṭis, has been printed in Telugu characters at Mysore in 1886 as an appendix to the ṣaḍbhāṣachandrikā.
A format to determine the structure of Prākṛit is to identify words which are identical with Sanskrit words or can be derived from Sanskrit. In this process, dēśīyas or dēśyas, ‘provincialisms’ are excluded. One part of the work of Simharja is samjñāvibhāga ‘technical terms’. Another is pari bhāṣāvibhāga ‘explanatory rules’. Dialects are identified in a part called śaurasēnyādivibhāga; the dialects include: śaurasēni, māgadhī, paiśācī, chūḷikā paiśācī, apabhramśa.
Additional rules are identified beyond those employed by Pāṇini:
sus, nominative; as, accusative; ṭās, instrumental; nēs, dative; nam, genitive; nip, locative.
Other resources available for delineation of mleccha are: The Prākṛita-prakāśa; or the Prākṛit grammar of Vararuchi. With the commentary Manorama of Bhamaha. The first complete ed. of the original text... With notes, an English translation and index of Prākṛit words; to which is prefixed a short introd. to Prākṛit grammar (Ed. Cowell, Edward Byles,1868, London, Trubner)
On these lines, and using the methods used for delineating Ardhamāgadhi language, by Prākṛita grammarians, and in a process of extrapolation of such possible morphemic changes into the past, an attempt may be made to hypothesize morphemic or phonetic variants of mleccha words as they might have been, in various periods from ca. 4th millennium BCE. There are also grammars of languages such as Marathi (William Carey), Braj bhāṣā grammar (James Robert), Sindhi, Hindi, Tamil (Tolkāppiyam) and Gujarati which can be used as supplementary references, together with the classic Hemacandra's Dēsīnāmamālā, Prākṛit Grammar of Hemachandra edited by P. L. Vaidya (BORI, Pune), Vararuchi's works and Richard Pischel's Comparative Grammar of Prākṛit Languages.(Repr. Motilal Banarsidass, 1957). Colin P. Masica's Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge University Press, 1993,"... has provided a fundamental, comparative introduction that will interest not only general and theoretical linguists but also students of one or more languages (Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Gujurati, Marathi, Sinhalese, etc.) who want to acquaint themselves with the broader linguistic context. Generally synchronic in approach, concentrating on the phonology, morphology and syntax of the modern representatives of the group, the volume also covers their historical development, writing systems, and aspects of sociolinguistics." Thomas Oberlies' Pali grammar (Walter de Gruyter, 2001) presents a full description of Pali, the language used in the Theravada Buddhist canon, which is still alive in Ceylon and South-East Asia. The development of its phonological and morphological systems is traced in detail from Old Indic (including mleccha?). Comprehensive references to comparable features and phenomena from other Middle Indic languages mean that this grammar can also be used to study the literature of Jainism. Madhukar Anant Mehendale's Historical Grammar of Inscriptional Prākṛit s is a useful aid to delineate changes in morphemes over time. A good introduction is: Alfred C. Woolner's Introduction to Prākṛit , 1928 (Motilal Banarsidass). "Introduction to Prākṛit provides the reader with a guide for the more attentive and scholarly study of Prākṛit occurring in Sanskrit plays, poetry and prose--both literary and inscriptional. It presents a general view of the subject with special stress on Sauraseni and Maharastri Prākṛit system. The book is divided into two parts. Part I consists of I-XI Chapters which deal with the three periods of Indo-Aryan speech, the three stages of the Middle Period, the literary and spoken Prākṛit s, their classification and characteristics, their system of Single and Compound Consonants, Vowels, Sandhi, Declension, Conjugation and their history of literature. Part II consists of a number of extracts from Sanskrit and Prākṛit literature which illustrate different types of Prākṛit --Sauraseni, Maharastri, Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Avanti, Apabhramsa, etc., most of which are translated into English. The book contains valuable information on the Phonetics and Grammar of the Dramatic Prākṛit s--Sauraseni and Maharastri. It is documented with an Index as well as a Students'. " It may be noted that Hemacandra is a resource which has provided the sememe ibbo 'merchant' which reads rebus with ibha 'elephant' hieroglyph.
Sir George A. Grierson's article on The Prākṛit Vibhasas cites: "Pischel, in §§3, 4, and 5 of his Prākṛit Grammar, refers very briefly to the Vibhāṣās of the Prākṛit grammarians. In § 3 he quotes Mārkaṇḍēya's (Intr., 4) division of the Prākṛit s into Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā, Apabhraṁśa, and Paiśāca, his division of the Vibhāṣās into Śākārī, Cāṇḍālī, Śābarī, Ābhīrikā, and Ṭākkī (not Śākkī, as written by Pischel), and his rejection of Auḍhrī (Pischel, Oḍrī) and Drāviḍī. In § 4 he says, “Rāmatarkavāgīśa observes that the vibhāṣāḥcannot be called Apabhraṁśa, if they are used in dramatic works and the like.” He repeats the latter statement in § 5, and this is all that he says on the subject. Nowhere does he say what the term vibhāṣā means. The present paper is an attempt to supply this deficiency." See also: http://www.indianetzone.com/39/Prākṛit _language.htm
"...Ganga, on the lower reaches of which were the kingdoms of Anga, Variga, and Kalinga, regarded in the Mahabharata as Mleccha. Now the non- Aryan people that today live closest to the territory formerly occupied by these ancient kingdoms are Tibeto-Burmans of the Baric branch. One of the languages of that branch is called Mech, a term given to them by their Hindu neighbors. The Mech live partly in Bengal and partly in Assam. B(runo) Lieblich remarked the resemblance between Mleccha and Mech and that Skr. Mleccha normally became Prākṛit Meccha or Mecha and that the last form is actually found in Sauraseni. 1 Sten Konow thought Mech probably a corruption of Mleccha.* I do not believe that the people of the ancient kingdoms of Anga, Vanga, and Kalinga were precisely of the same stock as the modern Mech, but rather that they and the modern Mech spoke languages of the Baric division of Sino-Tibetan. " (Robert Shafer, 1954, Ethnography of Ancient India, Otto Harras Sowitz, Wiesbaden).http://archive.org/stream/ethnographyofanc033514mbp/ethnographyofanc033514mbp_djvu.txt
The following note is based on: Source: MK Dhavalikar, 1997, Meluhha, the land of copper, South Asian Studies, 13:1, 275-279 (embedded document appended):
Citing a cuneiform tablet inscription of Sargon of Akkad (2370-2316 BCE), Dhavalikar notes that the boats of Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha were moored at the quay in his capital (Leemans, WF, 1960, Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period as revealed by texts from Southern Mesopotamia, EJ Brill, Leiden, p. 11). The goods imported include agate, carnelian, shell, ivory, varieties of wood and copper. Dhavalikar cites a reference to the people or ‘sons’ of Meluhha who had undergone a process of acculturation into Mesopotamian society of Ur III times cf. Parpola, S., A. Parpola and RH Brunswwig, Jr., 1977, The Meluhha Village: evidence of acculturation of Harappan traders in the late Third Millennium Mesopotamia, JESHO, 20 , p.152. Oppenheim describes Meluhha as the land of seafarers. (Oppenheim, AL, 1954, The seafaring merchants of Ur, JAOS, 74: 6-17). Dhavalikar notes the name given to a rāga of classical Indian (Hindustani) music – maluha kedār – which may indicate maluha as a geographical connotation as in the name of another rāga called Gujarī Todi. Noting a pronunciation variant for meluhha, melukkha, the form is noted as closer to Prākṛit milakkhu (Jaina Sūtras, SBE XLV, p. 414, n.) cognate Pali malikkho or malikkhako (Childer’s Pali Dictionary). Prākṛit milakkhu or Pali malikkho are cognate with the Sanskrit word mleccha (References cited include Mahabharata, Patanjali). Jayaswal (Jayaswal, KP, 1914, On the origin of Mlechcha, ZDMG, 68: pp. 719-720) takes the Sanskrit representation to be cognate with Semitic melekh (Hebrew) meaning ‘king’.
Śathapatha Brāhmaṇa [3.2.1(24)], a Vedic text (ca. 8th century BCE) uses the word mleccha as a noun referring to Asuras who ill-pronounce or speak an imprecise language: tatraitāmapi vācamūduḥ | upajijñāsyāṃ sa mlecastasmānna brāhmaṇo mlecedasuryāhaiṣā vā natevaiṣa dviṣatāṃ sapatnānāmādatte vācaṃ te 'syāttavacasaḥ parābhavanti ya evametadveda. This is a remarkable reference to mleccha (meluhha) as a language in the ancient Indian tradition. Pali texts Digha Nikāya and Vinaya, also denotes milakkha as a language (milakkha bhāsā). Comparable to the reference in Manu, a Jaina text (Pannavana, 1.37) also described two groups of speakers (people?): ārya and milakkhu. Pāṇini also observes the imprecise nature of mleccha language by using the terms: avyaktayam vāci (X, 1663) and mleccha avyakte śabde (1.205). This is echoed in Patanjali’s reference to apaśabda.
Dhavalikar notes: “Sengupta (1971) has made out a strong case for identifying mlecchas with the Phoenicians. He proposes to derive the word mleccha from Moloch or Molech and relates it to Melek or Melqart which was the god of the Phoenicians. But the Phoenicians flourished in the latter half of the second and the first half of the first millennium when the Harappan civilization was a thing of the past.” (: MK Dhavalikar, 1997, Meluhha, the land of copper, South Asian Studies, 13:1, p. 276).
Worterbuch (St. Petersburg Dictionary), Hemacandra’s Abhidāna Cintāmaṇi (IV.105), lexicons of Monier Williams and Apte give ‘copper’ as one of the meanings of the lexeme mleccha.
Gudea (ca. 2200 BCE) under the Lagash dynasty brought usu wood and gold dust and carnelian from Meluhha. Ibbi-Sin (2029-2006 BCE) under the third dynasty of Ur “imported from Meluhha copper, wood used for making chairs and dagger sheaths, mesu wood, and the multi-coloured birds of ivory.”
Dhavalikar argues for the identification of Gujarat with Meluhha (interpreted as a region and as copper ore of Gujarat) and makes a reference to Viṣṇu Purāṇa (IV,24) which refers to Gujarat as mleccha country.
Nicholas Kazanas has demonstrated that Avestan (OldIranian) is much later than Vedic. " 'Vedic and Avestan' by N. Kazanas In this essay the author examines independent linguistic evidence, often provided by iranianists like R. Beekes, and arrives at the conclusion that the Avesta, even its older parts (the gaθas), is much later than the Rigveda. Also, of course, that Vedic is more archaic than Avestan and that it was not the Indoaryans who moved away from the common Indo-Iranian habitat into the Region of the Seven Rivers, but the Iranians broke off and eventually settled and spread in ancientv Iran." http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/pdf/en/indology/Vedic_and_Avestan.pdf
The oldest Prākṛit lexicon is the work of a Jaina scholar, Paiyalacchi nāmamālā of Dhanapāla (972 A. D.)
Mahapurana of Pushpadanta–A critical study: By Dr Smt. Ratna Nagesha Shriyan. L. D. Bharatiya Samskriti Vidyamandira, Ahmadabad–9 . Price: Rs. 30.
A thesis approved for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy by the Bombay University, this is a critical study of the Desya and rare material contained in the three Apabhramsa works of Pushpadanta, a major Apabhramsa poet of the Ninth Century CE D.
The first part mainly deals with the nature and character of Desya element and the role of Desya element in Prākṛit and Apabhramsa in general and Pushpadanta’s works in particular. The authoress pointed out that the term Deśī has been used in the earlier Sanskrit and Prākṛit literature mainly in three different senses, viz., (1) a local spoken dialect (2) a type of Prākṛit , (3) and as equivalent to Apabhramsa. The interpretations of the word Deśī as given by Hemachandra and modern scholars are also given in detail. The authoress comes to the conclusion that most of the modern scholars agree that “Desya or Deśī is a very loose label applied by early grammarians and lexicographers to a section of Middle Indo-Aryan lexical material of a heterogeneous character.
In part II, the more important one, the learned Doctor has collected 1430 words and divided them into seven categories– (1) items only derivable from Samskrit (2) Tadbhavas with specialized or changed meaning (3) items partly derivable from Samskrit (4) items that have correspondents only in late Samskrit (5) onometopoetic words (6) foreign loans and (7) pure Deśī words. Critical and comparative notes on their meanings and interpretations, with corroborating passages from original texts are also given here and they evidence the high scholarly labours of the authoress. We cannot, but respect the words of Dr H. C. Bhayani of the Gujarat University in whose opinion the present study paves “the way for investigating the bases and authenticity of Hemachandra’s Deśīnāmamālā and provides highly valuable material for middle and Modern Indo-Aryan lexicography.”
“Words which are not derived from Sanskrit in his grammar, which though derived from Sanskrit, are not found in that sense in the Sanskrit lexicons, which have changed their meaning in Prākṛit , the change not being due to the secondary or metaphorical use of words, and which are used in standard Prākṛit from times immemorial, are considered as deśī by Hemacandra (I,3,4). Thus, he teaches in his grammar (IV,2) that pajjar is one of the substitutes of the root kath in Prākṛit . In II,136 he says that trasta assumes the forms hittha and taTTha in Prākṛit . The words pajjara, hittha and taTTha are not, therefore, des’yas and are excluded from the work. The Verbal substitutes have been, as a matter of fact, considered as deśī words by Hemacandra’s predecessors (1.11,13,20). Again the word amayaNiggamo signifies the moon in Prākṛit , and it is evidently a bhava of amrutanirgama which by some such analysis as amrutaanirgamo yasya can denote the moon But the Sanskrit word is not found in that sense in any of the lexicons and hence amayaNiggamo is reckoned as a deśya and taught in this work. The word yayillo is a regular derivative of baliivarda according to rules of Prākṛit grammar, and as the latter word can by the force of lakshaNa mean a ‘fool’, the word vayillo in this sense is not considered a deśī word and, therefore, is not included in this work. Every provincial expression is not considered a deśī word, but only those which have found entrance into the known Prākṛit literature. Otherwise, the number of deśī words will be innumerable and it will be impossible to teach them all. As Hemacandra himself says (I,4): vacaspaterapi matirna prabhavati divyayugasahasreNa. This definition of a deśī word does not appear to have been followed by the predecessors of Hemacandra; and therein consists, he says, the superiority of his work over that of others. He quotes in a number of places words which have been taught as deśī words by his predecessors and shows that they are derived from Sanskrit words. Thus in I.37 Hemacandra says that the words acchoDaNam, alinjaramk, amilaayam and acchabhallo are considered as deśī words by some authors, but he does not do so as they are evidently derived from Sanskrit words. Again in II.89, he says that the word gamgarii is taught a a deśī word by some authors but Hemacandra says this is not a deśī word as it is derived from Sanskrit gargarii. But here our author shows some latitude and says that it may be considered a deśī word. Many such instances may be quoted and in most cases Hemacandra gives the Sanskrit equivalents to such words.” (Paravastu Venkata Ramanujaswami, in: Introduction, The Deśīnāmamālā of Hemachandra ed. By R. Pischel, 1938, 2nd edn., Dept. of Public Instruction, Bombay, pp.3-4).
TABLE : DICTIONARIES
PRĀKṛIT :
10 C.E : Deshi Nama Mala (Hemachandra)
11 C.E ![]()
ayyalacchi Nama Mala (Maha Kavi Dhanapala) 12 C.E :Abhidana Rajendra (Vijayendra Suri)
SANSKRIT
4 C.E : Amarakosha (Amarasimha) Dhanvantari Nighantu (Dhanvantari)
6 C.E : Anekartha Samucchaya (Shashaavata)
10 C.E : Abhidana Ratna Mala (Hemachandra ),Srikanda Shesha Vishvakosha (Srikanda Shesha),HaravaLi (Purushottama Deva) ,Abhidana Ratnamala (Halayudha)
11 C.E :Vyjayanti (Yadava Prakasha), Nama Mala (Dhananjaya) , Anekartha Nama Mala (Amara Keerti) , Shabdha Pradipa (Sureshvara)
12 C.E :Namarthaarnava Sankshepa , Shabda Kalpa Druma (Keshava Svamin ), Vishva Prakasha (Maheshvara) , Namartha Ratnamala (Abhaya Pala) , Abidana Cintamani +Anekartha Sangraha (Hemachandra) , Anekartha Kosha (Mankha) , Akyata Candrika (Malla Bhatta) , Raja Nighantu (Narahari)
14 C.E : Nanartha Ratna Mala (Irugappa Dandanatha) , Madana Vinoda Nighantu (Madana Pala)
15 C.E : Shabda Chandrike ( Vamana Bhatta) , Shabda Ratnakara(Bana)
16 C.E :Sundara Prakashabdarnava (Padma Sundara)
17 C.E :Kalpa Druma (Keshava Daivajna), Nama Sangraha Mala(Appaiah Dikshita)
TAMIL :
10 C.E – Sendan Divakaram (Divakaram) , Pingalantai (Pingalar)
12 C.E : Chudamani Nighantu (Mangala Puttiran)
16 C.E : Chudamani Nighantu ( Mandala Purutan) ,Akaradi Nighantu (Chidambara Revana)
17 C.E : Uriccol Nighantu (Gangeyan) , Kayataram (Kayatarar) ,Bharati Deepam (Anonymus) , Ashiriya Nighantu (Anonymus)
18 C.E : Pothigai Nighantu (Swaminatha Kavirayar), Pal Porul Chudamani (Eshwara Bharati) , Arumpporul Vilakka Nighantu (Anonymus)
KANNADA
10 C.E : Ranna Kanda (Ranna)
11 C.E : Abhidana Vastu Kosha (Nagavarma-2) ,Abhidana Ratna Mala+Amarakosha Bhashya (Halayudha)
12 C.E :Nachirajiya (Naciraja)
13 C.E : Akaradi Vaidya Nighantu+Indra Dipike+Madanari (Amrutanandi)
14 C.E: Karnataka Shbda Sara (Anonymus) , Karnataka Nighantu (Anonymus), Abhinavabhidana (Abhinava Mangaraja)
15 C.E : Chaturasya Nighantu(Bommarasa) , Dhanvantariya Nighantu (Anonymus)
16 C.E : Kabbigara Kaipidi (Linga Mantri) , Shabda Ratnakara (Anonumus) , Nanartha Kanda (Chenna Kavi) , Nanartha Ratnakara+Ekakshara Nighantu (Devottama) , Karnataka Shabda Manjari (Totadarya) , Bharata Nighantu (Anonymus) , Amarakosha Dipike (Vitthala)
17 C.E : Karnataka Sanjivini +Kavi Kanthahara (Shrungara Kavi) , Karnataka Nighantu (Surya kavi)
TELUGU :
14-18 C.E : Venkateshandhramu (Ganavarapu Venkatakavi) , Akaradi Deshiyandhra Nighantu ( Anonymus), Andhra Prayoga Ratnakaram (Anonymus) , Sarva Lakshana Shiromani (Anonymus) ,Padya Rupa Amara Kosham ( Venkata Rayudu), Andhra Nama Sangraham (Lakshmana Kavi) , Andhra Nama Vishesham (Sura Kavi) Samba Nighantuvu (Kasturi Ranga) , Andhra Bhasharnavam ( Venkata Narayanudu) , Akshara Malika Nighantu (Parvatishvara Shastry) , Andhra Pada Nidanam (Tumu Ramadasa) , Sarnadhra Sara sangraham (Amrutapuram Sanyasi),Nanartha Nighantu (Jayarama Rayulu)
TABLE 2 : GRAMMERS
PRĀKṛIT :
5-7 C.E : Prakruta Prakasha (Vararuchi) , Prakruta Lakshana (Chanda) , Prakruta Kamadhenu (Anonymus)
12 C.E : Prakrutanushasana (Purushottama) , Siddha Hema Shabdanushasana (Hemachandra)
14 C.E : Prkruta Shabdanushasdana (Trivikrama) , Shdbhasha Chandrika (Lakshmidhara)
17 C.E : Prakruta Sarvasva (Markandeya)
SANSKRIT
4-2 B.C.E : Ashtadhyayi (Panini) , Mahabhashya-Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Patanjali)
2 C.E : Katantra Vyakarana (Shrvavarman)
6 C.E : Mahabhashya Dipika-Commentary on Mahabhashya (Bhatruhari ), Kashika Vrutti- Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Vamana)
7 C.E : Ashtadhyayi-Commentary (Jayaditya)
8 C.E : Kashika Vivarana Pancika –Commentary on Kashika Vrutti (Jinendra Buddivada)
9 C.E : Pada Manjari – Commentary on Kashika Vrutti (Haradatta)
11 C.E : Pradipa ( Kaiyata) , Bhasha Vrutti -Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Purushottama Deva)
13 C.E ; Rupavatara (Dharma Keerti)
14 C.E : Mitakshara- Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (AnnaM Bhatta) , Rupamala (Vimala Sarsvati)
15 C.E : Prakriya Kaumudi (Ramachandra Shesha)
16 C.E : Shabda kaustubha (Bhattoji Dikshita) , Prakriya Sarvasva (Nayarana Bhatta)
17 C.E : Pradipodyota (Nagesha Bhatta)
TAMIL :
-3 to 10 C.E : Tolkappiam (Tolkappiyanar)
11 C.E : Viracholiyam (Buddha Mitra)
12 C.E : Neminatham (Gunaveera pandita) , Tolkappiam- Poruladigaram Commentary (Perashiyar)
13 C.E : Nannul (Bhavanadi) , Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Senavaraiyar)
14 C.E : Tolkappiam-Commentary (Naccinarkkiniyar)
16 C.E : Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Teyvacilaiyar , Kalladanar)
17 C.E : Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Anonymus)
KANNADA
11 C.E : Kavyavalokana (Nagavarma)
13 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana ( Keshiraja) , Shabdanushasanam (Akalanka Deva)
17 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana-Commentary (Nitturu Nanjayya)
17 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana-Commentary (Anonymus)
TELUGU :
13 C.E : Andhra Bhasha Bhushanam (Mulaghatika Ketana)
14 C.E : Kavyalankara Chidamani (Vinnakota Peddana)
Part-6:
TABLE 3 : POETICS/PROSODY/RHETORIC
SANSKRIT :
5 C.E : Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira)
6 C.E : Kavyalankara (Bamaha) , Kavyadarsha (Dandin)
9 C.E : Kavyalankara Sara Sangraha (Uddata) , Kavyalankara Sutravrutti (Vamana) , Kavyalankara (Rudrata), Dhvanyaloka (Anandavarhana)
10 C.E : Cahmdraloka (Jayadeva)
11 C.E : Chandonushasana (Jayakirti), Kavyamimamse (Rajashekhara) , Abhidaavrutti Maatruke (Mukula Bhatta) , Kavyakautuka (Bhatta Tauta) , Hrudaya Drapana (Bhatta Nayaka)
12 C.E :Vrutta Ratnakara (Kedara Bhatta) ,Kavya Praklasha (mummata)
15 C.E : Chando Manjari (ganga Raja)
TAMIL :
-3 to 10 C.E : Tolkappiam (Tolkappiyanar)
10 C.E : Yappurungulam + Yappurungulakkarikai (Amruta Saagara)
11 C.E : Chulamani (Gunasagarar) , Purapporul Vembamalai (Iyanaar Idanaar), Dandiyalankaram(Annonymus)
12 C.E : Ilakkana Vilakkam (Jivanana Munivar)
13 C.E : Veyyappadial (Gunaveera Panditar)
17 C.E : Chidambaram Seyyuttakkovai (Kumara Kruparar)
18 C.E : Ilakkana Vilakkam (Vaidyanathan Alvar)
KANNADA
9 C.E : Kaviraja Marga (Sri Vijaya)
10 C.E : Chandobudhi (Nagavarma-1)
11 C.E : Kavyavalokana (Nagavarma-2)
12 C.E : Udayadityalankaram (Udayaditya) , Shrungara Ratnakara (Kavi Kama)
15-16 C.E : Madhavalankara (Madhava), Kavi jihva Bandhana (Eshwara Kavi) , Kavya Sara (Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda) , Rasa Ratnakara+Apratima Veera Charite (Tirumalarya)
17 C.E : Navarasalankara (Timma) , Kuvalayananda( Jayendra)
TELUGU :
13 C.E : Kavi Vagbhadanamu (Tikkana)
14 C.E : Pratapa Rudriya (Vaidyanatha) , Kavi Janaashrayamu (Rachanna ) , Kavyalankara Chudamani ( Vinnakota Peddana) , Shrungara Dipika (Srinatha)
Part-7 :
TABLE 4 : ENCYCLOPEDIAS
SANSKRIT :
5 C.E : Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira)
12 C.E : Abhilashitartha Chintamani ( Bhulokamalla)
TAMIL :
10 C.E : Sendan Divakaram (Divakaram) , Pingalantai (Pingalar)
12 C.E : Chudamani Nigantu (Mangala Puttiran)
KANNADA :
10-11 C.E : Lokopakara (Chavundaraya)
15 C.E : Viveka Chintamani (Nijaguna Shivayogi) , Siribhuvalaya (Kumudendu), Shivatatva Chintamani (Lakkana Dandesha)
16 C.E :Sakala Vaidya Samhita Sararnva ( Veeraraja)
TELUGU :
20 C.E :Andhra Vignana Sarvasvam ( K.V.L. Pantulu)
Part-8:
TABLE 5 : MEDICINE/VETERINARY SCIENCE/EROTICS
SANSKRIT :
-2 TO 0 C.E : Sushruta Samhite (Sushruta) , Gajayurveda (Palakapya) , Ashvashastra (Shalihotra), Vaidyaka Sarvasva ashva Chikitse(Nakula)
0 TO 2 C.E : Charaka Samhita (Charaka) , Kumara Tantra (Ravana) , Prayoga Ratnakara (Garga), Bruhaspatimata (Bruhaspati), Kamasutra (Vatsayana)
4 C.E :Ashtanga Hrudaya + Ashtanga Sangraha (Vagbhata) , Ashvayurveda Saara Sindhu (MallaDeva) ,
5-7 C.E :Matanga Leela , Shalihotra , Ashva Vaidyaka
7 to 10 C.E : Madhava Nidanam +Rugna Nischaya (Madhavakara) , Charaka samhite-Commentary (Jayadatta Suri) , Rati Rahasya (kokkoka)
11 to 13 C.E : Nibandha sangraha (Dallana) , Shabda Pradipa (Sureshvara) , Raja Nighantu+Dhanvantari Nighantu (Narahari) , Sarottama Nighantu (Anonymus) , Bhanumati (Chakradatta) , Jayamangala (Yashodhara) , Nagara sarvasva (Padmashri)
14 to 15 C.E : Madana Vinoda Nighantu (Madanapala), Sarangadhara Samhite (Sarangadhara) , RatiManjari (JayaDeva)
16 to 17 C.E : Anna Pana Vidhi (Susena) , Pathyapathya Nighantu + Bhojana Kutuhala ( Raghunatha) , Anangaranga (Kalyana Malla) , Kandarpa Chudamani (Veerabhadra Deva)
TAMIL :
13 to 18 C.E : Vaidya Shataka Nadi + Chikitsa Sara Sangraha ( Teraiyar) , Amudakalai Jnanam+Muppu+Muppuvaippu+Muppuchunnam+Charakku+GuruseyNeer+PacchaiVettu chuttiram (Agastya) , Kadai Kandam +Valalai ChuttiraM +Nadukandam (Konganavar) , Karagappa +Muppu Chuttiram +Dravakam (Nandikeshvara) , Karpam +Valai Chuttiram (Bogara)
KANNADA :
11-12 C.E : Karnata Kalyana Karaka (Jagaddala Somanatha) , Balagraha Chikitse (Devendra Muni) , Govaodya (Kirti Varma) , Madana Tilaka (Chandra Raja) , Anubhava Mukura (Janna)
14 C.E : Khagendra Mani Darpana (Mangaraja) , Ashvashastra (Abhinava Chandra)
15 C.E : Vaidyanruta (Sridhara Deva) , Vaidya Sangatya (Salva) , Ashva Vaidya (Bacarasa), Janavashya (Kallarasa)
16 C.E : Vaidya Sara Sangraha (Channaraja) , Hastayurveda-Commentary (Veerabhadraraja ) , Ashva Vaidya (Bacarasa), Janavashya (Kallarasa)
17 C.E : Vaidya Sara Sangraha (Nanjanatha Bhupala) , Vaidya Samhita Sararnava (Veeraraja ) , Shalihotra Samhita (Ramachandra), Hayasara Samuccaya (Padmana Pandita), Vaidyakanda (Brahma), Strivaidya (Timmaraja)
TELUGU :
15 C.E : Haya Lakshana Sara (manumanchi Bhatta)
TABLE 9 : ASTRONOMY/MATHEMATICS/ASTROLOGY
SANSKRIT :
3-2 B. C.E : Surya Prajnapti , Stananga Sutra , Anuyogadvara Sutra , Shatkhandagama
2-0 B. C.E : Vedanga Jyotishya (Lagada) , Bhadrabahu samhita +Surya Prajnapti-Commentary (Bhadrabahu) , Tiloyapanatti (Yatishvaracharya), Tatvarthayagama shastra (Umasvamin)
5-6 C.E : Arya Bhatiya (Arya Bhata) , Pancvha siddantika + Bruhajjataka+Laghu Jataka + Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira) , Dashagitika Sara (Anonymus) , Aryastashata (Anonymus)
6-7 C.E : Brahma sputa Siddhanta+Kanadakadhyaya(Brahma Gupta) , Maha Bhaskariyam + Karana Kutuhala (Bhaskara-1) , Rajamruganka (Bhoja)
8 C.E : Shishayabhuvruddhi (Lallacharya) , Ganita Sara sangaraha (Mahaveeracharya) , Horasatpanchashika(Pruthuyana)
11-12 C.E : Siddhanta Shekhara (Sripati) , Siddhanta Shiromani (Bhaskara-2)
14 C.E : Yantraraja (Mahendra Suri)
15 C.E : Tantra sangraha (Neelakantha somayaji)
16 C.E : Sputa Nirnaya (Achyuta)
TAMIL :
16-18 C.E : Ganakkadigaram , Ganita Nul , Asthana Golakam , Ganita Venba , Ganita Divakaram, Ponnilakkam
KANNADA :
11 C.E : Jataka Tilaka (Sridharacharya) ,
12 C.E : Vyavahara Ganita+Kshetra Ganita+Chitra Hasuge +Jaina Ganita Sutra Tikodaaharana +Lilavati (Rajaditya)
15 C.E : Kannada Lilavati (Bala Vaidyada Cheluva)
17 C.E : Ksetra Ganita (Timmarasa) , Behara Ganita (Bhaskara)
TELUGU :
11 C.E : Ganita sara Sangrahamu (Pavaluri Mallana)
The direction of 'borrowings' from one language to another is a secondary component of the philological excursus; there is no universal linguistic rule to firmly aver such a direction of borrowing. Certainly, more work is called for in delineating the structure and forms of meluhha (mleccha) language beyond a mere list of metalware glosses.
Kalyanaraman
August 26, 2013 Sarasvati Research Center
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