https://tinyurl.com/y6lc4r6s

loa 'ficus glomerata' rebus; loh 'copper, metal'. PLUS *kāra6 ʻ ear ʼ. [Connexion with kárṇa -- is not clear]Wg. kār ʻ ear ʼ (← Kho. kār), Kt. kōr, Dm. kâar Morgenstierne FestskrBroch 150, NTS xii 173; -- Ash. karmuṭäˊ ʻ ear ʼ, Kt. karmútə ʻ lobe of ear ʼ, Gaw. kumtak ʻ ear ʼ NTS ii 261 (or poss. all three < karṇapattraka -- ).kāra -- 7 m. ʻ tax ʼ see kara -- 2.Addenda: *kāra -- 6: Kho. kār ʻ ear ʼ certainly not ← Wg. BKhoT 69.(CDIAL 3056) Rebus: khār 'blacksmith' 

Sign 327 variants:

Nindowari-damb seal Nd0-1; Mohenjo-daro seal m-1202; Harappa tablet h-771; Harappa tablet h-419 

https://tinyurl.com/yxn5ql6n

https://www.aryanbooks.com/details.php?prod_id=407 398 pages Sale price Rs. 796 ISBN 978-81-7305-648-2

From the blurb: “It has long been alleged that the pioneer Indian scholars of ancient Indian history were ‘nationalists’, ‘Hindu revivalists’ and unhappy with the fact that the Muslims invaded and took possession of India. ‘Pernicious’ is also an adjective thrown at them. The present volume examines the evolving research scenario and concludes that these pioneer historians never wilfully distorted any historical evidence and thus their nationalism did not stand in the way of objective historical investigations. The allegations levelled against them by communists roughly since the 1960s were nothing but propaganda ploys to draw attention to themselves as ‘progressives’ and thus capture with governmental support the country-wide institutions in the field of history . The volume shows that the period of communist dominance in this arena is about the darkest period in the history of ancient Indian historical research in the country since the late nineteenth century when Indian scholars began to research ancient India in increasing numbers. Further, the author argues that no commitment to a particular ideology with its obsession with the Aryans and the Sarasvati can be a substitute for rigorous professional research on ancient India with clear assessment of the sources and their chronology.

The volume also contains a detailed discussion on Rabindranath Tagore's and Sister Nivedita's ideas of Indian history.”

Preface and Acknowledgements                                                                   

           By the Same Author                                                                               

               IV.  The ICHR under the BJP Control                                             

             VII.  Various Issues Related to Archaeology                                 

                          I.1.  James Mill                                                                         

                          I.2.  The Scottish Geographer Hugh Murray                    

                        II.1.  Mountstuart Elphinstone (1779-1859)                      

                        II.2.  Vincent Arthur Smith (1843-1920)                              

                        II.3.  E.J. Rapson (1861-1937)                                                

               III.  Observations                                                                                

                 I.  The First Phase, till c. 1910                                                       

                          I.1.  Rajendra Lala Mitra (1822-91)                                     

                          I.2.  Bhagavanlal Indraji (1839-88)                                      

                          I.4.  Ramesh Chandra Dutta (1848-1909)                         

                          I.5.  Haraprasad Sastri (1853-1931)                                   

                II.  Observations                                                                                

               III.  The Second Phase, c. 1910-1950                                             

                       III.2.  Kasi Prasad Jayaswal (1881-1937)                              

                       III.3.  Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1884-1980)                

                V.  Further Developments till the 1950s                                     

                        V.1.  Dynastic History                                                              

               VI.  South India                                                                                    

             VII.  Books on Regional Histories                                                     

            VIII.  First Steps in Economic History                                               

               IX.  Aspects of Ancient Indian Art History                                    

                X.  Scientific Achievements of Ancient India                              

               XI.  Observations                                                                                

                II.  Sister Nivedita                                                                              

                          I.1.  The Vedic Age (1951)                                                     

                          I.2.  The Age of Imperial Unity (1951)                                

                          I.3.  The Classical Age (ad 320-750), 1954                         

                II.  New Developments Since the 1960s                                      

                       III.1.  D.D. Kosambi                                                                   

                       III.2.  R.S. Sharma                                                                      

               IV.  The Notion of Early Mediaeval India                                      

                        V.1.  Upinder Singh                                                                   

                        V.2.  Kumkum Roy                                                                     

             VII.  The Politics of the Aryan Hypothesis in India                       

            VIII.  The Issue of the Sarasvati                                                         

                         IX.3.  The Problem of Agricultural Origins                         

                         IX.7.  Ganga Plain Survey                                                       

                         IX.8.  Socio-politics of the Past                                             

               XI.  Observations                                                                                

     6.  Summary and Conclusions                                                                   

           References                                                                                                               

           Index          

Author Details

Dilip K. Chakrabarti (1941) is Emeritus Professor of South Asian Archaeology at Cambridge University, and Editor of the eleven-volume series ‘A History of Ancient India’ sponsored by the Vivekananda International Foundation and Aryan Books International. His academic career spans 45 years (1963-2008) in Calcutta (1963-1977), Delhi (1977-1990), Visvabharati (1980-81), Jahangirnagar (1988-1990) and Cambridge (1990-2008) Universities, and also other institutions (Allahabad, Banaras, Cambridge, Edinburgh, Tehran, USA, Paris and Armidale) where he received short-term fellowships and awards. His independent archaeological field-research has encompassed the Kangra valley, the whole of the Chhotanagpur plateau, the entire alluvial belt between Bengal and Panjab, the routes which linked the Ganga plain with the Deccan, the routes which covered the Deccan and the southern peninsula up to Cape Comorin, Rajasthan, and southern Uttarakhand. It is doubtful if anybody after Alexander Cunningham in the 19th century has so far been more familiar with India's archaeological landscape than him. He has authored 31 books (2 in Bengali) and edited 18 more volumes (4 in press), in addition to 200-odd articles and reviews. He was awarded Padma Shri in 2019. He received V.S. Wakankar rashtriya samman of Madhya Pradesh government, Gurudev Ranade award of the Indian Archaeological Society, S.N. Chakrabarti medal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and Senerath Paranavitana award of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. He also received D.Litt. (Honoris causa) of M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly.                                                                         

The book is a tour de force and must be read by all students of civilization studies and should adorn all libraries of all academic institutions of the world.

I have read through the book carefully and am deeply impressed by the profundity of thoughts of Prof. Dilip K. Chakrabarti ji. At the outset, I should state that like Rabindranath Tagore and Sister Nivedita (Margaret E. Noble), I am not a professional historian as Prof. Dilip defines the title, but a student of Bhāratiya civilization studies.

This remarkable work of Prof Dilip K. Chakrabarti which also includes 11 pages of free translation of Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore's Bhāratavarsher Itihās (pages 251 to 263). The critique of Tagore is valid even today for all Indian history books brought out so far because these books are not Peoples' History of Bhāratam Janam (3.53.12). The problem of Ancient Indian History is made more problematic and contentious because of the failures to decipher the over 9000 inscriptions of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization in Indus Script Corpora which are the primary sources of Peoples' History of those times of the civilization. 

In the 398 page work, 11 pages stand out; they are a free translation of the essay by Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore (1903) titled in Bengali Bhāratavarsher Itihās (History of Bhāratavarsha).

The word Bharata comes from Rgveda 3.53.12:

ya ime rodasī ubhe aham indram atuṣṭavam |

viśvāmitrasya rakṣati brahmedam bhārataṃ janam ||

Translation (Wilson):  I have made Indra glorified by these two, heaven and earth, and this prayer of Viśvāmitra protects the people of Bhārata. [Made Indra glorified: indram atuṣṭavam-- the verb is the third preterite of the casual, I have caused to be praised; it may mean: I praise Indra, abiding between heaven and earth, i.e. in the firmament]. 

Unfortunately, most Indian history books do not present a history of bhārataṃ janam.

I suggest that a true test of any history book of any period in civilizational history is to focus on the question: Does the book cover Peoples' history, the history of bhārataṃ janam ?

A close review of the table of contents of the book shows that the author has attempted a comprehensive simhāvalokanam, 'perspective view' of the attempts at writing the Ancient History of India.

The very fact that we use the term India instead of Bhāratam is an indicator of the critiques made by the author on the failures of many historians. It is in this context, his reference to two non-professional historians, Rabindranath Tagore and Sister Nivedita is most appropriate. He has a lot to say about the so-called professional historians, citing Arun Shourie's audit report on "Eminent Historians", and their prejudices and predelictions which have rendered their attempts at narrating Civilizational story of bhārataṃ janam a highly subjective enterprise to divide the nation. The author finds no merit in the criticism by the marxist historians of the work by historians whom they term 'nationalists' -- historians such as RC Majumdar. The author presents an overview of the recent attempt under the aegis of Vivekananda International Foundation to narrate the Series 'History of Ancient India' (pages 339 to 346) covering the chronological span from the earliest time to 13th century. Todate, 11 volumes have been published in the series (Vols. 1 to 5 edited by Dilip K. Chakrabarti and Makkhan Lal; Vols. 6 to 11 edited by Dilip K. Chakrabarti). Do these volumes remedy the negative or distorted portrayals in other Ancient History Books? The jury is still out. The author narrates an anecdote about one professor who had contributed on political history walking out of the inaugural book release function stating that he looks upon the work as sponsored by Hindu nationalist BJP Government. This is not true; the work is brought out by VIF which gave full academic freedom to the authors to narrate their versions of ancient history.

I agree with the author that his contribution through the edited magnum opus released in 11 volumes so far is a remarkable documentation of Ancient History: "As far as the richnes and regional tapestries of protohistoric India are concerned, no other published volume comes even close to this publication which also has on the model of Volume I, a detailed section of site reports."(p.341)

The author has definitive views on the limited contributions that philology can make to historical narratives and on the importance of documentary material of inscriptions and coins: "The point is that if we examine the availability of historical sources area by area -- say, on the district-level throughout the subcontinent -- we shall simply be amazed by the lack of documentary material inclusive of inscriptions and coins...scholars...were well aware that the lack of our historical sources is a great desideratum in the writing of a detailed history of ancient India. This must be the reason why they did not bother to follow the lines of investigation suggested, as we have earlier shown, by thinkers like Tagore and Sister Nivedita. It is not a question whether the ancient Indians had a historical sense or not. There is no reason to stree that the sense of Hindu history was different or the Hindu sense of time was different too. Such philosophical questions are irrelevant in the present context as are the increasingly popular 'deconstructionist' literary approach to some ancient texts."(p.292)

Thus, the author clearly disagrees with the views of Vishwa Adluri who, in the context of his work on Mahābhārata,  has coined the term 'Nay Science' to describe the indologists' mocking of the Great Epics as fairy-tales and of no value to understand the Peoples' History.

I reproduce some excerpts from Tagore's Bhāratavarsher Itihās (1903) rendered in free translation by Dilip K. Chakrabarti to highlight the fact that all history books are failures since they fail to narrate Peoples' History: "...the history of Bharatavarsha that we read and memorize for examinations is only something like a bad dream. Some people appear all of a sudden from somewhere and begin to fight and kill, the occupation of throne being the centre of the struggle between father and son and between brothers. One group may disappear but another comes in, and with the coming of the Pathans and the Moghuls, the Portuguese, the French and the English, the dream gets increasingly complex. In the read-hued image of Bharatavarsha suggested by this sequence of drams, one does not know where to look for the real land. This type of history-writing does not have any relationship with the real inhabitants of India, as if they do not exist; only those who have fought and killed among themselves to occupy her throne are real...A few people will surely emerge from the newly educated community and resolve not to make teaching a commodity to sell will accept is as a family profession...They will set up centres tools of modern learning in different parts of the country...I firmly believe that Bengal give birth to a few gurus of this type despite the English mercantile royalty's example and lesson. " (p. 251 to 263)

If such a dream has to be fulfilled, I believe that Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization inscriptions have to be studied, together with myriad symbols on punch-marked and ancient cast coins from mints all over Bhāratam, the Greater India and narrate the journeys and lives of Ancient Bhāratiyas, millions of artisans and seafaring merchants traversing the Indian Ocean and navigating the Himalayan navigable waterways, from Hanoi to Haifa contributing to the wealth of the commonwealth of Bhārata Nation. The narration of two great wars and the people named as involved in these wars narrated in Rgveda with the locus of Saptasindhavah 'the seven rivers, Sindhu, Sarasvati and the Panchanad' -- the dvidaśarājna and daśarājna are as important as any other narratives and should not be ignored just because they are philology and because they do not give a 'chronological detailed account'. Many Bhāratiya trace their roots to these combatants engaged in conflicts to control wealth resources around Hariyupiya (Harappa).

I submit that since the Indus Script has been deciphered, we add over 9000 inscriptions to Epigraphia Indica and can use the primary resources, together with the Indus Script hieroglyphs on millions of ancient coins -- which continue the writing tradition -- to unravel what the People of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization and later in regions of mints all over the subcontinent were conveying about their life-activirties in creating the wealth of a nation. Over 2100 monographs at https://independent.academia.edu/SriniKalyanaraman including Indian Lexicon of over 25 Ancient Bhāratiya languages. This narration of the creation of the wealth of a nation governed by dharma is Peoples' History, in my opinion.

S. Kalyanaraman,Ph.D., D.Litt.

Sarasvarti Research Centre

https://tinyurl.com/y63jc4ry

--a hypothesis is posited on auditory-vision cortex networks of the human brain resulting in visual language networks which lead to the innovation and evolution of a writing system

--the hypothesis is premised on a process: when a word is uttered or heard, a visual language network is formed in auditory-vision cortex networks; writing system is an attempt to archive the visual language words/expressions in two or three dimensions, on inscriptions or sculptural friezes

--an epileptic seizure results when the auditory-vision cortex networks of hippocampus are clogged

"Humans and other mammals have two hippocampi, one in each side of the brain. The hippocampus is part of the limbic system, and plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory, and in spatial memory that enables navigation. The hippocampus is located under the cerebral cortex in the allocortex, and in primates it is in the medial temporal lobe. It contains two main interlocking parts: the hippocampus proper and the dentate gyrus."

Posterior and inferior cornua of left lateral ventricle exposed from the side

Oxford English Dictionary defines rebus as a combination of pictures and letters which represent a word or phrase whose meaning has to be guessed with an illustration; a similar reading CANNOT be achieved in languages other than English; thus, hieroglyphs or picture-writing are specific to the scribe's spoken language; Indus Script hieroglyphs relate to Meluhha, Bhāratiya sprachbund, 'speech or language union':

"The idea that symbols could be used to represent the sounds of a language rather than represent real objects, is known as the rebus principle and is one of the most significant ancient discoveries leading to the development of writing.  Not only did this principle apply to the development of the Ancient Egyptian written language, but it was also the precursor to the development of the alphabets used in modern languages as well. A rebus is a message spelt out in pictures that represents sounds rather than the things they are pictures of." -- Donald Rose

https://egyptologyman.wordpress.com/2011/02/17/the-rebus-principle/

Similar sounding words are called homonyms. It is a characteristic feature of Indian languages that there are many homonyms in every language or dialect. For e.g. kunda 'lathe', kunda 'fine gold'; kole.l 'smithy, forge', kole.l 'temple'; kuṭhāru 'monkey', kuṭhāru 'armourer'; kuṭi 'tree' kuṭhi 'smelter'. This feature led to the invention of rebus method in a messaging or writing system which we have labeled Indus Script or Mlecchita vikalpa 'alternative form of writing or messaging or cipher of mleccha 'copper' workers' mentioned as an art by Vātsyāyana in Vidyā samuddeśa 'objective of learning' by youth.  

Since the scribe has NOT yet invented syllabic writing, but writing or visible language is necessary for long-distance communication between the Meluhha scribe and receiving Meluhha sales agent, the scribe uses hieroglyphs to convey messages in Indus Script writing. 

We have to explain why rebus cipher is used to relate the hieroglyph to two words: 1. word signifying the hieroglyph (in the written alternative form or mlecchita vikalpa, 'meluhha cipher'), say, khoṇḍa 'unicorn' or  kaṇḍa 'pot'; 2. words signifying similar sounding words, koṇḍa 'fire altar' or  kaṇḍa 'equipment'. 

Hypertext of overflowing pot is interpreted as a source of abundance, prosperity.         

T

In Meluhha Bhāratiya sprachbund, 'language union', overflowing pot is read rebus as lokhaṇḍa'metal equipment', a wealth resource accounted in Indus Script accounting ledgers.

I submit that the rebus cipher is related to the way brain links auditory cortex with vision cortex while recognizing or remembering a heard 'word' or related, seen 'image'.

.
T

 A neuroscience hypothesis is posited. When a Meluhhan scribe inscribes OR receives an Indus script inscription, say, on a seal, the hieroglyphs evoke a visual image related to the hieroglyph as a visual record in vision cortex and, simultaneously, as an auditory record --related to the hieroglyph or image-- in the auditory cortex; a similar sounding word is triggered in the auditory cortex.

If the scribe and receiver of the hieroglyphs are both Meluhha speakers, the images recollected/registered in the vision cortex and the auditory cortex records are linked to result in rebus reading of the intended Meluhha spoken words conveyed by the scribe. 

ā

 

The translation of the cuneiform text on the Obelisk clearly indicates that the Akkadian scribe DID NOT know the Meluhha words, but simply translated into Akkadian, the hieroglyphs into pictures while recognizing that the hieroglyphs signified tributes from Musri to Shalamaneser III. For e.g., he did not know the specific names of monkeys including the word for a monkey dressed as a woman; he simply called them monkeys, apes. All the hieroglyphs result in understanding of specific tributes when the hieroglyphs are read rebus in Meluhha: karabha 'camel' rebus: karba 'iron', rango 'water buffalo' rebus: rango 'pewter'; singhin khoṇḍa 'forward-thrusting, spiny horned young bull' rebus: singi koṇḍa 'ornament gold, sacred fire altar'; ranku 'antelope' rebus: ranku 'antelope' ibha 'elephant' rebus: ib iron'; 

Four types of monkey hieroglyphs: mūhū 'monkey, langur, baboon' rebus: mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes;  iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; kuṭhāru 'monkey' rebus: 'armourer';  देवजी or देवजीधसाडा   dēvajī or dēvajīdhasāḍā or ड्या m A name given to the male monkey (in monkey-sports) which is accoutred as a man; தேவாங்கு² tēvāṅku , n. perh. தேய்¹- + aṅga. [T. dēvāṅgi.] Lemur, the Indian sloth, Loris gracilis, considered to be very thinly built rebus: தேவாங்கு¹ tēvāṅku , n. prob. id. [K. dēvāṅga.] Embroidered cloth of superior quality; வேலைப்பாடு அமைந்த துகில்வகை. (பிங்.) (சிலப். 14, 108, உரை.); रत्नी  ratnī 'female monkey dressed as woman' rebus: रत्निन् 'possessing or receiving gifts'. रतन   ratana n (Corr. from रत्न S) A gem or jewel. रत्न   ratna n (S) A gem, a jewel, a precious stone.

The visual cortex recalls the 'forward-thrusting, spiny-horned young bull' and triggers the related auditory cortex signifier: khoṇḍa; this trigger is linked to the new word learnt  koṇḍa which signifies 'fire trench with live coals, agnikuṇḍa, sacred fire altar'. Similarly, the overflowing pot recalls the remembered image and triggers two auditory cortex signifiers: lo 'overflow' and  kaṇḍa 'pot'. The words lo, kaṇḍa are linked to the new expression learnt: lokhaṇḍa 'iron equipment' (which can only be vaguely imaged in the visual cortex, unlike the overflowing pot which has a definite geometric form which is registered in the memory section of the visual cortex. 

On the other hand, a non-Meluhha, say, Akkadian speaker will just record 'unicorn', 'overflowing pot' in his Akkadian speech words and realise their significance only when the Akkadian receives the associated metalwork equipment.  This explains why the Shalamaneser III Black obelisk shows Indus Script hieroglyphs in a four-segment register as signifiers of tributes of wealth resources. Thus, the cuneiform text (translation) records the Akkadian names for the hieroglyphs and calls the set of hieroglyphs 'tributes'. Similarly, Gudea carrying an over-flowing pot is interpreted as a symbol of abundance, prosperity --- an abstract notion.

Two comparable experiments are excerpted below: 

Experiment 1

Experiment 2

After learning new words, brain sees them as images by Georgetown University Medical Center MARCH 24, 2015

When we look at a known word, our brain sees it like a picture, not a group of letters needing to be processed. That's the finding from a Georgetown University Medical Center (GUMC) study published in the Journal of Neuroscience, which shows the brain learns words quickly by tuning neurons to respond to a complete word, not parts of it.

Neurons respond differently to real words, such as turf, than to nonsense words, such as turt, showing that a small area of the brain is "holistically tuned" to recognize complete words, says the study's senior author, Maximilian Riesenhuber, PhD, who leads the GUMC Laboratory for Computational Cognitive Neuroscience.

"We are not recognizing words by quickly spelling them out or identifying parts of words, as some researchers have suggested. Instead, neurons in a small brain area remember how the whole word looks—using what could be called a visual dictionary," he says.

This small area in the brain, called the visual word form area, is found in the left side of the visual cortex, opposite from the fusiform face area on the right side, which remembers how faces look. "One area is selective for a whole face, allowing us to quickly recognize people, and the other is selective for a whole word, which helps us read quickly," Riesenhuber says.

The study asked 25 adult participants to learn a set of 150 nonsense words. The brain plasticity associated with learning was investigated with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), both before and after training.

Using a specific fMRI technique know as fMRI-rapid adaptation, the investigators found that the visual word form area changed as the participants learned the nonsense words. Before training the neurons responded like the training words were nonsense words, but after training the neurons responded to the learned words like they were real words. "This study is the first of its kind to show how neurons change their tuning with learning words, demonstrating the brain's plasticity," says the study's lead author, Laurie Glezer, PhD.

The findings not only help reveal how the brain processes words, but also provides insights into how to help people with reading disabilities, says Riesenhuber. "For people who cannot learn words by phonetically spelling them out—which is the usual method for teaching reading—learning the whole word as a visual object may be a good strategy."

In fact, after the team's first groundbreaking study on the visual dictionary was published in Neuron in 2009, Riesenhuber says they were contacted by a number of people who had experienced reading difficulties and teachers helping people with reading difficulties, reporting that learning word as visual objects helped a great deal. That study revealed the existence of a neural representation for whole written real words—also known as an orthographic lexicon —the current study now shows how novel words can become incorporated after learning in this lexicon.

"The visual word form area does not care how the word sounds, just how the letters of the word look together," he says. "The fact that this kind of learning only happens in one very small part of the brain is a nice example of selective plasticity in the brain,"

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2015-03-words-brain-pictures.html

Notes on Akkadian/Sumerian expressions for 'overflowing pot'

bàra, pàra, bàr, pàr[DAG]; para₄, par₄[KISAL]: to stretch or spread out; to pass over; to be stretched or spread out (cf., bárag) (interchanges with búru) (ba, 'to apportion, divide', + ra(-g/h), 'to overflow'; cf. compound word, ba-ra(-g)) [BARA₃ archaic frequency: 13].

^dugšab: pot; pail; vessel

dug: standard size earthen jar, pot, jug, vessel, = 30 liters (sìla), except at Presargonic Girsu = 20 liters [DUG archaic frequency: 581; concatenates 5 sign variants].

sìla, sìl, šál: measure of capacity, liter = 0.842 modern liters in the Neo-Sumerian period; measuring pot (si₁₄, 'a small pot', + lá, 'to weigh'; but cp. also, sal, 'uterus') [SILA₃ archaic frequency: 57; concatenates 3 sign variants].

lùm[DUG]: a small drinking pot.

bur: meal, repast; stone bowl, pot (cf., búru) (ba, 'portion, rations, open container', + úr, 'lap, thighs, legs') [BUR archaic frequency: 51; concatenation of 4 sign variants].

kisi: chamber pot (kàš, 'urine', + si₁₄, 'a small pot').

zal[NI]: n., supply.

v., to be full or abundant; to flow; to continue; to pass, elapse (said about time); to spend the day; to tarry, wait (often with -ni-; with -ta- in a temporal sense) (cf., zalag) (za,'monotonous repetition' + numerous).

zum: to leak, seep, overflow (repetitive motion + closed container; cf., zal, 'to flow', and zar, zur₄, 'to spout, flow').

^(urudu)gur_10,14; ur₄: n., copper sickle (semi-circle + flowing motion).

^urudulub(-bi): an ax for use in agriculture or as a weapon.

^(iš/urudu)mar, ar₇: n., wagon; winnowing shovel; spoon (ma₍₃₎; á,'to go', + flowing motion; Akk. marru "shovel; spade"; Orel & Stolbova #1738 *mar- 'hoe') [MAR archaic frequency: 117; concatenates 2 sign variants].

šur, sur: to rain; to produce a liquid; to flow, drip; to extract seed oil; to process wine and juices; to press (out); to spray out; to brew (beer); to submerge; to flash, gleam (šu, 'to pour' + to flow; cf., še_3,7).

zar, zur₄, sur₈: to tap, pour; to spout, flow; to exude; to spin (a cocoon) (cf. the graphically similar sign, sug₈) (repetitive motion + to flow) [? ZAR archaic frequency: 15; concatenates 4 sign variants].

géme, éme(?): woman; workwoman; maid; slave-girl (eš, 'tool', + mí, 'woman').

íri, ír: n., knife, dagger, sword; thorn; scorpion; lightning flash; road; expedition, trip (iš, 'tool', + ra, 'to strike, stab, slay' with vowel harmony) [GIR₂ archaic frequency: 114].

v., to stab; to fulgurate, lighten, flash.

iš, eš: n., tree; wood; wooden implement; scepter; tool; organ; plow; natural phenomenon (describes a trunk that goes out into many branches and leaves) [GIŠ archaic frequency: 381].

adj., describes an animal assigned to the plow (sometimes iš-šè).

kug, kù: n., silver; precious metal; money; noble (ku, 'to base, build' + aga₍₃₎, 'diadem, circlet, crown') [KU₃ archaic frequency: 181; concatenates 3 sign variants].

v., to cleanse, purify; to make cultically pure.

adj., bright, pure; white; sacred, holy.

dalla: n., beam, ray (cf., dálla, 'needle' when made with a bright metal).

v., to be or make bright; to shine.

adj., conspicuous; excellent.

dálla, dála: needle (da, 'to hold', + lá, 'to pierce').

har, àr, ur₅: n., millstone; ring; link (in a chain); coil or spiral of silver or other precious metal that can be worn as a ring or bracelet and was used as money (cf., kín, kikkin, hara, ara_3,5, ur₅) (many small explosions + sliding motion) [UR₅ archaic frequency: 34; concatenation of 2 sign variants].

hara₅: spout; vessel with a large spout (ha, precative prefix, + ra, 'to branch out from the side of').

https://www.sumerian.org/sumcvc.htm

Among the trinity of Hindu Gods, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, Vishnu is considered to be the sustainer and protector of the universe. According to Vaishnavism or Dvaita philosophy, Vishnu is the supreme soul, the genesis, the end, and the in-between. In the Vaishnava Puranas, the etymology of the word Vishnu has been derived from the prefix vish which means, to enter.  This suggests Vishnu as the entering or pervading entity into the universe which has its roots in the Vedic texts.

Vishnu in the Holy Texts

Strangely, Vishnu hasn’t been mentioned often in the Vedas. In the Rigveda, he is mainly  the Sun God, taking three steps across the world (Trivikrama), during the rise, mid-day and setting of the Sun. He is also associated with Indra and with Agni. In the Brahmana texts and the Upanishads one can easily observe the importance given to Vishnu since he is described as the sacrificial entity or Yagyapurusha. 

During the Puranic period; possibly somewhere around 5th – 6th CE, we see the foundation of the well-defined Vishnu cult in India. Vishnu gained importance during this period; he was promoted as the Protector and Sustainer of the universe. The Puranas – Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma and Varaha – are the Vaishnava Puranas where we can find many stories associated with Vishnu and his various forms.

In the Vedic literature we see two phases of Vishnu; earlier as Aditya or Sun God and later as the sacrificial entity possessing the forms of Agni and Aditya altogether. The rise of Puranic literature helped in forming the strong and well defined Vaishnav cult where Vishnu gained so much importance that he was identified as the all-pervading Brahma or Parabrahma.

Iconographies of Vishnu across India

The early iconographic representations of Vishnu are from the Kushana period (1st to 3rd century CE) and majority of them are found in the area of Mathura which is even now a strong and living Vaishnava center. After the Kushanas, the Guptas officially promoted Vaishnavism and thus helped build many Vishnu temples. The basics of the Vishnu iconography for the later centuries were established in the Gupta period (3rd to 5th century CE). 

A unique feature of Vaishnavism is the Avataravada or the incarnation theory. It probably began early and kept on developing until the 13th century or so. The famously known Vishnu Avataras are: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki. In some regions such as Kalinga and Southern India instead of Buddha, Balarama was names among the avatars. Apart from these incarnations, we also see Hari-Hara, Vishnu-Surya, Dhanvantari, Yoga-Narayana, Hayagriva, twenty-four forms such as Keshava, Madhava, Narayana, Govinda, etc. which are also considered as incarnations. Interestingly almost all these incarnations are represented in sculpture and paintings and well documented in ancient to medieval period texts on iconography and architecture. 

In the early phases of depiction, we see an evolution from  the Kushana Vishnu to the Gupta Vishnu. The Kushana Vishnu iconography featured Shankha, Chakra, Gada and Varada Hasta (boon-giving gesture) as the God’s attributes. This iconography underwent some modifications during the  Gupta period when  Gada, Shankha, Chakra and a Fruit. After the Gupta period we see a more artistic and composite image of Vishnu in which the fourth hand was  replaced by a rosary bead or lotus among the permanent attributes. In early iconography, Vishnu was most probably shown as a singular figure or with his Vyuha incarnations such as Pradyumna, Aniruddha, Balarama, etc. but in the post-Gupta period he  was always accompanied by his associates such as Lakshmi, Garuda and Sheshanaga. Thus, the definitive Vishnu iconography came into existence incorporating various elements attested in Vaishnavism since many centuries. 

Chaturvyuha Vishnu, Kushan Period (Source: Mathura Museum)

Chaturvyuha Vishnu idol from Mathura museum which belongs to the Kushana period is regarded as the oldest example of Vishnu iconography. It has Vasudeva-Krishna as the central figure with Balarama, Aniruddha and Pradyumna (lost figure) emerging from it. The idol is however broken but it is considered as an important sculptural testimony to Vaishnavism and its expansion in its earlier phases. 

Anantashayan Vishnu, Gupta Period, Deogarh, Madhya Pradesh (Source: Arnold Betten)

From the Gupta period we have the famous panels of the Vishnu temple at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh. The Anantashayi Vishnu, Vishnu sleeping on Ananta snake, perhaps is the most spectacular sculpture from the Gupta period. In Deogarh, Vishnu is accompanied by Brahma, Indra, Lakshmi, Shiva-Parvati and Kartikeya. 

Gajendra Moksha, Gupta Period, Deogarh, Madhya Pradesh (Source: Wikipedia)

Another spectacular panel from the same temple is the Gajendra-Moksha. In this panel, an elephant is depicted praying for help with a lotus flower wrapped in its trunk, while it is being strangled by the Nagas. Vishnu is shown flying on Garuda to liberate the elephant from its plight using his mighty Sudarshana Chakra. 

Bhu-Varaha, Gupta Period, Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh (Source: Jean Peiree)

Again from the same period comes a beautiful and impressive Bhu-Varaha panel situated at Udayagiri caves in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh where Varaha, the man-boar incarnation of Vishnu is depicted  rescuing Goddess Earth (Bhudevi) from the depth of the cosmic ocean. In the background we observe various carved figurines consisting of sages, Shiva, Brahma, twelve Adityas, etc.

Anantashayi Vishnu, Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu (Source: Purattatva.in)

In Southern India, during the Chalukya and Pallava periods  (6th-7thcentury CE) some beautiful Vaishnava panels were carved at the site of Badami, Mamallapuram and Kanchipuram. Bhu-Varaha and Anantashayi panels at Mamallapuram caves are some of the praiseworthy bas-reliefs carved during that period. Among them the Anantashayi Vishnu is where the relaxed pose of Vishnu is depicted, with his right hand stretched out of the snake bed. 

Legend of Narsimha, Vaikunth Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram (Source: Sriram MT)

The Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram also contains many panels around the inner enclosure depicting the various stories of the Vaishnav Puranas. 

Another important site is Badami, where the Chalukya sculptors crafted various Vaishnava images inside the caves. The famous Vaikuntha Vishnu and Trivikrama panels are among the most beautifully carved images seen in southern India. Trivikrama is being shown with multiple hands holding various attributes to evoke Virata-rupa or the magnificent form. Below one can see Vamana holding a small umbrella getting a  boon for performing the three famous steps from King Mahabali.  

Trivikrama, Badami, Karnataka (Source: Wikipedia)

The varied iconography of Vishnu from an early period illustrates the development and spread of Vaishnava sampradaya, its many  branches and its influence all over the Indian subcontinent. It reflects religious texts as well as regional beliefs. Studying the evolution and local variations in the artistic representations of Vishnu will contribute significantly to our understanding of the evolution and dissemination of Hindu scriptures. The diversity of India in terms of art, culture, and regional beliefs is interestingly reflected in the Vaishnava iconography which is an important part of Indian art history.

https://chintan.indiafoundation.in/articles/the-iconography-of-vishnu/

https://tinyurl.com/y5hh69qo 

This write-up is being presented in a series of articles with a number of proofs by way of Maps, figures and Photos in Two Volumes. Volume-1 deals with the Scientific Evidences for understanding the truth about “LEMURIA OR KUMARI KANDAM – A FACT OR FICTION”, while Volume-2 will deal with what are stated in Tamil Sangam texts on the loss of lands of ancient Pandiyan Kingdom due to sea deluges and will attempt at reconstruction of the lost lands based on a scientific analysis which I would call as ‘Literary Geo-Archaeological Studies’.

With this background, if you follow my presentations, they will be useful in your understanding. The Heading of the write-up is “LEMURIA OR KUMARI KANDAM – A FACT OR FICTION”

The various Chapters included in Volume-1 are –

1.PART – I – Lemuria.

2.PART- II A- Kumari Kandam From Maps.

3.PART- III. A–1 GEOSCIENTIFIC DATA RELATED TO Kumari Kandam – General Principles of Plate Tectonics – Splitting of Super Continent Pangea and Break-up of Gondwanaland into South America-Africa – Madagascar-Antarctica – Australia-India. Examples of Present day Palate Tectonic activities – (a) splitting of Africa, 

(b) Formation of Spreading centre in Andaman Sea, separation of India and Australia 

4.Part-III.A-2 GEOSCIENTIFIC DATA RELATED TO Kumari Kandam continued. 

Third example of active plate separation in another plate-tectonic setting, viz,along the San Andreas Transform Fault, California  

1.PART- III.B 1(i) and III.B 1(ii) – Causes and Effects Leading to Submergence - Causes and Effects of Plate Tectonics – Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes - Seismic activities, volcanic eruption and any fault movements in coastal regions of South India and their off-shore area –( Faults along East coast of South India – Faults along West Coast of South India) – Tsunamies.

2.PART- III B2– Causes and Effects Leading to Submergence—Continued – Alternate Hypothesis – Asteroid Impacts

3.PART- III.B3 – Causes and Effects Leading to Submergence—Continued - Formation and disappearance of new Lands / Islands in the Seas

4.PART- III.B4 -– Causes and Effects Leading to Submergence—Continued - ISLANDS AND SEA MOUNTS WITHIN INDIAN OCEAN - Fragments of continental blocks / Micro-continents - BURIED RIDGES OF VOLCANIC ISLANDS AND SEA MOUNT CHAINS - Other Aseismic ridges and Islands – ( 85 East ridge - Afanasy Nikitin Seamount (ANS)- Comorin ridge).

5.PART- III.C1 and III.C 2– Causes and Effects Leading to Submergence—Continued - SEA LEVEL CHANGES.

6.Summary and Conclusions.

CONCLUSIONS

We complete Volume-1 of the presentation on Kumari Kandam with these 11 articles using many of the geo-scientific principles and evidences. Taking all the conclusions arrived at in the above 11 articles, the following HOLISTIC conclusions could be arrived at –

A. Sangam literatures mention only about the loss of lands due to deluges related to sea and NOT about any loss or submergence of a land mass of Continent / Kandam.

B. Sangam literature mention about mainly three aspects about the loss of Pandiyan lands due to deluges - (a) They were lost to the sea. (b) The loss was unexpected and sudden such that survivors could not take their important belongings with them, which included the Tamil Sangam litererary works. (c) The deluge had happened twice at least after a gap of many thousands of years.

C. If we relate these three aspects to the different forces of nature such as major Volcanic Eruptions, Earthquakes, Faults, Tsunamis etc that would have caused the calamities, we will find that all the forces discussed in this and previous chapters may fulfil these results, except the asteroid impacts. It is difficult to imagine that asteroid impacts had happened repeatedly at the same location of Indian Ocean. Similarly, the Seal Level Rises due to warming up of earth will not be sudden and will be slow and gradual and people could have moved to higher locations taking all their valuable belongings. Tsunamis may strike very suddenly, but on withdrawal, the lands affected by the calamity will emerge back from the ocean.

D. It was proved that the natural forces can affect and only bring about huge destruction of properties and loss of lives and that too only in localised places. They cannot bring about the complete submergence / subsidence and sinking of any continent sized land. It is only these visible devastations of loss of lives and properties had made the minds of people to believe that a continent could have been completely affected by these forces and lost in the ocean.

E. Studies of sea level changes during Last Ice Age had proved only a small strip of coastal lands around Kanyakumari could have been submerged in the sea during the deluges. This land could be only within the Continental Shelf.

F. We had also noted that there are no indications of any past large scale volcanic eruptions, earthquakes of high magnitude, asteroid impacts etc affecting the vicinity of southern Tamil Nadu / Pandiyan kingdom. NO WHERE IN SANGAM LITRATURE ALSO, THERE IS ANY MENTION OF SUCH TYPE OF ACTIVITIES AFFECTING THE KUMARI LAND.

G. The loss of such a strip of land may be attributed to the combined forces of Tsunamis coupled with coastal faulting that would have submerged this piece of land during Sangam period, at least during two occasions.

H. It is stressed that these above scientific conclusions are restricted to prove that the existence of a large continent called Kumari Kandam made up of Madagacar-India-Australia Triangle (MIAT) was not based on Facts but appears to be a Fiction.

I. These conclusions in no way take away the truths mentioned in Sangam literatures about the loss of land due to sea deluges. The antiquity of Tamil as a Classical language and of the culture, heritage and Tamil Civilisation are in no way diminished or negated from these conclusions.

J. Having thus firmly established that only a narrow strip of coastal land as the extent of the land lost by the ancient Pandiyan kings during Sangam period, in our next chapters in Volume-2 of the presentation on Kumari Land, let us turn our attention to the Sangam literature to examine the details of lands lost to the sea as mentioned therein. With the use of the details of geographical features of land, hills and mountains, rivers and cities, let us attempt to redefine and re-build / reconstruct the ancient Pandiya kingdom of Sangam period.

 https://tinyurl.com/yxpu2evz

Meaning of Dharma in all Bhāratiya languages

Dharma is understood in all Bharatiya languages.

In Tamil, the phonetic variation is aram. Ta. aṟam moral or religious duty, virtue, dharma, Yama; aṟavaṉ one who is virtuous, god, Buddha, ascetic, etc.; aṟavi virtue, that which is holy, female ascetic; aṟaviya virtuous; aṟaviyāṉ virtuous man; aṟaṉ sacrificer. Ma. aṟam

law, dharma. Ka. aṟa, aṟu virtue, charity, alms, law, dharma, Yama. ? (DEDR 311)

In Pali, the phonetic variant is dhamma.

dhārmá ʻ relating to dharma ʼ ŚBr. [dhárma -- ]
S. dhāmo m. ʻ one person's share in a feast, invitation ʼ; P. dhāmmā, dhāmã̄ m. ʻ great feast, invitation to a Brahman to a feast ʼ; K.kash. WPah.paṅ. jaun. dhām ʻ feast ʼ; G. dhāmɔ m. ʻ long and continuous stay as a guest ʼ. -- Pa. Pk. dhamma -- ʻ righteous ʼ rather < dharmya -- (CDIAL 6796)

dhárma m. ʻ what is established, law, duty, right ʼ AV. [dhárman -- n. RV. -- √dhr̥]
Pa. dhamma -- m. (rarely n.), Aś.shah. man. dhrama -- , gir. kāl. &c. dhaṁma -- ; NiDoc. dham̄a ʻ employment in the royal administration ʼ; Dhp. dharma -- , dhama -- , Pk. dhamma -- m.; OB. dhāma ʻ religious conduct ʼ; H. kāmdhām ʻ work, business ʼ; OSi. dama ʻ religion ʼ (Si. daham ← Pa.).(CDIAL 6753)

So, let us talk about formation and evolution of Bharatiya languages and the spread.

Let us see how Mon-Khmer languages evolved from Santali, Munda, Savara, Austro-Asiatic Languages.

I request members to contribute such common words in each Bharatiya language and their pronunciation variants in other languages of Bharatam Janam.

Darmaha ‘wages, pay’ (Santali)

Dhorma korma monten senlena ‘I went with little expectation’ (Santali)

Dhorma korma ‘without assurance, with little expectation, on chance’(Santali)

ଧରମ— Dharama [synonym(s): ধরম धरम] ଗ୍ରା. (ପଦ୍ୟ) ବି (ସଂ. ଧର୍ମ)— ଧର୍ମ (ଦେଖ) Dharma ଧରମକରମ— Dharama karama [synonym(s): ধরমকরম घरमकरम] ଗ୍ରା. ବି(ସଂ. ଧର୍ମଓକର୍ମ) ଧର୍ମ— Dharma (ଧର୍ମ୍ମ—ଅନ୍ୟରୂପ) ସଂ. ବି. (ଧୃଧାତୁ=ପୋଷଣକରିବା+କର୍ତ୍ତୃ. ମ; ୟାହାସଂସାରକୁବାଲୋକମାନଙ୍କୁଧାରଣକରେବାପୋଷଣକରେ)— 1।କର୍ତ୍ତବ୍ଯକର୍ମ— Duty. 2।ସଦନୁଷ୍ଠାନ; ସତ୍କର୍ମ— 2. A good act; meritorious deed. 3।ଭାଗ୍ଯ—3. Fortune; luck. 4।ଶୁଭାଦୃଷ୍ଟ—Good fortune. 5।ପୁଣ୍ୟ—5. Virtue; piety.   ଧର୍ମକର୍ମ— Dharma karma (ଧର୍ମକର୍ଯ୍ୟ, ଧର୍ମକ୍ରିଯା, ଧର୍ମ୍ମକର୍ମ୍ମ—ଅନ୍ୟରୂପ) ସଂ. ବି (ମ. ପ.ଲୋ; ଧର୍ମ+କର୍ମ)— 1।ଧର୍ମାନୁଷ୍ଠାନ, ଧର୍ମାନୁମୋଦିତକ୍ରିଯାକର୍ମ—1. Religious observances; religious rites and ceremonies; performances of a relisious ritual. 2।ସଦନୁଷ୍ଠାନ; ଲୋକହିତକରକର୍ମ— 2. Meritorious act. virtuous act; act conducting to public good. (Oriya)

It is remarkable that in Oriya language the dharma-karma expression refers to meritorious act, virtuous act, act conducive to public good. This is the framework on which the tenets of dharma are expounded in Bharatiya itihāsa tradition.

ऋत r̥ta a. [ऋ-क्त] 1 Proper, right. -2 Honest, true; सर्वमेतदृतंमन्येयन्मांवदसिकेशव Bg.10.14; Ms.8.82. -3 Worshipped, respected. -4 Bright, luminous (दीप्त) 6 Truth (in general), right; ऋतंवदिष्यामि T. Up.1.1.1. ऋतानृते Ms.1.29, 2.52,8.61,104. -7 Truth (personified as an object of worship; in later Sanskrit regarded as a child of Dharma).धर्मः dharmaḥ [ध्रियतेलोकोऽनेन, धरतिलोकंवाधृ-मन्; cf. Uṇ 1. 137] 1 Religion; the customary observances of a caste, sect, &c. -2 Law, usage, practice, custom, ordinance, statue. -3 Religious or moral merit, virtue, righteousness, good works (regarded as one of the four ends of human existence); अनेनधर्मःसविशेषमद्यमेत्रिवर्ग- सारःप्रतिभातिभाविनि Ku.5.38, and see त्रिवर्ग also; एकएवसुहृद्धर्मोनिधनेऽप्यनुयातियः H.1.63. -4 Duty, prescribed course of conduct; षष्ठांशवृत्तेरपिधर्मएषः Ś.5.4; Ms.1.114. -5 Right, justice, equity, impartiality. -6 Piety, propriety, decorum. -7 Morality, ethics -8 Nature. disposition, character; उत्पत्स्यतेऽस्तिममकोऽपिसमानधर्मा Māl.1.6; प्राणि˚, जीव˚. -9 An essential quality, peculiarity, characteristic property, (peculiar) attribute; वदन्तिवर्ण्यावर्ण्यानांधर्मैक्यंदीपकंबुधाः Chandr.5.45; Pt.1.304. -10 Manner, resemblance, likeness. -11 A sacrifice. -12 Good company, associating with the virtuous -13> Devotion, religious abstraction. -14 Manner, mode. -15 An Upaniṣad q. v. -16 N. of Yudhiṣṭhira, the eldest Pāṇḍava. -17 N. of Yama, the god of death. -18 A bow. -19 A drinker of Soma juice. -20 (In astrol.) N. of the ninth lunar mansion. -21 An Arhat of the Jainas. -22 The soul. -23 Mastery, great skill; दिव्यास्त्रगुणसंपन्नःपरंधर्मंगतोयुधि Rām.3.31.15. -र्मम् A virtuous deed. -Comp. -अक्षरम् (pl.) holy mantras; a formula of faith; धर्माक्षराण्युदाहरामि Mk.8.45-46. -अङ्गः (-ङ्गा f.) the Indian crane. -अधर्मौ m. (du.) right and wrong, religion and irreligion; धर्माधर्मौसपदिगलितौपुण्यपापेविशीर्णे. ˚विद् m. a Mīmāṁsaka who knows the right and wrong course of action. -अधिकरणम् 1 administration of the laws. 1 a court of justice. (-णः) a judge. -अधिकरणिकः, -अधिकारिन् m. a judge, magistrate, any judicial functionary. -अधिकरणिन् m. a judge, magistrate. -अधिकारः 1 superintendence of religious affairs; Ś1. -2 administration of justice. -3 the office of a judge. -अधि- ष्ठानम् a court of justice. -अध्यक्षः 1 a judge. -2 an epithet of Viṣṇu. -अनुष्ठानम् acting according to religion, virtuous or moral conduct. -अनुसारः conformity to virtue or justice. -अपेत a. deviating from virtue, wicked, immoral, irreligious. (-तम्) vice, immorality, injustice. -अयनम् course of law, law-suit. -अरण्यम् a sacred or penance grove, a wood inhabited by ascetics; धर्मारण्यंप्रविशतिगजः Śi.1.32. -अर्थौः religious merit and wealth; धर्मार्थौयत्रनस्याताम् Ms.2.112. -अर्थम् ind. 1 for religious purposes. -2 justly, according to justice or right. -अलीक a. having a false character. -अस्तिकायः (with Jainas) the category or predicament of virtue; cf. अस्तिकाय. -अहन् Yesterday. -आगमः a religious statute, lawbook. -आचार्यः 1 a religious teacher. -2 a teacher of law or customs. -आत्मजः an epithet of Yudhiṣṭhira q. v. -आत्मता religiousmindedness; justice, virtue. -आत्मन् a. just righteous, pious, virtuous. (-m.) a saint, a pious man. -आश्रय, -आश्रित a. righteous, virtuous; धर्माश्रयंपापिनः (निन्दन्ति) Pt.1.415. -आसनम् the throne of justice, judgmentseat, tribunal; नसंभावितमद्यधर्मासनमध्यासितुम् Ś.6; धर्मासनाद्विशतिवासगृहंनरेन्द्रः U.1.7. -इन्द्रः, -ईशः an epithet of Yama; पितॄणामिवधर्मेन्द्रः Mb.7.6.6. -ईप्सु a. wishing to gain religious merit; Ms.10.127. -उत्तर a. 'rich in virtue,' chiefly characterized by justice, eminently just and impartial; धर्मोत्तरंमध्यममाश्रयन्ते R.13.7. -उपचायिन् a. religious; यच्चवःप्रेक्षमाणानांसर्व- धर्मोपचायिनाम् Mb.5.137.16. -उपदेशः 1 instruction in law or duty, religious or moral instruction. आर्षंधर्मोपदेशंचवेदशास्त्राविरोधिना।यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्तेसधर्मंवेदनेतरः॥ Ms.12.106. -2 the collective body of laws. -उपदेशकः 1 a teacher of the law. -2 a spiritual teacher, a Guru. -कथकः an expounder of law. -कर्मन् n., -कार्यम्, -क्रिया 1 any act of duty or religion, any moral or religious observance, a religious act or rite. -2 virtuous conduct. -कथादरिद्रः the Kali age. -काम a. 1 devoted to virtue. -2 observing duty or right. -कायः 1 an epithet of Buddha. -2 a Jaina saint. -कारणम् Cause of virtue. -कीलः 1 a grant, royal edict or decree. -2 husband. -कृत् a. observing duty, acting justly. (-m.) 1 N. of Viṣṇu. -2 a pious man. धर्मा- धर्मविहीनोऽपिधर्ममर्यादास्थापनार्थंधर्ममेवकरोतीतिधर्मकृत् Bhāg.-केतुः an epithet of Buddha. -कोशः, -षः the collective body of laws or duties; धर्मकोषस्यगुप्तये Ms.1.99. -क्रिया, -कृत्यम् any act of religion, any moral or religious rite. -क्षेत्रम् 1 Bhāratavarṣa (the land of religion). -2 N. of a plain near Delhi, the scene of the great battle between the Kauravas and Pāṇḍavas; धर्मक्षेत्रेकुरुक्षेत्रेसमवेतायुयुत्सवः Bg.1.1. (-त्रः) a virtuous or pious man. -गुप्त a. observing and protecting religion. (-प्तः) N. of Viṣṇu. -ग्रन्थः a sacred work or scripture. -घटः a jar of fragrant water offered daily (to a Brāhmaṇa) in the month of Vaiśākha; एषधर्मघटोदत्तोब्रह्माविष्णुशिवात्मकः।अस्यप्रदानात्सफलाममसन्तुमनोरथाः॥ -घ्न a. immoral, unlawful. -चक्रः 1 The wheel or range of the law; Bhddh. Jain. -2 a Buddha. ˚मृत् m. a Buddha or Jaina. -चरणम्, -चर्या observance of the law, performance of religious duties; शिवेनभर्त्रासहधर्मचर्याकार्यात्वयामुक्तविचारयेति Ku.7.83; वयसिप्रथमे, मतौचलायांबहुदोषांहिवदन्तिधर्मचर्याम् Bu. Ch.5.30. चारिन् a. practising virtue, observing the law, virtuous, righteous; सचेत्स्वयंकर्मसुधर्मचारिणांत्वमन्तरायोभवसि R.3.45. (-m.) an ascetic. चारिणी 1 a wife. -2 a chaste or virtuous wife. cf. सह˚; इयंचोर्वशीयावदायुस्तवसहधर्मचारिणीभवत्विति V.5.19/20. -चिन्तक a. 1 studying or familiar with duty. -2 reflecting on the law. -चिन्तनम्, चिन्ता study of virtue, consideration of moral duties, moral reflection. -च्छलः fraudulent transgression of law or duty. -जः 1 'duly or lawfully born', a legitimate son; cf. Ms.9.107. -2 N. of युधिष्ठिर; Mb.15.10.44. -जन्मन् m. N. of युधिष्ठिर. -जिज्ञासा inquiry into religion or the proper course of conduct; अथातोधर्मजिज्ञासा Jaimini's Sūtra. -जीवन a. one who acts according to the rules of his caste or fulfils prescribed duties. (-नः) a Brāhmaṇa who maintains himself by assisting other men in the performance of their religious rites; यश्चापिधर्मसमयात्प्रच्युतोधर्मजीवनः Ms.9.273. -ज्ञ a. 1 knowing what is right, conversant with civil or religious law; Ms.7.141;8.179;10.127. -2 just, righteous, pious. -त्यागः abandoning one's religion, apostacy. -दक्षिणा a fee for instruction in the law. -दानम् a charitable gift (made without any self-interest.) पात्रेभ्योदीयतेनित्यमनपेक्ष्यप्रयोजनम्।केवलंधर्मबुद्ध्यायद्धर्मदानंप्रचक्षते॥ Ms.3.262. -दुघा a cow milked for religious purposes only. -द्रवी N. of the Ganges. -दारा m. (pl.) a lawful wife; स्त्रीणांभर्ताधर्मदाराश्चपुंसाम् Māl.6.18. -द्रुह् a. voilating the law or right; निसर्गेणसधर्मस्यगोप्ताधर्मद्रुहोवयम् Mv.2.7. -द्रोहिन् m. a demon. -धातुः an epithet of Buddha. -ध्वजः -ध्वजिन् m. a religious hypocrite, an impostor; Bhāg.3.32.39. -नन्दनः an epithet of युधिष्ठिर. -नाथः a legal protector, rightful master. -नाभः an epithet of Viṣṇu. -निबन्धिन् a. pious, holy. -निवेशः religious devotion. -निष्ठ a. devoted to religion or virtue; श्रीमन्तःपान्तुपृथ्वींप्रशमित- रिपवोधर्मनिष्ठाश्चभूपाः Mk.10.61. -निष्पत्तिः f. 1 discharge or fulfilment of duty. -2 moral or religious observance; -पत्नी a lawful wife; R.2.2,20,72;8.7; Y.2.128. -पथः the way of virtue, a virtuous course of conduct. -पर a. religious-minded, pious, righteous. -परिणामः rise of righteous conduct in the heart (Jainism); cf. also एतेनभूतेन्द्रियेषुधर्मलक्षणावस्थापरिणामाव्याख्याताः Yogadarśana. -पाठकः a teacher of civil or religious law; Ms.12.111. -पालः 'protector of the law', said metaphorically of (दण्ड) 'punishment or chastisement', or 'sword'. -पाडा transgressing the law, an offence against law. -पुत्रः 1 a lawful son, a son begotten from a sense of duty and not from mere lust or sensual pleasure. -2 an epithet of युधिष्ठिर. -3 any one regarded as a son for religious purposes, a spiritual son. -प्रचारः (fig.) sword. -प्रतिरूपकः a counterfeit of virtue; Ms.11.9. -प्रधान a. eminent in piety; धर्मप्रधानंपुरुषंतपसाहतकिल्बिषम् Ms.4.243. -प्रवक्तृ m. 1 an expounder of the law, a legal adviser. -2 a religious teacher, preacher. -प्रवचनम् 1 the science of duty; U.5.23. -2 expounding the law. (-नः) an epithet of Buddha. -प्रेक्ष्य a. religious or virtuous (धर्मदृष्टि); Rām.2.85.16. -बाणिजिकः, -वाणिजिकः 1 one who tries to make profit out of his virtue like a merchant. -2 one who performs religious rites with a view to reward, like a merchant dealing in transactions for profit. -बाह्यः a. contrary to religion or what is right. -भगिनी 1 a lawful sister. -2 a daughter of the spiritual preceptor. -3 a spiritual sister, any one regarded as a sister or discharging the same religious duties एतस्मिन्विहारेममधर्मभगिनीतिष्ठति Mk.8.46/47. -भागिनी a virtuous wife. -भाणकः a lecturer or public reader who reads and explains to audiences sacred books like the Bhārata, Bhāgavata, &c. -भिक्षुकः a mendicant from virtuous motives; Ms.11.2. -भृत् m. 1 'a preserver or defender of justice,' a king. -2 a virtuous person. -भ्रातृ m. 1 a fellow religious student, a spiritual brother. -2 any one regarded as a brother from discharging the same religious duties. वानप्रस्थयतिब्रह्मचारिणांरिक्थभागिनः।क्रमेणाचार्यसच्छिष्य- धर्मभ्रात्रेकतीर्थिनः॥ Y.2.137. -महामात्रः a minister of religion, a minister in charge of religious affairs. -मूलम् the foundation of civil or religious law, the Vedas. -मेघः a particular Samādhi. -युगम् the Kṛita age; अथधर्मयुगेतस्मिन्योगधर्ममनुष्ठिता।महीमनुचचारैकासुलभानामभिक्षुकी Mb.12.320.7. -यूपः, -योनिः an epithet of Viṣṇu. -रति a. 'delighting in virtue or justice', righteous, pious, just; तस्यधर्मरतेरासीद्वृद्धत्वंजरसाविना R.1.23. -रत्नम् N. of a Jaina स्मृतिग्रन्थ prepared by Jīmūtavāhana. -राज् -m. an epithet of Yama. -राज a. धर्मशील q. v.; धर्मराजेनजनकेनमहात्मना (विदेहान्रक्षितान्) Mb.12.325 19. -राजः an epithet of 1 Yama. -2 Jina. -3 युधिष्ठिर. -4 a king. -राजन् m. N. of युधिष्ठिर. -राजिका a monument, a stūpa (Sārnāth Inscrip. of Mahīpāla; Ind. Ant. Vol.14, p.140.) -रोधिन् a. 1 opposed to law, illegal, unlawful. -2 immoral. -लक्षणम् 1 the essential mark of law. -2 the Vedas. (-णा) the Mīmāṁsā philosophy. -लोपः 1 irreligion, immorality. -2 violation of duty; धर्मलोपभयाद्राज्ञीमृतुस्नातामिमांस्मरन् R.1.76. -वत्सल a. loving piety or duty. -वर्तिन् a. just, virtuous. -वर्धनः an epithet of Śiva. -वादः discussion about law or duty, religious controversy; अनुकल्पःपरोधर्मोधर्मवादैस्तुकेवलम् Mb.12.165.15. -वासरः 1 the day of full moon. -2 yesterday. -वाहनः 1 an epithet of Śiva. -2 a buffalo (being the vehicle of Yama). -विद् a. familiar with the law (civil or religious). ˚उत्तमः N. of Viṣṇu. -विद्या knowledge of the law or right. -विधिः a legal precept or injunction; एषधर्मविधिःकृत्स्नश्चातुर्वर्ण्यस्यकीर्तितः Ms.10.131. -विप्लवः violation of duty, immorality. -विवेचनम् 1 judicial investigation; यस्यशूद्रस्तुकुरुतेराज्ञोधर्मविवेचनम्।तस्यसीदतितद्राष्ट्रंपङ्केगौरिवपश्यतः॥ Ms.8.21. -2 dissertation on duty. -वीरः (in Rhet.) the sentiment of heroism arising out of virtue or piety, the sentiment of chivalrous piety; the following instance is given in R. G.:-- सपदिविलयमेतुराज्यलक्ष्मीरुपरिपतन्त्वथवाकृपाणधाराः।अपहरतुतरांशिरःकृतान्तोममतुमतिर्नमनागपैतुधर्मात्॥सचदानधर्मयुद्धैर्दययाचसमन्वितश्चतुर्धास्यात् S. D. -वृद्ध a. advanced in virtue or piety; नधर्मवृद्धेषुवयःसमीक्ष्यते Ku.5.16. -वैतंसिकः one who gives away money unlawfully acquired in the hope of appearing generous. -व्यवस्था m. judicial decision, decisive sentence. -शाला 1 a court of justice, tribunal. -2 any charitabla institution. -शासनम्, शास्त्रम् a code of laws, jurisprudence; नधर्मशास्त्रंपठतीतिकारणम् H.1.17; Y.1.5. [मनुर्यमोवसिष्ठोऽत्रिःदक्षोविष्णुस्तथाङ्गिराः।उशनावाक्पतिर्व्यासआपस्तम्बोऽथगौतमः॥कात्यायनोनारदश्चयाज्ञवल्क्यःपराशरः।संवर्तश्चैवशङ्खश्चहारीतोलिखितस्तथा॥एतैर्यानिप्रणीतानिधर्मशास्त्राणिवैपुरा।तान्येवातिप्रमाणानिनहन्तव्यानिहेतुभिः॥] -शील a. just, pious, virtuous. -शुद्धिः a correct knowledge of the law; प्रत्यक्षंचानुमानंचशास्त्रंचविविधागमम्।त्रयंसुविदितंकार्यंधर्मशुद्धिमभीप्सता॥ Ms.12.105. -संहिता a code of laws (especially compiled by sages like Manu, Yājñavalkya, &c.). -संगः 1 attachmet to justice or virtue. -2 hypocrisy. -संगीतिः 1 discussion about law. -2 (with Buddhists) a council. -सभा a court of justice. -समयः a legal obligation; यश्चापिधर्मसमयात्प्रच्युतोधर्मजीवनः Ms.9.273. -सहायः a partner or companion in the discharge of religious duties. -सूः m. the fork-tailed shrike. -सूत्रम् a book on पूर्वमीमांसा written by Jaimini. -सेतुः an epithet of Śiva. -सेवनम् fulfilment of duties. -स्थः a judge; धर्मस्थःकारणैरेतैर्हीनंतमितिनिर्दिशेत् Ms.8.57. -स्थीय a. Concerning law; धर्मस्थीयंतृतीयंप्रकरणम् Kau. A.3. -स्वामिन् m. an epithet of Buddha.

   धर्मतः dharmataḥ ind. 1 According to law or rule, rightly, religiously, justly. -2 Virtuously, righteously. -3 From a virtuous or religious motive.

   धर्मत्वम् dharmatvam 1 Morality, virtue, righteousness. -2 Inherent property or nature.

   धर्मन् dharman m. [धृ-मनिन्] 1 A preserver, maintainer, supporter. -n. 1 A religious rite. -2 Support, stay. -3 Religion, duty. -4 Law, custom. -5 A mode, manner. -6 Characteristic quality or mark.

   धर्ममय dharmamaya a. Virtuous, righteous, pious.

   धर्मयु dharmayu a. Virtuous, just, pious, righteous.

   धर्मवत् dharmavat a. -1 Holy, virtuous. -2 Upright, just. -3 Lawful, legal.

   धर्मिन् dharmin a. [धर्मोऽस्त्यस्य-इनि] 1 Virtuous, just, pious. -2 Knowing one's duties. -3 Obeying the law. -4 Having the properties of, having the nature, peculiar properties or characteristics of anything (at the end of comp.); षट्सुताद्विजधर्मिणः Ms.10.41; कल्पवृक्षफलधर्मिकाङ्क्षितम् R.11.50. -5 Following the habits of any person. m. An epithet of Viṣṇu.

   धर्मिष्ठ dharmiṣṭha a. (Superl. of धर्मिन्) Very pious. -ष्ठः An epithet of Viṣṇu.

   धर्मीपुत्रः dharmīputraḥ An actor, player.

   धर्म्य dharmya a. [धर्मादनपेतः-यत्] 1 Consistent with law, duty or religon, lawful, legal; योयस्यधर्म्योवर्णस्य Ms.3.22; 25-26. -2 Religious (as an act); क्रियाणांखलुधर्म्याणांसत्पत्न्योमूलकारणम् Ku.6.13. -3 Just, righteous, fair; धर्म्याद्धियुद्धाच्छ्रेयोऽन्यत्क्षत्रियस्यनविद्यते Bg.2.31;9.2; Y.3.44; धर्म्यासुकामार्थयशस्करीषु Bk.1.9. -4 Legitimate. -5 Usual. -6 Endowed with particular qualities, as तद्धर्म्य; धर्म्यमणुमेतमाप्य Kaṭh.1.2.13. -7 Relating to Dharma; अध्येष्यतेचयइमंधर्म्यंसंवादमावयोः Bg.18.70. -Comp. -विवाहः a legal marriage; cf. Ms.3.26.

(Apte)

धर्म्म पु०न०अर्द्धर्च्चा०ध्रियतेलोकोऽनेनधरतिलोकवाधृ--मन्।

“चोदनालक्षणोऽर्थोधर्मः” जै०सूत्रलक्षितेपदार्थेतत्रधर्म-.शब्दस्ययागादिपरत्वम्भाष्यसम्मतमन्यमतेस्वर्गसाधना-दृष्टभेदपरत्वंतथाहि“अथातोधर्मजिज्ञासेति” सूत्रमाष्ये“धर्मायजिज्ञासाधर्मजिज्ञासा, साहितस्यज्ञातु-मिच्छा।सकथंजिज्ञासितव्यः? कोधर्मः,कथंलक्षणः, कान्यस्यसाधनानिकानिसाधनाभासानि,किंपरश्चेति।तत्रकोधर्मः, कथंलक्षणः--इतिएकेनैवसूत्रेणव्याख्यातं--‘चोदनालक्षणोऽर्थोधर्मः’--इति।कानिअस्यसाधनानि, कानिसाधनाभासानि,किंपरश्चेतिशेषलक्षणेनव्याख्यातं, क्वपुरुषपरत्वंक्ववापुरुषोगुणभूतः?--इत्येतासांप्रतिज्ञानांपिण्डस्यै-तत्सूत्रम्‘अथातोधर्मजिज्ञासा’--इति।धर्मःप्रसिद्धोवास्यात्, अप्रसिद्धोवा? सचेत्प्रसिद्धः, नजिज्ञासितव्यः; अथाप्रसिद्धः, नतरां; तदेतदनर्थकंघर्मजिज्ञासाप्रकरणं, अथवाऽर्थवत्?” ।धर्मंप्रतिहिविप्रतिपन्नाबहुविदः,--केचिदन्यंधर्ममाहुः,केचिदन्यं, सोऽयमविचार्य्यप्रवर्त्तमानःकञ्चिदेवोपाददानोविहन्येतार्थात्अनर्थंचऋच्छेत्, तस्माद्धर्मोजिज्ञा-सितव्यइति, सहिनिःश्रेयसेनपुरुषंसंयुनक्तीतिप्रति-जानीमहे” भा०“तदभिधीयतेचोदनालक्षणोऽर्थोधर्म।२सू०“चोदनां--इतिक्रियायाःप्रवर्त्तकंवचनमाहुः, आचार्य्यचोदितःकरोतीतिहिदृश्यते।लक्ष्यतेयेनतल्लक्षणंधूमोलक्षणमग्नेरितिहिवदन्ति।तयायोलक्ष्यते, सोऽर्थःपुरुषंनिःश्रे-यसेनसंयुनक्तीतिप्रतिजानीमहे।चोदनाहिभूतं,भवन्त, भावष्यन्तं, सूक्ष्म, व्यवहितं, विप्रकृष्टमित्येवंजा-तीयकमर्थंशक्नोत्यवगमयितुं, नान्यत्किञ्चनेन्द्रियम्,”यएवश्रेयस्करः, सएवधर्मशब्देनोच्यते।कथमव-गम्यतां? ।योहियागमनुतिष्ठति, तं‘धार्मिकः’--इतिसमाचक्षते, यश्चयस्यकर्त्तासतेनव्यपदि-श्यते, यथापाचकः, लावकइति।तेनयःपुरुषंनिःश्रेयसेनसंयुनक्ति, सधर्मशब्दनोच्यते।नकेवलंलोके, वेदेऽपि‘यज्ञेनयज्ञमयजन्तदेबाः, तानिधर्माणिप्रथमान्यासन्’--इतियजतिशब्दवाच्यमेवधर्मंसमाम-नन्ति।उभयमिहचोदनयालक्ष्यते, अर्थोऽनर्थश्चइति, कोऽर्थः? योनिःश्रेयसाय, ज्योतिष्टमादिः।कोऽनर्थः? यःप्रत्यवायाय, श्येनो, वज्रः, इषुरि-त्येवमादिः।कथंपुनरसावनर्थ? ।हिसाहिसा,सामाभूत्इतिअर्थग्रहणम्।” शावरभाष्यम्

एतन्मतानुसारेणलौगाक्षिभास्करेणोक्तंयथा“अथकोधर्मःकिंतस्यलक्षणमितिचेदुच्यते।यागादिरेवधर्मः।तल्लक्षणस्तुवेदप्रतिपाद्यप्रयोजनवदर्थोधर्मः।प्रयोजनेऽतिव्याप्तिवारणायप्रयोजनवदिति।भोजना-

दावतिव्याप्तिवारणायवेदप्रतिपाद्येति।अनर्थफलक-त्वादनर्थभूतेश्येनयागादावतिव्याप्तिवारणायार्थइतिनचचोदनालक्षणोर्थोधर्मइतिसौत्रधर्मलक्षण-विरोधःचोदनाशब्दस्यतत्रविधिरूपवेदैकदेश-परत्वादितिवाच्यम्।सर्ववेदस्यतात्पर्य्येनधर्मप्रति-पादकत्वात्।सचयागादिः।“यजेतस्वर्गकामः”इत्यादिवाक्येनस्वर्गमुद्दिश्यपुरुषंप्रतिविधीयते” ।

धर्म्मकर्म्मन् न०धर्मस्यधर्मार्थंकर्म।धर्मप्रतिपादककर्मभेदे“वेदप्रणिहितंधर्मकर्मतन्मङ्गलंपरम्” ब्रह्मवै०पु०।

धर्मकार्य्यधर्मक्रियादयोऽप्यत्र।

धर्मसेतु पु०धर्मस्यसेतुरिवधारकत्वात्।धर्मरक्षके“राजादशरथोनामधर्मसेतुरिवाचलः” रामा०आर०६२अ०।एकादशमन्वन्तरेआर्य्यकस्यसुते२हरेरंशभेदेच।तदुप-क्रमे“आर्य्यकस्यसुतस्तत्रधर्मसेतुरितिस्मृतः।विधृतायांहरेरंशस्त्रिलोकींधारयिष्यति” भाग०८।१३।१२

---वाचस्पत्यम्

धर्म्मः, पुंक्ली, (धरतिलोकान्ध्रियतेपुण्यात्मभि-रितिवा।धृ + “अर्त्तिस्तुहुस्रिति।” उणां१।१३९।इतिमन्।) शुभादृष्टम्। (यथा,हितोदेशे।१।५९।“एकएवसुहृद्धर्म्मोनिधनेऽप्यनुयातियः।शरीरेणसमंनाशंसर्व्वमन्यत्तुगच्छति॥”)तत्पर्य्यायः।पुण्यम्२श्रेयः३सुकृतम्४वृषः५।इत्यमरः।१।४।२४॥न्यायः।स्वभावः।आचारः।उपमा।क्रतुः। (यथा, महाभारते।१४।८८।२१।“कृत्वाप्रवर्ग्यंधर्म्माख्यंयथावत्द्विजसत्तमाः।चक्रुस्तेविधिवद्राजंस्तथैवाभिषवंद्बिजाः॥”)

धर्म्मः, पुं, (धृ + मन्।) धनुः।यमः।सोमपः।इतिमेदिनी।मे, १६॥सत्सङ्गः।अर्हन्।इतिहेमचन्द्रः।६।१५॥देवताविशेषः।सब्रह्मणोदक्षिणस्तनाज्जातः। (यथा, मत्स्यपुराणे।३।१०।

धर्म्मकर्म्म, [न्] क्ली, (धर्म्मायधर्म्मस्यवाकर्म्मकार्य्यम्।) धर्म्मकार्य्यम्।शुभादृष्टप्रतिपादक-क्रिया।यथा, --“वेदप्रणिहितंधर्म्मकर्म्मतन्मङ्गलंपरम्॥”इतिब्रह्मवैवर्त्तेप्रकृतिखण्डम्॥

Dharma (धर्म) is the name of a deity who received the Sahasrāgama from Bhīma who in turn, received it from Kāla  through the mahānsambandha relation, according to the pratisaṃhitā theory of Āgama origin and relationship (sambandha). The sahasra-āgama, being part of the ten Śivabhedāgamas, refers to one of the twenty-eight Siddhāntāgamas: a classification of the Śaiva division of Śaivāgamas. The Śaivāgamas represent the wisdom that has come down from lord Śiva, received by Pārvatī and accepted by Viṣṇu.

Dharma obtained the Sahasrāgama from Bhīma who in turn obtained it from Kāla who in turn obtained it from Sadāśiva through parasambandha. Dharma then, through divya-sambandha transmitted it to the Devas who, through divyādivya-sambandha, transmitted it to the Ṛṣis who finally, through adivya-sambandha, revealed the Sahasrāgama to human beings (Manuṣya). (also see Anantaśambhu’s commentary on the Siddhāntasārāvali of Trilocanaśivācārya)

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Manusmṛti with the Manubhāṣya

The author of the Smṛtivivaraṇa describes five kinds of Dharma or Duty:—

1.        ‘Varṇa-dharma,’ ‘duties pertaining to caste;’

2.        ‘Āśrama-dharma,’ ‘Duties pertaining to Life-stages,’

3.        ‘Varṇāśrama-dharma,’ ‘duties pertaining to caste and life-stage’;

4.        ‘Naimittika-Dharma,’ ‘Occasional Duties,’

5.        ‘Guṇa-Dharma’ ‘Duties pertaining to qualification.’

Dharma (धर्म):—The term Dharma is derived from the root dhṛ which means to nourish, to uphold, to sustain, to protect and so forth with the affix man. Thus the word comes to imply that which sustains, and protects the creation in a disciplined manner. In the Manusaṃhitā, the word dharma is found in the second śloka of the first chapter for the first time. Here, the sages have addressed Manu as the god (bhagavān) and request him to explain the knowledge of dharma meant for all castes.

The law giver defines the term thus

“It is dharma, which is followed by pious men, well versed in Vedas and ass ented to in their hearts by the virtuous, who are ever exempt from hatred an d inordinate affection.”

In this relation, Kullūka explains dharma as best accomplishment acquiring from the Veda.

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Puranic Encyclopedia

Dharma (धर्म).—A deva who is the abode of all luxuries in life. Birth. This deva broke the right nipple of Brahmā and came out in the form of a human being. Three sons were born to him: Śama, Kāma and Harṣa. Kāma married Rati, Śama, Prāpti and Harṣa, Nandā.* (See full article at Story of Dharma from the Puranic encyclopaedia by Vettam Mani)

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Vaiśeṣika

Dharma (धर्म, “merit”) is one of the additional guṇas (‘qualities’) added by Praśastapāda, on top of the seventeen guṇas in the Vaiśeṣika-sūtras. These guṇas are considered as a category of padārtha (“metaphysical correlate”). These padārthas represent everything that exists which can be cognized and named. Together with their subdivisions, they attempt to explain the nature of the universe and the existence of living beings.

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Mīmāṃsa: The Study of Hindu Exegesis

Dharma (धर्म) refers to “right action”.—The primary purpose of Mīmāṃsa is to establish the nature of right action (Dharma). The basic premise of Mīmāṃsa is that action is fundamental to the human condition. Without application, knowledge is vain; without action, happiness is impossible; without action human destiny cannot be fulfilled; therefore, right action (Dharma) is the sine-qua-non of a meaningful life on earth.

Jaimini defines Dharma as: codaṇā-lakṣaṇaḥ arthaḥ dharmaḥ.—“Dharma is that which leads to the highest common good (śreyas) and is distinguished by Vedic injunctions”. Dharma is “right living” defined by the practice of universal ethics and personal morals. “Dharma” cannot be known through empirical means such as cognition. It can be known only either through intuition or through a impersonal source of knowledge. The problem with relying on reason or intuition is that individuals will come to differing conclusions about what the ultimate nature of the “Good” is. There are endless controversies on most if not all ethical issues by “experts” who take one side or the other. The best and most universal source of Dharma therefore, would be an “impersonal” source such as the Vedas.

Dharma is that act which is enjoined by the Veda through its injunctive passages and which is conducive to the happiness of all beings.

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Vaiyākaraṇabhūṣaṇasāra: a critical study

Dharma (धर्म).—A property which qualifies a thing or a letter or a word.

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Wikisource: A dictionary of Sanskrit grammar

Dharma (धर्म).—Defined as ऋषिसंप्रदाय (ṛṣisaṃpradāya), the traditional practices laid down by the sages for posterity; cf.केवलमृषिसंप्रदायोधर्मइतिकृत्वायाज्ञिक्राःशास्त्रेणअनुविदधते (kevalamṛṣisaṃpradāyo dharma iti kṛtvā yājñikrāḥ śāstreṇa anuvidadhate) M. Bh. I. 1. Ahnika I ; cf also धर्मशास्त्रं (dharmaśāstraṃ) in एवंचकृत्वाधर्मशास्त्रंप्रवृत्तम् (evaṃ ca kṛtvā dharmaśāstraṃ pravṛttam) M. Bh. on P. I. 2.64, as also धर्मसूत्रकाराः (dharmasūtrakārāḥ) in नैवेश्वरआज्ञापयतिनापिधर्मसूत्रकाराःपठन्तिअपवादैरुत्सर्गाबाध्यन्तामिति (naiveśvara ājñāpayati nāpi dharmasūtrakārāḥ paṭhanti apavādairutsargā bādhyantāmiti) M. Bh. on I. l.47; (2) religious merit, cf. धर्मोपदे-शनमिदंशास्त्रमस्मिन्ननवयवेनशास्त्रार्थःसंप्रतीयते (dharmopade-śanamidaṃ śāstramasminnanavayavena śāstrārthaḥ saṃpratīyate), M. Bh. on P. VI. I. 84, cf also ज्ञानेघमैइतिचेत्तथा (jñāne ghamai iti cettathā)Sधर्मः (dharmaḥ) M. Bh. I. 1. Ahnika l ; ' 3) property possessed by a thing or a letter or a word. e. g. वर्णधर्म (varṇadharma); cf Kas. on P. I. 2.29; cf also Kas. on P. II. 1, 55, II. 3.33, VIII. 1. 4. cf. also R. Pr. III. 8, 13 XIV. 1 etc.: (4) the characteristic of being in a substance; in the phrase अयंघटः (ayaṃ ghaṭaḥ) the dharma viz.घटत्व (ghaṭatva) is predicated of this (इदम् (idam)) or, in other words the designation pot (घटसंज्ञा (ghaṭasaṃjñā)) is the predication; the explanation in short, can be given as घटत्ववान्इदं-पदार्थः (ghaṭatvavān idaṃ-padārthaḥ) or घटाभिन्नःइदंपदार्थः (ghaṭābhinnaḥ idaṃpadārthaḥ)

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Dharma (धर्म).—In Indian tradition, the concept of ṛta (cosmic order) gave rise to the idea of dharma. The term dharma here does not mean mere religion; it stands for duty, obligation and righteousness. It is a whole way of life in which ethical values are considered supreme and everyone is expected to perform his or her duty according to his or her social position and station in life. In Buddhism, the word dhamma is used, which is the Pāli equivalent of the Sanskrit word dharma. The guidelines and rules regarding what is considered as appropriate behaviour for human beings are prescribed in the Dharma Śāstras. These are sociological texts that tell us about our duties and obligations as individuals as well as members of society.

The concept of right and wrong is the core of the Mahābhārata which emphasizes, among others, the values of non-violence, truthfulness, absence of anger, charity, forgiveness and self realization. It is only by performing one’s righteous duties or dharma that one can hope to attain the supreme path to the highest good. It is dharma alone that gives both prosperity (abhyudaya) and the supreme spiritual good (niśreyas).

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Dharma (धर्म, “merit”) and Adharma (demerit) refers to two of the twenty-four guṇas (qualities) according to Praśastapāda and all the modern works on Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika.—Dharma (merit) and adharma (demerit) constitute adṛṣṭa (destiny). Radhakrishnan says “Dharma and adharma are qualities of the soul by virtue of which it enjoys happiness or suffers misery. Adṛṣṭa is the unseen power produced by souls and things, which brings about the cosmic order and enables selves to reap the harvest of their past experiences”.

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Bhagavad-gita …Dharma (धर्म) refers to “from the verbal root dhṛ, to sustain. Literally, ‘that which sustains’; (1) The natural, characteristic function of a thing; that which cannot be separated from its nature (2) Religion in general (3) The socio-religious duties prescribed in the scriptures for different classes of persons in the varṇāśrama system (4) One’s fixed occupation in relation to Śrī Kṛṣṇa”.

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 The significance of the mūla-beras

Dharma (धर्म) refers to the “code of life” upon whose conduct Hinduism is based. Hinduism is a way of life and is based on the practice of dharma, the code of life. The ultimate objective of religion is the realization of truth by getting united with the Supreme Being, Paramātman.

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Dharmas (Pali: dhammas):—For the Abhidharmikas, the ultimate components of existence, the elementary constituents of experience were called dharmas. These dharmas were seen as the ultimate entities or momentary events which make up the fabric of people's experience of reality. The conventional reality of substantial objects and persons is merely a conceptual construct imputed by the mind on a flux of dharmas. However, dharmas are never seen as individually separate entities, but are always dependently conditioned by other dharmas in a stream of momentary constellations of dharmas, constantly coming into being and vanishing, always in flux.

The four categories of dharmas in the Theravada Abhidhamma are:

1.        citta (Mind, Consciousness, awareness)

2.        cetasika (mental factors, mental events, associated mentality), there are 52 types

3.        rūpa — (physical occurrences, material form), 28 types

4.        nibbāna — (Extinction, cessation). This dharma is unconditioned  it neither arises nor ceases due to causal interaction.

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Maha Prajnaparamita Sastra

1) Dharma (धर्म):—The search for the Dharma by means of the non-apprehension of all the teachings. – The bodhisattva seeks the Dharma with resolutions associated with omniscience and [hence] does not fall to the rank of śrāvaka or pratyekabuddha.

There are three kinds of Dharma:

1.        The supreme Dharma of all (sarveṣu-anuttara), i.e., nirvāṇa.

2.        The means of attaining nirvāṇa (nirvāṇa-prāpti-upāya), i.e., the noble eightfold Path (āryāṣṭāṅgamārga).

3.        All good words (subhāṣita), truthful words (satyavacana) promoting the eightfold noble Path.

To seek the Dharma (dharmaparyeṣṭi) is to write it, to recite it, to study it and to meditate on it. These texts heal the mental illnesses (cittavyādhi) of beings. The bodhisattva sacrifices his life to gather together these text-remedies.

2) Dharma (धर्म) refers to “things” according to the 2nd century Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra (chapter XXV).—There are two kinds of things (dharmas): i) mental things (citta-dharma), ii) extra-mental things (acitta-dharma).

a) Among the extra-mental things (acitta-dharma), some are inner (ādhyātmika) and others are outer (bāhya). Cold (śīta), heat (uṣṇa) wind (anila), rain (varṣa), etc., are outer; hunger (kṣudha), thirst (pipāsa), old age (jarā), sickness (vyādhi), death (maraṇa), etc., are inner: all the categories of this type are extra-mental.

b) Among the mental things (citta-dharma), there are two types: i) anger (krodha, vyāpāda), sadness (daurmanasya), doubt (saṃśaya), etc.; ii) lust (rāga), pride (abhimāna), etc.: these two categories are mental things.

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Dharma (धर्म, “nature”) or Dharmapratisaṃvit refers to one of four Pratisaṃvit Goddesses, as commonly depicted in Buddhist Iconography, and mentioned in the 11th-century Niṣpannayogāvalī of Mahāpaṇḍita Abhayākara.—Her Colour is whitish-red; her Symbol is the goad and noose; she has two arms.

Dharma is described in the Niṣpannayogāvalī (dharmadhātuvāgīśvara-maṇḍala) as follows:—

“On the Eastern gate there is Dharma-Pratisaṃvit of whitish-red colour, holding in her two hands the goad and the noose marked with the thunderbolt”.

[A statue of this obscure Buddhist deity is found in the Chinese collection.]

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Dharma-samgraha

Dharma (धर्म)  is the second of the “three treasures” (triratna) defined in the Dharma-saṃgraha (section 1). The Dharma-samgraha (Dharmasangraha) is an extensive glossary of Buddhist technical terms in Sanskrit (e.g., triratna and dharma). The work is attributed to Nagarjuna who lived around the 2nd century A.D.

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Dharma Skt., lit, “carrying, holding” (Pali, dhamma; Chin., fa; Jap., hō or datsuma); central notion of Buddhism, used in various meanings.

1.        The cosmic law, the “great norm,” underlying our world; above all, the law of karmically deter­mined rebirth.

2.        The teaching of the Buddha, who recog­nized and formulated this “law”; thus the teach­ing that expresses the universal truth. The dhar­ma in this sense existed already before the birth of the historical Buddha, who is no more than a manifestation of it. It is in the dharma in this sense that a Buddhist takes refuge (trisha­rana).

3.        Norms of behavior and ethical rules (shīla).

4.        Manifestation of reality, of the general state of affairs; thing, phenomenon.

5.        Mental content, object of thought, idea—a reflection of a thing in the human mind.

6.        Term for the so-called factors of existence, which the Hīnayāna considers as building blocks of the empirical personality and its world.

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 Encyclopedia of Jainism: Tattvartha Sutra 6: Influx of karmas

Dharma (धर्म).—What is meant by the true religion (dharma)? Non violence, non-pride (mārdava) etc known as dasalakṣaṇa or the ten indicators of spiritual purification are called dharma.

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 Indian Epigraphical Glossary

Dharma.—(SII 1), the sacred law; religious merit; a meri- torious gift, a pious work, a charity; moral precept. (EI 24), law or law and order. (Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXV, p. 116) virtue or religious merit. (IE 8-2)

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Molesworth Marathi and English Dictionary

dharma (धर्म).—m (S) Religious practice; the customary observances of caste, sect &c.; a system of divine faith and worship: also any act or work required by it. 2 A precept enjoined in the Vedas; a sacred obligation or duty. 3 Alms-giving; charitable acts and offices gen: also alms or charities bestowed. 4 Virtue; moral or religious merit resulting from obedience to the Shastras and Vedas. 5 Nature, character, proper or natural state or disposition. Ex. gāīnēṃ dūdha dēṇēṃ hā gāīcā dharma āhē; pṛthvīsa vāsa yēṇēṃ hā pṛthvīcā dharma. 6 A property or appertaining quality. Any peculiar, appropriate, or prescribed practice or duty: thus giving alms &c. is the dharma of a householder; administering justice, the dharma of a king; piety that of a Brahman; courage, that of a Kshatriya. In this sense the compounds putradharma, bandhudharma, mitradharma, śatrudharma, sēvādharma, śējāradharma &c. 8 Law. dharma karatāṃ karma jōḍaṇēṃ or, inversely, dharma karatāṃ karma pāṭhīsa lāgaṇēṃ To bring upon one's self troubles and evils in striving to do good. dharmakhuṇṭīsa bāndhaṇēṃ To keep (cattle) pinned up without giving them food. dharma paṅgu Piety, religion, virtue, charity &c. is lame, i. e. having lost three legs in the three preceding ages, has, in this iron age, but one leg to stand on,--is tardy, feeble, scanty &c. dharmācā Relating to charity--money, food &c. 2 Assumed, supposed, conceived--a person as a father, brother, sister &c. in a religious view. dharmācē pārīṃ basaṇēṃ To sit idly dispensing the charity of others. 2 To obtain a favorable condition hereafter in reward of one's virtues. 3 To be ever performing charitable deeds. dharmasya tvaritāgatiḥ (A Sanskrit saying but common.) Give your alms quickly. Agreeing with Bis dat qui cito dat. dharmāvara sōmavāra Putting off of alms-giving on frivolous pretexts. dharmāsa bhiūna-cālaṇēṃ-vāgaṇēṃ- varttaṇēṃ-karaṇēṃ-&c. To walk under religious reverence or regard. dharmācī vāṭa bighaḍaṇēṃ or mōḍaṇēṃ To stop the flowing of any philanthropic course. dharmāvara lōṭa- ṇēṃ-ṭākaṇēṃ-sōḍaṇēṃ To give over to one's sense of justice or righteousness. dharmāsa yēṇēṃ g. of o. To approve itself (to any one) as fit to be done. Ex. tujhē dharmāsa yēīla tēṃ kara.

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Benfey Sanskrit-English Dictionary

Dharma (धर्म).— (a curtailed form of dharman, q. cf.), m. and n. 1. Virtue, [Hitopadeśa] i. [distich] 59. 2. Merit, Bhāṣāp. 160. 3. Right, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 1, 26. 4. Law, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 1, 114; 2, 12. 5. Duty, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 6, 92. 6. Justice, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 7, 18. 7. Character, quality, Mahābhārata 12, 7850. 8. Resemblance, [Rāmāyaṇa] 2, 123, 14 Gorr. (dharmāt, Like). 9. A sacrifice, Mahābhārata 14, 2623. 10. Personified justice, [Rāmāyaṇa] 1, 1, 19. 11. = Yama, the judge of the dead, [Hiḍimbavadha] 1, 34.

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Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary

1) Dharma (धर्म):—[from dhara] 1. dharma m. (rarely n. [gana] ardharcādi; the older form of the [Ṛg-veda] is dharman q.v.) that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, ordinance, law

2) [v.s. ...] usage, practice, customary observance or prescribed conduct, duty

3) [v.s. ...] right, justice (often as a synonym of punishment)

4) [v.s. ...] virtue, morality, religion, religious merit, good works (dharmeṇa ind. or māt ind. according to right or rule, rightly, justly, according to the nature of anything; cf. below; mesthita mfn. holding to the law, doing one’s duty), [Atharva-veda] etc. etc.

5) [v.s. ...] Law or Justice personified (as Indra, [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa] etc.; as Yama, [Mahābhārata]; as born from the right breast of Yama and father of Śama, Kāma and Harṣa, [ib.]; as Viṣṇu, [Harivaṃśa]; as Prajā-pati and son-in-law of Dakṣa, [Harivaṃśa; Manu-smṛti] etc.; as one of the attendants of the Sun, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]; as a Bull, [Manu-smṛti viii, 16]; as a Dove, [Kathāsaritsāgara vii, 89, etc.])

6) [v.s. ...] the law or doctrine of Buddhism (as distinguished from the saṅgha or monastic order, [Monier-Williams’ Buddhism 70])

7) [v.s. ...] the ethical precepts of Buddhism (or the principal dharma called sūsra, as distinguished from the abhi-dharma or, ‘further dharma’ and from the vinaya or ‘discipline’, these three constituting the canon of Southern B°, [Monier-Williams’ Buddhism 61])

8) [v.s. ...] the law of Northern B° (in 9 canonical scriptures, viz. Prajñā-pāramitā, Gaṇḍa-vyūha, Daśa-bhūmīśvara, Samādhirāja, Laṅkāvatāra, Saddharma-puṇḍarīka, Tathā-gata-guhyaka, Lalita-vistara, Suvarṇa-prabhāsa,[ib. 69])

9) [v.s. ...] nature, character, peculiar condition or essential quality, property, mark, peculiarity (= sva-bhāva, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]; cf. daśa-dharma-gata, [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa] etc. etc.; upamānopameyayor dh, the tertium comparationis, [Pāṇini 2-1, 55 [Scholiast or Commentator]])

10) [v.s. ...] a [particular] ceremony, [Mahābhārata xiv, 2623]

11) [v.s. ...] sacrifice, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]

12) [v.s. ...] the ninth mansion, [Varāha-mihira]

13) [v.s. ...] an Upaniṣad, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]

14) [v.s. ...] associating with the virtuous, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]

15) [v.s. ...] religious abstraction, devotion, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]

16) [v.s. ...] = upamā, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.] (cf. above)

17) [v.s. ...] a bow, [Dharmaśarmābhyudaya]

18) [v.s. ...] a thing, [Sukhāvatī-vyūha i]

19) [v.s. ...] a Soma-drinker, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]

20) [v.s. ...] Name of the 15th Arhat of the present Ava-sarpiṇī, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]

21) [v.s. ...] of a son of Anu and father of Ghṛta, [Harivaṃśa]

22) [v.s. ...] of a s° of Gāndhāra and f° of Dhṛta, [Purāṇa]

23) [v.s. ...] of a s° of Haihaya and f° of Netra, [Bhāgavata-purāṇa]

24) [v.s. ...] of a s° of Pṛthu-śravas and of Uśanas, [ib.]

25) [v.s. ...] of a s° of Su-vrata, [Viṣṇu-purāṇa] (cf. dharma-sūtra)

26) [v.s. ...] of a s° of Dīrgha-tapas, [Vāyu-purāṇa]

27) [v.s. ...] of a king of Kaśmīra, [Rājataraṅgiṇī iv, 678]

28) [v.s. ...] of another man, [ib. vii, 85]

29) [v.s. ...] of a lexicographer etc. (also -paṇḍita, -bhaṭṭa and -śāstrin), [Catalogue(s)]

30) [v.s. ...] cf. [Latin] firmus, [Lithuanian] dermé.

31) [from dhara] 2. dharma [Nominal verb] [Parasmaipada] mati, to become, law, [Vopadeva]

32) [v.s. ...] 3. dharma in [compound] for man q.v. 2.

33) a See p. 510, col. 3.

34) Dhārma (धार्म):—1. dhārma mf(ī)n. ([from] dharma) relating to justice or virtue, [Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa]

35) belonging to Dharma (god of justice), [Mahābhārata]

36) 2. dhārma Vṛddhi form of dharma in [compound]

https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/dharma

https://tinyurl.com/y5uckby9

This monograph presents a hypothesis to explain the mystery of circular workers' platforms and 'storage platforms of warehouses (so-called granary mystery).

I submit Indus Script deciphered evidence to suggest that workers' platforms were smithies/forges which might have had covered thatch hutments surrounding each platform (See picture of circular Vedic house reconstructed by Louis Renou). The nearby 'granaries' are platforms of warehouses to store metal products produced from these workers' platforms which are smithies/forges for This monograph presents a hypothesis to explain the mystery of circular workers' platforms and 'storage platforms of warehouses (so-called granary mystery).

I submit Indus Script deciphered evidence to suggest that workers' platforms were smithies/forges for metal- and lapidary-work, which might have had covered thatch hutments surrounding each platform (See picture of circular Vedic house reconstructed by Louis Renou). The nearby 'granaries' are platforms of warehouses to store metal products produced from these workers' platforms which are smithies/forges. The centre of a platform might have held an anvil for the artisan,smith to work on wedges and alloy metal ingots.

• Robin Coningham, University of Durham, Ruth Young, University of Leicester
• Publisher: Cambridge University PressDOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139020633.006 pp 177-240

https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/archaeology-of-south-asia/an-era-of-integration/00DC42FB267DC54A977FD0EDFB9D3B47

Source: harappa.com Industrial scale organization of smithies/forges (workers' platforms hutments)

Source: https://www.facebook.com/AncientIndus/photos/pcb.10158811092709846/10158811084444846/

Metmuseum.Maurya. Ringstone. 323 to 185 BCE. Four Lajja Gauri images are shown in 4 directions circling around the centre. Mollusc decorations.

V&A Museum. Mauryan Ringstone

British Museum. 3rd cent.BCE.  Northwest Pakistan. Ringstone

Sangamesvara temple.Kudavelli, Andhra Pradesh. Alampur Museum, 650 BCE

Source: https://www.academia.edu/5246382/Lajja_Gauri_the_goddess_of_sexuality_from_Mesopotamia_to_India Max Le Martin, Lajja Gauri, the goddess of sexuality, from Mesopotamia to India, Part of the Amazon book

Snarling iron excavated from Chanhudaro, now kept in Purana Qila Fort, Delhi. Dated to ca. mid-third millennium BCE. 

Glosses: koṭe meṛed = forged iron, in contrast to dul meṛed, cast iron (Mundari)

meṭ sole of foot, footstep, footprint (Ko.); meṭṭu step, stair, treading, slipper (Te.)(DEDR 1557). dula ‘pair’.

Rebus: dul 'metal casting'

Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.) dul meṛed, cast iron (Mu.) mẽṛhẽt baṭi = iron (Ore) furnaces (Santali).A. bhaṭā ʻ brick -- or lime -- kiln ʼ; B. bhāṭi ʻ kiln ʼ; Or. bhāṭi ʻ brick -- kiln, distilling pot ʼ; Mth. bhaṭhī, bhaṭṭī ʻ brick -- kiln, furnace, still ʼ; Aw.lakh. bhāṭhā ʻ kiln ʼ; H. bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ, bhaṭ f. ʻ kiln, oven, fireplace ʼ; M. bhaṭṭā m. ʻ pot of fire ʼ, bhaṭṭī f. ʻ forge ʼ. -- X bhástrā -- q.v. S.kcch. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ʻ distil (spirits) ʼ.(CDIAL 9656).  

Rebus: ḍhāḷako ‘a large metal ingot’ (Gujarati) [Note: Do the inverted U glyphs connote bun ingots?]

Hieroglyph baṭi 'broad-mouthed, rimless metal vessel'. Rebus: baṭi 'smelting  furnace'. Rebus: baṭa = a kind of iron (G.) bhaṭa ‘furnace’ (G.) baṭa = kiln (Santali). bhaṭa = an oven, kiln, furnace (Santali) baṭhi furnace for smelting ore (the same as kuṭhi) (Santali) baṭhu m. ‘large pot in which grain is parched.’ Rebus: baṭi, bhaṭi ‘furnace’ (Hindi) 

Hieroglyph: खांडा khāṇḍā m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). A gap in the teeth. Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’.

The message conveyed by the inscription, read rebus: dul meṭ 'pair of feet'  Rebus: dul meḍ 'cast iron'. khāṇḍā 'indentation' Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’. [Note: Perhaps the three inverted U glyphs connote three storage pots containing tools, pots and pans, metalware.] Alternatively, the three 'inverted U' glyphs connote three (pe) baṭi 'broad-mouthed, rimless vessels' Rebus: three (pe)  baṭi 'smelting furnaces).

Note: Concordant sets of Meluhha glosses -- for each of these rebus readings -- from Indian sprachbund are presented embedded.

Snarling irons from the first quarter of the 20th century, after Otto 1922: 45 fig. 41-2.

Sucn snarling irons of bronze may have been used to forge metal ingots into metal equipment.

Warehouses (the so-called Great Granary). Harappa. 

"Excavations at the "Granary," Harappa, Trench 41 exposed new facts about this most puzzling of structures. Built apparently at one time, and more than once reconstructed on the foundations of a previous structure, there is absolutely no sign of grain in the rooms or hollow areas between them.

1. After clearing the overlying silt, the original forms of the baked brick walls and hollow buttresses of the "granary" could be made out. The three high walls in the upper left of the image are part of a later rebuilding of the entire structure after ca. 2200 BC.

2. A massive baked brick revetment wall surrounds the solid mud-brick foundation platform of the "granary" that measures approximately 51 meters north-south and 41 meters east-west. Based on analysis of the pottery and other finds from below and against the revetment wall, it is possible to date its construction to near the end of Harappa Period 3B, between 2300 and 2200 BCE.

3. Excavations in 1997 at the northwest corner of the "granary" platform were undertaken to follow the outline of the structure and document its construction (Trench 41NW).

4. Plan view of the so-called "granary" or "parallel-wall structure" on Mound F at Harappa indicating areas of HARP excavations conducted in 1997 and 1999. Note that the structural remains surrounding the "granary" are, for the most part, later than the original "granary" structure. From M.S. Vats Excavations at Harappa (1940)."https://www.facebook.com/AncientIndus/posts/excavations-at-the-granary-harappa-trench-41-exposed-new-facts-about-this-most-p/10156096164339846/

Granary trenches shows three platforms which may have held the metal products produced on workers' platforms. https://www.pinterest.nz/pin/518195500845626214/

Warehouse. Harappa. "The so-called "granary" of Harappa is found on Mound F. It is a brick structure that was built on a massive brick foundation over 45 meters north south and 45 meters east-west. Two rows of six rooms that appear to be foundations are arranged along a central passageway that is about 7 meters wide and partly paved with baked bricks. Each room measures 15.2 by 6.1 meters and has three sleeper walls with air space between them. A wooden superstructure supported in some places by large columns would have been built on top of the brick foundations, with stairs leading up from the central passage area. Small triangular opening may have served as air ducts to allow the flow of fresh air beneath the hollow floors.

No special concentrations of burned grain or storage containers were discovered by the earlier excavators and the interpretation of these structures as granaries is based on comparisons with Roman buildings and has no parallels with any building tradition in South Asia. Most scholars agree that there is little evidence for the construction of massive granaries at either Mohenjo-daro or Harappa and that these structures should only be seen as evidence for large public buildings. Rulers and state officials probably did meet in such large public buildings and many of them may have been used for specific religious functions, but their specific function will always remain a mystery." -- Jonathan Mark Kenoyer

 Source: https://www.harappa.com/slide/granary-harappa

Might have stored metal products. The architectural form of these warehouses may have yielded the Indus Script hierogluyph, Sign 244 (ASI 1977 Mahadevan Concordance):

Sign 244 kuṭhāru 'treasury, warehouse' rebus: kuṭhāru 'armourer'.

Variants Sign 244

Near the small end of the object appears a deeply hammered dot.

కరవాయి [ karavāyi ] kara-vāyi. [Tel.] n. A curved iron bar which is put inside a small mouthed metal pot to meet the blow of the hammer outside.కంచరవాడు సుత్తితో పాత్రములను సాగగొట్టునపుడు వానిలోపల ఒత్తుడుగా నుంచే యినుము.

Yule, P. 1985. The bronze age metalwork of India. Prahistorische Bronze funde XX,8.  http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/1895/1/Metalwork_BronzeAge_India.pdf (254 pages, 108 plates)

The snarling iron of Chanhu-daro is a tool which might have been used, in a forge, to produce many of the artefacts presented from this site, which was called the Sheffield of Ancient India:

A ‘Sheffield of Ancient India’: Chanhu-Daro’s Metal working Industry. Illustrated London News 1936 – November 21^st, p.909. 10 x photos of copper knives, spears , razors, axes and dishes.. The centre of a platform might have held an anvil for the artisan,smith to work on wedges and alloy metal ingots.

https://tinyurl.com/y66b2gjs

This is an addendum to: 

https://tinyurl.com/y5uckby9

Lajjā Gaurī (After Fig. 4 Robert L. Brown, 1990 loc.cit.) removes a sheaf of grain from her vagina. This hieroglyphic narrative is consiste with the expression  लज्याहोम lajyāhōma, लज्जाहोम lajjāhōma which is a prayer to the divinity Lajjā Gaurī not to forsake the smith and the fire altar. Sheaf of grain is a rebus reading of खोंड khōṇḍa A variety of जोंधळा millet cob (Marathi) konḍ^u 2 कं॑डु॒ । कण्टकः m. a thorn, prickle, spine rebus: koṇḍa 'fire trench with live coals'.

(Santali)

 லஜ்ஜாதத்தம் lajjā-tattam , n. < lajjā +. Customary presents made to relations or friends on auspicious occasions. See நாண்கொடை. (சுக்கிரநீதி, 145.)(Tamil lexicon)

Lajjā Gaurī images during historical times are seen associated with Indus Script hieroglyphs of lotuses, lotus buds: 

Met Museum.

Vagina is an Indus Script hieroglyph: 

I submit that the Marathi लज्याहोम lajyāhōma, लज्जाहोम lajjāhōma m Properly लाजाहोम signifies a burnt offering at weddings to secure the bridegroom and bride from forsaking each other is the early meaning of the prefix लज्जा. Rebus reading is: लाजिमा lājimā, लाजिम्मा lājimmā m ( A pl Things incumbent.) A business or an affair, esp. as unsettled or unclosed (Marathi). The association of Lajjā Gaurī with fire in the expression is the reason लज्जाहोम lajjāhōma is the reason why the images on plaques of  Lajjā Gaurī signify a prayer by the smith, lapidary praying for success in his smithy work. This is the reason why  Lajjā Gaurī is found in the context of a circular platform at Padri (ca. 1st cent.). Circulr platforms are kole.l 'smithy, forge' rebus: kole.l 'temple' found on scores of industrial scale structures at Harappa. At Padri, the  Lajjā Gaurī plaque was found together with figurines of Gaṇeśa, Viṣṇu, Nandi. Nandi is a signifier of the professional competence of the artisan: dhangar 'bull' rebus; dhangar 'blacksmith'.

लज्याहोम lajyāhōma, लज्जाहोम lajjāhōma m Properly लाजाहोम. लाजाहोम lājāhōma m S A burnt-offering at weddings of लाजा or लाह्या to secure the bridegroom and bride from forsaking each other. (Marathi)

ଲଜ୍ଜ (ଧାତୁ)— Lajja (root) ସଂ.— 1। ଲଜ୍ଜିତ ହେବା— 1. To be ashamed. 2। ସଙ୍କୋଚବୋଧ କରିବା—2. To blush (Apte).ଲଜ୍ଜା— Lajjā [ଲଜ୍ଜା ଶବ୍ଦର ଅନ୍ୟ ସଂ. ନାମ— ହୀ, ତ୍ରପା, କ୍ରୀଡ଼ା, ମନ୍ଦାସ୍ଯ (କ୍ଷ)।] ସଂ. ବି. ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ—(ଲସ୍ଜ୍ ଧାତୁ= ଲଜ୍ଜିତ ହେବା+ଭାବ ଅ+ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ ଆ)— 1। ହୃଦୟର କୋମଳ ବୃତ୍ତିବିଶେଷ; ୟେଉଁ ବୃତ୍ତ ୟୋଗୁଁ ଅନ୍ୟ ବ୍ୟକ୍ତିର ସମକ୍ଷରେ ବା ଜ୍ଞାତସାରରେ କେତେକ କାର୍ଯ୍ୟ କରିବାକୁ ମନୁଷ୍ଯ ମନରେ ସଂକୋଚ ଉପସ୍ଥିତ ହୁଏ; ଅନୁଚିତ କାର୍ଯ୍ୟକଳାପର ପର ପରିଜ୍ଞାନ ଭଯ—1. Shame. 2। କ୍ରୀଡ଼ା; କୁଣ୍ଠା; ସଂକୋଚ—2. Modesty; coyness; bashfulness.

Rebus: लाजिमा lājimā, लाजिम्मा lājimmā m ( A pl Things incumbent.) A business or an affair, esp. as unsettled or unclosed. v तोड, तुट, उलगड, राह. In use it is much the same as लांझा q. v. 2 Business or concern with; propriety or title in; as ह्या शेतांत तुझा ला॰ नाहीं तू आपला ऐस.लांझा lāñjhā m (Lánjhá.) An unsettled or unclosed business with; an affair or a transaction (esp. as troublesome or involved or disputable) subsisting with. v तोड & तुट, or राह with नाहीं. Expressing this sense there are numerous words and in constant occurrence; e. g. लडथड, लफडा, लढा, खरकटें, लोंचा, लेशपंड, लाजिमा, वांधा.

   लाजिरवाणा lājiravāṇā a (लाजरा & वाणा Affix.) Ashamed, abashed, downcast through shame. 2 Shameful, disgraceful, producing shame or calculated to shame. 3 W Darling;—esp. as used of an only child.

   लाजिरवाणी lājiravāṇī, लाजिरवाणें lājiravāṇēm ad (लाजिरवाणा) Shamefully, ignominiously, with disgrace or dishonor.

लाज lāja f (लज्जा S) Shame, modesty, sense of decency. 2 Bashfulness. 3 Honor, reputation, honorable standing. v ठेव, राख, संभाळ. 4 Shame, dishonor, disgrace; as नांवावर लाज आणणें -लावणें. लाज राखणें g. of o. To hide the shame of; to cover from shame or exposure. Pr. लाज नाहीं मना कोण्ही कांहीं म्हणा When Shame is extinct in the soul universal reproach is powerless. लाजेंकाजें or लाजलज्जेनें By the force or at the impulse of shame; with some sense of shame. काजें is merely in reduplication of लाजें. Sometimes the nominative, लाजकाज, occurs, implying Shame or modesty in the general. v घर, बाळग, सोड, & सुट, जा, उड.लाजट lājaṭa a (लाज) Shame-faced, retired, modest: also bashful.

   लाजणें lājaṇēm v i (लाज) To be ashamed or abashed; to have the feeling of bashfulness or shame. 2 To shrink from touch;—as the sensitive plant.

लज्जा lajjā f (S) Shame, modesty, sense of decency or decorum: also shamefacedness or bashfulness. Ex. एकलज्जां परित्यज्य सर्वत्र विजयी भवेत् Cast away but Shame, then overcome or accomplish anything. लज्जाकज्जा or लज्जेकज्जेनें By the force or at the impulse of shame.

   लज्जायमान lajjāyamāna, लज्यायमान lajyāyamāna a (Properly लज्जमान S) Ashamed or abashed. Ex. नगरींचे लोक लज्जाय- मान ।। कपाटें लावुनि बैसति ।।.

   लज्जालु lajjālu m S The sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica.

   लज्जावान् lajjāvān a (S) Modest, decent, decorous: also bashful.

   लज्जाशील lajjāśīla a (S) Modestly disposed or minded, modest, shamefaced, retired, coy: also bashful.

10911 lajjālu ʻ bashful ʼ Ratnāv., f. ʻ Mimosa pudica ʼ Bhpr. [lajjā -- ]
Pk. lajjālu -- ʻ bashful ʼ, S. laj̄āro, G. lājāḷũ (with -- ā-<-> from lāj)(CDIAL 10911)  lajjā f. ʻ shame, modesty ʼ MBh. [√lajj]lajjátē ʻ is ashamed ʼ MBh. 2. lajjāpayati ʻ shames ʼ Kāv. [→ Par. leǰǰ -- ʻ to be ashamed ʼ IIFL i 269. -<-> √lajj]

1. Pa. lajjati ʻ is ashamed ʼ, lajjana -- n., Pk. lajjaï, Gy. eur. arm. laǰ -- , Paś.lauṛ. laǰ -- , Woṭ. laz -- , S. laj̄aṇu, OAw. lājaï; H. lājnā ʻ to blush, be ashamed ʼ; G. lājvũ ʻ to be ashamed ʼ; M. lāj̈ṇẽ. -- Pass. in Phal. läǰiǰ -- ʻ to feel ashamed ʼ. 2. Pa. lajjāpēti ʻ shames ʼ, Pk. lajjāvēdi; Gy. rum. lažav -- ʻ to be ashamed ʼ; S. laj̄āiṇu ʻ to shame ʼ, L. (Ju.) laj̄āvaṇ, P. lajāuṇā; N. lajāunu ʻ to be ashamed ʼ, Mth. lajāeb, OAw. lajāi; H. lajānā ʻ to shame, be ashamed ʼ; G. lajāvvũ ʻ to shame ʼ, lajavvũ ʻ to shame, be ashamed ʼ; M. lāj̈ā̆viṇẽ ʻ to shame ʼ.Pa. Pk. lajjā -- f. ʻ shame ʼ; Gy. eur. laǰ f., pal. láǰi ʻ disgrace, shame ʼ; Wg. laž, lã̄ž ʻ shame ʼ; Dm. laš < *laž NTS xii 127, Paš. laǰǰ, laǰ, Gaw. läz, Kal.rumb. lač, Bshk. laǰ f., Sv. läž, Phal. lāǰ, Sh. lăš, gen. lăšăi f., K. laz f., S. laj̄a f., L. (Ju.) laj̄ f., P. lajj f., Ku. lāj f., N. lāj, A. lāz, B. lāj, Or. lāja, nāja, Mth. Bhoj. Aw.lakh. H. Marw. G. lāj f., M. lāj̈ f., Ko. lāja, Si. lada, Md. ladu.Addenda: lajjā -- : Garh. lāj ʻ bashfulness ʼ; Md. ladu ʻ shame, shyness  (CDIAL 10910)ʼ.   lajjita ʻ ashamed ʼ MBh. [√lajj]Pa. lajjita -- ʻ ashamed ʼ, Pk. lajjia -- , S. laj̄ī, P. lajjī.  10913 *lajjira ʻ bashful ʼ. 2. lajjirī -- , lajjarī -- f. ʻ the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica ʼ lex. [√lajj]1. M. lāj̈rā, lājirvāṇā ʻ bashful ʼ.(CDIAL 10912) alajja ʻ shameless ʼ Naiṣ. [lajjā -- ]Pk. alajja -- , P. alajj, H. alaj; -- Pa. alajjin -- , Or. alajiā (with -- l -- after lāja)(CDIAL 702).salajja ʻ feeling shame ʼ Kathās. [lajjā -- ] Or. salāja ʻ ashamed, modest ʼ (with -- l -- from lāja) (CDIAL 13283)

खोंड khōṇḍa A variety of जोंधळा (Marathi) konḍ^u 2 कं॑डु॒ । कण्टकः m. a thorn, prickle, spine (cf. miʦar-k^o) (El. kŏnḍ, kúnḍ; K.Pr. 61; L. 75, 76, kund; 464, kundu; YZ. 99; Śiv. 1734, 1807; Rām. 354, 1200, 1210, 1218, 1224, 1226, 1329, 1355, 1424, 1432, 1529, 1633; H. viii, 1); the sharp bone of a fish (cf. gāḍa-k^o, p. 276b, l. 10) (K.Pr. 168); a small nail, a sprig, a tack.(Kashmiri) 3266 kuṇḍa3 n. ʻ clump ʼ e.g. darbha -- kuṇḍa -- Pāṇ. [← Drav. (Tam. koṇṭai ʻ tuft of hair ʼ, Kan. goṇḍe ʻ cluster ʼ, &c.) T. Burrow BSOAS xii 374]

Pk. kuṁḍa -- n. ʻ heap of crushed sugarcane stalks ʼ; WPah. bhal. kunnū m. ʻ large heap of a mown crop ʼ; N. kunyũ ʻ large heap of grain or straw ʼ, baṛ -- kũṛo ʻ cluster of berries ʼ.The sheaf of grain may be a sheaf of millet. Rebus reading: 

अग्नि—कुण्ड n. a pan with live coals, Ra hole or enclosed space for the consecrated fire, Kathās. (1 .अग्निः agniḥ  -कुण्डम [अग्नेराधानार्थं कुण्डम्] an enclosed space for keeping the fire, a fire-vessel. (Monier-Williams; Apte)

kŏnḍ क्वंड् or kŏnḍa क्वंड । कुण्ड m. a kind of large bowl or basin made of metal or earthenware (Gr.Gr. 145); a deep still spring (El., Gr.Gr. 145); (amongst Hindūs) a hole dug in the ground for receiving consecrated fire; cf. ạg^ana-kŏnḍ (p. 16b, l. 34) (Rām. 631). Cf. kọ̆nḍ^u    kọ̆nḍ^u क्वं॑डु॒or konḍ^u 1 कं॑डु॒ । कुण्डम् m. a large bowl or basin, a cauldron for cooking or other use (cf. liwan-kọ̆nḍ^u, s.v. liwun; maĩzi-k^o, s.v. maĩz); (amongst Hindūs) a hole dug in the ground for receiving consecrated fire; i.q. kŏnḍ, q.v. -kās -कास् । कार्यसमाप्तिपूर्वको ऽवकाशः m. 'removal of the (dirty) pots and pans after a feast'; hence, leisure after the completion of a work; cf. the next. -kāṭh -काठ् । कुण्डकाष्ठादि m. the litter of dirty cauldrons and bits of firewood left after a great feast, used in phrases like konḍ^u-kāṭh kösith, having cleared up the litter (he did so-and-so); used met. when a person gives up laziness, and takes to serious work (quasi, he clears up the litter after his feast, and sets to work). Cf. the preceding. --manḍul^u --मंडुलु॒ । मार्जन(लेपन)विशेषः m. scouring round a cooking pot after use with scouring earth, water, etc., in order to clean the inside from the remains of food or the outside from smoke, etc.; met. disgracing a person by covering his face with mud (Śiv. 128). Cf. d^ah, p. 198b, l. 7. kȧnḍⁱ-lë˘jⁱ कं॑डि॒-ल्य॑जू॒ । स्थाल्यादिसंशोधनार्थमल्पं मृत्पात्रम् f. the small vessel in which are kept the scouring-earth, water, etc., used for scouring cooking pots, etc., as ab. -wā̃-ḍul^u -वाँ-डुलु॒ । स्थालीस्थालादि- संशोधको मृत्पात्रभेदः m. the large bowl or tub in which water is kept for scouring purposes, as ab. -wā̃-manḍul^u -वाँ-मंडुलु॒ । स्थाल्यादिसंमार्जनशोधनादि । m., i.q. konḍ^u-manḍul^u, ab. -wôñ^u वोञु॒ । स्थाल्यादिसंमार्जनप्रक्षालनजलम् m. the dirty water with which vessels have been scoured, as ab.(Kashmiri) 3264 kuṇḍá1 n. (RV. in cmpd.) ʻ bowl, waterpot ʼ KātyŚr., ʻ basin of water, pit ʼ MBh. (semant. cf. kumbhá -- 1), ˚ḍaka -- m.n. ʻ pot ʼ Kathās., ˚ḍī -- f. Pāṇ., ˚ḍikā -- f. Up. 2. *gōṇḍa -- . [← Drav., e.g. Tam. kuṭam, Kan. guṇḍi, EWA i 226 with other ʻ pot ʼ words s.v. kuṭa -- 1]

1. Pa. kuṇḍi -- , ˚ḍikā -- f. ʻ pot ʼ; Pk. kuṁḍa -- , koṁ˚ n. ʻ pot, pool ʼ, kuṁḍī -- , ˚ḍiyā -- f. ʻ pot ʼ; Kt. kuṇi ʻ pot ʼ, Wg. kuṇḍäˊi; Pr. künǰǘ ʻ water jar ʼ; Paš. weg. kuṛã̄ ʻ clay pot ʼ < *kũṛā IIFL iii 3, 98 (or poss. < kuṭa -- 1), lauṛ. kuṇḍalīˊ ʻ bucket ʼ; Gaw. kuṇḍuṛīˊ ʻ milk bowl, bucket ʼ; Kal. kuṇḍṓk ʻ wooden milk bowl ʼ; Kho. kúṇḍuk, ˚ug ʻ milk bowl ʼ, (Lor.) ʻ a kind of platter ʼ; Bshk. kūnḗċ ʻ jar ʼ (+?); K. kŏnḍ m. ʻ metal or earthenware vessel, deep still spring ʼ, kọ̆nḍu m. ʻ large cooking pot ʼ, kunāla m. ʻ earthenware vessel with wide top and narrow base ʼ; S. kunu m. ʻ whirlpool ʼ, ˚no m. ʻ earthen churning pot ʼ, ˚nī f. ʻ earthen cooking pot ʼ, ˚niṛo m.; L. kunnã̄ m. ʻ tub, well ʼ, ˚nī f. ʻ wide -- mouthed earthen cooking pot ʼ, kunāl m. ʻ large shallow earthen vessel ʼ; P. kū̃ḍā m. ʻ cooking pot ʼ (← H.), kunāl, ˚lā m., ˚lī f., kuṇḍālā m. ʻ dish ʼ; WPah. cam. kuṇḍ ʻ pool ʼ, bhal. kunnu n. ʻ cistern for washing clothes in ʼ; Ku. kuno ʻ cooking pot ʼ, kuni, ˚nelo ʻ copper vessel ʼ; B. kũṛ ʻ small morass, low plot of riceland ʼ, kũṛi ʻ earthen pot, pipe -- bowl ʼ; Or. kuṇḍa ʻ earthen vessel ʼ, ˚ḍā ʻ large do. ʼ, ˚ḍi ʻ stone pot ʼ; Bi. kū̃ṛ ʻ iron or earthen vessel, cavity in sugar mill ʼ, kū̃ṛā ʻ earthen vessel for grain ʼ; Mth. kũṛ ʻ pot ʼ, kū̃ṛā ʻ churn ʼ; Bhoj. kũṛī ʻ vessel to draw water in ʼ; H. kū̃ḍ f. ʻ tub ʼ, kū̃ṛā m. ʻ small tub ʼ, kū̃ḍā m. ʻ earthen vessel to knead bread in ʼ, kū̃ṛī f. ʻ stone cup ʼ; G. kũḍ m. ʻ basin ʼ, kũḍī f. ʻ water jar ʼ; M. kũḍ n. ʻ pool, well ʼ, kũḍā m. ʻ large openmouthed jar ʼ, ˚ḍī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; Si. ken̆ḍiya, keḍ˚ ʻ pot, drinking vessel ʼ.
2. N. gũṛ ʻ nest ʼ (or ← Drav. Kan. gūḍu ʻ nest ʼ, &c.: see kulāˊya -- ); H. gõṛā m. ʻ reservoir used in irrigation ʼ.
Addenda: kuṇḍa -- 1: S.kcch. kūṇḍho m. ʻ flower -- pot ʼ, kūnnī f. ʻ small earthen pot ʼ; WPah.kṭg. kv́ṇḍh m. ʻ pit or vessel used for an oblation with fire into which barley etc. is thrown ʼ; J. kũḍ m. ʻ pool, deep hole in a stream ʼ; Brj. kū̃ṛo m., ˚ṛī f. ʻ pot ʼ.

Udupi: 'Lajja Gauri' idol discovered DHNS, Mangaluru, FEB 10 2020, 23:18 ISTUPDATED: FEB 11 2020, 00:24 IST The Lajja Gauri idol found in Barkur village in Udupi. ca. 6th cent. CE

https://www.deccanherald.com/state/mangaluru/udupi-lajja-gauri-idol-discovered-803443.html

लज्जा b f. shame, modesty, bashfulness, embarrassment (also Shame personified as the wife of Dharma and mother of Vinaya), MBh. ; Kāv.  (Monier-Williams) लज्जा lajjā [लज्ज् भावे अ] 1 Shame; कामातुराणां न भयं न लज्जा Subhāṣ.; विहाय लज्जाम् R.2.40; Ku.1.48. -2 Bashfulness, modesty; शृङ्गारलज्जां निरूपयति Ś.1; Ku.3.7; R.7.35. लज्जे त्वं मज्ज सिन्धौ Subhāṣ. -Comp. -अन्वित a. modest, bashful. -आवह, -कर a. (-रा or -री f.) causing shame, shameful, digraceful, ignominious; सर्वमलज्जाकरमिह यत् कुर्वन्तीह परिपूर्णाः Pt.5.10. -कृतिः feigning modesty. -शील a. bashful, modest. -रहित, -शून्य, -हीन a. shameless, impudent, immodest.(Apte)   विनय vinaya a. 1 Cast, thrown. -2 Secret. -3 Ill-behaved. -यः 1 Guidance, discipline, instruction (in one's duties), moral training; सर्वक्षत्त्रनिवर्हणस्य विनयं कुर्युः कथं क्षत्त्रियाः Mv.3.37; प्रजानां विनयाधानात् R.1.24; Māl.10.5; विनया- धिकारिकं प्रथमाधिकरणम् Kau. A. -2 Sense of propriety, decorum, decency; अनुयास्यन् मुनितनयां सहसा विनयेन वारितप्रसरः Ś.1.28. -3 Polite conduct, gentleman-like bearing, good breeding or manners; गुणैश्च तैस्तैर्विनयप्रधानैः R.6.79; Māl.1.18. -4 Modesty, humility; सुष्ठु शोभसे आर्यपुत्र एतेन विनयमाहात्म्येन U.1; विद्या ददाति विनयम्; तथापि नीचैर्विनयाददृश्यत R.3.34;10.71 (where Malli. renders विनय by इन्द्रियजय or restraint of passions, unnecessarily in our opinion). -5 Reverence, courtesy, obeisance. -6 Conduct in general. -7 Drawing off, taking away, removing; उत्तरीयविनयात् त्रपमाणा Śi.10.42. -8 A man who has subdued his senses. -9 A trader, merchant.(Apte)

What did the central space of a workers' platform hold? One suggestion is that it held an anvil for the artisan to do his forging form.

Another possibility comes from the evidence of Padri in Gujarat reported by Vasant Shinde in the following journal article fully excerpted below for ready reference.

In the northwest part of the floor excavated in Padri, was a hard and roughly circular platform. I suggest that this circular platform of Padri is a precursor to the burnt-brick paved circular platforms of Harappa found on an industrial sace operation.

The diameter of the circlar platform of Padri is 1.50 m.

Two terracotta plaques of Lajjā Gaurī, one image each of lord Ganesa and Visnu, made in sandstone, were retrieved from the top of the floot (Vasant Shinde, opcit., pp.481-482)

Vasant Shinde notes: “The floor and two mud platforms assume great significance in the light of the discovery of these figurines. It is not far fetched to believe that it was a temple of Lajjā Gaurī and the mud platforms were meant for the installation of these images. In all, three Lajjā Gaurī plaques have been found at Padri, of which the two recovered from the top of floor were made of terracotta and the third found on the surface is in slate stone. Of the two figurines recovered from the structure, one is complete and the other broken. The complete one is roughly rectangular in shape and measures 8 cm x 6.5 cm x 1.8 cm. The figure is in bas relief and the details are not clearly visible. The human-headed goddess is shown seated as usual in her characteristic form, legs stretched apart and bent at the knees and the hands raised upwards at the elbow. There is no trace of any ornamentation. On the left of this sculpture there appears to be a seated Nandi in a north-south direction with its head towards the south, whereas the figure on its right, which is partially damaged, appears to be a devotee (Fig.2). The Lajjā Gaurī plaque found at Valabhipur, roughly 80 km north of Padri, which is located in the same district, appears to be the closest example to this complete specimen from Padri. The Valabhipur specimen is in dark green schist stone and measures 11.5 cm x 5 cm x 3 cm. It represents the human-headed Lajjā Gaurī in bold relief. The nude deity is shown seated in the usual fashion, prominently displaying pudenda and breasts and holding a lotus bud in each hand, both of which are raised at the elbow. The noteworthy feature of this plaque is that the seated Nandi is depicted on the right side and a crouching devotee in Anjali mudra on the left. The sculpture could be assigned to the 7^th century CE (Sonawane 1988). Two other sculptures of Lajjā Gaurī associated with Nandi come from Dhank, 15 km west of Upleta town of Rajkot district in Gujarat and Bhinmal in Rajasthan (Shah 1955-56). Both these sculptures bear ornamentation and are dated to the 7^th century CE. On the same floor was found another fragment of terracotta plaque, probably the yoni portion (female genitals) of the goddess Lajjā Gaurī. This fragment displays the pudenda prominently, often exaggerated in size. The central portion of this organ bears incised decoration consisting of a group of five horizontal lines and an upside-down latticed triangular pattern suspended from the lowermost horizontal line. It is shown in bold relief and all the details are clearly visible (Fig. 3). From the close proximity of these two Lajjā Gaurī plaques was found the head portion of lord Ganesa. This small figurine of Ganesa made in fine-grained sandstone shows very fine workmanship. It should be mentioned that the images of Ganesa are sometimes shown along with Lajjā Gaurī, the best example of which comes from Dhank in Gujarat, where the sculpture is found in the niche of the Manjeshwari step-well, which could be dated to 7^thcent. CE. One more Lajjā Gaurī plaque in black slate stone was found on the surface roughly 10 m to the north of the structure 3 mentioned above. The plaque, the upper part of which is partially broken, appears to be squarish in shape, measuring 8.5 cm x 8.5 cm x 1 cm. The head and right hand of the figure are missing as the plaque is partially broken. The figure is shown in deep relief with all the parts of the body shown in perfect proportion and is highly polished. The nude deity is shown seated on a roughly circular asana (seat), which is decorated by radiating incised lines, in her characteristic form. What is interesting about this figure is that the pudenda and breasts are not exaggerated as is the case of most of the Lajjā Gaurī figures found elsewhere, but are in perfect proportion. The deity is shown wearing a necklace and double-waist girdle, both decorated with vertical short strokes, and had eight bangles in her left hand. In her left hand, which is raised at the elbow, is a lotus-bud. Near the elbow on the eastern side is a human head between double incised horizontal bands whereas on the right-side, slightly below the knee portion, there appears to be the head of some animal, probably a Nandi (Fig. 4). Besides Padri, a number of other Early and Late Historical sites in Gujarat such as Kanad (6^th-7^th cent. CE) and Variav in Surat district, Kavi in Broach district, Pavi Jetpur (8^th-9t century CE) in Baroda district, Tarsang (6^th cent. CE) and Bavaka (10^th-11^thcent. CE) in Panchmahal district, Vallabhipur (7^th-8^thcent. CE) and Gadhali (12^th cent. CE) in Bhavnagar district, Amreli (6^th-7^th cent. CE), the district headquarters, Dhank (7^thcent. CE) in Rajkot district and Sathal (7^th cent. CE) in Ahmedabad district have yielded evidence of Lajjā Gaurī plaques. Only two sites names Kanada and Bavaka, have produced evidence of Lajjā Gaurī images with lotus-heads. Otherwise the human-headed images are very common in Gujarat, as the evidence from the remaining 11 sites indicates. Considering this fact, Margabandhu (1976) stated that the human-headed depiction of the goddess Lajjā Gaurī is a regional variation in Gujarat. This statement, however, is not acceptable to some scholars (Sonawane 1988), because the human-headed sculptures of Lajjā Gaurī have also been reported from a few sites outside Gujarat, like Bhinmal (Rajasthan)(Shah 1955-56) and the Rameshwar cave at Ellora (Maharashtra) (Sankalia 1960). Although there are a couple of specimens of Lajjā Gaurī in the form of a lotus head, the majority of them found at various places in Gujarat show a general preference by the people to produce and worship this goddess in the form of a human-head. Most of the images of Lajjā Gaurī found elsewhere in Gujarat belong to the 6^th-7^th cent. CE when the Maitrakas of Valabhipur were at the zenith of their power in this region. However, the present evidence from Padri suggests that possibly the worship of this deity began in Gujarat at the beginning of the Christian era during the reign of Western Ksatrapa. This appears to be the earliest evidence for the worship of Lajjā Gaurī in Gujarat and possibly in the whole of India. What is important is that the images were found in a well-defined stratigraphical context. The Early Historical Levels at Padri could be dated accurately to the 1^stcent. CE. Considering the context associated with this structure, it could be presumed that it was a place of worship, possibly a temple. In that case this is the earliest and the only known evidence of the temple of Lajjā Gaurī in India.” (ibid., pp.482-485).

A Lajja Gaurl in a Buddhist Context at Aurangabad

by Robert L. Brown (1990) in: Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 1990, Vol. 13, Number 2, Pages 1 to 16

The Nude Goddess or "Shameless Woman" in Western Asia, India, and South-Eastern Asia

H. D. Sankalia

Artibus Asiae

Vol. 23, No. 2 (1960), pp. 111-123 (13 pages)

Published By: Artibus Asiae Publishers

DOI: 10.2307/3248072

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3248072

JOURNAL ARTICLE

The Earliest Temple of Lajjāgaurī? The Recent Evidence from Padri in Gujarat

Vasant Shinde

East and West

Vol. 44, No. 2/4 (December 1994), pp. 481-485 (5 pages)

Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO)

https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757168