See related posts at links:
Rao, TRN & Kak, Subhash, 1998, Computing science in Ancient India, Lafayette, LA, The Centre fo Advanced Computer Studies, Univ. of Southwestern Louisiana, https://ikashmir.net/subhashkak/docs/Computing%20Science%20in%20Ancient%20India.pdf
B. van Nooten notes that Pingala has succeeded in introducing the binary number as a means for classifying metrical patterns.”Instead of giving names to the meters he constructs a prastāra, a ‘bed’, or matrix, in which the laghus and gurus are listed horizontally…The device of the prastāra has to be visualized as an actual table written on a board, or in the dust on the ground. Each horizontal line of the table stands for a line of verse represented as a succession of laghu and guru syllables. Every possible combination of the laghus and gurus is spelled out for a particular meter. Hence there will be separate prastāras for 8-syllabi, for 11-syllabic and 12-syllabic meters. The first line in each will consist of all laghus, the last line of all gurus…He (Pingala) knew how to convert that binary notation to a decimal notation and vice versa. We know of no sources from which he could have drawn his inspiration, so he may well have been the originator of the system…this knowledge was available to and preserved by Sanskrit students of metrics. Unlike the case of the great linguistic discoveries of the Indians which directly influenced and inspired Western linguistics, this discovery of the theory of binary numbers has so far gone unrecorded in the annals of the West.” (van Nooten, B., Binary numbers in Inian Antiquity, in Rao, TRN & Kak, Subhash, opcit., pp. 21-38; this article had appeared in Kluwer Academic Publishers, Journal of Indian Studies 21: 31-50, 1993).
Kak, Subhah, 2000, Yamātārājabhānasalagām, an interesting combinatoric sūtra, in: Indian Journal of History of Sience, 35.2 (2000) 123-127. The note considers the history of a sūtra which describes all combinations of a binary sequence of length 3 in connection with the classification of metres as sequence of laghu and guru syllables.
bhāṣā भाषा [भाष्-अ] means,‘Speech, talk’ while chandas relates to musical, musical rendering of human speech with harmony; there are limits to rendering chandas by any writing system and hence, alternative systems had to be devised for high fidelity rendering of recorded sounds, particularly those rendered in verse forms which were quite frequent in ancient times.
Given the complexities of encoding music in writing, it is futile on the part of academics to speculate on reasons why all Veda texts were not rendered in a comprehensive writing system. It is clear however that śrotriya brāhmaṇa did render many brāhmaṇa texts which were explanatory manuals in writing to supplement the millennial tradition of oral rendition. This is exemplified by Sāmaveda brāhmaṇa texts. See for example: H. Oertel. The Jaiminīya or Talavakāra Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa. Text, translation, and notes. JAOS 16,1895, 79–260. Kauthuma tradition of Sāmaveda is prevalent in Gujarat, Uttara Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar. Jaiminiya is prevalent in Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Kerala. Rāṇāyanīya is prevalent in Maharashtra, Karnatka, Gokarna and Orissa.
I challenge any audio-expert or philologist to devise a writing system to record, with high fidelity, the rendering of a Sāmaveda recitation presented in this monograph. Listen also to this audio clip: http://www.vedchant.com/Sama.mp3 One will immediately recognise the complexities and limits of any writing system which can render this form of human musical rendering of language. Any writing system such as the texts provided as padapāṭha, ‘word learning’ identifying correct readings are at best aids to memory of remembered, recollected sounds of smṛti. This is what śrotriya brāhmaṇa did in protecting, preserving and fostering the Vedic tradition in writing.
Ashwini Deo[i]argues that temporal organization of Sanskrit metres, as in other versification traditions is such that the metres are quantity-based periodic templates on to which linguistic material are mapped. He also notes that Chandahśāstra starting with Pingala is a traditional branch of scholarship. Akṣaragaṇavṛtta class total over 600 meters presented in descriptive treatises (Velankar, H.D., 1949, Jayadāman. A collection of ancient texts on Sanskrit Prosody and a classified list of Sanskrit Meters with an Alphabetical Index, Bombay, Haritosamālā, p. 56). He also notes that meters are associated with more than one chanting pattern using rhythmic schemata.
Chandaḥśāstra presents the first known description of a binary numeral system in connection with the systematic enumeration of meters with fixed patterns of short and long syllables. The discussion of the combinatorics of meter corresponds to the binomial theorem. Halāyudha's commentary includes a presentation of the Pascal's triangle (called meruprastāra). Pingala's work also contains the Fibonacci number, called mātrāmeru, and now known as the Gopala–Hemachandra number. See: Van Nooten, B. (1993-03-01). "Binary numbers in Indian Antiquity, Journal of Indian Philosophy 21 (1): 31–50.
सामवेदः, sāmaveda, is derived from sāman"melody" and veda "knowledge". Sāmavedatakes all hymns (excepting 75) from Rigveda śākalaśākhā; 75 are taken from Rigveda बाष्कल (bāṣkala) Śākhā. All hymns are rendered in sāmagāna, musical rendering. Given the forms of words which are likely to ante-date Rigvedic terms, the tradition of Sāmaveda can be hypothesized as co-terminus with Rigveda traditions.
"Of all the numerous Samhitas of the Samaveda, which are said to have existed once, only three have come down to us. The best known of these, the Samaveda-Samhita of the Kauthumas consists of two parts, the Arcika or Purvarcika or the '(first) collection of stanzas' and the Uttararcika or 'second collection of stanzas'. Both parts consist of verses all of which recur in the Rigveda. Of the 1810 verses, which both parts contain altogether, all except 75 are also found in the Rigveda-Samhita and that largely in the VIII and IX books...
"Both parts of the Samhita give us only the texts as they are spoken. However the melodies themselves were taught in the earliest days only by oral repetition or by playing them on instruments. Only from a later date do we have so-called Ganas or actual 'song-books' (from ga = to sing), which describe the melodies by notes and in which the texts are recorded in the form which they have while singing, i.e. with all syllable-expansions, repetitions and insertions of syllables and even of complete words - of the so-called 'Stobhas' like hoyi, huva, hoi etc.The oldest note-marking is probably the one by means of syllables like ta, co, no etc. But more common is the marking of the seven notes with the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7, to which F, E, D, C, B, A, G of our scale correspond.
"It appears that the hymn-melodies for the Soma-sacrifices performed in the village were different from those for the sacrifices of the hermits living in the forest, for an Arcika has a Grama-geya-gana ('Village song-book') and an Aranya-gana or Arayaka-gana ('Forest song-book'). The latter contained melodies which were considered as dangerous (taboo) and hence had to be learnt only in the forest. There are also two other books of songs, the Uha-gana and the Uhya-gana. These were composed for the purpose of giving the Samans in the order in which they were employed at the ritual, the Uhagana being connected with the Gramageyagana, the Uhyagana with the Aranyagana." (Winternitz, Maurice, 1927, A History of Indian Literature" (Volume 1, Section 1: The Veda, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, Repr. 2010)
Any such vikalpa (alternative rendering, for e.g. writing with symbols) exercise is likely to end up with the recommendation that the transmission and preservation of such recitation which should be capable of being reproducted, is best done by an oral tradition rather than resorting to a writing system.
This is precisely what the Vedic Rishis seem to have concluded in recommending incised speech takṣat vāk, as memory aides for the padapāṭha while ensuring harmony and rhythm in templates of meters or chandas. Has any writing system been devised to faithfully render in writing, say, a symphonic orchestra of Beethoven? Such attempts at devising writing systems for human utterances rendered as verses in metrical and musical notations of harmony and rhythm will up creating a complex vikalpa which is not preferable to a reproduction achievable through a tape-recording and playback ensuring high fidelity in sound. What has been achieved in ancient times by establishing a tradition of Veda recitation and learning is an extraordinary and unique heritage which should be understood, cherished and nurtured and should not be allowed to be subject to ridicule; nor should it become an academic excursus by motivated pseudo-philologists, indulging in historical, anecdotal speculatations on illiteracy or alleging antagonism to literacy by a cultural group of ancients who have handed down the treasure, the Veda.
Versification in Classical Sanskrit poetry is of three kinds:
1. Syllabic verse (akṣaravṛtta): meters depend on the number of syllables in a verse, with relative freedom in the distribution of light and heavy syllables. This style is derived from older Vedic forms, and found in the great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. 2. Syllabo-quantitative verse (varṇavṛtta): meters depend on syllable count, but the light-heavy patterns are fixed.
3. Quantitative verse (mātrāvṛtta): meters depend on duration, where each verse-line has a fixed number of morae, usually grouped in sets of four. Standard traditional works on meter are Pingala's Chandaḥśāstra and Kedāra's Vṛttaratnākara. Elements of prosody
Light and heavy syllables
In most of Sanskrit poetry the primary determinant of a meter is the number of syllables in a unit of verse, called the pāda ("foot", not to be confused with the "foot" of Western prosody). Meters of the same length are distinguished by the pattern of laghu ("light") and guru ("heavy") syllables in the pāda. The rules distinguishing laghu and guru syllables are the same as are specified in Vedic texts such as the Pratiśākhyas. They can be summarized as: 1. A syllable is laghu only if its vowel is hrasva ("short") and followed by at most one consonant before another vowel is encountered.
3. All other syllables are guru, either because the vowel is dīrgha ("long"), or because the hrasva vowel is followed by a consonant cluster.
4. The hrasva vowels are the short monophthongs: 'a', 'i', 'u', 'ṛ' and 'ḷ'
5. All other vowels are dīrgha: 'ā', 'ī', 'ū', 'ṝ', 'e', 'ai', 'o' and 'au'. (Note that, morphologically, the last four vowels are actually the diphthongs 'ai', 'āi', 'au' and 'āu', as the rules of sandhi in Sanskrit make clear. So, while an original 'ai', for example, had been shortened to an 'e' sound in practice, it was still to be treated as long metrically. The original short 'e' and short 'o' sounds had already been assimilated into short 'a' in the Proto-Indo-Iranian period of the language.) 6. Gangadasa Pandita states that the last syllable in each foot may be considered guru: सानुस्वारश्च दीर्घश्च विसर्गी च गुरुर्भवेत् । वर्णः संयोगपूर्वश्च तथा पादान्तगोऽपि वा ॥. But a guru at the end of a foot is never counted as laghu.
For measurement by morae, laghu syllables count as one unit, and guru syllables as two units.
In Prakrit
In Prakrits (and their modern descendents like Awadhi), prosody has different rules than Sanskrit. A Laghu before a Samyukta in a different word is not considered Guru in Prakrit. Neither are laghu-s before a few conjuncts like प्र, ह्र, ब्र and क्र.
Gaṇa
Gaṇa (Sanskrit, "group") is the technical term for the pattern of light and heavy syllables in a sequence of three. It is used in treatises on Sanskrit prosody to describe meters, according to a method first propounded in Pingala's chandaḥśāstra.
Pingala's method described any meter as a sequence of gaṇas, or triplets of syllables, plus the excess, if any, as single units. There being eight possible patterns of light and heavy syllables in a sequence of three, this scheme called for ten descriptive elements in all. With each of these ten, Pingala associated a letter, allowing the meter to be described compactly as an acronym. His encoding scheme was as follows:
· The units:
· l: a "light" syllable (L), called laghu
· g: a "heavy" syllable (H), called guru
· m : H-H-H, called ma-gaṇa
· y : L-H-H, called ya-gaṇa
· r : H-L-H, called ra-gaṇa
· s : L-L-H, called sa-gaṇa
· t : H-H-L, called ta-gaṇa
· j : L-H-L, called ja-gaṇa
· bh: H-L-L, called bha-gaṇa
· n : L-L-L, called na-gaṇa
Pingala's order of the gaṇas, viz. m-y-r-s-t-j-bh-n, corresponds to a standard enumeration in binary, when the three syllables in each gaṇa are read right-to-left with H=0 and L=1.
An example
The definition of the meter Vasantatilakā given by Kedāra in his Vṛttaratnākara is
uktā vasantatilakā tabhajā jagau gaḥ
which can be decoded as
tabhajā jagau gaḥ = t bh j j g g = H-H-L-H-L-L-L-H-L-L-H-L-H-H
Note that Kedāra's definition is itself an example of the meter.[10] A mnemonic
The word yamātārājabhānasalagāḥ (or yamātārājabhānasalagaṃ ), invented by medieval commentators, is a mnemonic for Pingala's gaṇas, using the vowels "a" and "ā" for light and heavy syllables respectively with the letters of his scheme. In the form without a grammatical ending, yamātārājabhānasalagā is self-descriptive, where the structure of each gaṇa is shown by its own syllable and the two following it:
· ya-gaṇa: ya-mā-tā = L-H-H
· ma-gaṇa: mā-tā-rā = H-H-H
· ta-gaṇa: tā-rā-ja = H-H-L
· ra-gaṇa: rā-ja-bhā = H-L-H
· ja-gaṇa: ja-bhā-na = L-H-L
· bha-gaṇa: bhā-na-sa = H-L-L
· na-gaṇa: na-sa-la = L-L-L
· sa-gaṇa: sa-la-gā = L-L-H
The mnemonic also encodes the light "la" and heavy "gā" unit syllables of the full scheme.
The truncated version obtained by dropping the last two syllables, viz. yamātārājabhānasa, can be read cyclically (i.e., wrapping around to the front). It is an example of a De Bruijn sequence.
Comparison
The gaṇas are not the same as prosodic feet in Greek or Latin poetry, although there is a correspondence (m-y-r-s-t-j-bh-n = molossus, bacchius, cretic, anapest, antibacchius, amphibrach, dactyl, choreus). The difference is that the gaṇas are analytic devices only, and do not indicate internal structure as "feet" do. For instance, a phalaecian verse consisting of a spondee, a dactyl and three trochees would be analysed as m-s-j-g-l (i.e. a molossus, an anapest, an amphibrach and a trochee); similarly a sapphic verse as r-t-j-g-l (cretic, antibacchius, amphibrach and trochee).
Matra gaNa-s
The standard unit of grouping, analogous to the "foot" of Western prosody, is four morae (four laghus, two gurus, or a guru and two laghus).
Most of classical Sanskrit poetry is of the varṇavṛtta type, also called akṣarachandas. Stanzas are quatrains of four pādas (verses), with the metrical structure of each pāda completely specified. In some cases, pairs of pādas may be scanned together as the hemistichs of a couplet. It is then normal for the pādas comprising a pair to have different structures, to complement each other aesthetically. Otherwise the four pādas of a stanza will have the same structure.
Examples of Akṣarachandas
Indravajrā (11 Syllables)
Definition - syād indravajrā yadi tau jagau gaḥ
Translation - The Indravajrā meter contains ta ta ja ga ga. (The caesura (yati) is after the fifth syllable.)
Meticral Scheme - - u - - | u u - u - -
Śikhariṇī (17 Syllables)
Definition - rasai rudraiś chinnā yamanasabhalā gaḥ śikhariṇī
Translation - The Śikhariṇī meter, divided by the 6 flavors and the 11 Rudras, contains ya ma na sa bha la and ga. (The caesura (yati) is after the sixth syllable.)
Metrical Scheme u - - - - - | u u u u u - - u u u -
Śārdūlavikrīḍita (19 Syllables)
Definition - sūryāśvair masajāstataḥ saguruvaḥ śārdūlavikrīḍitam or sūryāśvair yadi maḥ sajau satatagāḥ śārdūlavikrīḍitam
Translation - The Śārdulavikrīḍita meter contains ma sa ja sa ta ta plus on heavy syllable. The caesura (yati) divides the verse into 12 (sūrya) and 7 (aśva) syllables, i.e. it occurs after the twelfth syllable.
Meticral Scheme - - - u u - u - u u u - | - - u - - u -
· mātrāchanda:
1. puṣpitāgrā
2. aparavaktra
3. vaitālīya
4. mātrāsamaka
· gaṇachanda:
1. āryā
2. āryāgīti
3. upagīti
The following excerpts are from: (Brown, Charles Philip, 1869, Sanskrit prosody and numerical symbols explained, London, Trubner & Co.):
“Sanskrit literature is chiefly in verse. The poems and plays, the histories and legends, treatises on law, divinity, astronomy, mathematicks, and indeed nearly all literature being in metre. The ‘Prosody is easy and beautiful,’ says Sir Wiliam Jones. ‘It is infinitely more rich and more varied, ‘observes the learned Chezy, ‘than that of Greek; and has no syllables of doubtful quantity.’ The venerable Colebrook (Essays, ii.62) speaks of the aid it affords in deciphering passages rendered obscure by the inaccuracy of the transcripts: he notices that the artifice of its construction is peculiar, and not devoid of ingenuity; and it is richer than that of any other language. Yet many who have attempted to study in India, guided by a Pandit, complain that the art is intricate. Indeed most of the aspirants have been disheartened (as I was first); for the Prosody is overland with a profusion of pedantic refinements, arithmetical and superstitious. Most of the rules in the Sanskrit Prosodies are intended to guide composers, not learners…In 1827, at Madras, at the desire of the College Board, I printed a short account of Telugu and Sanskrit Prosody…Numerical symbols are much used in Sanskrit books on Prosody, as well as regarding chronology…” (Preface, pp.v-vi)
“The vowels a, I, u, ri, lu, are short; as in atiśaya, milita, yudhi, kṛpa. The rest are long. Short or breve is called laghu or hraswa, meaning, ‘light’. Long is called guru ‘heavy’ or dīrgha, ‘long’. A breve becomes guru if followed by two consonants, as ‘a’ in asti, or vakra. But the vowels ṛi and lṛi do not lengthen the preceding vowel. Thus sakṛt, सकृत् . A breve is marked with an upright right ‘|’ thus; a tribrah, which we write UUU is marked |||. The long mark is U which we use for breve. In Devanagari the character resembles the Persian hamza ء, in Bengali is similar to the number for six in that alphabet. But the language is pronounced as it is written, and the quantity of each syllable is evident to the eye; the marks for long and breve are therefore seldom used. The letter य Y is always a consonant, and requires a vowel, as in daityah, kāryam, yogin, śayyā. When the consonant म M is final, as in नलं अब्रवीत्, nalam abravīt it does not suffer elision. (Nala. Iv.1) Prosody is called छन्दः chandah, that is, ‘fancy, will, desire’. Sanskrit Prosody is measured with feet, called gaṇa, denoted by letters, Ma, Ya, Ra, etc. fixed in days earlier than the Homeric age. M or Ma denoted a foot of three long syllables, as ‘majestas’ or ‘Longini’ or ‘has sylvas.’ Na is a tribrach of three breves like ‘mulier’ or ‘avibus.’ Eight such feet are given in the गणप्रस्तारः or Table. ” (pp.1-2)
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“In the three columns thus arranged in ancient times, the first has a long and a breve alternately; the second has two of each; the third has four…To aid the memory, a learned German friend has given me the following sentence: मायावी यतात्मा रावणः सहसा तन्त्राणि जजाप भावय नयूति ‘The deceitful, self-controlling Ravaṇa uttered his spells in haste, with ‘Preserve us’ ” [from] death.’ A long syllable is called गुरु Guru and a breve is लघु laghu: and the initials, L, G, are thus used: ”(pp.2-3)
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“A line is called pāda or charaṇa, meaning a foot; four such form a padya or ślok. A prosodial measure of two or three syllables is called गण gaṇa because it is counted; we call it a foot. ‘Aksharam,’ a ‘letter’ also is a ‘syllable.’ सम्स्कृतं Sams-kru-tam, or गीर्वाणं gīr-vā-ṇam (another name of the language) are called tri-literal, or words of three syllables. So is Ak-sha-ram. All syllables are of a definite length, apparent to the eye; none are doubtful. The last syllable of each line, in the uniform metres, is long by rule; but in practice is free. ‘Pluta’ denoting ‘extension,’ is the name given to a quaver or protracted sound, used in changing the Vedas. In prosody it is merely a long syllable.” [How does one denote – by a symbol -- a quaver or protracted sound excepting by hearing and repeating the heard sound – recitation?]
“The native treatises are crowded with numerical expressions which make the art mysterious…” (p.4)
On the Anuṣṭup. The tale of Nala commences thus: each line being divided into four parts.
आसीद्राजा | नलोनाम | वीरसेन | सुतोबली |
उपपन्नो | गुणैरिष्टैः | रूपवान् अश | व कोविदः |
This is called the अनुष्टुभ् Anuṣṭup śloka which some consider the heroic metre. Each line contains sixteen syllables, and two lines are one ślok, or couplet. There are four syllables in each quarter. The first and third quartes are free from rule; the second usually is U -- with a free syllable: the thirs U-U with a free syllable. Markind the free syllables with x, the line stands thus:
Xxxx U- -x xxxx U-Ux
“The learner should read several passages aloud, pausing after each quarter: and he will soon perceive the rhythm. After he has accomplished this, he can proceed as follows: The second foot has five varieties. One is already seen: the others are exemplified in these passages of the same poem:
The five feet admissible in the second seat are Ma Ya Ra Bha Na: which may be recollected I the words Mayūra bhānuh.” (pp.4-5)
“The letters used as names of the prosodial feet were selected at an early age, and have been in use throughout India for three thousand years at least. They are combined in an ancient line, written by Pāṇini, Ya mā tā rā ja bhā na sa la gam यमाताराजभानसलगं Each of these syllables is the name of a foot: and that syllable with the next two will exemplify the foot. Thus the first three are Yamātā which si the foot Y. The next three Mātārā make the foot M. Then Tārāja are the foot T. Rājabhā is R, while Jabhāna is J. Bhānasa is B, the dactyl. Nasala is N, the tribrach; and Salagam is S, the anapaest. The closing syllable L for breve and G for long.”(p.28)
“Some of the feet are known by names…
”(p.29)
(p.31)
“In musical compositions, such as the Gīta Govinda, the laws of harmony supersede hose of prosody; this very name instead of - - U is accented at pleasure Gōvindā; and Krishna often becomes U - - (an iambus) Krīshnā.” (p.48)
Pundits Recite Sama Veda
Some key glosses:
Śrōtriya श्रोत्रिय a. [छन्दो वेदमधीते वेत्ति वा छन्दस् घ श्रोत्रादेशः; cf. P.V.2.84] 1 Proficient or versed in the Veda. -2 Teachable, tractable. -3 Modest, well-behaved. -यः A learned Brāhmaṇa, one well-versed in sacred learning; जन्मना ब्राह्मणो ज्ञेयः संस्कारैर्द्विज उच्यते । विद्यया याति विप्रत्वं त्रिभिः श्रोत्रिय उच्यते ॥; ते श्रोत्रियास्तत्त्ववनिश्चयाय भूरि श्रुतं शाश्वतमाद्रियन्ते Māl.1.5; R.16.25. -Comp. -स्वम् the property of a learned Brāhmaṇa; राजस्वं श्रोत्रियस्वं च न भोगेन प्रणश्यति Ms.8.149.
वेदः [विद्-अच् घञ् वा] 1 Knowledge. -2 Sacred know- ledge, holy learning, the scripture of the Hindus. (Originally there were only three Vedas :- ऋग्वेद, यजुर्वेद and सामवेद, which are collectively called त्रयी 'the sacred triad'; but a fourth, the अथर्ववेद, was subsequently added to them. Each of the Vedas had two dis tinct parts, the Mantra or Samhitā and Brāhmaṇa. According to the strict orthodox faith of the Hindus the Vedas are a-pauruṣeya, 'not human compo sitions', being supposed to have been directly revea led by the Supreme Being, Brahman, and are called Śruti' i. e. 'what is heard or revealed', as distingui- shed from 'Smṛiti', i. e.'what is remembered or is the work of human origin'; see श्रुति, स्मृति also; and the several sages, to whom the hymns of the Vedas are ascribed, are, therefore, called द्रष्टारः 'seers', and not कर्तारः or सृष्टारः 'composers'.) -3 A bundle of Kuśa grass; पद्माक्षमालामुत जन्तुमार्जनं वेदं च साक्षात्तप एव रूपिणौ Bhāg. 12.8.34; Ms.4.36.-4 N. of Viṣṇu. -5 A part of a sacrifice (यज्ञांग). -6 Exposition, comment, gloss. -7 A metre. -8 Acquisition, gain, wealth (Ved). -9 N. of the number 'four'. -1 The ritual (वेदयतीति वेदो विधिः); Karma-kāṇda; वेदवादस्य विज्ञानं सत्याभासमिवानृतम् Mb.12.1. 2 (see Nīlakaṇtha's commentary). -11 Smṛiti literature; आम्नायेभ्यः पुनर्वेदाः प्रसृताः सर्वतोमुखाः Mb.12.26.9. -Comp. -अग्रणीः N. of Sarasvatī. -अङ्गम् 'a member of the Veda', N. of certain classes of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronun- ciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials; (the Ved- āṅgasare six in number :-- शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दसां चयः । ज्योतिषामयनं चैव वेदाङ्गानि ष़डेव तु ॥; i. e. 1 शिक्षा 'the science of proper articulation and pronunciation'; 2 छन्दस् 'the science of prosody'; 3 व्याकरण 'grammar'; 4 निरुक्त 'etymological explanation of difficult Vedic words'; 5 ज्योतिष 'astronomy'; and 6 कल्प 'ritual or ceremonical'). A peculiar use of the word 'वेदाङ्ग' in masculine gender may here be noted; वेदांश्चैव तु वेदाङ्गान् वेदान्तानि तथा स्मृतीः । अधीत्य ब्राह्मणः पूर्वं शक्तितो$न्यांश्च संपठेत् ॥ Bṛihadyogiyājña- valkya-Smṛti 12.34. -अधिगमः, -अध्ययनम् holy study, study of the Vedas; काम्यो हि वेदाधिगमः कर्मयोगश्च वैदिकः Ms.2.2. -अधिपः 1 one who presides over the Veda; ऋग्वेदाधिपतर्जीवो यजुर्वेदाधिपो भृगुः । सामवेदाधिपो भौमः शशिजो$- थर्ववेदपः ॥ -2 N. of Viṣṇu. -अध्यापकः a teacher of the Vedas, a holy preceptor. -अनध्ययनम् Remissness in the Vedic study; Ms.3.63. -अन्तः 1 'the end of the Veda', an Upaniṣad(which comes at the end of the Veda). Also -अन्तम् (See quotation from बृहद्योगियाज्ञ- वल्क्यस्मृति under -अङ्ग above). -2 the last of the six principal Darśanasor systems of Hindu philosophy; (so called because it teaches the ultimate aim and scope of the Veda, or because it is based on the Upaniṣads which come at the end of the Veda); (this system of philosophy is sometimes called उत्तरमीमांसा being regarded as a sequel to Jaimini's पूर्वमीमांसा, but it is practically quite a distinct system; see मीमांसा. It represents the popular pantheistic creed of the Hindus, regarding, as it does, the whole world as synthetically derived from one eternal principle, the Brahman or Supreme Spirit; see ब्रह्मन् also). ˚गः, ˚ज्ञः a follower of the Vedanta philosophy. -अन्तिन् m. a follower of the Vedanta philosophy. -अभ्यासः 1 the study of the Vedas; वेदाभ्यासो हि विप्रस्य तपः परमिहोच्यते Ms.2.166. -2 the repetition of the sacred syllable Om. -अर्थः the meaning of the Vedas. -अवतारः reve- lation of the Vedas. -अश्र a. quadrangular. -आदि n., -आदिवर्णः, -आदिवीजम् the sacred syllable. Om. -उक्त a. scriptural, taught in the Vedas. -उदयः N. of the sun (the Sāma Veda being said to have proceeded from him). -उदित a. scriptural, ordained by the Vedas; वेदोदितं स्वकं कर्म नित्यं कुर्यादतन्द्रितः Ms. 4.14. -कार the composer of the Veda. -कौलेयकः an epithet of Śiva. -गर्भः 1 an epithet of Brahman; कमण्डलुं वेदगर्भः कुशान् सप्तर्षयो ददुः Bhāg.8.18.16. -2 a Brāhmaṇa versed in the Vedas. -3 N. of Viṣṇu. -ज्ञः a Brāhmaṇa versed in the Vedas; तथा दहति वेदज्ञः कर्मजं दोषमात्मनः Ms.12.11. -त्रयम्, -त्रयी the three Vedas collectively. -दर्शिन् a.one who discerns the sense of the Veda; तपोमध्यं बुधैः प्रोक्तं तपो$न्तं वेददर्शिभिः Ms.11.234. -दृष्ट a. sanctioned by the Vedas. -निन्दकः 1 an atheist, a heretic, an unbeliever (one who rejects the divine origin and character of the Vedas). -2 a Jaina or Buddhist. -निन्दा unbelief, heresy; Ms.11.56. -पारगः a Brāhmaṇa skilled in the Vedas. -पुण्यम् a merit acqui- red by the study of the Veda. वेदपुण्येन युज्यते Ms.2.78. -बाह्य a. contrary to the Veda. (-ह्यः) a sceptic. -मातृ f. 1 N. of a very sacred Vedic verse called Gāyatree q. v. -2 N. of सरस्वती, सावित्री and गायत्री; सूतश्च मातरिश्वा वै कवचं वंदमातरः Mb.5.179.4. -भूतिः (embodiment of the Veda) an honourable title before the names of learned Brāhmaṇas. -वचनम्, -वाक्यम् a Vedic text. -वदनम् grammar. -वादः see वेदः (1); तदुक्तं वेदवादेषु गहनं वेददर्शिभिः Mb.12.238.11 (com.); Vedic discus- sion; यामिमां पुष्पितां वाचं प्रवदन्त्यविपश्चितः । वेदवादरताः Bg. 2.42. -वासः a Brāhmaṇa. -वाह्य a. contrary to, or not founded on, the Veda. -विद् m. 1 a Brāhmaṇa versed in the Vedas. -2 N. of Viṣṇu. -वद्वस् a. conversant with the Vedas; ब्राह्मणान् वेदविदुषो यज्ञार्थं चैव दक्षिणाम् Ms. 11.4. -विहित a. enjoined by the Vedas. -व्यासः an epithet of Vyāsa who is regarded as the 'arranger' of the Vedas in their present form; see व्यास. -शास्त्रम् the doctrine of the Vedas; Ms.4.26. -श्रुतिः Vedic revelation. -संन्यासः givig up the ritual of the Vedas. -संमत, -संमित a. sanctioned by the Vedas. वेदस् n. Ved. Acquisition, gain, wealth; उशन् ह वै वाजश्रवसः सर्ववेदसं ददौ Kaṭh.1.1. वेदापयति vēdāpayati वेदापयति Den. P. To impart knowledge, teach; cf. P.III.1.25. वेदित vēdita वेदित p. p. Made known, informed, communicated. वेदिन् a. [विद्-णिनि] 1 Knowing; as in कृतवेदिन्. -2 Marrying. -m. 1 A knower. -2 A teacher. -3 A learned Brāhmaṇa. -4 An epithet of Brahman.
मात्रिका A syllable or prosodial instant (= मात्रा); मात्रा 1 A measure; see मात्रम् above. -2 A standard of measure, standard, rule. -3 The correct measure; तस्य मात्रा न विद्यते Mb.13.93.45. -4 A unit of measure, a foot. -5 A moment. -6 A particle, an atom; पृथिवी च पृथिवीमात्रा&c. Praśna Up.4.8. -7 A part, portion; लभेमहि धनमात्रान् Ch. Up.1.1.6; सुरेन्द्रमात्राश्रितगर्भगौरवात् R.3.11. -8 A small portion, a little, trifle, a little quantity, a small measure only; see मात्र (3). (In prosody) A prosodial or syllabic instant, the time required to pronounce a short vowel; गच्छेत् षोडशमात्राभिः Śukra.4.963; एकमात्रो भवेद् ह्रस्वः. -छन्दस्, -वृत्तम् a metre regulated by the number of prosodial instants it contains, e. g. the Āryā.
ऋषिः [cf. Uṇ.4.119] 1 An inspired poet or sage, a singer of sacred hymns, (e. g कुत्स, वसिष्ठ, अत्रि, अगस्त्य&c.). (These Ṛiṣis form a class of beings distinct from gods, men, Asuras &c. (Av.1.1.26). They are the authors or seers of the Vedic hymns; ऋषयो मन्त्रद्रष्टारो वसिष्ठादयः; or, according to Yāska, यस्य वाक्यं स ऋषिः,i. e. they are the persons to whom the Vedic hymns were revealed. In every Sūkta the ऋषि is mentioned along with the देवता, छन्दस् and विनियोग. The later works mention seven Ṛiṣis or saptarṣis whose names, according to Śat. Br., are गौतम, भरद्वाज, विश्वामित्र, जमदग्नि, वसिष्ठ, कश्यप and अत्रि; according to Mahābhārata, मरीचि, अत्रि, अङ्गिरस्, पुलह, क्रतु, पुलस्त्य and वसिष्ठ; Manu calls these sages Prajāpatis or pro- genitors of mankind, and gives ten names, three more being added to the latter list, i. e. दक्ष or प्रचेतस्, भृगु and नारद. In astronomy the seven Ṛiṣis form the constellation of "the Great Bear"); यत्रा सप्त ऋषीन् पर एकमाहुः Rv.1.82.2
छन्दस् n. " roof " » बृह्/अच्-; intention , purport; a sacred hymn (of AV. ; as distinguished from those of RV. SV. and YajurV. ) , incantation-hymn RV. xAV. S3Br. viii MBh. v , 1224 Ragh. i , 11; the sacred text of the Vedic hymns S3Br. xi , 5 , 7 , 3 A1s3vGr2. Kaus3. Gobh. VPra1t. Pa1n2. Mn. &c; metre (in general , supposed to consist of 3 or 7 typical forms [ AV. VS. &c ] to which विराज् is added as the 8th [ S3Br. viii , 3 , 3 , 6] ; छ्/अन्दस् opposed to गायत्र्/इ and त्रिष्ट्/उभ् RV. x , 14 , 16) छन्द a. [छन्द्-अच्] 1 Pleasing, fascinating, inviting, alluring. -2 Private, solitary, secret. -3 Praising. -दः m. 1 Wish, desire, fancy, liking, will; विज्ञाप्यतां देवी यस्ते छन्द इति V.3 just as you like; Pt.1.69. एते ते मृत्युना ये चिरमनवसिता ... श्छन्दं मृगयता Pratimā.3.7. -2 Free will, one's own choice, whim, free or wilful conduct; षष्ठे काले त्वमपि दिवसस्यात्मनश्छन्दवर्ती V.2.1; Gīt.1; Y.2.195; स्वच्छन्दम् according to one's free will, independently. -3 (Hence) subjection, control. -4 Meaning, intention, purport. -5 Poison. -6 Appearance, look, shape. -7 Pleasure, delight. -Comp. -अनुवृत्तम्, -त्तिः indulgence of whims, humouring, compliance. -पातनः A religious hypocrite. L. D. B. छन्दस् n. [छन्दयति असुन्] 1 Wish, desire, fancy, will, pleasure; (गृह्णीयात्) मूर्खं छन्दो$नुवृत्तेन याथातथ्येन पण्डितम् Chāṇ.33. -2 Free will, free or wilful conduct.-3 Meaning, intention. -4 Fraud, trick, deceit. -5 The Vedas, the sacred text of the Vedic hymns; स च कुल- पतिराद्यश्छन्दसां यः प्रयोक्ता U.3.48; बहुलं छन्दसि frequently used by Pāṇini; प्रणवश्छन्दसामिव R.1.11; Y.1.143; Ms.4.95. -6 A metre; ऋक्छन्दसा आशास्ते&Sacute.4; गायत्री छन्दसामहम् Bg.1.35;13.4. -7 Metrical science, prosody; (regarded as one of the six Vedāṅgas or auxiliaries to the Vedas, the other five being शिक्षा, कल्प, व्याकरण, निरुक्त and ज्योतिष). -8 A metrical composi- tion. ... मया काव्यानि तन्वता छन्दो विनिर्मितं तस्मिन् कृतः सर्वस्य संग्रहः Parṇāl.1.23. -9 A festival; वेदे वाक्ये वृत्तभेदे उत्सवे$पि नपुंसकम् । Nm. -Comp. -कृतम् any metrical part of the Vedas or other sacred compositions; यथो- दितेन विधिना नित्यं छन्दस्कृतं पठेत् Ms.4.1. -गः (-छन्दोगः) 1 a reciter in metre. -2 a student or chanter of the Sāmaveda; Ms.3.145; (छन्दोगः सामवेदाध्यायी) -3 The Sāmaveda; साम्नां जैमिनये प्राह तथा छन्दोगसंहिताम् Bhāg. 12.6.53. -भङ्गः a violation of the laws of metre. -विचितिः f. 'examination of metres', N. of a work on metres, sometimes ascribed to Daṇḍin; छन्दोविचित्यां सकलस्तत्प्रपञ्चो निदर्शितः Kāv.1.12. -वृत्तम् a metre in general. -स्तुभ् m. N. of Aruṇa. निस् -छन्दस् (निश्छन्दस्) a. not studying the Vedas (छन्दस्) Ms.3,7. छन्दस्य a. Ved. 1 Fit for hymns, metrical. -2 Made at will. किन्नर -छन्दस् n. metre regulated and measured by feet.
अक्षर -छन्दस् n. -वृत्तम् a metre regulated by the number of syllables it contains; छन्दस्तु द्विविधं प्रोक्तं वृत्तं जातिरिति द्विधा । वृत्तमक्षरसंख्यातं जातिर्मात्राकृता भवेत् ॥ unshaken resolve, resolute (अक्षरं निश्चलं छन्दो$भिप्रायो यस्य); -जननी, -तूलिका [अक्षराणां जननीव; तल्लिपिलेखानां तूलिकेव वा साधनत्वात्] a reed or pen. -जीवकः or -जीविन् m. 'One who lives by writing', a scribe. अक्षर a. [न क्षरतीति; क्षर् चलने अच्-न. त.] 1 Imperishable, indestructible, undecaying, epithet of the Supreme as well as the Individual soul; यमक्षरं क्षेत्रविदो विदुस्तमात्मानमात्मन्यवलोकयन्तम् Ku.3.5; द्वाविमौ पुरुषौ लोके क्षरश्चाक्षर एव च । क्षरः सर्वाणि भूतानि कूटस्थो$क्षर उच्यते Bg.15.16. यस्मात्क्षरमतीतो$हमक्षरादपि चोत्तमः । अतो$स्मि लोके वेदे च प्रथितः पुरुषोत्तमः Bg.15.18; 2 Fixed, firm, unalterable. -; - पङ्क्ति a. 1. having 5 syllables (पङ्क्ति = Gr. pentas-five) सु मत् पद् वग दे इत्येष वै यज्ञो$क्षरपङ्क्तिः Ait. Br. (तान्येतान्यक्षराणि होतृज- पादौ प्रयोक्तव्यानि). -शिक्षा [ष. त.] the science of (mystic) syllables; theory of ब्रह्म (ब्रह्मतत्त्व); मह्यं ˚क्षां विधाय Dk.11. -संस्थानम् [अक्षराणां संस्थानं यत्र] arrangement of letters, writing, alphabet. अक्षरकम् (स्वार्थे कन्) A vowel, a letter. अक्षरशः adv. [अक्षरमक्षरमिति वीप्सार्थकारके शस्] 1 Syllable by syllable. -2 To the very letter; literally. भाषित p. p. [भाष्-कर्मणि-क्त] Spoken, said, uttered. -तम् Speech, utterance, words, language; आकारैरिङ्गितै- र्गत्या चेष्टया भाषितेन च । नेत्रवक्त्रविकारैश्च गृह्यते$न्तर्गतं मनः ॥ Ms.8.26. -Comp. -ईशा Sarasvatī; N.11.16 -पुंस्क = उक्तपुंस्क q. v. bhāṣyam भाष्यम् [भाष्-ण्यत्] 1 Speaking, talking. -2 Any work in the common or vernacular language. -3 Exposition, gloss, commentary; as in वेदभाष्य. -4 Espe- cially, a commentary which explains Sūtras or apho- risms word by word with comments of its own; (सूत्रार्थो वर्ण्यते यत्र पदैः सूत्रानुसारिभिः । स्वपदानि च वर्ण्यन्ते भाष्यं भाष्यविदो विदुः ॥); संक्षिप्तस्याप्यतो$स्यैव वाक्यस्यार्थगरीयसः । सुविस्तरतरा वाचो भाष्यभूता भवन्तु मे Śi.2.24; फणिभाषितभाष्यफक्किका N.2.95. -5 N. of the great commentary of Patañjali on Pāṇini's Sūtras. -6 A sort of house. -Comp. -करः, -कारः, -कृत् m. 1 commentator, scholiast. -2 N. of Patañjali. -भूत a. serving as a commentary; सुविस्तरतरा वाचो भाष्यभूता भवन्तु मे Śi.2.24. भाषा bhāṣā भाषा [भाष्-अ] 1 Speech, talk; as in चारुभाषः. -2 Language, tongue; सत्या न भाषा भवति यद्यपि स्यात् प्रतिष्ठिता Ms.8.164. -3 A common or vernacular dialect; (a) the spoken Sanskṛit language (opp. छन्दस् or वेद); विभाषा भाषायाम् P.VI.1.181; (b) any Prākṛita dialect (opp. संस्कृत); भाषाश्च विविधा नृणाम् Ms.9.332; see प्राकृत. -4 Definition, description; स्थितप्रज्ञस्य का भाषा Bg.2.54. -5 An epithet of Sarasvatī, the goddess of speech. -6 (In law) The first of the four stages of a law-suit; the plaint, charge or accusation; यदावेदयते राज्ञे तद्भाषेत्यभि- धीयते Y. -7 (In music) N. of a Rāgiṇī. -Comp. -अन्तरम् 1 another dialect or language. -2translation (?). -चित्रकम् a play on words, conundrum. -पत्रम् application (Mar. अर्ज); भाषापत्रं तु तज्ज्ञेयमथवावेदनार्थकम् Śukra.2.39. -पादः a charge, plaint; see भाषा (6) above. -समः a figure of speech, which consists in so arranging the words of a sentence that it may be con- sidered and read either as Sanskṛit or Prākṛita (one or more of its varieties); e. g. मञ्जुलमणिमञ्जीरे कलगभ्भीरे विहारसरसीतीरे । विरसासि केलिकीरे किमालि धीरे च गन्धसारसमीरे ॥ S. D.642 (एष श्लोकः संस्कृतप्राकृतशौरसेनीप्राच्यावन्तीनागराप- भ्रंशेष्वेकविध एव); किं त्वां भणामि विच्छेददारुणायासकारिणि । कामं कुरु वरारोहे देहि मे परिरम्भणम् Māl.6.11. (which is in San- skṛit or Śaurasenī); so 6.1. -समितिः f. (with Jainas) moderation in speech.
Bibliography
- Brown, Charles Philip (1869). Sanskrit prosody and numerical symbols explained. London: Trübner & Co.
- Deo, Ashwini. S (2007). "The metrical organization of Classical Sanskrit verse". Journal of Linguistics 43 (01): 63–114.
- Colebrooke, H.T. (1873). "On Sanskrit and Prakrit Poetry". Miscellaneous Essays 2. London: Trübner and Co. pp. 57–146.
- Coulson, Michael (1976). Teach Yourself Sanskrit. Teach Yourself Books. Hodder and Stoughton.
- Hopkins, E.W. (1901). "Epic versification". The Great Epic of India. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. pp. 191–362. LCCN
- Friedrich Max Müller; Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1886), A Sanskrit grammar for beginners (2 ed.), Longmans, Green, p. 178 PDF
- Patwardhan, M. (1937), Chandoracana, Bombay: Karnataka Publishing House
- Velankar, H.D. (1949), Jayadaman: a collection of ancient texts on Sanskrit prosody and a classical list of Sanskrit meters with an alphabetical index, Bombay: Haritoṣamala
- Weber, Albrecht (1863). Indische Studien 8. Leipzig.
Meanwhile, special task force has been formed to inquire about Ramesh’s murder and the party has called for a State-wide bandh on July 22 to protest the murder.
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In a move that could further endorse CBI as a caged parrot to its political masters, the investigating agency reportedly has given a clean chit to Samajwadi Party supremo 
