Plaited rope on the neck of zebu is a hypertext, signifies mēḍhā 'twist' rebus mēḍhā 'yajna, dhanam'; meḍ 'iron; med 'copper'.semantic determinant poḷa, 'zebu' rebus poḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore'

February 12, 2019, 6:55 am

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http://tinyurl.com/yytexgqb

Zebu, National Museum, New Delhi Terracotta ca. 2500 BCE 16x6x8 cm Handmade with cream slip on it.Around the neck is a plaited rope or garland.

http://museumsofindia.gov.in/repository/record/nat_del-VS-1539-234-4768.

meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ 'iron'. मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, rebus: medha 'yajna, dhanam';med 'iron' (Mu.Ho.Santali) med 'copper'.(Slavic)

(Deśīnāmamālā)

mũh 'face' (Santali). Rebus: mũh metal ingot (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each end; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽtko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali.lex.)

Wilhelm von Hevesy wrote about the Finno-Ugric-Munda kinship, like "Munda-Magyar-Maori, an Indian link between the antipodes new tracks of Hungarian origins" and "Finnisch-Ugrisches aus Indien". (DRIEM, George van: Languages of the Himalayas: an ethnolinguistic handbook. 1997. p.161-162.) Sumerian-Ural-Altaic language affinities have been noted. Given the presence of Meluhha settlements in Sumer, some Meluhha glosses might have been adapted in these languages. One etyma cluster refers to 'iron' exemplified by meD (Ho.). The alternative suggestion for the origin of the gloss med 'copper' in Uralic languages may be explained by the word meD (Ho.) of Munda family of Meluhha language stream:

Sa. mE~R~hE~'d `iron'. ! mE~RhE~d(M).

Ma. mErhE'd `iron'.

Mu. mERE'd `iron'.

~ mE~R~E~'d `iron'. ! mENhEd(M).

Ho meD `iron'.

Bj. merhd(Hunter) `iron'.

KW mENhEd

@(V168,M080)

http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/AA/Munda/ETYM/Pinnow&Munda

— Slavic glosses for 'copper'

Мед [Med]Bulgarian

Bakar Bosnian

Медзь [medz']Belarusian

Měď Czech

Bakar Croatian

KòperKashubian

Бакар [Bakar]Macedonian

Miedź Polish

Медь [Med']Russian

Meď Slovak

BakerSlovenian

Бакар [Bakar]Serbian

Мідь [mid'] Ukrainian[unquote]

http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/element.php?sym=Cu

Miedź, med' (Northern Slavic, Altaic) 'copper'.

Rojdi. Ax-head or knife of copper, 17.4 cm. long (After Possehl and Raval 1989: 162, fig. 77. The endless knot hieroglyph on the copper knife indicates that the alloying element is: red ore of copper: med 'copper', dhāu 'metal'.

m1356, m443 table मेढा [ mēḍhā ] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl.(Marathi) mer.ha = twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) meli, melika = a turn, a twist, a loop, entanglement; meliyu, melivad.u, meligonu = to get twisted or entwined (Te.lex.) [Note the endless knot motif]. Rebus: med. ‘iron’ (Mu.) Rebus: medh 'yajna' sattva 'svastika glyph' Rebus: sattva, jasta 'zinc'.

The set of hieroglyphs deciphered as: 1. zinc-pewter and 2. bronze:1. jasta, sattva and 2. kuṭila

Hieroglyph: sattva 'svastika hieroglyph'; j̈asta, dasta 'five' (Kafiri) Rebus: jasta, sattva 'zinc'

Hieroglyph: kuṛuk 'coil' Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass' Old English ār 'brass, copper, bronze' Old Norse eir 'brass, copper', German ehern 'brassy, bronzen'. kastīra n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. 2. *kastilla -- .1. H. kathīr m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; G. kathīr n. ʻ pewter ʼ.2. H. (Bhoj.?) kathīl, °lā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; M. kathīl n. ʻ tin ʼ, kathlẽ n. ʻ large tin vessel ʼ.(CDIAL 2984)

Hieroglyph: kuṭi in cmpd. ʻ curve ʼ, kuṭika -- ʻ bent ʼ MBh. [√kuṭ1]
Ext. in H. kuṛuk f. ʻ coil of string or rope ʼ; M. kuḍċā m. ʻ palm contracted and hollowed ʼ, kuḍapṇẽ ʻ to curl over, crisp, contract ʼ. (CDIAL 3230)

kuṭilá ʻ bent, crooked ʼ KātyŚr., °aka -- Pañcat., n. ʻ a partic. plant ʼ lex. [√kuṭ1]
Pa. kuṭila -- ʻ bent ʼ, n. ʻ bend ʼ; Pk. kuḍila -- ʻ crooked ʼ, °illa -- ʻ humpbacked ʼ, °illaya -- ʻ bent ʼ(CDIAL 3231) kauṭilya n. ʻ crookedness ʼ Pāṇ., ʻ falsehood ʼ Pañcat. 2. *kauṭiliya -- . [kuṭilá -- ]

1. Pa. kōṭilla -- n. ʻ crookedness ʼ; Pk. kōḍilla -- m. ʻ backbiter ʼ.2. Pa. kōṭilya -- n. ʻ crookedness ʼ; Si. keḷilla, st. °ili<-> ʻ bending of the knees ʼ, °illen in̆dinavā ʻ to squat ʼ.(CDIAL 3557)

The Shahdad standard has the 'twisted strand' hieroglyph together with tree, zebu, lion, woman. kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite' arye 'lion' rebus: Ara 'brass' meD 'twist' rebus: meD 'iron, copper, metal'. kola 'woman' rebus: kolhe 'smelter' kol 'working in iron'.

kuṭi ‘tree’. Rebus: kuṭhi ‘smelter’ (Santali). The two trees are shown ligatured to a rectangle with ten square divisions and a dot in each square. The dot may denote an ingot in a furnace mould.

Glyph of rectangle with divisions: baṭai = to divide, share (Santali) [Note the glyphs of nine rectangles divided.] Rebus: bhaṭa = an oven, kiln, furnace (Santali)

meṛhao = v.a.m. entwine itself; wind round, wrap round roll up (Santali); maṛhnā cover, encase (Hindi) (Santali.lex.Bodding) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) mẽṛh t iron; ispat m. = steel; dul m. = cast iron (Mu.) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda) mẽṛhẽt ‘iron’; mẽṛhẽt icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat mẽṛhẽt ‘steel’, dul mẽṛhẽt ‘cast iron’;mẽṛhẽt khaṇḍa ‘iron implements’ (Santali) meḍ. (Ho.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) meṛed, mṛed, mṛdiron; enga meṛed soft iron; sanḍi meṛed hard iron; ispāt meṛed steel; dul meṛed cast iron; i meṛed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bica meṛed iron extracted from stone ore; bali meṛed iron extracted from sand ore (Mu.lex.)

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/10/dudu-plaque-shahdad-standard-c-2400-bce.html

Votive relief of Dudu, priest of Ningirsu, in the days of King Entemena of Lagash.
Mésopotamie, room 1a: La Mésopotamie du Néolithique à l'époque des Dynasties archaïques de Sumer. Richelieu, ground floor.
This work is part of the collections of the Louvre (Department of Near Eastern Antiquities).Louvre Museum1881: excavated by Ernest de Sarzec. Place: Girsu (modern city of Telloh, Iraq). Musée du Louvre, Atlas database: entry 11378 Votive relief of Dudu, priest of Ningirsu, in the days of King Entemena of Lagash. Oil shale, ca. 2400 BC. Found in Telloh, ancient city of Girsu. |H. 25 cm (9 ¾ in.), W. 23 cm (9 in.), D. 8 cm (3 in.)
Alternative: kōḍe, kōḍiya. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. Rebus: koḍ artisan’s workshop (Kuwi) kunda ‘turner’ kundār turner (Assamese) मेढा [ mēḍhā ] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl.(Marathi)(CDIAL 10312).L. meṛh f. ʻrope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floorʼ(CDIAL 10317) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)

Hieroglyph: endless knot motif

After Fig. 52, p.85 in Prudence Hopper opcit. Plaque with male figures, serpents and quadruped. Bitumen compound. H. 9 7/8 in (25 cm); w. 8 ½ in. (21.5 cm); d. 3 3/8 in. (8.5 cm). ca. 2600-2500 BCE. Acropole, temple of Ninhursag Sb 2724. The scene is described: “Two beardless, long-haired, nude male figures, their heads in profile and their bodies in three-quarter view, face the center of the composition…upper centre, where two intertwined serpents with their tails in their mouths appear above the upraised hands. At the base of the plaque, between the feet of the two figures, a small calf or lamb strides to the right. An irregular oblong cavity or break was made in the centre of the scene at a later date.”

The hieroglyphs on this plaque are: kid and endless-knot motif (or three strands of rope twisted).

Hieroglyph: 'kid': करडूं or करडें (p. 137) [ karaḍū or ṅkaraḍēṃ ] n A kid. कराडूं (p. 137) [ karāḍūṃ ] n (Commonly करडूं) A kid. Rebus: करडा (p. 137) [ karaḍā ] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c.(Marathi)

I suggest that the center of the composition is NOT set of intertwined serpents, but an endless knot motif signifying a coiled rope being twisted from three strands of fibre.

Bogazkoy Seal impression: Two-headed eagle, a twisted cord below. From Bogazköy . 18th c. BCE (Museum Ankara). eruvai 'kite' Rebus: eruvai 'copper' dhAtu 'strands of rope' Rebus: dhAtu 'mineral' (Note the three strands of the rope hieroglyph on the seal impression from Bogazkoy; it is read: tridhAtu 'three mineral elements'). It signifies copper compound of three minerals; maybe, arsenic copper? or arsenic bronze, as distinct from tin bronze?

Eagle, श्येन sēṇa, کار کنده kār-kunda, آهن ګر āhan gar, 'blacksmith' are Indus Script metalwork wealth मेधा 'yajña, धन' hypertexts

https://tinyurl.com/y8qnj9gu

Eagle, श्येन sēṇa, کار کنده kār-kunda are Indus Script metalwork wealth मेधा 'yajña, धन' hypertexts, signify آهن ګر āhan gar, 'blacksmith', maker of asaṇi, vajrāśani thunderbolt weapon, manager of kiln

The sacred double-headed temple has a temple in Sirkap, Takṣaśila. The double-headed eagle is an Indus Script hypertext to signify kār-kunda, 'manager of kiln', āhan gar, 'blacksmith', maker of asaṇi, vajrāśani 'Indra's thunderbolt' signified by श्येन 'm. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man)' RV. &c. It is veneration of the thunderbolt maker, blacksmith, āhan gar -- an expression derived from श्येन 'hawk' 1) attested in R̥gveda. .श्येन is name of a ऋषि (having the patr. आग्नेय and author of RV. x , 188; and 2) double eagles celebrated in Rāmāyaṇa: सम्-पाति m. N. of a fabulous bird (the eldest son of अरुण or गरुड and brother of जटायु) MBh. R. &c and जटायु m. N. of the king of vultures (son of अरुण and श्येनी MBh. ; son of गरुड R. ; younger brother of सम्पाति ; promising his aid to राम , out of regard for his father दश-रथ , but defeated and mortally wounded by रावण on attempting to rescue सीता) MBh. i , 2634 ; iii , 16043ff. and 16242ff R. i , iii f. Image result for meister shrine of eagle taxila

Image result for meister shrine of eagle taxila

Shrine of the Double Headed Eagle, Buddhist ruins of Sirkap in Punjab Province, Pakistan Stock Photo

Shrine of Two Headed Eagle, 2nd cent.BCE

Double-Headed Eagle Stupa, Sirkap, Taxila (UNESCO World Heritage List, 1980), Punjab, Pakistan, 2nd century BC : Stock Photo

Double-Headed Eagle Stupa, Sirkap, Taxila (UNESCO World Heritage List, 1980), Punjab, Pakistan, 2nd century BCE

http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/pakistan-punjab-taxila-sirkap-shrine.html.

Image result for shaft-hole axe bharatkalyan97

On this artifact, eagle,sēṇa, کار کنده kār-kunda are Indus Script hypertexts,signify āhan gar, b'lacksmith', maker of asaṇi,vajrāśani thunderbolt weapon, manager of kiln. The pair of eagle-heads signify dula 'pair' rebus: dul'metal casting'. Thus,metal casting blacksmith. The winged tiger: kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron'kolhe 'smelter' PLUS kambha 'wing' rebus: kammata 'mint'. baḍhia 'a castrated boar, a hog'(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea 'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant. Thus, the hypertexts on the silver gold foil shaft-hole axe constitute metalwork catalogues.

Sculptural frieze. stūpa of Sanchi, second half of 2nd century BCE (Kramrisch,1954, pic13)

Sanchi. Winged composite animal: tiger, eagle. The last two letters to the right of this inscription in Brahmi form the word "danam" (donation). This hypothesis permitted the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837. The Indus Script hypertext of the composite animal:

Hierogoyph: hawk: śyēná m. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV. Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ.(CDIAL 12674) Rebus: sena 'thunderbolt' (Sinhala)
Hieroglyph: wings: skambha2 ʻ shoulder -- blade, wing, plumage ʼ. [Cf. **skapa* -- s.v. khavaka -- ]
S. khambhu, °bho* m. ʻ plumage ʼ, khambhuṛi f. ʻ wing ʼ; L. khabbh m., mult. khambh m. ʻ shoulder -- blade, wing, feather ʼ, khet. khamb ʻ wing ʼ, mult. khambhaṛā m. ʻ fin ʼ; P. khambh m. ʻ wing, feather ʼ; G. khā̆m f., khabhɔ m. ʻ shoulder ʼ.(CDIAL 13640) Rebus: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner. (DEDR 1236)
Hieroglyph: tiger, feline paw: kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' PLUS panja 'feline paw' rebus: panja'kiln, furnace, smelter'. Thus, the hypertext reads: kol panja sena kammaṭa 'iron smelter thunderbolt mint.
Miraculous crossing of the Ganges by the Buddha when he left Rajagriha to visit Vaisali (partial remain). (John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, p. 38. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918), p.73).

Hieroglyph: pericarp of lotus: kárṇikā f. ʻ round protuberance ʼ Suśr., ʻ pericarp of a lotus ʼ MBh., ʻ ear -- ring ʼ Kathās. [kárṇa -- ] Pa. kaṇṇikā -- f. ʻ ear ornament, pericarp of lotus, corner of upper story, sheaf in form of a pinnacle ʼ; Pk. kaṇṇiā -- f. ʻ corner, pericarp of lotus ʼ; Paš. kanīˊ ʻ corner ʼ; S. kanī f. ʻ border ʼ, L. P. kannī f. (→ H. kannī f.); WPah. bhal. kanni f. ʻ yarn used for the border of cloth in weaving ʼ; B. kāṇī ʻ ornamental swelling out in a vessel ʼ, Or. kānī ʻ corner of a cloth ʼ; H. kaniyã̄ f. ʻ lap ʼ; G. kānī f. ʻ border of a garment tucked up ʼ; M. kānī f. ʻ loop of a tie -- rope ʼ; Si. käni, kän ʻ sheaf in the form of a pinnacle, housetop ʼ.(CDIAL 2849) rebus: supercargo: kāraṇika m. ʻ teacher ʼ MBh., ʻ judge ʼ Pañcat. [kā- raṇa -- ]Pa. usu -- kāraṇika -- m. ʻ arrow -- maker ʼ; Pk. kāraṇiya -- m. ʻ teacher of Nyāya ʼ; S. kāriṇī m. ʻ guardian, heir ʼ; N. kārani ʻ abettor in crime ʼ; M. kārṇī m. ʻ prime minister, supercargo of a ship ʼ, kul -- karṇī m. ʻ village accountant ʼ. (CDIAL 3058) Helmsman: कर्णिक m. a steersman W.; having a helm (Monier-Williams)

Hierogoyph: hawk: śyēná m. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV. Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ.(CDIAL 12674) Rebus: sena 'thunderbolt' (Sinhala)

m1406 Seal using three-stranded rope: dhAtu Rebus: iron ore.

Hieroglyph: धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c ; cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773)

Rebus: M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; (CDIAL 6773) धातु primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral, ore (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh. &c element of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]) (Monier-Williams. Samskritam)

Indus script hieroglyphs signify dhAtu 'iron ore', Dharwar, Ib names of places in India in the iron ore belt.

There are two Railway stations in India called Dharwad and Ib. Both are related to Prakritam words with the semantic significance: iron worker, iron ore.

dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ (Marathi)(CDIAL 6773).

Twisted rope as hieroglyph:

dhāˊtu strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773 ) Rebus: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn.Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ)(CDIAL 6773).

dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ

The suffix -vaḍ is relatable to the semantics of vaTam ‘string’.(as may be seen in the expressions in vogue in Tamil) Thus, dhā̆vaḍ can be elaborated as a compound made of dhA PLUS vaTam, i.e. layers of minerals or elements in the smelting process.

அணிவடம்* *aṇi-**vaṭam*
, n. < அணி- +. Ornamental string of jewels, necklace; கழுத் திலணியு மாலை.
அரைவடம் arai-vaṭam
, n. < id. +. String of beads round the waist, worn by little children; அரைச்சதங்கை.அரைவடங்கள் கட்டி (திருப்பு. 2).
ஈர்வடம் īr-vaṭam
, n. < ஈர்³ +. Rope made of the ribs of the palmyra leaf; பனை யீர்க்குக்கயிறு. (J.)
ஏகவடம் ēka-vaṭam
, n. < id. +. Necklace of a single string. See ஏகாவலி. பொங்கிள நாகமொரேகவடத்தோடு (தேவா. 350, 7)
கால்வடம் kāl-vaṭam
, n. < கால்¹ +. Foot- ornament strung with pearls; காலணிவகை. திருக்கால்வடமொன்றிற் கோத்த (S.I.I. ii, 397, 205).
சபவடம் capa-vaṭam
, n. < சபம்¹ +. String of beads for keeping count in prayer, rosary; செபமாலை. சபவடமும்வெண்ணூல் மார்பும் (திருவாலவா. 27, 51).
தாழ்வடம் tāḻ-vaṭam
, n. < id. +. 1. [M. tāḻvaṭam.] Necklace of pearls or beads; கழுத் தணி. தாவி றாழ்வடம்தயங்க (சீவக. 2426).
தேர்வடம் tēr-vaṭam
, n. < id. +. Cable, thick rope for drawing a car; தேரிழுத்தற்குரிய பெரிய கயிற்றுவடம்.மணலையு மேவுதேர்வட மாக்க லாம் (அருட்பா, vi, வயித்திய. 4).
வடம்¹ vaṭam
, n. < vaṭa. 1. Cable, large rope, as for drawing a temple-car; கனமான கயிறு. வடமற்றது (நன். 219, மயிலை.). 2. Cord; தாம்பு. (சூடா.) 3. A loop of coir rope, used for climbing palm-trees; மரமேறவுதவுங் கயிறு. Loc. 4. Bowstring; வில்லின் நாணி. (பிங்.) 5. String of jewels; மணிவடம். வடங்கள் அசையும்படி உடுத்து(திருமுரு. 204, உரை). (சூடா.) 6. Strands of a garland; chains of a necklace; சரம். இடை மங்கை கொங்கைவடமலைய (அஷ்டப். திருவேங்கடத் தந். 39). 7. Arrangement; ஒழுங்கு. தொடங்கற் காலை வடம்படவிளங்கும் (ஞானா. 14, 41).

There are two Railway stations in India called Dharwad and Ib. Both are related to Prakritam words with the semantic significance: iron worker, iron ore.

dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ (Marathi)(CDIAL 6773)

m478a tablet

m0478b tablet

erga = act of clearing jungle (Kui) [Note image showing two men carrying

uprooted trees] thwarted by a person in the middle with outstretched hands

Aḍaru twig; aḍiri small and thin branch of a tree; aḍari small branches (Ka.); aḍaru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Aḍar = splinter (Santali); rebus: aduru = native metal (Ka.) Vikalpa: kūtī = bunch of twigs (Skt.) Rebus: kuṭhi = furnace (Santali) ḍhaṁkhara — m.n. ʻbranch without leaves or fruitʼ (Prakrit) (CDIAL 5524)

Hieroglyph: era female, applied to women only, and generally as a mark of respect, wife; hopon era a daughter; era hopon a man’s family; manjhi era the village chief’s wife; gosae era a female Santal deity; bud.hi era an old woman; era uru wife and children; nabi era a prophetess; diku era a Hindu woman (Santali)

•Rebus: er-r-a = red; eraka = copper (Ka.) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) agasa_le, agasa_li, agasa_lava_d.u = a goldsmith (Te.lex.)

kuTi 'tree' Rebus: kuṭhi = (smelter) furnace (Santali)

heraka = spy (Skt.); eraka, hero = a messenger; a spy (Gujarati); er to look at or for (Pkt.); er uk- to play 'peeping tom' (Ko.) Rebus: erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.) eraka ‘copper’ (Kannada)

kōṭu branch of tree, Rebus: खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.

Hieroglyph: Looking back: krammara 'look back' (Telugu) kamar 'smith, artisan' (Santali)

kola ‘tiger, jackal’ (Kon.); rebus: kol working in iron, blacksmith, ‘alloy of five metals, panchaloha’ (Tamil) kol ‘furnace, forge’ (Kuwi) kolami ‘smithy’ (Telugu)

^ Inverted V, m478 (lid above rim of narrow-necked jar) The rimmed jar next to the tiger with turned head has a lid. Lid ‘ad.aren’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ karnika 'rim of jar' Rebus: karni 'supercargo' (Marathi) Thus, together, the jar with lid composite hieroglyhph denotes 'native metal supercargo'. karn.aka = handle of a vessel; ka_n.a_, kanna_ = rim, edge; kan.t.u = rim of a vessel; kan.t.ud.iyo = a small earthen vessel; kan.d.a kanka = rim of a water-pot; kan:kha, kankha = rim of a vessel

The hieroglyph may be a variant of a twisted rope.

dhāu 'rope' rebus: dhāu 'metal' PLUS मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'a curl or snarl; twist in thread' rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’. Thus, metallic ore.

kōlam, n. [T. kōlamu, K. kōla, M. kōlam.] 'ornamental figure' Rebus: kol 'working in iron'

The inscription on m478 thus signifies, reading hieroglyphs from r.:

Tree: kuThi 'smelter'

Worshipper: bhaTa 'furnace'

Four linear strokes + rimless pot: kanda baTa 'fire-altar for iron'

Circumscript two linear strokes + body: meD koDa 'metal workshop'

Currycomb:khareḍo 'currycomb' rebus: kharādī ‘turner’; dhāu 'metal'

PLUS mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’; kol 'working in iron'. Together, the two hieroglyphs

signify metalworker, ironsmith turner.

m479A eragu 'bow' rebus: erako 'moltencast, copper' baTa 'rimless pot' rebus: baTa 'iron' bhaTa 'furnace' kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'. Thus, moltencast copper, iron furnace/smelter

gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' kanda 'fire-alter' baTa 'rimless pot' rebus: baTa 'iron' koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metalcasting' Thus, metalcasting workshop PLUS karNika 'spread legs' meD 'body' rebus: karNI 'supercargo''scribe, account' thus, account of metalcasting workshop (products)

khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ‘turner’ (Gujarati) kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus: kaṁsa 'bronze' (Te.)

dhāu 'rope' rebus: dhāu 'metal' PLUS मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'a curl or snarl; twist in thread' rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’.

m479B kanka, karNaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo' adaren 'lid' rebus: aduru 'native metal' Thus, native metal handed to supercargo for shipment. kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' krammara 'look back' rebus: kamar 'artisan, smith' heraka 'spy' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper' kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' Thus, copper smelter artisan. erga 'act of clearing jungle' rebus: erako 'moltencast copper'

m480A

m480B

3224

m478A

m478B

3239, 2815 Pict-77 Pict-77: Tree, generally within a railing or on a platform

Mohenjodaro, tablet in bas relief (M-478)

m0478B tablet erga = act of clearing jungle (Kui) [Note image showing two men carrying uprooted trees].

•era, er-a = eraka = ?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.)

•era_ = claws of an animal that can do no harm (G.)

•era female, applied to women only, and generally as a mark of respect, wife; hopon era a daughter; era hopon a man’s family; manjhi era the village chief’s wife; gosae era a female Santal deity; bud.hi era an old woman; era uru wife and children; nabi era a prophetess; diku era a Hindu woman (Santali)

Hieroglyph: Looking back: krammara 'look back' (Telugu) kamar 'smith, artisan' (Santali)

erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.);

^ Inverted V, m478 (lid above rim of narrow-necked jar)

The rimmed jar next to the tiger with turned head has a lid. Lid ‘ad.aren’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’

karnika 'rim of jar' Rebus: karni 'supercargo' (Marathi) Thus, together, the jar with lid composite hieroglyhph denotes 'native metal supercargo'.

kuTi 'tree' Rebus: kuṭhi = (smelter) furnace (Santali)

eraka, hero = a messenger; a spy (G.lex.) kola ‘tiger, jackal’ (Kon.); rebus: kol working in iron, blacksmith, ‘alloy of five metals, panchaloha’ (Tamil) kol ‘furnace, forge’ (Kuwi) kolami ‘smithy’ (Te.) heraka = spy (Skt.); er to look at or for (Pkt.); er uk- to play 'peeping tom' (Ko.) Rebus: eraka ‘copper’ (Ka.) kōṭu branch of tree, Rebus: खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.

karn.aka = handle of a vessel; ka_n.a_, kanna_ = rim, edge;

kan.t.u = rim of a vessel; kan.t.ud.iyo = a small earthen vessel

kan.d.a kanka = rim of a water-pot; kan:kha, kankha = rim of a vessel

svastika pewter (Kannada); jasta = zinc (Hindi) yasada (Jaina Pkt.)

karibha 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' Rebus: karba 'iron' (Tulu)

kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'working in iron' krammara 'turn back' Rebus: kamar 'smith'

heraka 'spy' Rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper'

meDha 'ram' Rebus: meD 'iron' (Mu.Ho)

bAraNe ' an offering of food to a demon' (Tulu) Rebus: baran, bharat (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi. Bengali) bhaTa 'worshipper' Rebus: bhaTa 'furnace' baTa 'iron' (Gujarati)

saman 'make an offering (Santali) samanon 'gold' (Santali)

minDAl 'markhor' (Torwali) meDho 'ram' (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: me~Rhet, meD 'iron' (Mu.Ho.Santali)

heraka 'spy' (Samskritam) Rebus:eraka 'molten metal, copper'

maNDa 'branch, twig' (Telugu) Rebus: maNDA 'warehouse, workshop' (Konkani)\karibha, jata kola Rebus: karba, ib, jasta, 'iron, zinc, metal (alloy of five metals)

maNDi 'kneeling position' Rebus: mADa 'shrine; mandil 'temple' (Santali)

கோலம்¹ kōlam, n. [T. kōlamu, K. kōla, M. kōlam.] 1. Beauty, gracefulness, hand- someness; அழகு. கோலத் தனிக்கொம்பர் (திருக் கோ. 45). 2. Colour; நிறம். கார்க்கோல மேனி யானை (கம்பரா. கும்பக. 154). 3. Form, shape, external or general appearance; உருவம். மானுடக் கோலம். 4. Nature; தன்மை. 5. Costume; appropriate dress; attire, as worn by actors; trappings; equipment; habiliment; வேடம். உள்வரிக் கோலத்து (சிலப். 5, 216). 6. Ornament, as jewelry; ஆபரணம். குறங்கிணை திரண்டன கோலம் பொறாஅ (சிலப். 30, 18). 7. Adornment, decoration, embellishment; அலங்காரம். புறஞ்சுவர் கோலஞ்செய்து (திவ். திருமாலை, 6). 8. Ornamental figures drawn on floor, wall or sacrificial pots with rice-flour, white stone-powder, etc.; மா, கற்பொடி முதலியவற்றாலிடுங் கோலம். தரை மெழுகிக் கோலமிட்டு (குமர. மீனாட். குறம். 25).

The hieroglyphs on m478a tablet are read rebus:

kuTi 'tree'Rebus: kuThi 'smelter'

bhaTa 'worshipper' Rebus: bhaTa 'furnace' baTa 'iron' (Gujarati) This hieroglyph is a phonetic deterinant of the 'rimless pot': baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada) Rebus: baṭa = a kind of iron (Gujarati) bhaṭa 'a furnace'. Hence, the hieroglyph-multiplex of an adorant with rimless pot signifies: 'iron furnace' bhaTa.

bAraNe ' an offering of food to a demon' (Tulu) Rebus: baran, bharat (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi. Bengali) The narrative of a worshipper offering to a tree is thus interpretable as a smelting of three minerals: copper, zinc and tin.

Numeral four: gaNDa 'four' Rebus: kand 'fire-altar'; Four 'ones': koḍa ‘one’ (Santali) Rebus: koḍ ‘artisan’s workshop'. Thus, the pair of 'four linear strokes PLUS rimless pot' signifies: 'fire-altar (in) artisan's wrkshop'.

Circumscript of two linear strokes for 'body' hieroglyph: dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' koḍa ‘one’(Santali) Rebus: koḍ ‘artisan’s workshop'. Thus, the circumscript signifies 'cast metal workshop'. meD 'body' Rebus: meD 'iron'.

khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ‘turner’ (Gujarati)

m1457A Copper tablet

m1457Bct Text 2904 Pict-124: Endless knot motif. The hypertext on two lines are read rebus:

Hieroglyph: मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'a curl or snarl; twist in thread' (Marathi) .L. meṛh f. ʻrope tying oxen to each other'.mer.ha = twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) meli, melika = a turn, a twist, a loop, entanglement. Viewed as a string or strand of rope, the gloss is read rebus as dhāu ʻore (esp. of copper)ʼ. The specific ore is:

med 'copper' (Slavic languages)

dhāˊtu *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773 ) Rebus: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn.Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ)(CDIAL 6773).

Line 1: ad.ar 'harrow'; rebus: aduru 'native metal, unsmelted' (Kannada)

baTa 'warrior' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace'

karNika 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo'; karNaka 'account'. Alternative: kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: kanga 'brazier'.

Line 2: ad.ar 'harrow'; rebus: aduru 'native metal, unsmelted' (Kannada)

aya 'fish' rebus: aya, ayas 'iron''metal'

dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' PLUS goTa 'round' rebus: goTa 'laterite ore'

The pair of 'ovals or ellipses' are infixed with 'notches'. khANDA 'notch' rebus: khaNDa 'implement'. dhal 'slope' rebus: dhALako 'large ingot (oxhide)' PLUS Hieroglyph: karã̄ n. pl. wristlets, bangles' rebus: khAr 'blacksmith'

mū̃h ‘ingot’ (Santali) dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' Thus, cast metal ingot of laterite and implements.

Thus, the hieroglyph-multiplex signifies cast metal of laterite ore

pajhaṛ = to sprout from a root (Santali) Rebus: pasra 'smithy' (Santali) kolom,

Alternative: kolma 'rice plant' rebus: kolime 'furnace' (Kannada) kolimi 'smithy, forge' (Telugu); kolame 'deep pit' (Tulu)

Decipherment

Thus, read together with Lines 1 and 2 of Hypertext, the copper plate m1457 with the 'endless knot' hieroglyph signifies: copper smithy. The descriptive glosses of the metalwork catalogue are: karNi 'supercargo' of med 'copper', dhāu 'metal'; kolimi 'furnace'; dul goTa kaNDa 'cast laterite ore implements'; ayas 'metal alloy'; furnace for aduru 'native (unsmelted) metal'.

Alternative: kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: kanga 'brazier'.

h613A

h613C dhāu 'rope' rebus: dhāu 'metal' PLUS मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'a curl or snarl; twist in thread' rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’.

4259 ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS dhal 'slope' rebus: dhALako 'large ingot (oxhide)'.

Endless knot: Yajna, Iron Mineral smelter cluster

C-49 a,b,c

+ hieroglyph in the middle with covering lines around/dots in corners poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite'; dhAv 'strand' rebus: dhAv 'smelter'; kulA 'hooded snake' rebus: kolle 'blacksmith' kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter'; kolmo 'three' koD 'horn' rebus: kolimi 'smithy' koD 'workshop'. tri-dhAtu 'three strands, threefold' rebus: tri-dhAv 'three mineral ores'.

mḗdha m. ʻ sacrificial oblation ʼ RV. Pa. mēdha -- m. ʻ sacrifice ʼ; Si. mehe, mē sb. ʻ eating ʼ ES 69.(CDIAL 10327).

Thus, mḗdha is a yajna. गृहम् gṛham मेध a. 1 one who performs the domestic rites or sacrifices; गृह- मेधास आ गत मरुतो माप भूतन Rv.7.59.1.-2 connected with the duties of a householder. (-धः) 1 a householder. -2 a domestic sacrifice; मेधः 1 A sacrifice, as in नरमेध, अश्वमेध, एकविंशति- मेधान्ते Mb.14.29.18. (com. मेधो युद्धयज्ञः । 'यज्ञो वै मेधः'इति श्रुतेः ।). -2 A sacrificial animal or victim. -3 An offering, oblation. मेधा [मेध्-अञ्] (changed to मेधस् in Bah. comp. when preceded by सु, दुस् and the negative particle अ A sacrifice. -5 Strength, power (Ved.). मेध्य a. [मेध्-ण्यत्, मेधाय हितं यत् वा] 1 Fit for a sacrifice; अजाश्वयोर्मुखं मेध्यम् Y.1.194; Ms.5.54. -2 Relating to a sacrifice, sacrificial; मेध्येनाश्वेनेजे; R.13. 3; उषा वा अश्वस्य मेध्यस्य शिरः Bṛi. Up.1.1.1. -3 Pure, sacred, holy; भुवं कोष्णेन कुण्डोघ्नी मध्येनावमृथादपि R.1.84; 3.31;14.81 Mejjha (adj. -- nt.) [*medhya; fr. medha] 1. (adj.) [to medha1] fit for sacrifice, pure; neg. a˚ impure Sdhp 363. medha [Vedic medha, in aśva, go˚, puruṣa˚ etc.] sacrifice only in assa˚ horse -- sacrifice (Pali)

मेढा [ mēḍhā ]'twist, curl'
rebus: meD 'iron, copper,metal‘ medha ‘yajna

Fatehpur Sikri (1569-1584 CE cf. RS Bisht

Dhruva II Inscription Gujarat Rashtrakuta 884 CE [H. Sarkar & BM Pande, 1999, Symbols and Graphic Representations in Indian Inscriptions, Delhi: Aryan,]

A3a and A3b

Hieroglyph: Endless knot

dhAtu 'strand of rope' Rebus: dhAtu 'mineral, metal, ore'धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c ; cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773) tántu m. ʻ thread, warp ʼ RV. [√tan] Pa. tantu -- m. ʻ thread, cord ʼ, Pk. taṁtu -- m.; Kho. (Lor.) ton ʻ warp ʼ < *tand (whence tandeni ʻ thread between wings of spinning wheel ʼ); S. tandu f. ʻ gold or silver thread ʼ; L. tand (pl. °dũ) f. ʻ yarn, thread being spun, string of the tongue ʼ; P. tand m. ʻ thread ʼ, tanduā, °dūā m. ʻ string of the tongue, frenum of glans penis ʼ; A. tã̄t ʻ warp in the loom, cloth being woven ʼ; B. tã̄t ʻ cord ʼ; M. tã̄tū m. ʻ thread ʼ; Si. tatu, °ta ʻ string of a lute ʼ; -- with -- o, -- ā to retain orig. gender: S. tando m. ʻ cord, twine, strand of rope ʼ; N. tã̄do ʻ bowstring ʼ; H. tã̄tā m. ʻ series, line ʼ; G. tã̄tɔ m. ʻ thread ʼ; -- OG. tāṁtaṇaü m. ʻ thread ʼ < *tāṁtaḍaü, G.tã̄tṇɔ m.(CDIAL 5661)

मेढा [ mēḍhā ] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl.(Marathi)(CDIAL 10312).L. meṛh f. ʻrope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floorʼ(CDIAL 10317) Rebus: meḍ'iron'. mẽṛhet ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)

Thus, together, a strand and a curl, the hieroglyph-multiplex of endless-knot signifies iron mineral. mRdu dhAtu (iron mineral).

Bastar Gane gaṇeśa a wears a twisted chain, Chain link on two one-horned youngbulls

Indus script hieroglyphs on Bastar Gaṇeśa sculpture and on a Mohenjo-daro seal signify adamantine glue, metal calcine

Mhttp://tinyurl.com/jmvqrtt

This note collates two hypertexts in Indus Script tradition: One is on a Mohenjo-daro seal m0296 (ca. 2500 BCE) which shows a link of a chain; and the other is on a sculpture of Gaṇeśa (ca 10th cent) shown wearing a chain, as a sacred thread. This collation is a demonstration of the metallurgical competence of the artisans of the civilization.

śã̄gaḍ, 'chain' signifies rebus sanghāta 'adamantine glue (calcine)'; kaṇḍe 'pine-cone' signified rebuskhaṇḍa '(metal) tools'. "Potential calcination is that brought about by potential fire, such as corrosive chemicals; for example, gold was calcined in a reverberatory furnace with mercury and sal ammoniac; silver with common salt and alkali salt; copper with salt and sulfur; iron with sal ammoniac and vinegar; tin with antimony; lead with sulfur; and mercury with aqua fortis". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcination
"
Gaṇeśa, Indus Script tradition. significance of hieroglyphs on Dholkal, Bastar, Chattisgarh Gaṇeśa with metal chain and pine cone

Mirror: https://www.academia.edu/s/32bd84b1b4

There are two unique hieroglyphs on Gaṇeśa sculpture (h. 6 ft.) seated statue of Dholkal mountain, Bastar, Chattisgarh: The yajnopavitam worn by Gaṇeśa is a chain of three stranded metal chain (iron or steel) wires. Gaṇeśa carries on his left hand a pine cone.

Both hieroglyphs, together with the trunk of elephant in iconographs are related to metalwork catalogues of Indus Script corpora. Veneration of Gaṇeśa dates back to Rigvedic times (See RV 2.23 sukta gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnām upamaśravastamam -- with translation appended). In the tradition of Bharatam Janam, gana are related to kharva, dwarfs as part of Kubera's nidhi; rebus: karba 'iron'.

Gaṇeśa of Dholkal, Bastar is an emphatic evidence for the thesis of Sandhya Jain in her path-breaking monograph: 'Adi Deo Arya Devata- A Panoramic View of Tribal-Hindu Cultural Interface'. Gaṇeśa is a defining hieroglyph/metaphor of the cultural history of Bharatam Janam. (Bharatam janam, 'metalcaster folk', an expression defining the identity of Bharatiya by Rishi Viswamitra in RV 3.53.12).

Hieroglyph: kariba 'trunk of elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ibha 'elephant' rebus: ib 'iron.

Hieroglyph: dhāu 'strand of rope' Rebus: dhāv 'red ore' (ferrite) ti-dhāu 'three strands' Rebus: ti-dhāv 'three ferrite ores: magnetite, hematite, laterite'.

Hieroglyph: Ash. piċ -- kandə ʻ pine ʼ, Kt. pṳ̄ċi, piċi, Wg. puċ, püċ (pṳ̄ċ -- kəŕ ʻ pine -- cone ʼ), Pr. wyoċ, Shum. lyēwič (lyē -- ?).(CDIAL 8407). Cf. Gk. peu/kh f. ʻ pine ʼ, Lith. pušìs, OPruss. peuse NTS xiii 229. The suffix –kande in the lexeme: Ash. piċ-- kandə ʻ pine ʼ may be cognate with the bulbous glyphic related to a mangrove root: Koḍ. kaṇḍe root-stock from which small roots grow; ila·ti kaṇḍe sweet potato (ila·ti England). Tu. kaṇḍe, gaḍḍè a bulbous root; Ta. kaṇṭal mangrove, Rhizophora mucronata; dichotomous mangrove, Kandelia rheedii. Ma. kaṇṭa bulbous root as of lotus, plantain; point where branches and bunches grow out of the stem of a palm; kaṇṭal what is bulb-like, half-ripe jackfruit and other green fruits; R. candel. (DEDR 1171). Rebus: khaṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans of metal’.

Hieroglyph: కండె [ kaṇḍe ] kaṇḍe. [Telugu] n. A head or ear of millet or maize. జొన్నకంకి.

Rebus:Tu. kandůka, kandaka ditch, trench. Te. kandakamu id. Konḍa kanda trench made as a fireplace during weddings. Pe. kanda fire trench. Kui kanda small trench for fireplace. Malt. kandri a pit. (DEDR 1214).

Metallurgy, alloying competence: Chain hieroglyph on seal m0296 śã̄gaḍ ʻchainʼ rebus: sanghāta 'vajra, metallic adamantine glue'

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/hyl57us

śã̄gal, śã̄gaḍ ʻchainʼ (WPah.) śr̥ṅkhala m.n. ʻ chain ʼ MārkP., °lā -- f. VarBr̥S., śr̥ṅkhalaka -- m. ʻ chain ʼ MW., ʻ chained camel ʼ Pāṇ. [Similar ending in mḗkhalā -- ] Pa. saṅkhalā -- , °likā -- f. ʻ chain ʼ; Pk. saṁkala -- m.n., °lā -- , °lī -- , °liā -- , saṁkhalā -- , siṁkh°, siṁkalā -- f. ʻ chain ʼ, siṁkhala -- n. ʻ anklet ʼ; Sh. šăṅāli̯ f., (Lor.)š*lṅāli, šiṅ° ʻ chain ʼ (lw .with š -- < śr̥ -- ), K. hö̃kal f.; S. saṅgharu m. ʻ bell round animal's neck ʼ, °ra f. ʻ chain, necklace ʼ, saṅghāra f. ʻ chain, string of beads ʼ,saṅghirī f. ʻ necklace with double row of beads ʼ; L. saṅglī f. ʻ flock of bustard ʼ, awāṇ. saṅgul ʻ chain ʼ; P. saṅgal m. ʻ chain ʼ, ludh. suṅgal m.; WPah.bhal. śaṅgul m. ʻ chain with which a soothsayer strikes himself ʼ, śaṅgli f. ʻ chain ʼ, śiṅkhal f. ʻ railing round a cow -- stall ʼ, (Joshi) śã̄gaḷ ʻ door -- chain ʼ, jaun. śã̄gal, śã̄gaḍ ʻ chain ʼ; Ku. sã̄glo ʻ doorchain ʼ, gng. śāṅaw ʻ chain ʼ; N. sāṅlo ʻ chain ʼ, °li ʻ small do. ʼ, A. xikali, OB. siṅkala, B. sikal, sikli, chikal, chikli, (Chittagong) hĩol ODBL 454, Or.sāṅk(h)uḷā, °ḷi,
sāṅkoḷi, sikaḷā̆, °ḷi, sikuḷā, °ḷi; Bi. sīkaṛ ʻ chains for pulling harrow ʼ, Mth. sī˜kaṛ; Bhoj. sī˜kar, sĩkarī ʻ chain ʼ, OH. sāṁkaḍa, sīkaḍa m., H. sã̄kal, sã̄kar,°krī, saṅkal, °klī, sikal, sīkar, °krī f.; OG. sāṁkalu n., G. sã̄kaḷ, °kḷī f. ʻ chain ʼ, sã̄kḷũ n. ʻ wristlet ʼ; M. sã̄k(h)aḷ, sāk(h)aḷ, sã̄k(h)ḷī f. ʻ chain ʼ, Ko. sāṁkaḷ; Si. säkilla, hä°, ä° (st. °ili -- ) ʻ elephant chain ʼ.śr̥ṅkhalayati.Addenda: śr̥ṅkhala -- : WPah.kṭg. (kc.) śáṅgəḷ f. (obl. -- i) ʻ chain ʼ, J. śã̄gaḷ f., Garh. sã̄gaḷ.śr̥ṅkhalayati ʻ enchains ʼ Daś. [śr̥ṅkhala -- ]

Ku.gng. śāṅaī ʻ intertwining of legs in wrestling ʼ (< śr̥ṅkhalita -- ); Or. sāṅkuḷibā ʻ to enchain ʼ.(CDIAL 12580, 12581)சங்கிலி¹ caṅkili, n. < šṛṅkhalaā. [M. caṅ- kala.] 1. Chain, link; தொடர். சங்கிலிபோ லீர்ப்புண்டு (சேதுபு. அகத். 12). 2. Land-measuring chain, Gunter's chain 22 yards long; அளவுச் சங்கிலி. (C. G.) 3. A superficial measure of dry land=3.64 acres; ஓர் நிலவளவு. (G. Tn. D. I, 239). 4. A chain-ornament of gold, inset with diamonds; வயிரச்சங்கிலி என்னும் அணி. சங்கிலி நுண்டொடர் (சிலப். 6, 99). 5. Hand-cuffs, fetters; விலங்கு.

Rebus: Vajra Sanghāta 'binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue. (Allograph) Hieroglyph: sãghāṛɔ 'lathe'.(Gujarati)

Seal m0296 Two heads of young bulls, nine ficus leaves)

m0296 Two heads of one-horned bulls with neck-rings, joined end to end (to a standard device with two rings coming out of the top part?), under a stylized pipal tree with nine leaves. Text 1387

dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' dhAv 'string/strand' rebus: dhAv, dhAtu 'element, ore'.

Mohenjo-daro Seal impression. m0296 Two heads of one-horned bulls with neck-rings, joined end to end (to a standard device with two rings coming out of the top part?), under a stylized tree-branch with nine leaves.

खोंद [ khōnda ] n A hump (on the back): also a protuberance or an incurvation (of a wall, a hedge, a road). Rebus: खोदणें [ khōdaṇēṃ ] v c & i ( H) To dig. 2 To engrave. खोद खोदून विचारणें or -पुसणें To question minutely and searchingly, to probe.गोट [ gōṭa ] m (H) A metal wristlet. An ornament of women. 2 Encircling or investing. v घाल, दे. 3 An encampment or camp: also a division of a camp. 4 The hem or an appended border (of a garment).गोटा [ gōṭā ] m A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 3 fig. A grain of rice in the ear. Ex. पावसानें भाताचे गोटे झडले. An overripe and rattling cocoanut: also such dry kernel detached from the shell. 5 A narrow fillet of brocade.गोटाळ [ gōṭāḷa ] a (गोटा) Abounding in pebbles--ground.गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone. Used in trials of strength among the Athletæ. 4 A stone in temples described at length under उचला 5 fig. A term for a round, fleshy, well-filled body.

Rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A lump of silver: as obtained by melting down lace or fringe.

Hieroglyph: lo = nine (Santali); no = nine (B.) on-patu = nine (Ta.)

[Note the count of nine fig leaves on m0296] Rebus: loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata,
the fruit of ficus glomerata (Santali.lex.)

Epigraph:

1387

kana, kanac =

corner (Santali); Rebus: kan~cu
= bronze (Te.)

Ligatured glyph. ara 'spoke' rebus: ara 'brass'. era, er-a = eraka =?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.)[Note Sign 391 and its ligatures Signs 392 and 393 may connote a spoked-wheel,nave of the wheel through which the axle passes; cf. ara_, spoke]erka = ekke (Tbh.of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal);crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = anymetal infusion (Ka.Tu.); erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) Rebus: eraka= copper (Ka.)eruvai =copper (Ta.); ere - a dark-red colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). eraka, era, er-a= syn. erka, copper, weapons (Ka.)Vikalpa: ara, arā (RV.) = spokeof wheel ஆரம்² āram , n. < āra. 1. Spokeof a wheel.See ஆரக்கால். ஆரஞ்சூழ்ந்தவயில்வாய்

நேமியொடு (சிறுபாண். 253). Rebus: ஆரம் brass; பித்தளை.(அக. நி.) pittal is cognate with 'pewter'.

kuṭi = a slice, a bit, a small piece (Santali.lex.Bodding) Rebus: kuṭhi

‘iron smelter furnace’ (Santali) kuṭhī factory (A.)(CDIAL 3546)

Thus, the sign sequence

connotes a copper, bronze, brass smelter furnace

Ayo ‘fish’; kaṇḍa‘arrow’; rebus: ayaskāṇḍa. The sign sequence is ayaskāṇḍa ‘a quantity of iron,excellent iron’ (Pāṇ.gaṇ) ayo, hako 'fish'; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus:aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) kaṇḍa‘fire-altar’ (Santali) DEDR 191 Ta. ayirai,acarai, acalai loach, sandy colour, Cobitisthermalis; ayilai a kind of fish. Ma. ayala a fish,mackerel, scomber; aila, ayila a fish; ayira a kind ofsmall fish, loach.

kole.l 'temple, smithy'(Ko.); kolme ‘smithy' (Ka.) kol ‘working in iron, blacksmith (Ta.); kollan-blacksmith (Ta.); kollan blacksmith, artificer (Ma.)(DEDR 2133) kolme =furnace (Ka.) kol = pan~calo_ha (five

metals); kol metal (Ta.lex.) pan~caloha = a metallic alloy containing five metals: copper, brass, tin, lead and iron (Skt.); an alternative list of five metals: gold, silver, copper, tin (lead), and iron (dhātu; Nānārtharatnākara. 82; Man:garāja’s Nighaṇṭu. 498)(Ka.) kol, kolhe, ‘the koles, an aboriginal tribe if iron smelters speaking a language akin to that of Santals’ (Santali)

Zebu and leaves. In

front of the standard device and the stylized tree of 9 leaves, are the black
buck antelopes. Black paint on red ware of Kulli style. Mehi. Second-half of
3rd millennium BCE. [After G.L. Possehl, 1986, Kulli: an exploration of an
ancient civilization in South Asia, Centers of Civilization, I, Durham, NC:
46, fig. 18 (Mehi II.4.5), based on Stein 1931: pl. 30.

poLa 'zebu' rebus; poLa 'magnetite'

ayir = iron dust, any ore (Ma.) aduru = gan.iyindategadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to
melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretationof the Amarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330) DEDR 192 Ta. ayil iron. Ma. ayir,ayiram any ore. Ka. aduru native
metal. Tu. ajirdakarba very hard iron

V326 (Orthographic variants of Sign 326)

V327 (Orthographic variants of Sign 327)

loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus
glomerata (Santali.lex.) Vikalpa: kamaṛkom ‘ficus’ (Santali);
rebus: kampaṭṭam ‘mint’ (Ta.) patra ‘leaf’ (Skt.); rebus: paṭṭarai
‘workshop’ (Ta.) Rebus: lo ‘iron’ (Assamese, Bengali); loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) lauha = made of
copper or iron (Gr.S'r.); metal, iron (Skt.); lo_haka_ra = coppersmith, ironsmith (Pali);lo_ha_ra = blacksmith (Pt.); lohal.a (Or.); lo_ha = metal, esp. copper or
bronze (Pali); copper (VS.); loho, lo_ = metal, ore, iron (Si.) loha lut.i = iron utensils and implements (Santali.lex.) koṭiyum = a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal; koṭ = neck (G.lex.) kōṭu = horns (Ta.) kōḍiya, kōḍe =

young bull (G.) Rebus: koḍ = place where artisans work (G.lex.)

dol = likeness, picture, form (Santali) [e.g., two tigers, two bulls, duplicated signs] me~ṛhe~t iron; ispat m. = steel; dul m. = cast iron (Santali) [Thus, the paired glyph of one-horned heifers connotes (metal) casting (dul) workshop (koḍ)]

PLUS

śã̄gaḍ ʻchainʼ rebus: sanghāta 'vajra, metallic adamantine glue'. Thus, the metallurgist has achieved and documented the alloy of copper, as adamantine glue. Decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) to calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide, in order to create cement. The process is called calcination of metal which is oxidation of metal. It appears that the process of calcination is signified by the chain worn as sacred thread on the statue of Gaṇeśa of Bastar (Dholkal mountain), Chattisgarh.

Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization I: Our Oriental Heritage:

"Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of the Gupta times, when India was looked to, even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and cement... By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders, and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times; King Porus is said to have selected, as a specially valuable gift from Alexander, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Moslems took much of this Hindu chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing "Damascus" blades, for example, was taken by the Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India."

The chain hieroglyph component is a semantic determinant of the stylized 'standard device' sã̄gaḍa, 'lathe, portable brazier' used for making, say, crucible steel. Hence the circle with dots or blobs/globules signifying ingots.

↧

Archaeology, of Rāṣṭrī Suktam R̥gveda 10.125 prayer to चैतन्यमात्मा, Śiva Sūtrāṇi, mirrored in documents of Indus Script Cipher of phaḍa, 'public metals manufactory', kammaṭa 'mint', kamaḍha 'penance'

February 23, 2019, 12:45 am

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≪ Previous: Plaited rope on the neck of zebu is a hypertext, signifies mēḍhā 'twist' rebus mēḍhā 'yajna, dhanam'; meḍ 'iron; med 'copper'.semantic determinant poḷa, 'zebu' rebus poḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore'

http://tinyurl.com/y47uur9m

--Archaeology of चैतन्यमात्मा, Śiva Sūtrāṇi, नाचण्याचा गाण्याचा फड 'guild merriment, dancers' shop', phaḍa, 'public metals manufactory', kammaṭa 'mint', kamaḍha 'penance' documented in Indus Scritpt Cipher

--Vrātam Vrātam gaṇam gaṇam, guilds of artisans, seafaring merchants.

--Wealth of a Rāṣṭram venerated in Rāṣṭrī suktam (RV 10.125) is a prayer to आत्मन्'principle of life' which is चेतना'consciousness'.

karaṇa 'dance posture' explains role of Gaṇeśa rebus as a karaṇa 'scribe' of the Great Epic Mahābhārata.

Gaṇeśa is tridhatu, signifies three mineral ores.

चैतन्यमात्मा॥१॥1.3 Śiva Sūtra of Vasugupta. Pavel Celba translates the Sutra as: Enlightened ātman (See the early semantics provided by Monier-Willliams as 'principle of life and sensation').

I suggest that the expression should translate as: आत्मन् 'principle of life' which is चेतना 'consciousness'.

The key is the metaphorical exposition of the words atman and pada.

आत्मन् (variously derived fr. अन् , to breathe ; अत् , to move ; वा , to blow ; cf. त्म्/अन्) the breath RV.; principle of life and sensation RV. AV. &c; self , abstract individual [e.g. आत्म्/अन् (Ved. loc.) धत्ते , or करोति , " he places in himself " , makes his own TS. v S3Br. ; आत्मना अकरोत् , " he did it himself " Ka1d. ; आत्मना वि- √युज् , " to lose one's life " Mn. vii , 46 ; आत्मन् in the sg. is used as reflexive pronoun for all three persons and all three genders e.g. आत्मानं सा हन्ति , " she strikes herself " ; पुत्रम् आत्मनः स्पृष्ट्वा निपेततुः , " they two having touched their son fell down " R. ii , 64 , 28 (Monier-Williams)

पद a step , pace , stride; a footstep , trace , vestige , mark , the foot itself , RV. &c (पदेन , on foot ; पदे पदे , at every step , everywhere , on every occasion ; त्रीणि पदानि विष्णोः , the three steps or footprints of विष्णु [i.e. the earth , the air , and the sky ; cf. RV. i , 154 , 5 Vikr. i , 19], also N. of a constellation or according to some " the space between the eyebrows " ; sg. विष्णोः पदम् N.of a locality ; पदं- √दा,पदात् पदं- √गम् or √चल् , to make a step , move on ; पदं- √कृ , with loc. to set foot in or on , to enter ; with मूर्ध्नि , to set the foot upon the head of [gen.] i.e. overcome ; with चित्ते or हृदये , to take possession of any one's heart or mind ; with loc. or प्रति , to have dealings with ; पदं नि- √धा with loc. , to set foot in = to make impression upon ; with पदव्याम् , to set the foot on a person's [gen. or ibc.] track , to emulate or equal ; पदम् नि- √बन्ध्with loc. , to enter or engage in); a ray of light (Monier-Williams)

चैतन्य n. (fr. च्/एतन) consciousness MBh. xiv , 529 Sus3r. i , 21 , 24. &c; intelligence , sensation , soul , spirit (कपिल 's सांख्य-प्रवचन) iii , 20 (सांख्यकारिका); चेतन mf(/ई)n. visible , conspicuous , distinguished , excellent RV. AV. ix , 4 , 21; percipient , conscious , sentient , intelligent Kat2hUp. v , 13 S3vetUp. vi , 13 Hariv. 3587 KapS. Tattvas. &c; n. conspicuousness RV. i , 13 , 11 and 170 , 4 ; iii , 3 , 8 ; iv , 7 , 2; चेतना f. consciousness , understanding , sense , intelligence Ya1jn5. iii , 175 MBh. &c (often ifc. [f(आ).] Mn. ix , 67 MBh. &c ) (cf. अ- , निश्- , पुरु-च्/एत्° , वि- , स- , स्/उ-).

"Somānanda (850-900 CE), the first Dārśanakāra of Monistic Kashmir Śaivism is hailed as the first logical exponent of Pratyabhijnā- śāstra. Abhinava Gupta (960-1015 CE) compliments him in the Tantrāloka (I.10) as:
Svātmeśvara-pratyabhidhānasya tarkasya kartārah

The special feature of Pratyabhijnā as a path to Mokṣa is that it does not involve physical exertion such as Praṇāyāma, Bandha etc., as in Yoga, and the renunciation of the world as was expected in the pathways to Mokṣa detailed in Vasugupta’s Śiva Sutra.(825-850 CE)" (Ganesh Vasudev Tagare, 2002, The Pratyabhijn ā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, pp.10-11)

"Pratyabhijna (Sanskrit: प्रत्यभिज्ञा pratyabhijñā, lit. "re-cognition") is an idealistic monistic and theistic school of philosophy in Kashmir Shaivism, originating in the 9th century CE...Etymologically, Pratyabhijna is formed from prati – "something once known, now appearing as forgotten", abhi – "immediate" and jñā – "to know". So, the meaning is direct knowledge of one's self, recognition. The philosophy is continuation of the Vedic knowledge.,,The central thesis of this philosophy is that everything is Śiva, absolute consciousness, and it is possible to re-cognize this fundamental reality and be freed from limitations, identified with Shiva and immersed in bliss. Thus, the slave (pasu - the human condition) becomes the master (pati - the divine condition)." (Jaideva Singh. Pratyabhijñāhrdayam, p.117; S. Kapoor. The Philosophy of Saivism, p.254).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratyabhijna This ādhyātmikā framework of Vasugupta in the Veda tradition is amplified in प्रत्यभिज्ञा pratyabhijñā school of Kashmir Śaiva Siddhānta. The focus is attainment of mokṣa or nihśreyas, uniting the ātman with the paramātman. This is the framework of Pavel Celba's commentary on Śiva Sūtrāṇi of Vasugupta which provides the metaphor of Śiva pada which evokes the cosmic dance, tāṇḍava nr̥tyam as a series of padāni, dance-steps.

Orthography of dot, circle,strand in Indus Script Corpora: चित्त-वृत्ति gyrations of mind

चित्त " appeared " , visible RV. ix , 65 , 12; n. attending , observing (तिर्/अश् चित्त्/आनि , " so as to remain unnoticed ") , vii , 59 , 8

वृत्त mfn. turned , set in motion (as a wheel) RV.; round , rounded , circular S3Br. &c

Image result for dotted circle indus seal

See the dotted circle hieroglyph on the bottom of the sacred device, sangaḍa

Kot Diji type seals with concentric circles from (a,b) Taraqai Qila (Trq-2 &3, after CISI 2: 414), (c,d) Harappa(H-638 after CISI 2: 304, H-1535 after CISI 3.1:211), and (e) Mohenjo-daro (M-1259, aftr CISI 2: 158). (From Fig. 7 Parpola, 2013).

Distribution of geometrical seals in Greater Indus Valley during the early and *Mature Harappan periods (c. 3000 - 2000 BCE). After Uesugi 2011, Development of the Inter-regional interaction system in the Indus valley and beyond: a hypothetical view towards the formation of the urban society' in: Cultural relagions betwen the Indus and the Iranian plateau during the 3rd millennium BCE, ed. Toshiki Osada & Michael Witzel. Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora 7. Pp. 359-380. Cambridge, MA: Dept of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University: fig.7

Dotted circles and three lines on the obverse of many Failaka/Dilmun seals are read rebus as hieroglyphs:

Hieroglyph: ḍāv m. ʻdice-throwʼ rebus: dhāu 'ore'; dã̄u ʻtyingʼ, ḍāv m. ʻdice-throwʼ read rebus: dhāu 'ore' in the context of glosses: dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻa caste of iron -smelters', dhāvḍī ʻcomposed of or relating to ironʼ. Thus, three dotted circles signify: tri-dhāu, tri-dhātu 'three ores' (copper, tin, iron).

A (गोटा) gōṭā Spherical or spheroidal, pebble-form. (Marathi) Rebus: khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ (metal) (Marathi) खोट [khōṭa] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge (Marathi). P. khoṭ m. ʻalloyʼ (CDIAL 3931) goTa 'laterite ferrite ore'.

m0352 cdef

The + glyph of Sibri evidence is comparable to the large-sized 'dot', dotted circles and + glyph shown on this Mohenjo-daro seal m0352 with dotted circles repeated on 5 sides A to F. Mohenjo-daro Seal m0352 shows dotted circles in the four corners of a fire-altar and at the centre of the altar together with four raised 'bun' ingot-type rounded features. Rebus readings of m0352 hieroglyphs:

dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'

1. Round dot like a blob -- . Glyph: raised large-sized dot -- (gōṭī ‘round pebble);goTa 'laterite (ferrite ore)

2. Dotted circle khaṇḍa ‘A piece, bit, fragment, portion’; kandi ‘bead’;

3. A + shaped structure where the glyphs 1 and 2 are infixed. The + shaped structure is kaṇḍ ‘a fire-altar’ (which is associated with glyphs 1 and 2)..

Rebus readings are: 1. khoṭ m. ʻalloyʼgoTa 'laterite (ferrite ore); 2. khaṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’; 3. kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar, consecrated fire’.

Four ‘round spot’; glyphs around the ‘dotted circle’ in the center of the composition: gōṭī ‘round pebble; Rebus 1: goTa 'laterite (ferrite ore); Rebus 2:L. khoṭf ʻalloy, impurityʼ, °ṭā ʻalloyedʼ, awāṇ. khoṭā ʻforgedʼ; P. khoṭ m. ʻbase, alloyʼ M.khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ (CDIAL 3931) Rebus 3: kōṭhī ] f (कोष्ट S) A granary, garner, storehouse, warehouse, treasury, factory, bank. khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ metal is produced from kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar’ yielding khaṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’. This word khaṇḍā is denoted by the dotted circles.

Consistent with the definition in yogasūtra, yoga योग: चित्त-वृत्ति निरोध: yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ— Yoga Sutras 1.2 (Translation: "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)") yoga has two semantic streams: 1. training of the mind to focus attention and 2. human initiative or activity. One results in meditation an the other in human activities to keep fit, practices such as farming and other activities for prosperity. These two semantic streams are demonstrated by the meanings of yoga-related expressions in almost all ancient languages of Bhāratam. Yoga thus means yoking, work, employment in R̥gveda with semantic expansions to signify acquisition of wealth and property as a result of human initiatives performed with yogic concentration or steadfastness of mind:

yṓgya ʻ fit for yoking ʼ Pāṇ. (m. ʻ draught animal ʼ AV.), ʻ fit, proper ʼ KātyŚr. [yṓga -- ] Pa. yogga -- ʻ fit ʼ, Pk. jogga -- , jugga -- , S. jog̠u, jog̠o, L. jogā, (Ju.) jog̠ā, P. joggā, WPah.paṅ. cur. jōgā, MB. joga; Or. jogā ʻ able, fit ʼ, Mth. Bhoj. jog; OAw. joga ʻ suitable ʼ (whence jogaïʻ suits ʼ); H. jog, jogā ʻ useful ʼ; G. jog, jogũ ʻ fit ʼ, M. j̈ogā.(CDIAL 10528) yōgyāˊ f. ʻ trace (of harness), hymn (poetic activity) ʼ RV., ʻ exercise ʼ MBh. [yṓgya -- . -- √yuj] Pa. yoggā -- f. ʻ practice ʼ, Pk. joggā -- f.; S. jog̠a f. ʻ yoke of oxen ʼ, L. P. jog f. (ludh. m.); Or. jogāṛa ʻ collection of means and material ʼ; M. j̈og bharṇẽ ʻ to fill with food the basket of a temple -- girl ʼ. -- Deriv.: N. joginu ʻ to be saved ʼ, jogāunu ʻ to save, protect, keep ʼ; A. zogāiba ʻ to supply ʼ, B. jogāna, Or. jogāibā; H. jogaunā, jugānā ʻ to take care of ʼ; G. jogavvũ ʻ to serve, get on well ʼ; M. j̈ogāviṇẽ ʻ to take care of, feed ʼ, j̈ogavṇẽ ʻ to get on fairly well ʼ.(CDIAL 10529) yōgakṣēmá m. (ʻ possessions resulting from activity, prosperity ʼ RV.) ʻ preservation of one's business or property, insurance charge ʼ Mn., ʻ rest from activity, spiritual good ʼ KaṭhUp. (cf. kṣēmayōgau ʻ rest and activity ʼ AitBr.). [The post -- Vedic meanings resulted from a shift in the meaning of -- kṣēma -- as ʻ possession ʼ to ʻ safety, repose ʼ (J. C. W.). -- yṓga -- , kṣḗma -- ]Pa. yōgakkhēma -- m. ʻ rest from work, perfect peace ʼ, Dhp. yokakṣemu; NiDoc. yoǵac̄h́ema ʻ security ʼ; S. jokho, °khimu m. ʻ risk, danger ʼ; L. jokhiõ m. ʻ risk ʼ, P. jokhõ m.; Ku. jokham ʻ injury ʼ; N. jokhim ʻ venture, danger ʼ; H. jokhõ, °khim, °kham f. ʻ charge for securing property from accidents, risk, danger, loss, injury ʼ; G. jokham n. ʻ risk, venture, responsibility, loss ʼ, M.j̈okhī˜v, °khīm, °kham n. f. -- Retention or replacement of -- m -- in forms other than G. is obscure: perh. as banking or business term ← G.(CDIAL 10527) yṓga m. ʻ yoking, employment, work ʼ RV., ʻ yoke ʼ ŚBr., ʻ expedient ʼ MBh. [√yuj]Pa. yōga -- m. ʻ yoking, application to ʼ, NiDoc. yoǵa; Pk. jōa -- m. ʻ union, pair, business ʼ; N. joh ʻ device, arrangement ʼ; A. zo ʻ ability, means, preparations ʼ; B. Or. jo ʻ proper time for ploughing or sowing, opportunity ʼ; Si. yō ʻ union, practice, asceticism ʼ. -- Paš.lauṛ. ẓōeṭīˊ ʻ yoke ʼ, ar. yūwaṭīˊ, ishk. ẓōṭīˊ ʻ neck of yoke ʼ < *yōa -- with dimin. suffix -- ṭī -- IIFL iii 3, 208 or poss. < *yugakāṣṭha -- .(CDIAL 10526) *yugakāṣṭha ʻ yoke timber ʼ. [yugá -- , kāṣṭhá -- ]Bi. Mth. juāṭh ʻ yoke of plough ʼ, (Patna) joṭh ʻ bullock yoke with two bars ʼ; H. jūāṭh, °āṭ m. ʻ yoke ʼ; -- Paš.lauṛ. ẓōeṭīˊ, ar. yūwaṭīˊ ʻ yoke ʼ, ishk. ẓōṭīˊ ʻ neck of yoke ʼ (IIFL iii 3, 208 prob. < yṓga -- + dimin. -- ṭī).(CDIAL 10483)

Archaeology of Yoga and bhūtaYajña, evidences of metalwork

yogāsana polstures shown on the following seals/tablets (dated ca. between 2500 to 1900 BCE) should have originated earlier to ca. 2500 BCE and continued into the historical periods from the days of the civilization which produced these images on seals and tablets. McEvilley demonstrates that the unique āsana shown orthographically on the seals/tablets is consistent with Yogic literature exemoplified in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā I.53-54. (Thomas McEvilley, 1981, RES: Anthropology and AestheticsNo. 1 (Spring, 1981), p.49) http://www.jstor.org/stable/20166655

Text on obverse of the tablet m453A: Text 1629. m453BC Seated in penance, the person is flanked on either side by a kneeling adorant, offering a pot and a hooded serpent rearing up. फड, phaḍa, 'cobra hood' rebus: फड, phaḍa 'Bhāratīya arsenal of metal,metasls manufactory' .

Horned deity seals, Mohenjo-daro: a. horned deity with pipal-leaf headdress, Mohenjo-daro (DK12050, NMP 50.296) (Courtesy of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan); b. horned deity with star motifs, Mohenjo-daro (M-305) (PARPOLA 1994:Fig. 10.9); courtesy of the Archaeological Survey of India; c. horned deity surrounded by animals, Mohenjo-daro (JOSHI – PARPOLA 1987:M-304); courtesy of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Priest sculpture is Indus Script hypertext.Potr̥ पोतृ,'purifier', dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter' of dhāū, dhāv 'red stone minerals'

I suggest that are many hieroglyphs constituting a hypertext on this male statue of Mohenjo-daro. This monograph demonstrates that the statue signifies Potr̥ 'Purifier priest' in R̥gveda tradition of performance of yajña. The rationale, validation for linking with R̥gveda tradition is provided by the Binjor discovery in 2015 of a yajña kuṇḍa together with aṣṭāśri yūpa which is consistent with the texts of R̥gvedaand Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. Together with the discovery of what tantamounts to a yūpa inscription is the discovery of Indus Script seals with the readings of wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork.aṣṭāśri yūpa is a ketu केतु sign , mark , ensign , flag , banner (R̥gveda) -- a proclamation of the performance of a Soma Samsthā yajña. Details have been provided in the 1035 monographs at

https://independent.academia.edu/SriniKalyanaraman and in Epigraphia Indus Script -- Hypertexts & Meanings(2017)

The hieroglyphs are:

1) Dotted circle (circular inlay ornament) looks like a

2) bead is worn like a

3) fillet tied to a

4) String; the fillet bands fall like a

5) scarf

6) shawl cloth worn with right-shoulder bare is decorated with

7) one, two, three dotted circles

With the following hieroglyph components read rebus in Meluhha, the hypertext is:

Component 1: dhā 'strand' + vaṭa 'string' rebus: vatta n. ʻduty, officeʼ(Pali) rebus: धावडी [ dhāvaḍī ] a Relating to the class धावड, 'smelter'. (Semantic determinative: dhāṭ(h)u 'scarf' (WPah.) rebus: dhāṭu 'mineral ore')

Component 2: paṭṭa m. ʻfillet', paḍa 'cloth' rebus: phaḍā 'metals manufactory'

Thus, together, the Indus Script hypertext of the Priest statue reads: Potr̥ dhāvaḍa phaḍā 'Purifier priest, smelter, metals manufactory'. The process of purification in Agni makes the entire process sacred, divine -- an act of daivam, 'divinity'.

Since one, two, three dotted circles adorn the uttarīyam, 'upper garment' of the Priest is a smelter of three types of mineral ores, tri-dhātu 'three strands' rebus: tri-dhātu 'three minerals'; the minerals are:goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore', bicha 'haematite, ferrite ore', poḷa 'magnetite, ferriteore'. Three hieroglyphs of Indus Script cipher which signify these minerals are: goṭa 'round pebble, stone', bica 'scorpion', poḷa'zebu, bos indicus'.

What is the priest called in Meluhha? The answer is provided by the R̥gveda tradition of yajña. Hieroglyph: potta 'cloth' rebus: Potr̥ पोतृ प्/ओतृ or पोतृ, m. " Purifier " , N. of one of the 16 officiating priests at a sacrifice (the assistant of the Brahman ; =यज्ञस्य शोधयिट्रि Sa1y. ) (R̥g Veda Brāhmaṇa, Śrautasūtra.हरिवंश). पोतन a. 1 Sacred, holy. -2 Purifying. The title of Pallavakings may link with the sacred purification process: போத்தரசர் pōttaracar , n. prob. போத்து¹ +. A title of the Pallava kings; பல்லவர் பட்டப்பெயர்களி லொன்று. மயேந்திரப் போத்தரசர் (S. I. I. ii, 341.)

I suggest that that Potr̥ the Purifier priest is the dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter' who purifies (smelts) the ores to produce wealth of metal. Agni is the purifying medium.

1.Hieroglyph: A. dotted circle: dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜; B. Throw of dice: dāˊtu n. ʻ share ʼ RV. [Cf. śatádātu -- , sahásradātu -- ʻ hun- dredfold, thousandfold ʼ: Pers. dāv ʻ stroke, move in a game ʼ prob. ← IA. -- √dō] K. dāv m. ʻ turn, opportunity, throw in dice ʼ; S. ḍ̠ã̄u m. ʻ mode ʼ; L. dā m. ʻ direction ʼ, (Ju.) ḍ̠ā, ḍ̠ã̄ m. ʻ way, manner ʼ; P. dāu m. ʻ ambush ʼ; Ku. dã̄w ʻ turn, opportunity, bet, throw in dice ʼ, N. dāu; B. dāu, dã̄u ʻ turn, opportunity ʼ; Or. dāu, dāũ ʻ opportunity, revenge ʼ; Mth. dāu ʻ trick (in wrestling, &c.) ʼ; OAw. dāu m. ʻ opportunity, throw in dice ʼ; H. dāū, dã̄w m. ʻ turn ʼ; G.dāv m. ʻ turn, throw ʼ, ḍāv m. ʻ throw ʼ; M. dāvā m. ʻ revenge ʼ. -- NIA. forms with nasalization (or all NIA. forms) poss. < dāmán -- 2 m. ʻ gift ʼ RV., cf. dāya -- m. ʻ gift ʼ MBh., akṣa -- dāya-- m. ʻ playing of dice ʼ Naiṣ.(CDIAL 6258) தாயம் tāyam, n. < dāya. A fall of the dice; கவறுருட்ட விழும் விருத்தம். முற்பட இடுகின்ற தாயம் (கலித். 136, உரை). 5. Cubical pieces in dice-play; கவறு. (யாழ். அக.) 6. Number one in the game of dice; கவறுருட்ட விழும் ஒன்று என்னும் எண். Colloq. rebus: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (CDIAL 6773) Semantic determinative.

2. Hieroglyph bead: *pōttī ʻ glass bead ʼ.Pk. pottī -- f. ʻ glass ʼ; S. pūti f. ʻ glass bead ʼ, P. pot f.; N. pote ʻ long straight bar of jewelry ʼ; B. pot ʻ glass bead ʼ, puti, pũti ʻ small bead ʼ; Or. puti ʻ necklace of small glass beads ʼ; H. potm. ʻ glass bead ʼ, G. M. pot f.; -- Bi. pot ʻ jeweller's polishing stone ʼ rather than < pōtrá -- 1.(CDIAL 8403) rebus: Potr̥ 'Purifier priest' (R̥gveda) Semantic determinative)

3. Hieroglyph: a)Fillet: paṭṭa2 m. ʻ cloth, woven silk ʼ Kāv., ʻ bandage, fillet turban, diadem ʼ MBh. [Prob. like paṭa -- and *phēṭṭa -- 1 from non -- Aryan source, of which *patta -- in Gy. and *patra-- in Sh. may represent aryanization of paṭṭa -- . Not < páttra -- nor, with P. Tedesco Archaeologica Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld 222, < *pr̥ṣṭa<-> ʻ woven ʼ, while an assumed borrowing from IA. in Bur. ph*llto -- čiṅ ʻ puttees ʼ is too flimsy a basis for *palta -- (~ Eng. fold, &c.) as the source NTS xiii 93]

Pa. paṭṭa -- m. ʻ woven silk, fine cloth, cotton cloth, turban ʼ, °ṭaka -- ʻ made of a strip of cloth ʼ, n. ʻ bandage, girdle ʼ, °ṭikā -- f.; NiDoc. paṭa ʻ roll of silk ʼ Lüders Textilien 24; Pk. paṭṭa -- m. ʻ cloth, clothes, turban ʼ; Paš. paṭā ʻ strip of skin ʼ, ar. weg. paṭīˊ ʻ belt ʼ; Kal.rumb. pāˊṭi ʻ scarf ʼ; Phal. paṭṭaṛa ʻ bark ʼ; K. paṭh, dat. °ṭas m. ʻ long strip of cloth from loom ʼ, poṭu m. ʻ woollen cloth ʼ, pôṭu m. ʻ silk, silk cloth ʼ (← Ind.?); S. paṭū m. ʻ silk ʼ, paṭū̃ m. ʻ a kind of woollen cloth ʼ, paṭo m. ʻ band of cloth ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ bandage, fillet ʼ; L. paṭṭ m. ʻ silk ʼ, awāṇ. paṭṭī f. ʻ woollen cloth ʼ; P. paṭṭ m. ʻ silk ʼ, paṭṭī f. ʻ coarse woollen cloth, bandage ʼ; WPah.bhal. peṭṭu m. sg. and pl. ʻ woman's woollen gown ʼ; Ku. pāṭ ʻ silk ʼ; N. pāṭ ʻ flax, hemp ʼ; A. B. pāṭ ʻ silk ʼ (B. also ʻ jute ʼ); Or. pāṭa ʻ silk, jute ʼ, paṭā ʻ red silk cloth, sheet, scarf ʼ, (Bastar) pāṭā ʻ loincloth ʼ; Bhoj. paṭuā ʻ jute ʼ; OAw. pāṭa m. ʻ silk cloth ʼ; H. paṭ m. ʻ cloth, turban ʼ, paṭṭū m. ʻ coarse woollen cloth ʼ, paṭṭī f. ʻ strip of cloth ʼ, paṭkā m. ʻ loincloth ʼ; G. pāṭ m. ʻ strip of cloth ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ bandage ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ tape ʼ; Ko. pāṭṭo ʻ strap ʼ; Si. paṭa ʻ silk, fine cloth ʼ, paṭiya ʻ ribbon, girdle, cloth screen round a tent ʼ. -- Gy. rum. pato ʻ clothing ʼ, gr. patavo ʻ napkin ʼ, wel. patavō ʻ sock ʼ, germ. phār ʻ silk, taffeta ʼ; Sh.koh. gur. pāc̣ṷ m. ʻ cloth ʼ, koh. poc̣e ʻ clothes ʼ.*paṭṭakara -- , *paṭṭadukūla -- , *paṭṭapati -- , paṭṭaraṅga -- , paṭṭarājñī -- , *paṭṭavaya -- ; *niṣpaṭṭa -- ; *antarapaṭṭa -- , *andhapaṭṭa -- , *kakṣapaṭṭa -- , *karpaṭapaṭṭikā -- , *ghumbapaṭṭa -- , carmapaṭṭa -- , *dupaṭṭikā -- , *paggapaṭṭa -- , *paścapaṭṭa -- , *laṅgapaṭṭa -- , *vasanapaṭṭa -- , śīrṣapaṭṭaka -- .Addenda: paṭṭa -- 2: WPah.poet. pakṭe f. ʻ woman's woollen gown ʼ (metath. of *paṭke with -- akka -- ); Md. fořā ʻ cloth or Sinhalese sarong ʼ, fařu(v)i ʻ silk ʼ, fař ʻ strip, chain ʼ, fař jehum ʻ wrapping ʼ (jehum verbal noun of jahanī ʻ strikes ʼ).(CDIAL 7700) rebus: phaḍā 'metals manufactory' (Semantic determinative)

Hieroglyph: b) Cloth worn: pōta2 m. ʻ cloth ʼ, pōtikā -- f. lex. 2. *pōtta -- 2 (sanskrit- ized as pōtra -- 2 n. ʻ cloth ʼ lex.). 3. *pōttha -- 2 ~ pavásta<-> n. ʻ covering (?) ʼ RV., ʻ rough hempen cloth ʼ AV. T. Chowdhury JBORS xvii 83. 4. pōntī -- f. ʻ cloth ʼ Divyāv. 5. *pōcca -- 2 < *pōtya -- ? (Cf. pōtyā = pōtānāṁ samūhaḥ Pāṇ.gaṇa. -- pṓta -- 1?). [Relationship with prōta -- n. ʻ woven cloth ʼ lex., plōta -- ʻ bandage, cloth ʼ Suśr. or with pavásta -- is obscure: EWA ii 347 with lit. Forms meaning ʻ cloth to smear with, smearing ʼ poss. conn. with or infl. by pusta -- 2 n. ʻ working in clay ʼ (prob. ← Drav., Tam. pūcu &c. DED 3569, EWA ii 319)]
1. Pk. pōa -- n. ʻ cloth ʼ; Paš.ar. pōwok ʻ cloth ʼ, pōg ʻ net, web ʼ (but lauṛ. dar. pāwāk ʻ cotton cloth ʼ, Gaw. pāk IIFL iii 3, 150).
2. Pk. potta -- , °taga -- , °tia -- n. ʻ cotton cloth ʼ, pottī -- , °tiā -- , °tullayā -- , puttī -- f. ʻ piece of cloth, man's dhotī, woman's sāṛī ʼ, pottia -- ʻ wearing clothes ʼ; S. potī f. ʻ shawl ʼ, potyo m. ʻ loincloth ʼ; L. pot, pl. °tã f. ʻ width of cloth ʼ; P. potṛā m. ʻ child's clout ʼ, potṇā ʻ to smear a wall with a rag ʼ; N. poto ʻ rag to lay on lime -- wash ʼ, potnu ʻ to smear ʼ; Or. potā ʻ gunny bag ʼ; OAw. potaï ʻ smears, plasters ʼ; H. potā m. ʻ whitewashing brush ʼ, potī f. ʻ red cotton ʼ, potiyā m. ʻ loincloth ʼ, potṛā m. ʻ baby clothes ʼ; G. pot n. ʻ fine cloth, texture ʼ, potũ n. ʻ rag ʼ, potī f., °tiyũ n. ʻ loincloth ʼ, potṛī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; M. pot m. ʻ roll of coarse cloth ʼ, n. ʻ weftage or texture of cloth ʼ, potrẽ n. ʻ rag for smearing cowdung ʼ.3. Pa. potthaka -- n. ʻ cheap rough hemp cloth ʼ, potthakamma -- n. ʻ plastering ʼ; Pk. pottha -- , °aya -- n.m. ʻ cloth ʼ; S. potho m. ʻ lump of rag for smearing, smearing, cloth soaked in opium ʼ.4. Pa. ponti -- ʻ rags ʼ. 5. Wg. pōč ʻ cotton cloth, muslin ʼ, Kt. puč; Pr. puč ʻ duster, cloth ʼ, pūˊčuk ʻ clothes ʼ; S. poco m. ʻ rag for plastering, plastering ʼ; P. poccā m. ʻ cloth or brush for smearing ʼ, pocṇā ʻ to smear with earth ʼ; Or. pucā̆ra, pucurā ʻ wisp of rag or jute for whitewashing with, smearing with such a rag ʼ.(CDIAL 8400) Ta. potti garment of fibres, cloth. Ka. potti cloth. Te. potti bark, a baby's linen, a sort of linen cloth; pottika a small fine cloth; podugu a baby's linen. Kol. (SSTW) pot sari. Pa. bodgida short loincloth. / Cf. Skt. potikā-, Pkt. potti-, pottiā-, etc.; Turner, CDIAL, no. 8400.(DEDR 4515) rebus: Potr̥ 'Purifier priest' (R̥gveda) Semantic determinative) Ta. pōṟṟu (pōṟṟi-) to praise, applaud, worship, protect, cherish, nourish, entertain; n. protection, praise; pōṟṟi praise, applause; pōṟṟimai honour, reverence. Ma. pōṟṟuka to preserve, protect, adore; pōṟṟi nourisher, protector. (DEDR 4605) போற்றி pōṟṟi , < id. n. 1. Praise, applause, commendation; புகழ்மொழி. (W.) 2.Brahman temple-priest of Malabar; கோயிற் பூசைசெய்யும் மலையாளநாட்டுப் பிராமணன். (W.) 3. See போத்தி, 1.--int. Exclamation of praise; துதிச்சொல்வகை. பொய்தீர் காட்சிப் புரையோய் போற்றி (சிலப். 13, 92).போத்தி pōtti

, n. < போற்றி. 1. Grandfather; பாட்டன். Tinn. 2. Brahman temple- priest in Malabar; மலையாளத்திலுள்ள கோயிலருச் சகன்.

4. Hieroglyph: String: vaṭa 'string' rebus: vatta n. ʻduty, officeʼ(Pali)

5. Hieroglyph: Scarf: dhāṭ(h)u 'scarf' (WPah.): *dhaṭa2, dhaṭī -- f. ʻ old cloth, loincloth ʼ lex. [Drav., Kan. daṭṭi ʻ waistband ʼ etc., DED 2465] Ku. dhaṛo ʻ piece of cloth ʼ, N. dharo, B. dhaṛā; Or. dhaṛā ʻ rag, loincloth ʼ, dhaṛi ʻ rag ʼ; Mth. dhariā ʻ child's narrow loincloth *dhaṭavastra -- .Addenda: *dhaṭa -- 2. 2. †*dhaṭṭa -- : WPah.kṭg. dhàṭṭu m. ʻ woman's headgear, kerchief ʼ, kc. dhaṭu m. (also dhaṭhu m. ʻ scarf ʼ, J. dhāṭ(h)u m. Him.I 105).(CDIAL 6707) Rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore'.

6. Hieroglyph: Garment, paḍa 'cloth' (Pkt.): paṭa m. ʻ woven cloth ʼ MBh., °aka -- m., paṭikā -- f. lex., paṭīˊ -- f. Pāṇ.gaṇa. [Cf. paṭṭa- 2, paṭṭa -- 3, *palla -- 3, pallava -- 2. -- Prob. with karpaṭa -- and karpāsa -- ← Austro -- as. J. Przyluski BSL xxv 70; less likely with A. Master BSOAS xi 302 ← Drav.] Pa. paṭa -- m., °ṭi -- , °ṭikā -- f. ʻ cloth, garment ʼ; Pk. paḍa<-> m. ʻ cloth ʼ, °ḍī -- , °ḍiyā -- f. ʻ a kind of garment ʼ; Wg. paṛīk ʻ shawl ʼ; S. paṛu m. ʻ covering of cloth for a saint's grave ʼ, paṛom. ʻ petticoat ʼ; Si. paḷa, pala ʻ cloth, garment ʼ, piḷiya ʻ cloth, clothes ʼ; Md. feli ʻ cotton cloth ʼ.(CDIAL 7692) rebus: phaḍā 'metals manufactory' (Semantic determinative)

7. tri-dhātu 'three strands' rebus: tri-dhātu 'three minerals'

Material: white, low fired steatite

Dimensions: 17.5 cm height, 11 cm width
Mohenjo-daro, DK 1909
National Museum, Karachi, 50.852

Marshall 1931: 356-7, pl. XCVIII

Seated male sculpture, or "Priest King" from Mohenjo-daro. Fillet or ribbon headband with circular inlay ornament on the forehead and similar but smaller ornament on the right upper arm. The two ends of the fillet fall along the back and though the hair is carefully combed towards the back of the head, no bun is present. The flat back of the head may have held a separately carved bun as is traditional on the other seated figures, or it could have held a more elaborate horn and plumed headdress.

Two holes beneath the highly stylized ears suggest that a necklace or other head ornament was attached to the sculpture. The left shoulder is covered with a cloak decorated with trefoil, double circle and single circle designs that were originally filled with red pigment. Drill holes in the center of each circle indicate they were made with a specialized drill and then touched up with a chisel. Eyes are deeply incised and may have held inlay. The upper lip is shaved and a short combed beard frames the face. The large crack in the face is the result of weathering or it may be due to original firing of this object.

Image result for seated female sculptures mohenjo-daro

Combed hair tied into a bun; the fillet (headband) worn is similar to the one worn on the priest's foreheadand right shoulder.

The use of the fire-altar for ores is a process of purification. The purifier is पोतृ [p= 650,1] प्/ओतृ or पोतृ, m. " Purifier " , N. of one of the 16 officiating priests at a sacrifice (the assistant of the Brahman ; = यज्ञस्य शोधयिट्रि Sa1y. ) RV. Br. S3rS. Hariv. போற்றி pōṟṟi, < id. n. 1. Praise, applause, commendation; புகழ்மொழி. (W.) 2.Brahman temple-priest of Malabar; கோயிற் பூசைசெய்யும் மலையாளநாட்டுப் பிராமணன். (W.) 3. See போத்தி, 1.--int. Exclamation of praise; துதிச்சொல்வகை. பொய்தீர் காட்சிப் புரையோய் போற்றி (சிலப். 13, 92).

धातु 1 [p=513,3] constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold&c ; cf. त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c

धातु 1 [p=513,3] primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral , are (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh.

&celement of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]).

dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- (CDIAL 6773) هژدات haj̱ẕ-dāt, s.m. (6th) (corrup. of S اژدهات) The name of a mixed metal, bell-metal, brass. Sing. and Pl. د هژداتو غر da haj̱ẕ-dāto g̠ẖar, A mountain of brass, a brazen mountain.

धावडी [ dhāvaḍī ] a Relating to the class धावड. Hence 2 Composed of or relating to iron.धवड [ dhavaḍa ] m (Or धावड) A class or an individual of it. They are smelters of iron.

धा to appoint , establish , constitute (R̥g Veda, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa); to make , produce , generate , create , cause , effect , perform , execute (R̥g Veda, Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, श्वेताश्वतर उपनिषद् (aor. with पूरयाम्,

मन्त्रयाम्,वरयाम् &c = पूरयाम् &c चकार)

वट a string , rope , tie L. (only वट ibc. , and पञ्च-व्° , q.v.); a small lump , globule &c = वटक (शार्ङ्गधर-संहिता); वटिन् mfn. stringed , having a string L.; circular, globular

vaṭāraka -- , varāṭaka -- m. ʻ string ʼ MBh. [vaṭa -- 2] Pa. sa -- vaṭākara -- ʻ having a cable ʼ; Bi. baral -- rassī ʻ twisted string ʼ; H. barrā m. ʻ rope ʼ, barārā m. ʻ thong ʼ.(CDIAL 11217) vaṭa2 ʻ string ʼ lex. [Prob. ← Drav. Tam. vaṭam, Kan. vaṭi, vaṭara, &c. DED 4268] N. bariyo ʻ cord, rope ʼ; Bi. barah ʻ rope working irrigation lever ʼ, barhā ʻ thick well -- rope ʼ, Mth. barahā ʻ rope ʼ.(CDIAL 11212) vaṭin ʻ stringed ʼ lex. [vaṭa -- 2]Si. vil, vili ʻ bow ʼ (ES 82)?(CDIAL 11218). *karṇavaṭikā ʻ side -- cord ʼ. [kárṇa -- , vaṭa -- 2]
WPah. bhal. k*lnɔṛi f. ʻ knots between upper and lower parts of a snow -- shoe, rope pegs to which the distaff in a spinning -- wheel is attached ʼ.(CDIAL 2842)*yantravaṭa ʻ cord of a machine ʼ. [Cf. Pa. yantasutta- n. -- yantrá -- , vaṭa -- 2]
WPah.bhal. jaṇṭḷoṛ m. ʻ long string round spinning wheel ʼ (CDIAL 10413)
Hieroglyph: vr̥ttá ʻ turned ʼ RV., ʻ rounded ʼ ŚBr. 2. ʻ completed ʼ MaitrUp., ʻ passed, elapsed (of time) ʼ KauṣUp. 3. n. ʻ conduct, matter ʼ ŚBr., ʻ livelihood ʼ Hariv. [√vr̥t1] L. (Ju.) vaṭ m. ʻ anything twisted ʼ; 1. Pa. vaṭṭa -- ʻ round ʼ, n. ʻ circle ʼ; Pk. vaṭṭa -- , vatta -- , vitta -- , vutta -- ʻ round ʼ;Si. vaṭa ʻ round ʼ, vaṭa -- ya ʻ circle, girth (esp. of trees) ʼ; Md. va'ʻ round ʼ GS 58; -- Paš.ar. waṭṭəwīˊk, waḍḍawik ʻ kidney ʼ ( -- wĭ̄k vr̥kká -- ) IIFL iii 3, 192? 2. Pk. vaṭṭa -- , vatta -- , vitta -- , vutta -- ʻ passed, gone away, completed, dead ʼ; Ash. weṭ -- intr. ʻ to pass (of time), pass, fall (of an avalanche) ʼ, weṭā -- tr. ʻ to pass (time) ʼ; Paš. wiṭīk ʻ passed ʼ; K.ḍoḍ. buto ʻ he was ʼ; P. batāuṇā ʻ to pass (time) ʼ; Ku. bītṇo ʻ to be spent, die ʼ, bitauṇo ʻ to pass, spend ʼ; N. bitāunu ʻ to pass (time), kill ʼ, butāunu ʻ to extinguish ʼ; Or. bitibā intr. ʻ to pass (of time), bitāibā tr.; Mth. butāb ʻ to extinguish ʼ; OAw. pret. bītā ʻ passed (of time) ʼ; H. bītnā intr. ʻ to pass (of time) ʼ, butnā ʻ to be extinguished ʼ, butānā ʻ to extinguish ʼ; G. vĭ̄tvũintr. ʻ to pass (of time) ʼ, vatāvvũ tr. ʻ to stop ʼ(CDIAL 12069).

Rebus: Duty: Pa. vatta -- n. ʻ duty, office ʼ; Pk. vaṭṭa -- , vatta -- , vitta -- , vutta -- n. ʻ livelihood ʼ; P. buttā m. ʻ means ʼ; Ku. buto ʻ daily labour, wages ʼ; N. butā ʻ means, ability ʼ; H. oūtā m. ʻ power ʼ; Si. vaṭa ʻ subsistence, wages ʼ.(CDIAL 12069) Vatta1 (nt.) [orig. pp. of vattati] 1. that which is done, which goes on or is customary, i. e. duty, service, custom, function Vin ii.31; Sn 294, 393 (gahaṭṭha˚); Vism 188 (cetiy' angaṇa˚ etc.); DhA i.92 (ācariya˚); VbhA 354 (gata -- paccāgata˚); VvA 47 (gāma˚). -- 2. (for vata2) observance, vow, virtue D iii.9 (the 7 vattapadāni, diff. from those enumd under vata -- pada); Nd1 66 (sīlañ ca vattañ ca), 92 (hatthi˚ etc.: see vata2 2), 104 (˚suddhi), 106 (id.), 188 (giving 8 dhutangas as vattas). -- paṭivatta all kinds of practices or duties J i.67; ii.103; iii.339; iv.298; Miln 416 (sucarita˚); DhA i.13 sq.; ii.277; iv.28. -- bbata the usual custom DhA iv.44; C on S i.36 § 2 and on S ii.18 § 4 sq. -- sampanna one who keeps all observances VbhA 297 (where the foll. vattāni are enumd: 82 khuddaka -- vattāni. 14 mahā˚, cetiyangaṇa˚, bodhiyangaṇa˚, pānīyamāḷa˚, uposathāgāra˚, āgantuka˚, gamika˚).(Pali)

அக்கு³ akku , n. < akṣa. 1. Rudrākṣa *அக்கு&sup4; akku, n. < akṣi. Eye; கண். அக்குப் பீளை (திருப்பு. 573).

வளைமணிவடம் vaḷai-maṇi-vaṭam , n. < வளை +. A string of beads; அக்குவடம். திரு வரையிற் சாத்தின வளைமணிவடமானது (திவ். பெரி யாழ். 1, 7, 8, வ்யா. பக். 150).

ஏகவட்டம் ēka-vaṭṭam , n. < id. +. வடம். See ஏகவடம். இனமணிப்பூணுமேகவட்டமும் (பெருங். இலாவாண. 5, 139). ஏகவடம் ēka-vaṭam , n. < id. +. Necklace of a single string. See ஏகாவலி. பொங்கிள நாகமொ ரேகவடத்தோடு (தேவா. 350, 7)

கோவை kōvai : [T. M. kōva.] 1. Stringing, filing, arranging; கோக்கை. கோவை யார்வடக் கொழுங்கவடு (கம்பரா. வரைக். 1). 2. Series, succession, row; வரிசை. 3. String of ornamental beads for neck or waist; கோத்த வடம். (பிங்.)

தாவடம்¹ tāvaṭam , n. < தாழ்¹- + வடம். [T. tāvaḍamu.] 1. Sacred elæocarpus beads; உருத் திராக்க மாலை. கழுத்திலே தாவடம் மனத்திலே அவகடம். 2. Necklace; கழுத்திலணியுமாலை. Loc. 3. A mode of wearing the sacred thread round the neck like a garland; பூணூலை மாலையாகத் தரிக்குமுறை. Brāh.

தொடை² toṭai , n. < தொடு²-. Braiding, weaving; பின்னுகை. தொடையுறு வற்கலை யாடை (கம்பரா. முதற்போ. 109). 3. Unbroken succession or continuity; இடையறாமை. தொடையிழி யிறாலின் றேனும் (கம்பரா. நாட்டுப். 9). 4. Fastening, tying; கட்டுகை. தொடைமாண்ட கண்ணியன் (கலித். 37). 5. Series, train, suc- cession; தொடர்ச்சி. தாபதர் தொடைமறை முழக்கும் (கல்லா. 39, 10). 6. String; வடம். முத்துத்தொடை (பரிபா. 6, 16).

பச்சவடம் paccavaṭam

, n. perh. prac- chada-paṭa. [T. patccaḍamu, K. paccapaḍa, M.

paccavaṭam.] A long piece of cloth, used as a blanket, bedsheet or screen; மேற்போர்வை விரிப்பு திரை முதலியவற்றுக்கு உபயோகப்படும் நீண்ட சீலை. திருத்திரைப் பச்சவடம் (கோயிலொ. 94).

பஞ்சவடம் pañca-vaṭam

, n. Sacred thread worn by dvijas; பூணூல். (யாழ். அக.)

பஞ்சவடி² pañcavaṭi

, n. < pañca-vaṭa. Sacred thread of hair; மயிர்க்கயிற்றாலாகிய பூணூல். பஞ்சவடி மார்பினானை (தேவா. 228, 5).

வடக்கயிறு vaṭa-k-kayiṟu

, n. < வடம்¹ +. 1. Large, stout rope or cable, as for drawing a temple-car; தேர் முதலியவற்றை இழுக்கும் பெருங் கயிறு. வடக்கயிறு வெண்ணரம்பா (தாயு. சச்சிதா. 2). 2. Cord of the ēr-nāḻi; ஏர்நாழிக்கயிறு. (W.)

வடக்குவடக்கா-தல் vaṭakku-vaṭakkā-, v. intr. < வடம்¹ + வடம்¹ +. To become matted, as hair; மயிர் முதலியன சடைபற்றுதல். Loc.

வடம்¹ vaṭam, n. < vaṭa. 1. Cable, large rope, as for drawing a temple-car; கனமான கயிறு. வடமற்றது (நன். 219, மயிலை.). 2. Cord; தாம்பு. (சூடா.) 3. A loop of coir rope, used for climbing palm-trees; மரமேறவுதவுங் கயிறு. Loc. 4. Bowstring; வில்லின் நாணி. (பிங்.) 5. String of jewels; மணிவடம். வடங்கள் அசையும்படி உடுத்து (திருமுரு. 204, உரை). (சூடா.) 6. Strands of a garland; chains of a necklace; சரம். இடை மங்கை கொங்கை வடமலைய (அஷ்டப். திருவேங்கடத் தந். 39). 7. Arrangement; ஒழுங்கு. தொடங்கற் காலை வடம்பட விளங்கும் (ஞானா. 14, 41). 8. Banyan; ஆலமரம். (சூடா.) வடநிழற்கண்ணூடிருந்த குருவே (தாயு. கருணா. 41).வடதளம் vata-taḷam, n. < வடம்¹ + தளம்³. Banyan leaf; ஆலிலை. வடதள வுதர வாணீ (மனோன். i, 2, 110). வடம்பிடி-த்தல் vaṭam-piṭi-, v. intr. < வடம்¹ +. To draw a temple-car by seizing it by its cables; வடத்தைப்பிடித்துத் தேரிழுத்தல். வாய்வடம் vāy-vaṭam , n. < id. + வடம்¹. See வாய்க்கயிறு. (நாமதீப. 210.) vaṭa1 m. ʻ the banyan Ficus indica ʼ MBh.Pa. vaṭa -- m. ʻ banyan ʼ, Pk. vaḍa -- , °aga -- m., K. war in war -- kulu m., S. baṛu m. (← E); P. vaṛ, baṛ m., vohṛ, bohṛ f. ʻ banyan ʼ, vaṛoṭā, ba° m. ʻ young banyan ʼ (+?); N. A. bar ʻ banyan ʼ, B. baṛ, Bi. bar (→ Or. bara), H. baṛ m. (→ Bhoj. Mth. baṛ), G. vaṛ m., M. vaḍ m., Ko. vaḍu.*vaṭapadra -- , *vaṭapātikā -- .Addenda: vaṭa -- 1: Garh. baṛ ʻ fig tree ʼ.)CDOA: 11211)

dāˊman1 ʻ rope ʼ RV. 2. *dāmana -- , dāmanī -- f. ʻ long rope to which calves are tethered ʼ Hariv. 3. *dāmara -- .[*dāmara -- is der. fr. n/r n. stem. -- √dā2]1. Pa. dāma -- , inst. °mēna n. ʻ rope, fetter, garland ʼ, Pk. dāma -- n.; Wg. dām ʻ rope, thread, bandage ʼ; Tir. dām ʻ rope ʼ; Paš.lauṛ.dām ʻ thick thread ʼ, gul. dūm ʻ net snare ʼ (IIFL iii 3, 54 ← Ind. or Pers.); Shum. dām ʻ rope ʼ; Sh.gil. (Lor.) dōmo ʻ twine, short bit of goat's hair cord ʼ, gur. dōm m. ʻ thread ʼ (→ Ḍ. dōṅ ʻ thread ʼ); K. gu -- dômu m. ʻ cow's tethering rope ʼ; P. dã̄u, dāvã̄ m. ʻ hobble for a horse ʼ; WPah.bhad. daũ n. ʻ rope to tie cattle ʼ, bhal. daõ m., jaun. dã̄w; A. dāmā ʻ peg to tie a buffalo -- calf to ʼ; B. dām,dāmā ʻ cord ʼ; Or. duã̄ ʻ tether ʼ, dāĩ ʻ long tether to which many beasts are tied ʼ; H. dām m.f. ʻ rope, string, fetter ʼ, dāmā m. ʻ id., garland ʼ; G. dām n. ʻ tether ʼ, M. dāvẽ n.; Si. dama ʻ chain, rope ʼ, (SigGr) dam ʻ garland ʼ. -- Ext. in Paš.dar. damaṭāˊ, °ṭīˊ, nir. weg. damaṭék ʻ rope ʼ, Shum. ḍamaṭik, Woṭ. damṓṛ m., Sv. dåmoṛīˊ; -- with -- ll -- : N. dāmlo ʻ tether for cow ʼ, dã̄wali, dāũli, dāmliʻ bird -- trap of string ʼ, dã̄wal, dāmal ʻ coeval ʼ (< ʻ tied together ʼ?); M. dã̄vlī f. ʻ small tie -- rope ʼ.2. Pk. dāvaṇa -- n., dāmaṇī -- f. ʻ tethering rope ʼ; S. ḍ̠āvaṇu, ḍ̠āṇu m. ʻ forefeet shackles ʼ, ḍ̠āviṇī, ḍ̠āṇī f. ʻ guard to support nose -- ring ʼ; L. ḍã̄vaṇ m., ḍã̄vaṇī, ḍāuṇī (Ju. ḍ̠ -- ) f. ʻ hobble ʼ, dāuṇī f. ʻ strip at foot of bed, triple cord of silk worn by women on head ʼ, awāṇ. dāvuṇ ʻ picket rope ʼ; P. dāuṇ, dauṇ, ludh. daun f. m. ʻ string for bedstead, hobble for horse ʼ, dāuṇī f. ʻ gold ornament worn on woman's forehead ʼ; Ku. dauṇo m., °ṇī f. ʻ peg for tying cattle to ʼ, gng. dɔ̃ṛ ʻ place for keeping cattle, bedding for cattle ʼ; A. danʻ long cord on which a net or screen is stretched, thong ʼ, danā ʻ bridle ʼ; B. dāmni ʻ rope ʼ; Or. daaṇa ʻ string at the fringe of a casting net on which pebbles are strung ʼ, dāuṇi ʻ rope for tying bullocks together when threshing ʼ; H. dāwan m. ʻ girdle ʼ, dāwanīf. ʻ rope ʼ, dã̄wanī f. ʻ a woman's orna<-> ment ʼ; G. dāmaṇ, ḍā° n. ʻ tether, hobble ʼ, dāmṇũ n. ʻ thin rope, string ʼ, dāmṇī f. ʻ rope, woman's head -- ornament ʼ; M. dāvaṇ f. ʻ picket -- rope ʼ. -- Words denoting the act of driving animals to tread out corn are poss. nomina actionis from *dāmayati2.3. L. ḍãvarāvaṇ, (Ju.) ḍ̠ã̄v° ʻ to hobble ʼ; A. dāmri ʻ long rope for tying several buffalo -- calves together ʼ, Or. daũ̈rā, daürā ʻ rope ʼ; Bi. daũrī ʻ rope to which threshing bullocks are tied, the act of treading out the grain ʼ, Mth. dã̄mar, daũraṛ ʻ rope to which the bullocks are tied ʼ; H. dã̄wrī f. ʻ id., rope, string ʼ, dãwrī f. ʻ the act of driving bullocks round to tread out the corn ʼ. -- X *dhāgga<-> q.v.*dāmayati2; *dāmakara -- , *dāmadhāra -- ; uddāma -- , prōddāma -- ; *antadāmanī -- , *galadāman -- , *galadāmana -- , *gōḍḍadāman -- , *gōḍḍadāmana -- , *gōḍḍadāmara -- .dāmán -- 2 m. (f.?) ʻ gift ʼ RV. [√dā1]. See dāˊtu -- .*dāmana -- ʻ rope ʼ see dāˊman -- 1.Addenda: dāˊman -- 1. 1. Brj. dã̄u m. ʻ tying ʼ.3. *dāmara -- : Brj. dã̄wrī f. ʻ rope ʼ.(CDIAL 6283)

தாமம்¹ tāmam

, n. < dāman. 1. Rope, cord, string; கயிறு. (பிங்.) 2. Line to tie cattle. See தாமணி. 3. Wreath, flower garland, chaplet, especially worn on shoulders; பூமாலை. (பிங்.) வண்டிமிருந் தாம வரைமார்ப (பு. வெ. 12, இருபாற். 3). 4. Necklace of beads; string, as of pearls; வடம். (பிங்.) முத்துத் தாம முறையொடு நாற்றுமின் (மணி. 1, 49). 5. Woman's waist ornament of 16 or 18 strings of beads; 18W.) 6. Row, line; ஒழுங்கு. தடமலர்த் தாம மாலை (சீவக. 1358). 7. Flower; பூ. (பிங்.) 8. An ornamental part of a crown, one of the five muṭi-y-uṟuppu, q. v.; முடியுறுப்புகள் ஐந்தனுள் ஒன்று. (திவா.) 9. Senna. See கொன்றை. (பிங்.)

dāmam दामम् (At the end of a compound) Wreath, garland.dāman दामन् n. [दो-मनिन्] 1 A string, thread, fillet, rope. -2 A chaplet, a garland in general; आद्ये बद्धा विरहदिवसे या शिखा दाम हित्वा Me.93; कनकचम्पकदामगौरीम् Ch. P.1; Śi.4.5. -3 A line, streak (as of lightning); वुद्युद्- दाम्ना हेमराजीव विन्ध्यम् M.3.2; Me.27. -4 A large bandage. -5 Ved. A gift. -6 A portion, share. -7 A girdle. -Comp. -अञ्चलम्, -अञ्जनम् a foot-rope for horses, &c.; सस्रुः सरोषपरिचारकवार्यमाणा दामाञ्चलस्खलितलोलपदं तुरङ्गाः Śi.5.61. -उदरः an epithet of Kṛiṣṇa. दामनी dāmanīA foot-rope.दामा dāmā A string, cord. dāmnī दाम्नी A garland; 'यस्या दाम्न्या त्रिधाम्नो जघनकलितया˚'विष्णुपादादिकेशान्तवर्णनस्तोत्रम् 22. (Samskritam)

Hieroglyph: Strand of string/rope: dhāˊtu ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā]; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773) తాడు [ tāḍu ] or త్రాడు tādu. [Tel.] n. A cord, thread, string. A match for a gun. The palm tree, so called because cordage is made from it. See under తాటి. The cord of marriage, being the string round the bride's neck, from which the పుస్తె or tali is hung. Henceతాడు తెగిన (lit. cord broken) means widowed. అగ్గితాడు or జేనకితాడు a match, made of cord dipped in brimstone.

Rebus: N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ)

paṭṭa2 m. ʻ cloth, woven silk ʼ Kāv., ʻ bandage, fillet turban, diadem ʼ MBh. [Prob. like paṭa -- and *phēṭṭa -- 1 from non -- Aryan source, of which *patta -- in Gy. and *patra -- in Sh. may represent aryanization of paṭṭa -- . Not < páttra -- nor, with P. Tedesco Archaeologica Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld 222, < *pr̥ṣṭa<-> ʻ woven ʼ, while an assumed borrowing from IA. in Bur. ph*llto -- čiṅ ʻ puttees ʼ is too flimsy a basis for *palta -- (~ Eng. fold, &c.) as the source NTS xiii 93]Pa. paṭṭa -- m. ʻ woven silk, fine cloth, cotton cloth, turban ʼ, °ṭaka -- ʻ made of a strip of cloth ʼ, n. ʻ bandage, girdle ʼ, °ṭikā -- f.; NiDoc. paṭa ʻ roll of silk ʼ Lüders Textilien 24; Pk. paṭṭa -- m. ʻ cloth, clothes, turban ʼ; Paš. paṭā ʻ strip of skin ʼ, ar. weg. paṭīˊ ʻ belt ʼ; Kal.rumb. pāˊṭi ʻ scarf ʼ; Phal. paṭṭaṛa ʻ bark ʼ; K. paṭh, dat. °ṭas m. ʻ long strip of cloth from loom ʼ, poṭu m. ʻ woollen cloth ʼ, pôṭu m. ʻ silk, silk cloth ʼ (← Ind.?); S. paṭū m. ʻ silk ʼ, paṭū̃ m. ʻ a kind of woollen cloth ʼ, paṭo m. ʻ band of cloth ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ bandage, fillet ʼ; L. paṭṭ m. ʻ silk ʼ, awāṇ. paṭṭī f. ʻ woollen cloth ʼ; P. paṭṭ m. ʻ silk ʼ, paṭṭī f. ʻ coarse woollen cloth, bandage ʼ; WPah.bhal. peṭṭu m. sg. and pl. ʻ woman's woollen gown ʼ; Ku. pāṭ ʻ silk ʼ; N. pāṭ ʻ flax, hemp ʼ; A. B. pāṭ ʻ silk ʼ (B. also ʻ jute ʼ); Or. pāṭa ʻ silk, jute ʼ, paṭā ʻ red silk cloth, sheet, scarf ʼ, (Bastar) pāṭā ʻ loincloth ʼ; Bhoj. paṭuā ʻ jute ʼ; OAw. pāṭa m. ʻ silk cloth ʼ; H. paṭ m. ʻ cloth, turban ʼ, paṭṭū m. ʻ coarse woollen cloth ʼ, paṭṭī f. ʻ strip of cloth ʼ, paṭkā m. ʻ loincloth ʼ; G. pāṭ m. ʻ strip of cloth ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ bandage ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ tape ʼ; Ko. pāṭṭo ʻ strap ʼ; Si. paṭa ʻ silk, fine cloth ʼ, paṭiya ʻ ribbon, girdle, cloth screen round a tent ʼ. -- Gy. rum. pato ʻ clothing ʼ, gr. patavo ʻ napkin ʼ, wel. patavō ʻ sock ʼ, germ. phār ʻ silk, taffeta ʼ; Sh.koh. gur. pāc̣ṷ m. ʻ cloth ʼ, koh. poc̣e ʻ clothes ʼ.
*paṭṭakara -- , *paṭṭadukūla -- , *paṭṭapati -- , paṭṭaraṅga -- , paṭṭarājñī -- , *paṭṭavaya -- ; *niṣpaṭṭa -- ; *antarapaṭṭa -- , *andhapaṭṭa -- , *kakṣapaṭṭa -- , *karpaṭapaṭṭikā -- , *ghumbapaṭṭa -- , carmapaṭṭa -- , *dupaṭṭikā -- , *paggapaṭṭa -- , *paścapaṭṭa -- , *laṅgapaṭṭa -- , *vasanapaṭṭa -- , śīrṣapaṭṭaka -- .Addenda: paṭṭa -- 2: WPah.poet. pakṭe f. ʻ woman's woollen gown ʼ (metath. of *paṭke with -- akka -- ); Md. fořā ʻ cloth or Sinhalese sarong ʼ, fařu(v)i ʻ silk ʼ, fař ʻ strip, chain ʼ, fař jehum ʻ wrapping ʼ (jehum verbal noun of jahanī ʻ strikes ʼ).(CDIAL 7700)

-- Meluhha Indus Script hypertexts, wealth accounting ledgers of artisan & seafaring merchant guilds, signified by Varāha & Gaṇeśa

Predating the anthropomorph with a boar's head found in the context of Copperhoard culture of Ancient Bharat, to signify a metalworker and metals merchant is a tradition traceable to Indus Script Hypertexts which signify Varāha and Gaṇeśa shown in pratimā as dancers together with other members of gaṇa -- artisan & seafaring merchant guilds. Varāha and Gaṇeśa signified as dancers relates to the dancing halls --नाचण्याचा फड A nachhouse -- which is a component of structures used as metals manufactories called फड, phaḍa, 'cobra hood' rebus: फड, phaḍa 'Bhāratīya arsenal of metal weapons'.

R̥gveda describes Marut gaṇa as dancers through the air; this metaphor leads to the sculptural frescos showing Marutgaṇa as dancers; the sculptural tradition is traceable to the pratimā created by craftsmen who created rock-cut sculptures of Badami caves (see the sculptural fresco of Naṭarāja with Gaṇeśa's dance-step:

RV 8.020.22 Maruts, dancing (through the air), decorated with golden breast-plates, the mortal (who worships you) attains your brotherhood; speak favourably to us, for your affinity is ever (made known) at the regulated (sacrifice).

Marut-gaṇa including Gaṇeśa (third from left) & Varāha (fourth from left) on a sculptural panel. Kailasanatha Temple,Kanchipuram.

R̥gveda gaṇa are Vrātam Vrātam gaṇam gaṇam, guilds of artisans, seafaring merchants. R̥gveda extols the contributions made by gaṇa to the creation and sharing of wealth created, using the vivid expression: Vrātam Vrātam gaṇam gaṇam. The semantics of this expression elaborate as guilds of artisans, seafaring merchants. The guild-master of such guilds is gaṇanāyaka also called gaṇapati, mahāvināyaka. Apratimā of mahāvināyaka is archaeologically attested in Gardez with precise semantic explanations using Indus Script hypertexts of cobrahood and feline paw, detailed in this monograph.

The veneration of gaṇapati as guild-master, Marut gaṇa is traceable to the tradition of R̥gveda attested in RV 3.26.6, RV 6.66, RV 2.23, RV 10.112.9.

This abiding veneration finds expression in sculptural frescos all over the world which adores R̥gveda tradition.

RV 3.26.6 refers to Gaṇa in the context of Marut-s: व्रातं व्रातं गणम् गणम् Vrātam Vrātam gaṇam gaṇam In this expression, व्रात signifies a particular form of assembly, a guild. व्रात m. (connected with √1. वृ , or with व्रत्/अ and √2. वृ) a multitude , flock , assemblage , troop , swarm , group , host (व्र्/आतं व्रातम् , in companies or troops ; प्/अञ्च व्र्/आतास् , the five races of men) , association , guild RV. &c; n. manual or bodily labour , day-labour (Monier-Williams)

namo gaṇebhyo gaṇapatibhyaś ca vo namo namo vrātebhyo vrātapatibhyaś ca vo namo namaḥ (MS 2.9.4)

R̥gveda gaṇa are Marut gaṇa with two remarkable anthropomorphs: varāha, with the head of a boar and Gaṇeśa, with the head of an elepant. I suggest that varāha, with the head of a boar and Gaṇeśa, with the head of an elepant are Indus Script hypertexts. The hypertexts signify:

1.baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: बढई baḍhī m ( H) A carpenter; barea 'merchant'; and

2. karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron'. Gaṇeśa is shown with a) cobrahood and b) tiger vestment to further add the semantic identifiers of:

a) फड, phaḍa, 'cobra hood' rebus: फड, phaḍa 'Bhāratīya arsenal of metal weapons' and

b) panja 'claw of beast, feline paw' rebus: panja 'kiln', i.e. boar and elephant signify wood/iron worker and smelter guild.

baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: बढई baḍhī m ( H) A carpenter. (Marathi)
baḍhi 'a caste who work both in iron and wood' bari 'merchant' barea 'merchant' (Santali)
వడ్రంగి, వడ్లంగి, వడ్లవాడు (p. 1126) vaḍraṅgi, vaḍlaṅgi, vaḍlavāḍu or వడ్లబత్తుడు vaḍrangi. [Tel.] n. A carpenter. వడ్రంగము, వడ్లపని, వడ్రము or వడ్లంగితనము vaḍrangamu. n. The trade of a carpenter. వడ్లవానివృత్తి. వడ్రంగిపని. వడ్రంగిపిట్ట or వడ్లంగిపిట్ట vaḍrangi-piṭṭa. n. A woodpecker. దార్వాఘాటము. వడ్లకంకణము vaḍla-kankaṇamu. n. A curlew. ఉల్లంకులలో భేదము. వడ్లత or వడ్లది vaḍlata. n. A woman of the carpenter caste. vardhaki m. ʻ carpenter ʼ MBh. [√vardh] Pa. vaḍḍhaki -- m. ʻ carpenter, building mason ʼ; Pk. vaḍḍhaï -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, °aïa -- m. ʻ shoemaker ʼ; WPah. jaun. bāḍhōī ʻ carpenter ʼ, (Joshi) bāḍhi m., N. baṛhaï, baṛahi, A. bārai, B. bāṛaï, °ṛui, Or. baṛhaï, °ṛhāi, (Gaṛjād) bāṛhoi, Bi. baṛahī, Bhoj. H. baṛhaī m., M. vāḍhāyā m., Si. vaḍu -- vā.(CDIAL 11375)
বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea 'merchant' (Santali) बारकश or बारकस [ bārakaśa or bārakasa ] n ( P) A trading vessel, a merchantman.
బత్తుడు battuḍu báḍḍhi वर्धकि, vaḍlaṅgi, baṛhaï, baḍaga, baḍhi, bāṛaï, varāha, 'title of five artisans'
बढई baḍhī m ( H) A carpenter. (Marathi) పట్టడ paṭṭaḍa paṭṭaḍu. [Tel.] n. A smithy, a shop. కుమ్మరి వడ్లంగి మొదలగువారు పనిచేయు చోటు. వడ్రంగి, వడ్లంగి,వడ్లవాడు vaḍraṅgi, vaḍlaṅgi, vaḍlavāḍu or వడ్లబత్తుడు vaḍrangi. [Tel.] n. A carpenter. వడ్రంగము, వడ్లపని, వడ్రము or వడ్లంగితనము vaḍrangamu. n. The trade of a carpenter. వడ్లవానివృత్తి. వడ్రంగిపని. వడ్రంగిపిట్ట or వడ్లంగిపిట్ట vaḍrangi-piṭṭa. n. A woodpecker. దార్వాఘాటము. వడ్లకంకణము vaḍla-kankaṇamu. n. A curlew. ఉల్లంకులలో భేదము. వడ్లత or వడ్లది vaḍlata. n. A woman of the carpenter caste. vardhaki m. ʻ carpenter ʼ MBh. [√vardh] Pa. vaḍḍhaki -- m. ʻ carpenter, building mason ʼ; Pk. vaḍḍhaï -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, °aïa -- m. ʻ shoemaker ʼ; WPah. jaun. bāḍhōī ʻ carpenter ʼ, (Joshi) bāḍhi m., N. baṛhaï, baṛahi, A. bārai, B. bāṛaï, °ṛui, Or. baṛhaï, °ṛhāi, (Gaṛjād) bāṛhoi, Bi. baṛahī, Bhoj. H. baṛhaī m., M. vāḍhāyā m., Si. vaḍ*u -- vā.**vārdhaka -- .Addenda: vardhaki -- : WPah.kṭg. báḍḍhi m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; kṭg. bəṛhe\i, báṛhi, kc. baṛhe ← H. beside genuine báḍḍhi Him.I 135), J. bāḍhi, Garh. baṛhai, A. also bāṛhai AFD 94; Md. vaḍīn, vaḍin pl.(CDIAL 11375)

Nataraja with 18 arms. gaṇa play drums. Gaṇeśa in dance-step.
Also in the cave are Karthikeya and Gaṇeśa

Harihara with dancing gaṇa.

Aihole showing the dance poses of Gaṇeśa and Varaha.

Gaṇa are shown as kharva, 'dwarfs' on sculptures to signifya nidhi or treasure of Kubera. खर्व mfn. (cf. /अ- , त्रि-) mutilated , crippled , injured , imperfect TS. ii , 5 , 1 , 7 Rebus: खर्व m. N. of one of the nine निधिs or treasures of कुबेर L
See: A treatise on gaṇa who contribute wealth accounting ledgers of Indus Script Corpora of 8000 inscriptions, व्रातं व्रातं गणम् गणम् (RV 3.26.6) https://tinyurl.com/yc9lhmd5

Guild-master’s Indus Script Inscription (m304) deciphered. Hypertext khāra, šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ 'squirrel’ is plaintext khār 'blacksmith'śrēṣṭhin 'guild-master' (Aitareya Brāhmaṇa) https://tinyurl.com/y9ug5h9y The guild-master signs off on the inscription by affixing his hieroglyph: palm squirrel,Sciurus palmarum' Hieroglyph: squirrel: śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1]Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄* ʻ flying squirrel ʼ?(CDIAL 12723) Rebus: guild master khāra, 'squirrel', rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri). śrēṣṭrī1 ʻ clinger ʼ. [√śriṣ1] Phal. šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄* ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? (CDIAL 12723) Rebus: śrēṣṭhin m. ʻ distinguished man ʼ AitBr., ʻ foreman of a guild ʼ, °nī -- f. ʻ his wife ʼ Hariv. [śrḗṣṭha -- ] Pa. seṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ, Dhp. śeṭhi, Pk. seṭṭhi -- , siṭṭhi -- m., °iṇī -- f.; S. seṭhi m. ʻ wholesale merchant ʼ; P. seṭh m. ʻ head of a guild, banker ʼ,seṭhaṇ, °ṇī f.; Ku.gng. śēṭh ʻ rich man ʼ; N. seṭh ʻ banker ʼ; B. seṭh ʻ head of a guild, merchant ʼ; Or. seṭhi ʻ caste of washermen ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. sēṭhi ʻ merchant, banker ʼ, H. seṭh m., °ṭhan f.; G. śeṭh, śeṭhiyɔ m. ʻ wholesale merchant, employer, master ʼ; M. śeṭh, °ṭhī, śeṭ, °ṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ; Si. siṭu, hi° ʻ banker, nobleman ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 208 (or < śiṣṭá -- 2?) (CDIAL 12726) I suggest that the šē̃ṣṭrĭ̄ ʻ flying squirrel ʼ? is read rebus: śeṭhī, śeṭī m. ʻ respectful term for banker or merchant ʼ (Marathi) or eṭṭhin -- m. ʻ guild -- master ʼ(Prakrtam)
The key factor (together with land (resources), labour and capital) conributing to the wealth of bhārata of Veda times is a form of social economic organization called gaṇa. This gaṇa organizational form is also called śreṇi or guild which predates the Roman corporation by ca two millennia. श्रेणि f. ( L. also m. ; according to Un2. iv , 51 , fr. √ श्रि ; connected with श्रेटी above ) a line , row , range , series , succession , troop , flock , multitude , number RV. &c; a company of artisans following the same business , a guild or association of traders dealing in the same articles Mn. MBh. &c
I suggest that the expression and metaphor of tāṇḍava nr̥tyam, the cosmic dance of शिव is a replication of the Soma samsthā yajña, to win the vasu, the wealths. The role of ताण्डव-प्रिय शिव, शिव's door-keeper नन्दिन् of yajña is replicated on wealth accounting archives of Indus Script Corpora.
An early form of dance is traceable to Rudra's dance.
Bhīṣma's treatise of Mahābhārata on gaṇa (appended) provides the theoretical framework of Arthaśāstraon creation of a nation's wealth. This treatise demonstrates how the R̥gveda narratives of Rudra, Marut, व्रातं व्रातं गणम् गणम् are the framework of metaphors in sculptures and Indus Script Hypertexts to document how ancient bhārata contributed to 33% of World GDP in 1 CE.
Rudra, in a dance pose. Maruts, Rudra.
tāṇḍava nr̥tyam is a frantic dance by Naṭarāja Śiva accompanied by his व्रातं व्रातं गणम् गणम्. Many ancient sculptural friezes attest to this accompaniment.

YajñaVarāha, Indus Script hypertexts baḍhia, barāha, rebus baḍhi, bāṛaï ' worker in wood and iron’

https://tinyurl.com/y9y2ubaw

http://earthbeforeflood.com/maruts_rudras.html

Maruts are described as having wheels of gold and rushing like boars with tusks of iron (ayodaṁṣṭrān vidhâvato varâhûn). Association of Varāhu's tusk or tooth with ayo 'iron' is significant in the context of Bronze Age metalwork metaphors abounding in ancient ākhyāna.

Itihāsa of Maruts in Rigveda, gold, shining like kindled fires, नृतुः nṛtuḥ 'dancer'

Mirror: inyurl.com/hcqfl2q

RV8.20.22 8.020.22 Maruts, dancing (through the air), decorated with golden breast-plates, the mortal (who worships you) attains your brotherhood; speak favourably to us, for your affinity is ever (made known) at the regulated (sacrifice).
[quote]'In Hinduism, the Marutas (/məˈrʊts/; Sanskrit: मरुत), also known as the Marutagana and sometimes identified with Rudras, are storm deities and sons of Rudra and Prisni and attendants of Indra. The number of Marutas varies from 27 to sixty (three times sixty in RV 8.96.8). They are very violent and aggressive, described as armed with golden weapons i.e. lightning and thunderbolts, as having iron teeth and roaring like lions, as residing in the north, as riding in golden chariots drawn by ruddy horses.
Hymn 66 of Mandala VI of the Rig Veda is an eloquent account of how a natural phenomenon of a rain-storm metamorphose into storm deities.
In the Vedic mythology, the Marutas, a troop of young warriors, are Indra's companions. According to French comparative mythologist Georges Dumézil, they are cognate to the Einherjar and the Wild hunt.
According to the Rig Veda, the ancient collection of sacred hymns, they wore golden helmets and breastplates, and used their axes to split the clouds so that rain could fall. They were widely regarded as clouds, capable to shaking mountains and destroying forests.
According to later tradition, such as Puranas, the Marutas were born from the broken womb of the goddess Diti, after Indra hurled a thunderbolt at her to prevent her from giving birth to too powerful a son. The goddess had intended to remain pregnant for a century before giving birth to a son who would threaten Indra.'[unquote]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruts
मरुत् [p= 790,2] m. pl. (prob. the " flashing or shining ones " ; cf. मरीचि and Gk. Î¼Î±ÏÎ¼Î±Î¯ÏÏ) the storm-gods (इन्द्र's companions and sometimes e.g. Ragh. xii , 101 = देवाः , the gods or deities in general ; said in the वेद to be the sons of रुद्र and पृश्नि q.v. , or the children of heaven or of ocean ; and described as armed with golden weapons i.e. lightnings and thunderbolts , as having iron teeth and roaring like lions , as residing in the north , as riding in golden cars drawn by ruddy horses sometimes called पृषतीः q.v. ; they are reckoned in Naigh. v , 5 among the gods of the middle sphere , and in RV. viii , 96 , 8 are held to be three times sixty in number ; in the later literature they are the children of दिति , either seven or seven times seven in number , and are sometimes said to be led by मातरिश्वन्) RV. &c; the god of the wind (father of हनुमत् and regent of the north-west quarter of the sky) Kir. Ra1jat. (cf. comp.); = ऋत्विज् Naigh. iii , 18; gold ib. i , 2

RV 6.66

6.066.01 May the like-formed, benevolent, all-pervading, all humiliating troop (of the Maruts) be promptly with the prudent man; the troop that ever cherishes all that among mortals is designed to yield (them) advantage; and (at whose wil) Pr.s'ni gives milk from (her) bright udder once (in the year). [That ever cherishes: marttes.u anyad dohase pi_pa_ya = tad ru_pam (maruta_m), martyaloke anyad os.adhi vanaspatya_dikam ka_ma_n dogdhum a_ya_yagoti, that form of the Maruts cause one or other thing in the world, herbaceous plants, forest trees, and the like, of flourish, so as to milk or yield wht is desired; Pr.s'ni: implies the firmament, which, by the influence of the winds, sends down its milk, i.e. rain, once, i.e. at the rainy season].

6.066.02 Unsoiled by dust the golden chariots of those Maruts, who are shining like kindled fires, enlarging themselves (at will) twofold and threefold, and (charged) with riches and virile energies, are manifest.
6.066.03 They (who are) the sons of the showerer Rudra, whom the nursing (firmamen is able) to sustain, and of whom, the mighty ones, it is known that the great Pr.s'ni has received the germ for the benefit (of man).
6.066.04 They who approach not to men any conveyance, being already in their hearts, purifying their defects; when brilliant they supply their milk (the rain) for the gratification (of their worshippers); they are watering the earth (manifesting their collective); from with splendour. [Being already in their hearts: the Maruts are regarded as identical wit the Pra_n.a_h, vital airs].
6.066.05 Approaching nigh to whom, and repeating the mighty name of the Maruts, (the worshipper is able) quickly to obtain (his wishes); the liberal donor pacifies the angry Maruts, who are otherwise in their might the resistless plunderers (of their wealth). [He pacifies those na ye stauna_ aya_so mahna_ nu cid, who now are thieves going with greatness verily ever].
6.066.06 THose fierce and powerfully arrayed (Maruts) unite by their strength the two beautiful (regions) heaven and earth; in them, the self-radiant, heaven and earth abide; the obstruction (of light) dwells not in those mighty ones. [Unite by their strength: by the rain, which may be said to form a bond of union between heaven and earth].
6.066.07 May your chariot, Maruts, be devoid of wickedness; that which (the worshipper) impels, and which without driver, without horses, without provender, without traces, scattering water and accomplishing (desires), traverses heaven and earth and the paths (of the firmament).
6.066.08 There is no propeller, no obstructer, of him, whom, Maruts, you protect in battle; he whom (you prosper) with sons, grandsons, cattle, and water, is in war the despoiler of the herds of his ardent (foes). [Despoiler of the herds: sa vrajam darta_ pa_rye adha dyoh = sa gava_m san:gham da_rayita_ san:gra_me dyoh; dyoh = vijigis.or va_ s'atroh, of one desirous to overcome, or an enemy].
6.066.09 Offer to the loud-sounding, quick-moving, self-invigorating company of the Maruts, excellent (sacrificial) food; (to them) who overcome strength by strength; the earth trembles, Agni, at the adorable (Maruts).
6.066.10 The Maruts are resplendent as if iluminators of the sacrifice, (bright) as he flames of Agni; entitled are they to donation, and like heroes making (adversaries) tremble; brilliant are they from birth, and invincible.
6.066.11 I worship with oblations that exalted company of the Maruts, the progeny of Rudra, armed with shining lances; the pure and earnest praises of the devout (adorer) are emulous in the invigoration (of the Maruts), as the clouds (vie in the emission of the rain). [The pure and earnest praises: divah s'ardha_ya s'ucayo manis.a_ girayo na_pa ugra_ aspr.dhran = of heaven of the strength pure praises mountains like waters fierce have vied; divah = stotuh, of the praiser or worshipper; s'ardha_ya = ma_ruta_ya, for the strength of the Maruts; giri = megha, a cloud].

मरुत्तः, पुं, (मरुदस्त्यस्येति । मरुत् + “तप् पर्व्वमरुद्भ्याम् ।” ५ । २ । १२२ । इत्यत्र काशि-कोक्त्या तप् ।) चन्द्रवंशीयराजविशेषः । स चअवीक्षिद्राजपुत्त्रः । यथा --क्रोष्टुकिरुवाच ।“अवीक्षितस्य नृपतेर्मरुत्तस्य महात्मनः ।श्रोतुमिच्छामि चरितं श्रूयते सोऽतिचेष्टितः ॥चक्रवर्त्ती महाभागः शूरः क्षान्तो महामतिः ।धर्म्मविद्धर्म्मकृच्चैव सम्यक् पालयिता भुवः ॥मार्कण्डेय उवाच स पित्रा समनुज्ञातो राज्यं प्राप्य पितामहात् ।धर्म्मतः पालयामास प्रजाः पुत्त्रानिवौरसान् ॥इयाज सुमहायज्ञान् यथावत् प्राज्यदक्षिणान् ।ऋत्विक्पुरोहितादेशादनिर्विण्णो महीपतिः ॥तस्याप्रतिहतं चक्रमासीद्द्वीपेषु सप्तसु ।गतयश्चाप्यविच्छिन्नाः स्वःपातालजलादिषु ॥”इति मार्कण्डेयपुराणे १०३ अध्यायः ॥(यदुवंशीयः करन्धमपुत्त्रः । यथा, श्रीमद्भाग-वते । ९ । २३ । १७ ।https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/शब्दकल्पद्रु
मःमरुत् पु० मृ उति । १ वायौ अमरः २ मरुवके भावप्र० ३ देवे ४ ग्रन्धिपर्णे न० मेदि० । ५ पृक्कायां स्त्री शब्दर० ।स्वार्थे प्रज्ञाद्यण् । मारुतोऽप्यत्र । पृषो० ह्रस्वः ।मरुतोऽपि देवे च वायौ च व्याडिः ।
https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम्

See: Tridhātu Gaṇeśa, Emūṣa Varāha are Marut-s, R̥bhu-s, a Rudra gaṇa, disgorged by makara, Indus Script hypertexts https://tinyurl.com/y84r4oyr Tridhātu Gaṇeśa & Emūṣa Varāha are Maruts, a Rudra gaṇa (offspring of Rudra) -- disgorged by makara -- working with smelters, forge-blowers and iconographically depicted emerging out of the snout/breath of hypertext: (dh)makara 'makara' rebus: dhmakara, 'forge-blower',dhamaka 'blacksmith'. The breath of the makara is a metaphor for the winds blown from the bellows to increase the intensity of the blazing fires and ignite the mere earth, the mineral ores in the smelter. Maruts, sons of Rudra are the winds as R̥bhu-s, artisans, work to fashion the earth and minerals into wealth. This is a cosmic dance enacted in the kole.l 'smithy, forge' which is kole.l 'temple.

dhmakara 'forge-blower' is makara, the hypertext iconograph.
See: Indus Script hypertext makara rebus dhmakara ‘forge-blower, blacksmith’ is a divine signifier of wealth, nidhi
https://tinyurl.com/yb2nabnf

Monument/Object: sculpture
Current Location: Indian Museum, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Subject: Varuna, on makara
Photo Depicts: front
Monument/Object: sculpture
Current Location: Indian Museum, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Subject: Varuna, on makara
Photo Depicts: front

Location: Bharhut Village, Satna Dt., Madhya Pradesh, India
Site: Bharhut Village
Monument/Object: Bharhut Stupa, architectural fragment, vedika (railing)
Current Location: Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Subject: elephant, with fishtail
Photo Depicts: roundel
Date: 2nd - 1st century BCE
Religious Affiliation: Buddhist
Material: stone
Scan Number: 11598
Photo Date: 1984
Image Source: Huntington Archive

Marut-s as Rudra-s, नृतु m. (nom. /ऊस्) a dancer , an actor RV. &c
A major wealth-producing activity of Bhāratam Janam has been metalwork. This monograph suggests that the forms of Gaṇeśa pratimā evolve in Indus Script hypertext tradition to document wealth-producing metalwork.

फडकरी phaḍakarī m A man belonging to a company or band (of players, showmen &c.) 2 A superintendent or master of a फड or public place. See under फड. 3 A retail-dealer (esp. in grain). फडझडती phaḍajhaḍatī f sometimes फडझाडणी f A clearing off of public business (of any business comprehended under the word फड q. v.): also clearing examination of any फड or place of public business. (Marathi)

गण m. a flock , troop , multitude , number , tribe , series , class (of animate or inanimate beings) , body of followers or attendants RV. AV. &c; troops or classes of inferior deities (especially certain troops of demi-gods considered as शिव's attendants and under the special superintendence of the god गणेश ; cf. -देवता) Mn. Ya1jn5. Lalit. &c; a company , any assemblage or association of men formed for the attainment of the same aims Mn. Ya1jn5. Hit. (in summary, a guild).   Gaņā or hosts of Bŗihaspathi—Brahmaņaspathi are venerated:

gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnām upamaśravastamam |  jyeṣṭharājam brahmaṇām brahmaṇas pata ā naḥ śṛṇvann ūtibhiḥ sīda sādanam ||RV_2,023.01|| This veneration of the leader of the guild posits Gaṇeśa as a Vedic divinity of the highest order, the leader of the heavenly bands and a sage (kavi) among sages.

sa suṣṭubhā sa ṛkvatā gaṇena valaṃ ruroja phaligaṃ raveṇa | bṛhaspatir usriyā havyasūdaḥ kanikradad vāvaśatīr ud ājat ||RV 4,050.05 ||*

गण, also signify hosts of divine beings. Indra is a leader of the gana of Maruts.

ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvām āhur vipratamaṃ kavīnām | na ṛte tvat kriyate kiṃ canāre mahām arkam maghavañ citram arca ||RV_10,112.09||

[quote] The mantra ‘namo Gaṇebhyo gaṇapathibyasha vo namo’ (16-25) that occurs in  Śukla Yajurveda samhita refers to ganas, in plural, and says: salutations to you, Gaṇas and to the Lord of the Ganas. This mantra appears also in the Rudra praśnam (4.1.5) and in the Maitrāyaṇī Samhitā (2,9.4). Gaṇa in these contexts signifies a group of people as also a collection of mantras.

namo gaṇebhyo gaṇapatibhyaś ca vo namo namo vrātebhyo vrātapatibhyaś ca vo namo namaḥ kṛchrebhyaḥ kṛchrapatibhyaś ca vo namo namo virūpebhyo viśvarūpebhyaś ca vo namo namaḥ senābhyaḥ senānībhyaś ca vo namo namo rathibhyo varūthibhyaś ca vo namo namaḥ kṣattṛbhyaḥ saṃgrahītṛbhyaś ca vo namo namo bṛhadbhyo ‘rbhakebhyaś ca vo namo namo yuvabhya āśīnebhyaś ca vo namo namaḥ //MS_2,9.4//
The Taittirīya Samhitā interprets Gaṇas as paśus (the beasts of Śiva). They are the Gaṇas of Shiva — Rudrasya Ganapathyam .There were also Bhuta ganas, the weird and grotesque looking guards of Shiva. Thus, Shiva the Paśupathi; and Śiva the Bhūtanāth was also a Gaṇapathi.[unquote] https://sreenivasaraos.com/tag/ganesha

Dancing Ganesha, Gangaikonda-cholapuram, Tamil Nadu, 11th century CE.
Dancing Gaṇeśa in relief at Hoysaleshwara temple, Halebidu
A tree associated with smelter and linga from Bhuteshwar, Mathura Museum. Architectural fragment with relief showing winged dwarfs (or gaNa) worshipping with flower garlands, Siva Linga. Bhuteshwar, ca. 2nd cent BCE. Lingam is on a platform with wall under a pipal tree encircled by railing. (Srivastava, AK, 1999, Catalogue of Saiva sculptures in Government Museum, Mathura: 47, GMM 52.3625) The tree is a phonetic determinant of the smelter indicated by the railing around the linga: kuṭa, °ṭi -- , °ṭha -- 3, °ṭhi -- m. ʻ tree ʼ Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'. kuṭa, °ṭi -- , °ṭha -- 3, °ṭhi -- m. ʻ tree ʼ lex., °ṭaka -- m. ʻ a kind of tree ʼ Kauś.Pk. kuḍa -- m. ʻ tree ʼ; Paš. lauṛ. kuṛāˊ ʻ tree ʼ, dar. kaṛék ʻ tree, oak ʼ ~ Par. kōṛ ʻ stick ʼ IIFL iii 3, 98. (CDIAL 3228)

Relief with Ekamukha linga. Mathura. 1st cent. CE (Fig. 6.2). This is the most emphatic representation of linga as a pillar of fire. The pillar is embedded within a brick-kiln with an angular roof and is ligatured to a tree. Hieroglyph: kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'. In this composition, the artists is depicting the smelter used for smelting to create mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) of mēḍha 'stake' rebus: meḍ 'iron, metal' (Ho. Munda). मेड (p. 662) [ mēḍa ] f (Usually मेढ q. v.) मेडका m A stake, esp. as bifurcated. मेढ (p. 662) [ mēḍha ] f A forked stake. Used as a post. Hence a short post generally whether forked or not. मेढा (p. 665) [ mēḍhā ] m A stake, esp. as forked. 2 A dense arrangement of stakes, a palisade, a paling. मेढी (p. 665) [ mēḍhī ] f (Dim. of मेढ) A small bifurcated stake: also a small stake, with or without furcation, used as a post to support a cross piece. मेढ्या (p. 665) [ mēḍhyā ] a (मेढ Stake or post.) A term for a person considered as the pillar, prop, or support (of a household, army, or other body), the staff or stay. मेढेजोशी (p. 665) [ mēḍhējōśī ] m A stake-जोशी; a जोशी who keeps account of the तिथि &c., by driving stakes into the ground: also a class, or an individual of it, of fortune-tellers, diviners, presagers, seasonannouncers, almanack-makers &c. They are Shúdras and followers of the मेढेमत q. v. 2 Jocosely. The hereditary or settled (quasi fixed as a stake) जोशी of a village.मेंधला (p. 665) [ mēndhalā ] m In architecture. A common term for the two upper arms of a double चौकठ (door-frame) connecting the two. Called also मेंढरी & घोडा. It answers to छिली the name of the two lower arms or connections. (Marathi)
मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end rebus: meḍ 'iron, metal' (Ho. Munda)

The association of dwarfs, gaNa is consistent with the interpretation of Ganesa iconography with elephant trunk: karibha 'elephant trunk' (Pali) rebua: karba 'iron' (Tulu); ib 'iron' (Santali) kara 'trunk' khAr 'blacksmith'. Siva's gaNa are Bharatam Janam, metalcaster folk engaged with पोतृ pōtṟ 'purifier priest' to signify dhā̆vaḍ, dhamaga 'smelter, blacksmith' working in alloy of three mineral ores. The garland depicted on Bhutesvar sculptural friezes signifies: dhAman 'garland, rope' rebus: dhamaga 'blacksmith', dhmAtr 'smelter'.
Glyph: meD 'to dance' (F.)[reduplicated from me-]; me id. (M.) in Remo (Munda)(Source: D. Stampe's Munda etyma)Ta. meṭṭu (meṭṭi-) to spurn or push with the foot. Ko. meṭ- (mec-) to trample on, tread on; meṭ sole of foot, footstep, footprint. To. möṭ- (möṭy-) to trample on; möṭ step, tread, wooden-soled sandal. Ka. meṭṭu to put or place down the foot or feet, step, pace, walk, tread or trample on, put the foot on or in, put on (as a slipper or shoe); n. stepping, step of the foot, stop on a stringed instrument; sandal, shoe, step of a stair; meṭṭisu to cause to step; meṭṭige, meṭla step, stair. Koḍ. moṭṭï footprint, foot measure, doorsteps. Tu. muṭṭu shoe, sandal; footstep; steps, stairs. Te meṭṭu step, stair, treading, slipper, stop on a lute; maṭṭu, (K. also) meṭṭu to tread, trample, crush under foot, tread or place the foot upon; n. treading; maṭṭincu to cause to be trodden or trampled. Ga. (S.3) meṭṭu step (< Te.). Konḍa maṭ- (-t-) to crush under foot, tread on, walk, thresh (grain, as by oxen); ***caus.maṭis-. Kuwi* (S.) mettunga** steps. Malt. maḍye to trample, tread. (DEDR 5057)

Marut-gaṇa including Gaṇeśa & Varaha on a sculptural panel. Kailasanatha Temple,Kanchipuram.
Dancing dwarves, gaṇa.
Candi-Sukuh Gaṇeśa is shown in a dance-step, in the context of smelting, forging of sword by Bhima and by the bellows-blower Arjuna. The building in the background is a smelter/forge.
The dance step of Ganesa (elephant head ligatured to a dancing person) on Candi Sukuh frieze is also explained by the gloss: meD 'dance step' rebus: meD 'iron'.

The association of Gaṇeśa with iron-working gives him the name tri-dhātu 'three minerals' wich are:
goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore' poḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore' bicha 'haemtite, ferrite ore'. These three ferrite ores are signified by the hieroglyphs: goṭa 'round pebble stone' poḷa 'zebu, dewlap, honeycomb' bica'scorpion'.

Gaṇeśa is signified as part of Marut गण[p= 343,1] troops or classes of inferior deities (especially certain troops of demi-gods considered as शिव's attendants and under the special superintendence of the god गणेश ; cf. देवता) Mn. Ya1jn5. Lalit. &c; m. a flock , troop , multitude , number , tribe , series , class (of animate or inanimate beings) , body of followers or attendants RV. AV. &c.

Source:
Une tête d'éléphant en terre cuite de Nausharo (Pakistan)
In: Arts asiatiques. Tome 47, 1992. pp. 132-136. Jarrige Catherine
http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/arasi_0004-3958_1992_num_47_1_1330

The elephant head ligatured with a buffalo at Nausharo is a curtain-raiser for the practice of ligaturing in Indian tradition for utsava bera* 'idols carried on processions'. The phrase utsava bera denotes that processions of the type shown on Mesopotamian cylinder seals or Mohenjo-daro tablets are trade processions for bera 'bargaining, trade'. Thus, the processions with hieroglyphs may be part of trade-exchange fairs of ancient times. It is significant that the utsava bera of Ganesa is shown together with a rat or mouse -- as vāhana: ibha 'elephant' Rebus: ib 'iron'. mūṣa 'rat, mouse' Rebus: mūṣa 'crucible'. Thus both rat/mouse and elephant face ligatured to a body, are Meluhha hieroglyphs related to metallurgical processes.

sangaDa 'joined animals' rebus: sangara 'proclamation': karibha 'elephant trunk' (Pali) Rebus: karba 'iron' (Tulu) ib 'iron' (Santali) kara 'trunk of elephant' Rebus: khAr 'blacksmith' ranga 'buffalo' Rebus: ranga 'pewter'. kola 'tiger' Rebus: kolle 'blacksmith' kol 'working in iron' kole.l 'smithy, temple' kolimi 'smithy, forge'.
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/07/bhirrana-8th-millennium-bce-on-river.html

Location: Amaravati, Guntur Dt., Andhra Pradesh, India

Site: Amaravati

Monument/Object: sculpture

Current Location: Madras Government Museum, Madras, Tamil Nadu, India

Subject: Sankhanidhi, with purse of coins in left hand

Period: Satavahana

Date: ca. late 2nd - 3rd century CE

Religious Affiliation: Buddhist

Material: marble, white

Scan Number: 26927

Copyright: Huntington, John C. and Susan L.

Location: Amaravati, Guntur Dt., Andhra Pradesh, India

Site: Amaravati

Monument/Object: relief sculpture, fragment

Current Location: Madras Government Museum, Madras, Tamil Nadu, India

Subject: gana, dancing

Photo Depicts: front

Period: Satavahana

Date: ca. 2nd century CE

Religious Affiliation: Buddhist

Material: marble, white

Scan Number: 27734

Copyright: Huntington, John C. and Susan L.

Image result for dancing gana bharatkalyan97

meḍ 'dance-step' rebus: meḍ 'iron'

Why are dwarfs shown on Begram ivories, Bharhut, Sanchi, Mathura sculptures and stone reliefs? The reason is the Indian sprachbund gloss: kharva which means 'dwarf'. The rebus-metonymy-layered rendering reads: kharva 'a navanidhi, a treasure, wealth' (one of nine nidhis or nine treasures of Kubera). The dwarf image is also used to denote gaNa of Siva or Rudra.

खर्व (-र्ब) a. [खर्व्-अच्] 1 Mutilated, crippled, imperfect; Yv. Ts.2.5.1.7. -2 Dwarfish, low, short in stature. -र्वः, -र्वम् A large number (1,,,). -3 N. of one of the treasures of Kubera. -Comp. -इतर a. not small, great; प्रमुदितहृदः सर्वे खर्वेतरस्मयसंगताः Śiva. B.22.71. -शाख a. dwarfish, small, short.खर्वित kharvita खर्वित a. (anything) That has become dwarfish; निशुम्भभरनम्रोर्वीखर्विताः पर्वता अपि Ks.51.1.

खार्वा khārvā The Tretā age or second Yuga of the world. (Samskritam)

Rebus: खर्वटः kharvaṭḥ टम् ṭam खर्वटः टम् [खर्व्-अटन्] 1 A market-town. -2 A village at the foot of a mountain; this word generally occurs joined with खेट; Bhāg.1.6.11;4.18.31;7.2.14; धनुःशतं परीणाहो ग्रामे क्षेत्रान्तरं भवेत् । द्वे शते खर्वटस्य स्यान्नगरस्य चतुःशतम् ॥ Y.2.167. Mitākṣarā says खर्वटस्य प्रचुरकण्टक- सन्तानस्य ग्रामस्य खर्वटानि कुनगराणि । (प्रश्नव्याकरणसूत्रव्याख्याने). -3 A mixed locality on the bank of river, partly a village and partly a town (according to the text of Bhṛigu, quoted in Shrīdharasvāmin's commentary on the Bhāg.); cf. Rājadharmakaustubha, G. O. S.72, p.13. -4 A principal village among two hundred ones (Dānasāgara, Bibliotheca Indica 274, Fasc. I, p.145); cf. also दण्डविवेक, G. O. S.52, p.277.

Hieroglyph: gaNa, 'dwarf' Rebus: gaNa is a guild. Accoding to NaighaNTu, gaNa is speech, Mleccha, Meluhha speech as distinct from chandas, prosody: m. = वाच् (i.e. " a series of verses ") Naigh. i , 11

Sunga. Kubera. National Museum, Delhi

Location: Amaravati, Guntur Dt., Andhra Pradesh, India

Site: Amaravati

Monument/Object: coping fragment, relief sculpture

Current Location: Madras Government Museum, Madras, Tamil Nadu, India

Subject: ganas and elephant

Period: Satavahana

Date: ca. mid-2nd - 3rd century CE

Religious Affiliation: Buddhist

Material: marble, white

Scan Number: 27084

Copyright: Huntington, John C. and Susan L.
Association of karba 'elephant' with gaṇa = kharva 'dwarfs' rebus: karba 'iron'.

Image result for gana dancers hindu temples

A Dancing gana, Daśāvatāra temple, Deogarh

Dancing gaṇa of Badami caves.

Badami. Entrance of Cave 1. Nataraja next to panels of dancing gaṇa

Dance step of Gaṇeśa shown on a sculptural friezed of Candi Sukuh:

Dansende Ganesha & geboorte van de walvis

Forge scene stele. Forging of a keris or kris (the iconic Javanese dagger) and other weapons. The blade of the keris represents the khaNDa. Fire is a purifier, so the blade being forged is also symbolic of the purification process central theme of the consecration of gangga sudhi specified in the inscription on the 1.82 m. tall, 5 ft. dia. lingga hieroglyph, the deity of Candi Sukuh.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/01/sekkizhar-periya-puranam-candi-sukuh.html

Foot with anklet; copper alloy. Mohenjo-daro (After Fig. 5.11 in Agrawal. D.P. 2000. Ancient Metal Technology & Archaeology of South Asia. Delhi: Aryan Books International.)

Why is a 'dancing girl' glyph shown on a potsherd discovered at Bhirrana? Because, dance-step is a hieroglyph written as hypertext cipher.

Image result for male dancer mohenjo-daro

Torso of a male dancing figure from Harappa: -Grey limestone, ht 4 inches -National Museum, New Delhi -Prototype of Shiva Nataraja ‘The king (raja) of dancers (nata):

Torso of a male dancing figure from Harappa: -Grey limestone, ht 4 inches -National Museum, New Delhi. I submit that the word pada as a 'step' is an Indus Script hypertext as seen in a sculptural fragment of Harappa. meḍ 'dance' (Remo); మెట్టు [meṭṭu] meṭṭu. [Tel.] v. a. &n. To step, walk, tread. అడుగుపెట్టు (Telugu) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) Dance step is also a sculptural metaphor replicated in the pratimā of the Cosmic Dancer.

Four views of a small stone torso discovered in Harappa (Pakistan) in the late 1920s from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2000 B.C.)

https://www.artstation.com/artwork/y1WbK

Above: Photographs of Male Dancing Figure from Harappa, flanked by sketches by conjectural sketches by John Marshall and after him by Mark Kenoyer (right).

It is nice to step into the new year with the figure of a dancer, for dancing is something that the ancient Indus people took very seriously. There is the dancing girl, and there is this exquisite male that John Marshall introduces: "And now we come to two small statuettes which are more surprising even than the masterly engraving of the bull ... When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to so completely upset all established ideas about early art. Modelling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece ... Now there was no stone obtainable at Harappa or anywhere near it. Whatever stone was needed there had to be brought great distances ... Then, as to technique. In both statuettes, it will be observed, there are socket holes in the neck and shoulders for the attachment of head and arms, which were made in separate pieces; in in both, moreover, the nipples of the breasts were made independently and fixed with cement. So far as I know, this technique is without parallel among sculptors of the historic period, whether of the Indo-Hellenistic or any other school. On the other hand it is also unexampled at Mohenjo-daro ... It is the figure of a dancer standing on his right leg, with the body from the waist upwards bent well round to the left, both arms thrown out in the same direction, and the left leg raised high in front ... Although its contours are soft and effeminate, the figure is that of a male, and it seems likely that it was ithyphallic, since the membrum virile was made in a separate piece. I infer, too, from the abnormal thickness of the neck, that the dancer was three-headed or at any rate three-faced, and I conjecture that he may represent the youthful Siva Nataraja." (Marshall, Mohenjo-daro, I., 45-46.)

https://www.harappa.com/blog/male-dancer-harappa

Wealth of a Rāṣṭram venerated in Rāṣṭrī suktam (RV 10.125) is a Chandas metaphor of Indus Script Hypertexts Meluhha wealth accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues

https://tinyurl.com/yap5xbu2

This is an addendum to Rāṣṭrī Suktam R̥gveda 10.125 & archaeology of wealth of a Rāṣṭram, Ancient India of Tin-Bronze revolution https://tinyurl.com/ya2ywfwn

The divinities venerated in the Rāṣṭrī Suktam (RV 10.125) are त्वष्टृ, वसु, रुद्र all metaphors in Chandas in the context of wealth of a nation. Hence, the use of the central phrase: Rāṣṭram personified, deified as fem. Rāṣṭrī. This divinity of the Suktam makes an offering to Devatā ātmā.

ātmā means principle of life and sensation, that is life activities people engaged in producing, acquiring wealth. Since Indus Script Hypertexts in over 8000 inscriptions are wealth accounting ledgers, metalworking catalogues, I suggest that the narrative of these inscriptions constitute the quintessence of the Rāṣṭrī suktam (RV 10.125) which categorically states that I am the Rāṣṭram, the collectress, mover of wealth. In the context of life activities, the devatā of the Suktam is ātmā, 'life principle and sensation' which is epitomised in the activities of artisans and seafaring Meluhha merchants engaged in creating the wealth of a Nation, Rāṣṭram.

I, therefore, submit that RV 10.125 Rāṣṭrī suktam is the R̥gveda textual metaphor Chandas equivalent of the Indus Script Hypertexts rendered in Meluhha speech forms (Indian sprachbund, speech union).

त्वष्टृ m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ) AV. xii , 3 , 33; " creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/इ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम् अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/अ-रूप &c RV. ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x Hariv. 12146 f. R. ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns RV. AV. &c MBh. iv , 1178 Hariv. 587 ff. Ragh. vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ , सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम् प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i Ka1tyS3r. iii ; supposed author of RV. x , 184 with the epithet गर्भ-पति RAnukr. ; father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv. ; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv. 545 ff. VP. ; also father of त्रि-शिरस् or विश्वरूप ib. ; overpowered by इन्द्र who recovers the सोम [ RV. iii f. ] concealed by him because इन्द्र had killed his son विश्व-रूप TS. ii S3Br. i , v , xii ; regent of the नक्षत्र चित्रा TBr.S3a1n3khGr2. S3a1ntik. VarBr2S. iic , 4 ; of the 5th cycle of Jupiter viii , 23 ; of an eclipse iii , 6 ; त्वष्टुर् आतिथ्य N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. ); a form of the sun MBh. iii , 146 Hariv. 13143 BhP. iii , 6 , 15;name of an आदित्य MBh. i Hariv. BhP. vi , 6 , 37 VP. i , 15 , 130 ; ii , 10 , 16; name of a रुद्र , i , 15 , 122.

वसु N. of the gods (as the " good or bright ones " , esp. of the आदित्यs , मरुत्s , अश्विन्s , इन्द्र , उषस् , रुद्र , वायु , विष्णु , शिव , and कुबेर) RV. AV. MBh. R.; of a partic. class of gods (whose number is usually eight , and whose chief is इन्द्र , later अग्नि and विष्णु ; they form one of the nine गणs or classes enumerated under गण-देवता q.v. ; the eight वसुs were originally personifications , like other Vedic deities , of natural phenomena , and are usually mentioned with the other गणs common in the वेद , viz. the eleven रुद्रs and the twelve आदित्यs , constituting with them and with द्यौस् , " Heaven " , and पृथिवी , " Earth " [or , according to some , with इन्द्र and प्रजा-पति , or , according to others , with the two अश्विन्s] , the thirty-three gods to which reference is frequently made ; the names of the वसुs , according to the विष्णु-पुराण , are , 1. आप [connected with अप् , " water "] ; 2. ध्रुव , " the Pole-star " ; 3. सोम , " the Moon " ; 4. धव or धर ; 5. अनिल , " Wind " ; 6. अनल or पावक , " Fire " ; 7. प्रत्यूष , " the Dawn " ; 8. प्रभास , " Light " ; but their names are variously given ; अहन् , " Day " , being sometimes substituted for 1 ; in their relationship to Fire and Light they appear to belong to Vedic rather than Puranic mythology) RV. &c; a partic. ray of light VP.; a symbolical N. of the number " eight " (वराह-मिहिर 's बृहत्-संहिता)

रुद्र m. " Roarer or Howler " , N. of the god of tempests and father and ruler of the रुद्रs and मरुत्s (in the वेद he is closely connected with इन्द्र and still more with अग्नि , the god of fire , which , as a destroying agent , rages and crackles like the roaring storm , and also with काल or Time the all-consumer , with whom he is afterwards identified ; though generally represented as a destroying deity , whose terrible shafts bring death or disease on men and cattle , he has also the epithet शिव , " benevolent " or " auspicious " , and is even supposed to possess healing powers from his chasing away vapours and purifying the atmosphere ; in the later mythology the word शिव , which does not occur as a name in the वेद , was employed , first as an euphemistic epithet and then as a real name for रुद्र , who lost his special connection with storms and developed into a form of the disintegrating and reintegrating principle ; while a new class of beings , described as eleven [or thirty-three] in number , though still called रुद्रs , took the place of the original रुद्रs or मरुत्s: in VP. i , 7, रुद्र is said to have sprung from ब्रह्मा's forehead , and to have afterwards separated himself into a figure half male and half female , the former portion separating again into the 11 रुद्रs , hence these later रुद्रs are sometimes regarded as inferior manifestations of शिव , and most of their names , which are variously given in the different पुराणs , are also names of शिव ; those of theVa1yuP. are अजैकपाद् , अहिर्-बुध्न्य , हर , निरृत , ईश्वर , भुवन , अङ्गारक , अर्ध-केतु , मृत्यु , सर्प , कपालिन् ; accord. to others the रुद्रs are represented as children of कश्यपand सुरभि or of ब्रह्मा and सुरभि or of भूत and सु-रूपा ; accord. to VP. i , 8, रुद्र is one of the 8 forms of शिव ; elsewhere he is reckoned among the दिक्-पालs as regent of the north-east quarter) RV. &c (cf. RTL. 75 &c )

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-E5xPEsP1A4 (3:29) A recording of RV 10.125, "Devī Suktam"

Sāyaṇa/Wilson translation RV 10.125

10.125.01 I proceed with the Rudras, with the Vasus, with the ādityas, and with the Viśvedevā; I support both Mitra and Varuṇa, Agni and Indra, and the two Aśvins.[Deity Pramātmā: the word, or first of creatures].

10.125.02 I support the foe-destroying Soma, Tvaṣṭā, Pūṣan and Bhaga; I bestow wealth upon the institutor of the rite offering the oblation, deserving of careful protection, pouring forth the libation.

10.125.03 I am the sovereign queen, the collectress of treasures, cognizant (of the Supreme Being), the chief of objects of worship; as such the gods have put me in many places, abiding in manifold conditions, entering into numerous (forms.
10.125.04 He who eats food (eats) through me; he who sees, who breathes, who hears what is spoken, does so through me; those who are ignorant of me perish; hear you who have hearing, I tell that which is deserving of belief.
10.125.05 I verily of myself declare this which is approved of by both gods and men; whomsoever I will, I render formidable, I make him a Brahmā, a r̥ṣi, or a sage. [A Brahman: Brahmā, the creator].

10.125.06 I bend the bow of Rudra, to slay the destructive enemy of the Brāhmaṇa-s, I wage war with (hostile) men. I pervade heaven and earth.

10.125.07 I bring forth the paternal (heaven) upon the brow of this (Supreme Being), my birthplace is in the midst of the waters; from thence I spread through all beings, and touch this heaven with my body.
10.125.08 I breathe forth like the wind giving form to all created worlds; beyond the heaven, beyond this earth (am I), so vast am I in greatness.

Griffith translation RV 10.125

1. I TRAVEL with the Rudras and the Vasus, with the Adityas and AllGods- I wander.
I hold aloft both Varuna and Mitra, Indra and Agni, and the Pair of Asvins.
2 I cherish and sustain highswelling- Soma, and Tvastar I support, Pusan, and Bhaga.
I load with wealth the zealous sdcrificer who pours the juice and offers his oblation
3 I am the Queen, the gathererup- of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.
Thus Gods have stablished me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.
4 Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, each man who sees, brewhes, hears the word
outspoken
They know it not, but yet they dwell beside me. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it.
5 1, verily, myself announce and utter the word that Gods and men alike shall welcome.
I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him a sage, a Rsi, and a Brahman.
6 I bend the bow for Rudra that his arrow may strike and slay the hater of devotion.
I rouse and order battle for the people, and I have penetrated Earth and Heaven.
7 On the worlds' summit I bring forth the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean.
Thence I extend over all existing creatures, and touch even yonder heaven with my forehead.
8 I breathe a strong breath like the wind and tempest, the while I hold together all existence.
Beyond this wide earth and beyond the heavens I have become so mighty in my grandeur.

Reverse side of a two-sided tablets m0478, 0479, 0480. in bas relief. Kneeling adorant carrying a U-shaped rimless pot in front a tree. NOTE: The kneeling motif also occurs on Sit Shamshi bronze.

Three identical Mohenjo-daro tablets, with identical inscriptions. m 478-480.

FS 72 Fig. 108 kol pasar 'tiger open mouth' rebus: kol pasar iron smelter trader's shop' PLUS battuḍu 'worshipper' rebus: pattar 'goldsmith guild' PLUS kuṭi 'tree''water-carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' PLUS dhamkara 'leafless tree' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'.

kāṇā, kannā 'rim, edge' kaṇṭu = rim of a vessel; kaṇṭudiyo = a small earthen vessel kaṇḍa kanka = rim of a water-pot; kankha = rim of a vessel rebus: kanda, kanduka 'trench, furnace'. Rebus: karṇika 'Supercargo'' merchant in charge of cargo of a shipment, helmsman, scribe. Rebus kañiāra 'helmsman' karaṇī, karaṇa 'scribe'.

erga = act of clearing jungle (Kui) [Note image showing two men carrying
uprooted trees] thwarted by a person in the middle with outstretched hands
kūtī = bunch of twigs (Skt.) Rebus: kuṭhi = furnace (Santali) ḍhaṁkhara — m.n. ʻbranch without leaves or fruitʼ (Prakrit) (CDIAL 5524)

Hieroglyph: era female, applied to women only, and generally as a mark of respect, wife; hopon era a daughter; era hopon a man’s family; manjhi era the village chief’s wife; gosae era a female Santal deity; bud.hi era an old woman; era uru wife and children; nabi era a prophetess; diku era a Hindu woman (Santali)
•Rebus: er-r-a = red; eraka = copper (Ka.) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) agasa_le, agasa_li, agasa_lava_d.u = a goldsmith (Te.lex.)

kuTi 'tree' Rebus: kuṭhi = (smelter) furnace (Santali)

heraka = spy (Skt.); eraka, hero = a messenger; a spy (Gujarati); er to look at or for (Pkt.); er uk- to play 'peeping tom' (Ko.) Rebus: erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.) eraka ‘copper’ (Kannada)

kōṭu branch of tree, Rebus: खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.

Hieroglyph: Looking back: krammara 'look back' (Telugu) kamar 'smith, artisan' (Santali)

kola ‘tiger, jackal’ (Kon.); rebus: kol working in iron, blacksmith, ‘alloy of five metals, panchaloha’ (Tamil) kol ‘furnace, forge’ (Kuwi) kolami ‘smithy’ (Telugu)

The narrative on the reverse (a) of the tablet is in three parts: Part 1. Endless knot; Part 2. Text message; Part 3. Worshipper ofering a rimless pot in front of a tree
Part 1. Endless knot (Tablet m478a to m480a) Endless knot hieroglyph: मेढा [ mēḍhā ]'twist, curl' rebus: medha ‘yajña' mẽṛhẽt, 'iron' (Santali) meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.)'; 'copper' (Slavic languages). Together, the two hieroglyphs signify a performer of medhā ‘yajña', acquirer of medhā 'dhanam, wealth', metalworker, ironsmith turner.

m478a FS 34 Fig. 77 Kino tree. generally within a railing or on a platform.

kuṭi 'tree'Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'

bhaṭa 'worshipper' Rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace' baṭa 'iron' (Gujarati) This hieroglyph is a phonetic deterinant of the 'rimless pot': baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada) Rebus: baṭa = a kind of iron (Gujarati) bhaṭa 'a furnace'. Hence, the hieroglyph-multiplex of an adorant with rimless pot signifies: 'iron furnace' bhaTa.

bAraNe ' an offering of food to a demon' (Tulu) Rebus: baran, bharat (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi. Bengali) The narrative of a worshipper offering to a tree is thus interpretable as a smelting of three minerals: copper, zinc and tin.

Numeral four: gaNDa 'four' Rebus: kand 'fire-altar'; Four 'ones': koḍa ‘one’ (Santali) Rebus: koḍ ‘artisan’s workshop'. Thus, the pair of 'four linear strokes PLUS rimless pot' signifies: 'fire-altar (in) artisan's wrkshop'.

Circumscript of two linear strokes for 'body' hieroglyph: dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' koḍa ‘one’(Santali) Rebus: koḍ ‘artisan’s workshop'. Thus, the circumscript signifies 'cast metal workshop'. meD 'body' Rebus: meD 'iron'.

khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ‘turner’ (Gujarati)

The hieroglyph may be a variant of a twisted rope.

dhāu 'rope' rebus: dhāu 'metal' PLUS मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'a curl or snarl; twist in thread' rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’. Thus, metallic ore.

Read on...http://tinyurl.com/y47uur9m

Śiva Sūtrāṇi of Vasugupta -- Cascading commentary by Pavel Celba (2009)

https://www.scribd.com/document/381450336/Shiva-Sutras-With-Cascading-Commentary-Pavel-Celba-Pratyabhijna-School-2009

http://shivatemple.webs.com/ShivaSutrasWithCascadingCommentaryEng.pdf
Shiva Sutras With Cascading Commentary (Pavel Celba, Pratyabhijna School, 2009) by Srini Kalyanaraman on Scribd
P

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Positing a Maritime Meluhha Tin Road. High-tin (33%) bronze mirrors of Ancient India from Harappa to Mahasthangarh

February 24, 2019, 4:42 pm

≫ Next: Konar Sandal marble cylinder seal, wealth-accounting ledger, Indus Script meluhha metalwork catalogue

≪ Previous: Archaeology, of Rāṣṭrī Suktam R̥gveda 10.125 prayer to चैतन्यमात्मा, Śiva Sūtrāṇi, mirrored in documents of Indus Script Cipher of phaḍa, 'public metals manufactory', kammaṭa 'mint', kamaḍha 'penance'

http://tinyurl.com/y6blrmy9

I agree with the analysis of TE Potts (Potts, TF, 1994, Mesopotamia and the East. An archaeological and historical stuydy of foreign relations ca. 3400-2000 BCE, Oxford Committee for Archaeology Monograph 37, Oxford) that the tin for the tin-bronzes of ANE was sourced from the East. I further venture to posit that the tin came from the largest tin belt of the globe, through seafaring merchants of Ancient Far East (the Himalayan river basins of Mekong, Irrawaddy and Salween) mediated by Ancient India trade guilds of 4th to 2nd millennia BCE. See. Maritime Meluhha Tin Road links Far East and Near East -- from Hanoi to Haifa creating the Bronze Age revolution https://tinyurl.com/y9sfw4f8 This hypothesis is a work in process.

A remarkable feature of the high-tin bronze mirrors from 3rd millennium BCE is that they are made using cire-perdue (lost-wax) technique of moulding alloys. The same technique is used on the Indus Script Hypertexts on Dong Son/Karen Bronze drums of Ancient Far East.

A tribute to the inventive genius of the Baluchistan metal-smiths of the period

Piggott, 1961, Prehistoric India, Harmondsworth, p. 112. Female figure with breasts, with arms akimbo. Compares with the handle of bronze mirror found in Barbar temple whish shows a male figure with arms joined on the chest in a worshipful pose.

Bronze mirror handle from Barbar Temple, Bahrain (After illustration by Glob, PV, 1954, Temples at Barbar, Kuml 4:142- 53, fig. 6) Another remarkable figure in bronze is a bird (After fig. 7 ibid.)

Source: https://tidsskrift.dk/kuml/article/download/97163/146495

https://www.scribd.com/document/363092681/Bronzehandtag-til-et-spejl-fra-barbartemlet-pa-Bahrain-MS-Nagaraja-Rao-Kuml-1969-1970-pp-218-220

Kuml: Journal of the Jutland Archaeological Society

Nagaraja Rao notes that this handle resembles a mirror from the Kulli site of Mehi in Baluchistan.

(Stein, A., 1931, An archaeological tour in Gedrosia,Memoirs of ASI 43,: pi.32. Mehi II, 1.2.a; Possehl 1986: 48, Mehi II.1.2.a). These objects are similar to the head of the figure handle in the Mehi example is actually the face of the mirror itself. (Julian Reade, 2013, Indian Ocean in Antiquity, Routledge, p.26). These comments of Julian Reade have to be seen in the context of the artifacts with Indus Script hypertexts discovered in Kulli culture (Mehi). Kulli culture provides indication of working with magnetite, ferrite ore and with alloys of copper with high tin content resulting in the bronze mirrors. At Mehi were found several decorated chlorite vessels, imported from Tepe Yahya and attesting trade contacts with the Eastern Iran.Copper and bronze was known. These are indications that Kulli culture artisans were trade partners with Sarasvati Civilization.

Metallurgy of Zinc, High-tin Bronze and Gold in Indian Antiquity: Methodological Aspects (Sharada Srinivasan, 2016)
Indian Journal of History of Science, 51.1 (2016) 22-32
http://insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol51_2016_1_Art05.pdf

Abstract There are inherent challenges in attempting to explore the trajectory of knowledge production vis-a-vis the use of metals in antiquity. Metallurgical innovations, falling as they would have largely done in the domain of empirical knowledge and expertise, would not necessarily have left a systematic written record in the sense of knowledge production. This enquiry is perhaps even more convoluted in the Indian context where in the first place, there are not many detailed records that have readily come to light concerning mining and metallurgy and in the second place, not much systematic archaeometallurgical research has been undertaken. Nevertheless, this paper attempts to demonstrate the role of archaeometallurgical studies, coupled with ethnoarchaeological studies on continuing artisanal technologies, in such enquiries.The paper also seeks to explore the interplay between functional and cultural imperatives through which one may explain the preferential emergence of certain technologies with respect to debates on knowledge production. It restricts itself to selected case studies providing insights into the archaeometallurgy of high-tin bronzes especially from Iron Age Tamil Nadu, zinc smelting evidence at Zawar, Rajasthan, gold working with respect the Nilgiris, and the high-tin bronze mirror craft of Aranmula, Kerala.

Shoumita Chatterjee, Sabikun Naher and Pranab K. Chattopadhyay , 2015, Mirrors of Ancient India: From Harappa to Mahasthangarh, Published in Puratattva, Volume No 45 (2015) .

aṣṭamangalaka hāra

aṣṭamangalaka hāra depicted on a pillar of a gateway(toran.a) at the stupa of Sanchi, Central India, 1st century BCE. [After VS Agrawala, 1969, Thedeeds of Harsha (being a cultural study of Bāṇa’s Harṣacarita, ed. By PK Agrawala, Varanasi:fig. 62] The hāra or necklace shows a pair of fish signs together with a number of motifsindicating weapons (cakra, paraśu,an:kuśa), including a device that parallels the standard device normally shown in many inscribed objects of SSVC in front of the one-horned bull.

•

(cf. Marshall, J. and Foucher,The Monuments of Sanchi, 3 vols., Callcutta, 1936, repr. 1982, pl. 27).The first necklace has eleven and the second one has thirteen pendants (cf. V.S. Agrawala,1977, Bhāratīya Kalā , Varanasi, p. 169); he notes the eleven pendants as:sun,śukra, padmasara,an:kuśa, vaijayanti, pan:kaja,mīna-mithuna,śrīvatsa, paraśu,

darpaṇa and kamala. "The axe (paraśu) and an:kuśa pendants are common at sites of north India and some oftheir finest specimens from Kausambi are in the collection of Dr. MC Dikshit of Nagpur."(Dhavalikar, M.K., 1965, Sanchi: A cultural Study , Poona, p. 44; loc.cit. Dr.Mohini Verma,1989, Dress and Ornaments in Ancient India: The Maurya and S'un:ga Periods,Varanasi, Indological Book House, p. 125).

Some undisclosed metals (as known to the seven artisan`A0families of Aranmula) are alloyed with copper and tin to cast the mirror in typical clay moulds. The method is the age-old lost-wax process in traditional style after melting the metals in a furnace fitted with a manual blower… Studies by Sharda Srinivasan, a researcher in Archaeometallurgy in the National Institute of Advanced Studies at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and her colleague, discovered the secret of the alloy that Aranmula mirrors were made of — a binary copper-tin alloy with 32-34 per cent tin…. She also noted that the skill of alloying was developed to such perfection by the Aranmula artisans that it matched the pure delta phase of bronze, offering the best possible uniformly-polished surface, and is long lasting."

http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090517/spectrum/main2.htm

"Bronze mirrors preceded the glass mirrors of today. This type of mirror has been found by archaeologists among elite assemblages from various cultures, from Etruscan Italy to China...In the Indus valley civilization, manufacture of bronze mirrors goes back to the time between 2800 and 2500 BCE.(Richard Corson: Fashions in Makeup: From Ancient to Modern Times, 1972)." Sourced from World Heritage Encyclopedia. http://self.gutenberg.org/Article.aspx?Title=bronze_mirrors

"Polished bronze or copper mirrors were made by the Egyptians from 2900 BCE onwards." (Z. Y. Saad: The Excavations at Helwan. Art and Civilization in the First and Second Egyptian Dynasties, University of Oklahoma Press, Oklahoma 1969, p.54)

"A Story from Corea called ‘The Magic Mirror’ tells us that a young peasant went from his village to the capital in order to sell his products and to buy some commodities. Passing a shop-window he was struck by having seen somebody in the window who could not have been anybody else but his twin-brother. He was amazed at this because his brother was living in another town. He stood still and gazed, and now he was sure that it was his twin-brother, because when he smiled at him he smiled back. ‘I must have this magic’, he thought. So he entered the shop and asked whether he could buy this strange thing in which was to be seen his counterpart. The shopkeeper wrapped it up and remarked laughingly: ‘Be careful not to crack it, so that your brother will not get lost’. The peasant took it home, but before he could unpack it to show his family he was called away on urgent business." B. Schweig, 1941, Mirrors, in: Antiquity / Volume 15 / Issue 59 / September 1941, pp 257-268

Some claim that Aranmula Kannadi is made of silver, bronze, copper and tin alloy. Is this comparable to 'speculum metal'?

"In China,bronze mirrors were manufactured from around 2000 BC, some of the earliest bronze and copper examples being produced by the Qijia culture. Mirrors made of other metal mixtures (alloys) such as copper and tin speculum metal may have also been produced in China and India."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror

"Speculum metal is a mixture of around two-thirds copper and one-third tin making a white brittle alloy that can be polished to make a highly reflective surface. It is used primarily to make different kinds of mirrors including early reflecting telescope optical mirrors. Speculum metal can also be used as the metallic coating on glass mirrors (as opposed to silver or aluminium) giving a reflectivity of 68% at 6000 angstroms when evaporated onto the surface...Speculum metal mixtures usually contain two parts copper to one part tin along with a small amount of arsenic, although there are other mixtures containing silver, brass, lead, or zinc. The knowledge of making very hard white high luster metal out of bronze-type high-tin alloys may date back more than 2000 years in China ((Joseph Needham, 1974, Gwer-djen Lu, Science and civilization in China, Volume 5, Cambridge Univ. Press, page 236). although it could also be an invention of western civilizations (The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 64, p. 71)."

The speculum metal mirror from William Herschel's 1.2-meter (49.5-inch) diameter "40-foot telescope", at the Science Museum in London

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculum_metal

“Mirrors had both aesthetic value and magico-religious significance in parts of Asia, as in China and India. Bronze mirrors with figurines on handles are known from ancient Egypt. Flat, circular tanged mirrors were found from Harappan contexts northwest of the Indian subcontinent at Quetta and Harappa in Pakistan (ca. 2000 BCE) and Dholavira in Gujarat, India. These would probably have been made of bronze of low tin content (i.e. < 10% tin)...A unique mirror-making tradition survives at the village of Aranmula, Kerala, southern India. Here, a cast high-tin bronze mirror of 33% tin with highly specular or reflective properties is made which is comparable to, if not better than, modern mercury glass-coated mirrors. The presence of the brittle silvery-white delta phase of bronze is optimized while avoiding the use of lead, which could have dulled the mirror effect... Two unleaded bronze samples of 22% and 26% tin were reported from the Indus Valley site of Mohenjodaro (ca. 2500 BCE), although they might be accidentally alloyed. Although flat bronze mirrors are found from Indus sites such as Quetta, these do not sem to have been analysed and are much more likely to have been of copper or low-tin bronze. However, from the Bhir mound in Taxila, Pakistan, a binary high-tin bronze mirror of 25% tin was uncovered. Thus it is probable that the Aranmula mirror-making process evolved out of longstanding metallurgical traditions prevalent in the Indian subcontinent for the use of bronzes of high-tin content."

http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_093_01_0035_0040_0.pdf

Darpana Sundari, 'mirror beauties' on sculptures
Parvati as Lalita carrying a bronze mirror, with her sons Ganesa and Skanda, Orissa. 11th cent. Now in British Museum. 1872.0701.54

Skilled mirror craft of intermetallic delta high-tin bronze (Cu31Sn8, 32.6% tin) from Aranmula, Kerala (Sha...

Metal casting Traditions South Asia PT Craddock 2014

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Konar Sandal marble cylinder seal, wealth-accounting ledger, Indus Script meluhha metalwork catalogue

February 24, 2019, 8:35 pm

≫ Next: Erroneous report on Mirror in Vedic India by Asko Parpola (2019). Archaeological, linguistic evidence for ārśī 'bronze mirror' of 4th m. BCE

≪ Previous: Positing a Maritime Meluhha Tin Road. High-tin (33%) bronze mirrors of Ancient India from Harappa to Mahasthangarh

http://tinyurl.com/y6sxo4dm

Indus Components in the Iconography of a White Marble Cylinder Seal from Konar Sandal South (Kerman, Iran), a paper by Massimo Vidale and Dennys Frenez, provides a detailed analysis of this seal found at the recently discovered site of Jiroft. Well used, and apparently worn at the wrist, it testifies to the multiple cultural and trade connections between the Indus civilization and its western neighbours. It also suggests many more discoveries and insights into Indus civilization will come from material found at and connected to Jiroft.

The paper is at https://www.harappa.com/…/indus-components-iconography-whit…

The first part of the article summarizes what we know about the Jiroft civilization so far, its apparent origins in the late 5th millennium BCE, how it flourished at the height of the Indus civilization, and the tantalizing facts about connections between the two. Could it have been the ancient nation and state of
Marhashi/Parahshum about which so little is known but which would have been at the cross-roads of so many cultures? What could have been the function of these so-called whorl seals, only found so far here, at Mohenjo-daro, Allahdino and Kalibangan?

Cylinder seal photograph courtesy of Halil Rud Archaeological Project.

Konar Sandal white marble cylinder seal: metalwork repertoire catalogue

Massimo Vidale and Dennys Frenez, 2015, Indus components in the iconography of a white marble cylinder seal from Konar Sandal South (Kerman, Iran) in: South Asian Studies Vol. 31, No. 1, pp.144-154

"This paper presents a detailed analysis of the iconography carved on a cylinder seal found in a metallurgical sitewithin the archaeological complex of Konar Sandal South, near Jiroft, in the Halil river valley of the Kerman province, south-eastern Iran. This seal is made of a whitish marble and even if heavily worn by use it retainstraces of diﬀerent animal figures. These animals represent the translation into local style of a rare but characteristic iconography found in the seal production of the Indus Civilization. The merging into a single seal of diﬀerent animals, some of which clearly belong to the standard animal series of the Indus seals, might have provided theowner with a special authority that allowed him/her to hold diﬀerent administrative functions. Moreover, the discovery at Konar Sandal South of a cylinder seal bearing an Indus-related iconography might further testify to the direct interest of Indus merchants and probably craftsmen in trade exchanges with a major early urban site in south-eastern Iran."https://www.academia.edu/11850285/Indus_Components_in_the_Iconography_of_a_White_Marble_Cylinder_Seal_from_Konar_Sandal_South_Kerman_Iran_

Map showing the main sites of Middle Asia in the third millennium BC (whorls indicate the presence of Indus and Indus-likeseals bearing multiple heads of diﬀerent animals arranged in whirl-like motif).

https://www.facebook.com/AncientIndus/photos/a.10150315616924846/10157018791559846/?type=3&theater

Drawing of the animals carved on the cylinder seal found at Konar Sandal South.

"The cylinder seal published by Pittman is 23.97 mm long and has a maximum diameter at the base of 12.42mm. It is made of whitish marble with pale brown shadows...This seal has a zebu depicted in front of a small round object...The main subject of this seal and its iconographic arrangement are clearly Indus, but the engraving technique based on drill-holes links it to the copper seal from Konar Sandal South and with other stamp seals found in Oman, further stressing the intense cultural interactions that occurred between Eastern Arabia, Iran and the Indus Valley during the second half of the third millennium BCE...The second creature is an Indus unicorn...Image 3.3...probably belong to the head of an Indus buffalo...Image 3.4...may represent the long ears of a large, evidently disproportionate, hare or rabbit...Image 3.5...(maybe) a markhor wild goat (Capra folconeri) or a blackbuck antelope (Antilope cervicapra)...Considered all together, these animals may symbolize something more than a simple list or procession, representing instead the physical disembodiment of a concept represented on two similar Indus whirl-like images on stamp seals...In general, the Halil Rud animal imagery more directly linked to the iconography of the Indus civilization suggests a precise knowledge of very important eastern symbols, but also a strategic will of subverting their original implications, adapting them to the local style and tradition. More likely, the cylinder seal found at Konar Sandal South bears the linear translation of a similar rotatory template...The uncommon iconographies with multiple animal heads present in Indus seals production are still a mystery, but the most reasonable addumption is that animals and fantastic creatures represented different identities, social roles, and/or social segment of the developing universe...The white marble cylinder seal on study was found inthe excavation of Trench IX, a large trench (15 x 20 m)dug in a low mound c. 500 m south-east of Konar Sandal South. In the same area, eight furnaces built onceramic jars operated on massive mud-bricks platforms.As stated by the excavator: Close to the furnaces, clear evidence of craft activitywas found including nearly five kilos of copper slag,fragments of ingots, and open molds. In addition, a number of copper and bronze objects and tools suchas chisels, stone vessels in marble, and steatite/chlorite,microlithic tools, and a large number of clay objects possibly connected with pyrotechnical activities havealso been recovered. It was evidently a neighbourhood occupied by a com-munity specialized in roasting and smelting copper ores and casting various types of artefacts in moulds and thorough lost-wax processes...The presence of a cylinder sealbearing a distinctive even if rare – Indus iconographysupports the hypothesis of a specific interest and actualfrequentation of Indus merchants and craftsmen, or of families maintaining formal ties with the Indus communities, in the copper ore deposits of the Kerman-Halilriver region. (Note: Originally put forward in S. Ashtana, 'Harappans interest in Kirman', Man and Environment, 3 (1979), 55-60. See also S. Ashtana, 'Harappan trade in metals and minerals: a regional approach, in Harappan civilization: a recent perspective, ed. by GL Possehl, 2nd edn, New Delhi, Oxford & IBH, 1993, pp. 271-86)."

Hieroglyph: पोळ (p. 534) [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large (Marathi)

Rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite' (metal)

Hieroglyph: koḍiyum ‘young bull’ (G.) koḍ ’horn’ (Kuwi) koṭiyum ‘rings on neck; a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal’ (Gujarati.) खोंडा [khōṇḍā] m A कांबळा of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood (Marathi). kõdā ‘to turn in a lathe’(B.)खोंड (p. 216) [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. कोंडवाड [ kōṇḍavāḍa ] n f C (कोंडणें & वाडा) A pen or fold for cattle. Rebus: কুঁদ (p. 0238) [ kun̐da ] n a (turner's) lathe kundAr 'workshop of metals turner (mixer of metals to create alloys) or artisan working in a smithy/forge' -- 'a brass-worker, engraver, turner'. कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi) kũdār ‘turner, brass-worker’(Bengali) খোদকার [ khōdakāra ] n an engraver; a carver (Oriya).

Hieroglyph: combined animals: सांगड (p. 840) [ sāṅgaḍa f A body formed of two or more (fruits, animals, men) linked or joined together. (Marathi)

Hieroglyph multiplex normally shown in front of the one-horned young bull: sãghāṛɔ 'lathe' (Gujarati. Desi). Rebus: sanghāṭa 'collection, binding together, alloying'.

Rebus: Vajra Sanghāta 'binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue. Vajra sanghāta 'alloying, binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue. The context is clearly metallic mixing practised on a fire-altar, a furnace/smelter.

Image result for indus hieroglyphs lathe portable furnace

Hieroglyph: sãghāṛɔ 'lathe' (Gujarati. Desi) sangaḍa ‘lathe’ (Marathi) Rebus: जांगड [jāngaḍ] ‘a tally of products delivered into the warehouse ‘for approval’ (Marathi). Rebus: koḍ ’artisan’s workshop’ (Kuwi) cf. खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.(Marathi) sãgaḍ, sãghāṛɔ, sangāṭh (part of turner's apparatus, lathe, collection of materials) in languages (Marathi, Gujarati, Kashmiri)

Hieroglyph: Ku. N. rã̄go ʻ buffalo bull ʼ(CDIAL 10559). Rebus: ranku 'tin' (Santali)

Hieroglyph: miṇḍāl markhor (Tor.wali) meḍho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120) mēṇḍha2 m. ʻ ram ʼ, °aka -- , mēṇḍa -- 4, miṇḍha -- 2, °aka -- , mēṭha -- 2, mēṇḍhra -- , mēḍhra -- 2, °aka -- m. lex. 2. *mēṇṭha- (mēṭha -- m. lex.). 3. *mējjha -- . [r -- forms (which are not attested in NIA.) are due to further sanskritization of a loan -- word prob. of Austro -- as. origin (EWA ii 682 with lit.) and perh. related to the group s.v. bhēḍra -- ] 1. Pa. meṇḍa -- m. ʻ ram ʼ, °aka -- ʻ made of a ram's horn (e.g. a bow) ʼ; Pk. meḍḍha -- , meṁḍha -- (°ḍhī -- f.), °ṁḍa -- , miṁḍha -- (°dhiā -- f.), °aga -- m. ʻ ram ʼ, Dm. Gaw. miṇ Kal.rumb. amŕn/aŕə ʻ sheep ʼ (a -- ?); Bshk. mināˊl ʻ ram ʼ; Tor. miṇḍ ʻ ram ʼ, miṇḍāˊl ʻ markhor ʼ; Chil. mindh*ll ʻ ram ʼ AO xviii 244 (dh!), Sv. yēṛo -- miṇ; Phal. miṇḍ, miṇ ʻ ram ʼ, miṇḍṓl m. ʻ yearling lamb, gimmer ʼ; P. mẽḍhā m.,°ḍhī f., ludh. mīḍḍhā, mī˜ḍhā m.; N. meṛho, meṛo ʻ ram for sacrifice ʼ; A. mersāg ʻ ram ʼ ( -- sāg < *chāgya -- ?), B. meṛā m., °ṛi f., Or. meṇḍhā, °ḍā m., °ḍhi f., H. meṛh, meṛhā, mẽḍhā m., G. mẽḍhɔ, M.mẽḍhā m., Si. mäḍayā. 2. Pk. meṁṭhī -- f. ʻ sheep ʼ; H. meṭhā m. ʻ ram ʼ.3. H. mejhukā m. ʻ ram ʼ. A. also mer (phonet. mer) ʻ ram ʼ (CDIAL 10310)

Rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Gujarati) meḍ iron (Ho.) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda)

Hieroglyph: goat: Ka. mēke she-goat; mē the bleating of sheep or goats. Te. mē̃ka, mēka goat. Kol. me·ke id. Nk. mēke id. Pa. mēva, (S.) mēya she-goat. Ga. (Oll.) mēge, (S.) mēge goat. Go. (M) mekā, (Ko.) mēkaid. ? Kur. mēxnā (mīxyas) to call, call after loudly, hail. Malt. méqe to bleat. [Te. mr̤ēka (so correct) is of unknown meaning. Br. mēḻẖ is without etymology; see MBE 1980a.] / Cf. Skt. (lex.) meka- goat. (DEDR 5087) Rebus: milakkhu 'copper' (Pali)

https://www.scribd.com/doc/273290269/Indus-Components-in-the-Iconography-of-a-White-Marble-Cylinder-Seal-from-Konar-Sandal-South-Kerman-Iran-Massimo-Vidalea-Dennys-Frenez-South-Asi

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Erroneous report on Mirror in Vedic India by Asko Parpola (2019). Archaeological, linguistic evidence for ārśī 'bronze mirror' of 4th m. BCE

March 1, 2019, 9:30 pm

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https://tinyurl.com/y4q4y9od

Prof Asko Parpola (Helsinki University) argues that the mirror was not known in Vedic India until it was introduced by the Persians in 600 BCE. offering a histo.basis to study the Vedic literature. Studia Orientalia Electronica vol. 7 (2019): 1-29.

https://journal.fi/store/issue/view/5490

This argument of Asko Parpola is countered in this monograph.

There are two Indo-European root words which link to the semantics of 'mirror': der(ep)- 'to see, mirror'; drych m. (*dr̥ksos) sight, mirror'. Cognate Meluhha pronunciation variants include:

Set 1: Pa. dappana -- m. ʻ mirror ʼ, Pk. dappaṇa -- m.; A. dāpan ʻ mirror ʼ, dāpani ʻ a bellmetal utensil used by groom in marriage ceremony ʼ; Si. dapaṇa, däp˚ ʻmirrorʼ. Addenda: darpaṇa -- : A. also spel. dāpon ʻ mirror ʼ.

Set 2: Pa. ādāsa -- , ˚aka -- m., Pk. ādaṁsa -- , ˚aga -- , āyaṁsa -- , ˚aga -- , āyāsa -- ; -- MIA. *ādariśa -- : Pk. ādarisa -- , āya˚ m.; Paš. rešó, Shum. reṣe (ṣ!), S. āhirī f., L. ārhī, a˚ f., WPah. jaun. ārśī

Archaeological evidence attests the production of high-tin-bronze mirrors, using cire perdue (lost-wax casting) technique in many parts of Eurasia including Sarasvati Civiization, dated to ca. 4th millennium BCE.

It is extraordinary that Asko Parpola makes a fallacious statement that the mirror was not known in Vedic India until it was introduced by the Persians in 600 BCE. The existence of a bronze mirror is attested from Balochistan and from sites such as Rakhigarhi and Dholavira.

Bronze mirror. Rakhigarhi.

Bronze mirror. Dholavira. Courtesy: ASI

http://akshardhoolstories.blogspot.com/p/amazing-world-of-dholavira.html

Attested techniques of Aranmula high-tin-bronze mirror can certainly be traced to the Sarasvati Civilization tradition of creating metal alloys. In this context, I cite the work of Jainagesh Sekhar, et al, 2015, Ancient Metal Mirror Alloy Revisited: Quasicrystalline Nanoparticles Observed in JOM: the journal of the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 67(12) · July 2015

DOI: 10.1007/s11837-015-1524-3 Ta. kaṇṇāṭi, kaṇṇaṭi mirror of metal or glass, glass things, spectacles (< kaṇ eye + āṭi mirror, crystal). Ma. kaṇṇāṭimirror, glass; kaṇṇaṭa spectacles. To. koṇoḍy mirror, spectacles. Ka. kannaḍi, kanaḍi mirror, pane of glass, lens of spectacles, pair of spectacles; kanaḍaka pair of spectacles; kannaḍisu to mirror, appear. Koḍ. kannaḍi glass, mirror. Tu. kaṇṇaḍi, kannaḍi glass, mirror, pair of spectacles; kannaḍaka pair of spectacles, eye-glass. (DEDR 1182).

See: Interactions between Meluhha metalsmiths and Barbar temple artisans evidenced by high-tin bronze mirror handles https://tinyurl.com/y6weq27o This link provides evidence of a bronze mirror discovered in Barbar temple, concordant with Kulli culture.The Barbar Temple is an archaeological site located in the village of Barbar, Bahrain, and considered to be part of the Dilmun culture. The most recent of the three Barbar temples was rediscovered by a Danish archaeological team in 1954. A further two temples were discovered on the site with the oldest dating back to 3000 BCE.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbar_Temple
A tribute to the inventive genius of the Baluchistan metal-smiths of the period

Piggott, 1961, Prehistoric India, Harmondsworth, p. 112. Female figure with breasts, with arms akimbo. Compares with the handle of bronze mirror found in Barbar temple whish shows a male figure with arms joined on the chest in a worshipful pose.

Nagaraja Rao notes that this handle resembles a mirror from the Kulli site of Mehi in Baluchistan.

(Stein, A., 1931, An archaeological tour in Gedrosia,Memoirs of ASI 43,: pi.32. Mehi II, 1.2.a; Possehl 1986: 48, Mehi II.1.2.a). These objects are similar to the head of the figure handle in the Mehi example is actually the face of the mirror itself. (Julian Reade, 2013, Indian Ocean in Antiquity, Routledge, p.26). These comments of Julian Reade have to be seen in the context of the artifacts with Indus Script hypertexts discovered in Kulli culture (Mehi). Kulli culture provides indication of working with magnetite, ferrite ore and with alloys of copper with high tin content resulting in the bronze mirrors. At Mehi were found several decorated chlorite vessels, imported from Tepe Yahya and attesting trade contacts with the Eastern Iran. Copper and bronze was known. These are indications that Kulli culture artisans were trade partners with Sarasvati Civilization.

Santali dictionary.

अरसा arasā m ( H) A mirror or looking-glass. Ex. तव्याचा जातां बुरसा ॥ मग तोचि होय सहज अ0 ॥ अरशापुढें कोळसा Used where a thing remarkably foul, vile, base, or bad is compared with a thing remarkably bright, pure, fine, or good. अर- शा सारखा Bright and clear as a mirror;--used lit. fig. of houses, rooms, accounts, handwriting, business. अरशासारखें तोंड-मुख-चेहरा A clear complexion or beautiful countenance. (Marathi) आ-दर्श a looking-glass , mirror S3Br. Br2A1rUp. MBh.

R. &c दर्पण m. (g. नन्द्य्-ादि) " causing vanity " , a mirror Hariv. 8317 R. ii S3ak.

&c ifc. " Mirror " (in names of works) e.g. आतङ्क- , दान- , साहित्य- (Monier-Williams) dárpaṇa m. ʻ mirror ʼ Hariv. [√dr̥p?]Pa. dappana -- m. ʻ mirror ʼ, Pk. dappaṇa -- m.; A. dāpan ʻ mirror ʼ, dāpani ʻ a bellmetal utensil used by groom in marriage ceremony ʼ; Si. dapaṇa, däp˚ ʻmirrorʼ. Addenda: darpaṇa -- : A. also spel. dāpon ʻ mirror ʼ.(CDIAL 6201) آرسئِي ār-saʿī, s.f. (6th) (HI. ارسي) A mirror, a small mirror for the thumb worn by women. Sing. and Pl.; آهنه āhinaʿh, s.f. (3rd) A mirror, a looking- glass. Pl. يْ ey.See آهينه and آئينه (Pashto) aina ऐन

or öna आ॑न (=) आदर्शःm. a mirror, a looking-glass (Śiv. 500, 558, 1547). K.Pr. spells this word āīnah, transliterating the Pers. . -dör^ü -दा॑रू॒ । आदर्शकवाटः a door ornamented with mirrors. -gor^u -ग॑रु॒ । दर्पणसम्पादकः m. a mirror-maker; a seller of mirrors. -khünḍ^ü -ख॑ण्डू॒ । आदर्शखण्डः f. a piece of a mirror. -khạp^üṭ^ü -ख॑प॒॑टू॒ । सूक्ष्मतुच्छ आदर्शः f. a small mirror, of no value or use. -khôṭ^u -खोँटु॒ । आदर्शपिधानम् m. a mirror-cover, or mirror-case. -phuṭ^u -फुटू॒ । भग्नलघुदर्पणः f. a broken piece of looking-glass. -wöj^ü -वा॑जू॒ । सादर्शोर्मिका f. a kind of finger-ring, fitted with a tiny mirror. -zömpāna -ज़ा॑म्पान । आदर्शमयशिबिका m. a palanquin, the doors and other parts of which are made of mirrors of glass, crystal, or the like; hence, met., a very fragile conveyance.(Kashmiri)

Root / lemma: der(ep)-

English meaning: to see, *mirror

German meaning: `sehen'ö

Material: Old Indian dárpana- m. `mirror'; gr. δρωπάζειν, δρώπτειν `see' (with lengthened grade 2. syllableöö).

Note:

The Root / lemma: der(ep)- : `to see, *mirror' could have derived from Root / lemma: derbh- : `to wind, put together, *scratch, scrape, rub, polish'

References: WP. I 803; to forms -ep- compare Kuiper Nasalpras. 60 f.

See also: compare also δράω `sehe' and derk̂-`see'.

Page(s): 212

drych m. (*dr̥ksos) `sight, mirror' Page 213

https://indo-european.info/indoeuropean.html

ādarśá m. ʻ mirror ʼ ŚBr., ˚aka -- m. R. [√dr̥ś] Pa. ādāsa -- , ˚aka -- m., Pk. ādaṁsa -- , ˚aga -- , āyaṁsa -- , ˚aga -- , āyāsa -- ; -- MIA. *ādariśa -- : Pk. ādarisa -- , āya˚ m.; Paš. rešó, Shum. reṣe (ṣ!), S. āhirī f., L. ārhī, a˚ f., WPah. jaun. ārśī, Ku. N. ārsi; A. ārhi ʻ likeness ʼ; B. ārsi ʻ mirror ʼ (→ A. ārsi), Or. ārisi, ˚asi, Bhoj. Aw. lakh. ārasī, H. ārsī f.; OG. ārīsaü (< MIA. *āarissa-- ?), G. ārīsɔ, ar˚, ārsɔ m. ʻ large mirror ʼ, ārsī f. ʻ small do. ʼ, (→)P. ārsī f., S. ārisī, ārsī f.); M. ārsā, ar˚ m. ʻ small mirror ʼ, ārśī, ar˚ f. ʻ mirror ʼ.Addenda: ādarśá -- : S.kcch. ārīso m. ʻmirrorʼ, WPah.kṭg. (kc.) arśu m., J. ārśu.(CDIAL 1143) Ādāsa [Sk. ādarśa, ā + dṛś, P. dass, of dassati¹ 2] a mir- ror Vin ii.107; D i.7, 11 (˚pañha mirror -- questioning, cp. DA i.97: "ādāse devataŋ otaretvā pañha -- pucchanaŋ"), 80; ii.93 (dhamna^ɔ -- ādāsaŋ nāma dhamma -- pariyāyaŋ desessāmi); S v.357 (id.); A v.92, 97 sq., 103; J i.504; Dhs 617 (˚maṇḍala); Vism 591 (in simile); KhA 50 (˚daṇḍa) 237; DhA i.226. -- tala the surface of the mirror, in similes at Vism 450, 456, 489(Pali) Ta. attam mirror (< Te.). Te. addamu mirror, pane of lass. Ga. (S.3) addam mirror. Go. (Ko.) addam id (Voc. 49). Konḍa adam id. Kuwi(F.) ademi id. / Cf. Pkt. addāa- mirror. (DEDR 147)

INDUS CULTURE, c. 2000-1000 BC, bronze mirror, 104mm dia., round, slightly dished, loop rivetted on on one side, hole for another rivet on the other, bull's eyes border on convex side, from Baluchistan,

INDUS or later, c. 1800-500 BC, bronze mirror, 93mm diameter, from Mehargarh, Balochistan, thin, corroded, bent.

INDUS CULTURE, c. 2000-1000 BC, bronze spoon or mirror, 85mm dia., 22x13mm tab for handle pierced with 2 holes, slightly dished ~4mm deep, from Loralai, cracked, tiny hole.

http://www.anythinganywhere.com/commerce/relic/pak-indus-bead.html

British Museum. Bronze mirror. ca. 300 BCE.
https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/arth-2300-study-guide-2014-15-smith/deck/14134529

Sources of tin from Ancient Far East, the largest tin belt of the globe created the Tin-Bronze revolution

Lloyd R. Weeks presents a detailed and cogently argued thesis that tin bronzes of the third and second millennia in the early metallurgy of Persian Gulf points to sources of tin from the East. He posits possible sources from north and east in Afghanistan or Central Asia. However, he fails to resolve the archaeological fact that not many tin-bronzes have been found in Central Asia where there is predominant presence of tin-bronzes in sites such as Tell Abraq (Persian Gulf). (Weeks, Lloyd R., 2003,Early metallurgy of the Persian Gulf, Boston, Brill Academic Publishers Embedded for ready reference.)

https://www.scribd.com/document/363093182/Early-Metallurgy-of-the-Persian-Gulf-Lloyd-R-Weeks-2003

I agree with the analysis of TE Potts (Potts, TF, 1994, Mesopotamia and the East. An archaeological and historical stuydy of foreign relations ca. 3400-2000 BCE, Oxford Committee for Archaeology Monograph 37, Oxford) that the tin for the tin-bronzes of ANE was sourced from the East. I further venture to posit that the tin came from the largest tin belt of the globe, through seafaring merchants of Ancient Far East (the Himalayan river basins of Mekong, Irrawaddy and Salween) mediated by Ancient India trade guilds of 4th to 2nd millennia BCE. See. Maritime Meluhha Tin Road links Far East and Near East -- from Hanoi to Haifa creating the Bronze Age revolution https://tinyurl.com/y9sfw4f8 This hypothesis is a work in process.

Here is a small argument about the high tin-bronze of mirrors found in Barbar temple and in Sarasvati civilization areas mediated by the brilliant metalwmithy work of artisans from Mehi of Kulli Culture.

A bronze mirror is among the aṣṭamangala-s अष्ट-मङ्गलम् [अष्ट- गुणितं मङ्गलं शा. क. त.] a collection of eight auspicious things; according to some they are:-- मृगराजो वृषो नागः कलशो व्यञ्जनं तथा । वैजयन्ती तथा भेरी दीप इत्यष्टमङ्गलम् ॥ according to others लोके$स्मिन्मङ्गलान्यष्टौ ब्राह्मणो गौर्हुताशनः । हिरण्यं सर्पि- रादित्य आपो राजा तथाष्टमः ॥

Aranmuḷa metalwork by artisans are exemplified in high tin-bronze mirrors produced by Vishwakarma

വിശ്വകർമ്മജർ Using the cire perdue or lost-wax casting technique, a Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization tradition continues in a village of Kerala, Aranmula, by Visvakarma sthapatis who make high-tin bronze mirrors which are patented as Geographical Indicators and called āṟanmuḷakkaṇṇāṭi.

A tribute to the inventive genius of the Baluchistan metal-smiths of the period

Bronze mirror handle from Barbar Temple, Bahrain (After illustration by Glob, PV, 1954, Temples at Barbar, Kuml 4:142- 53, fig. 6) Another remarkable figure in bronze is a bird (After fig. 7 ibid.)

Source: https://tidsskrift.dk/kuml/article/download/97163/146495

https://www.scribd.com/document/363092681/Bronzehandtag-til-et-spejl-fra-barbartemlet-pa-Bahrain-MS-Nagaraja-Rao-Kuml-1969-1970-pp-218-220

Kuml: Journal of the Jutland Archaeological Society

Nagaraja Rao notes that this handle resembles a mirror from the Kulli site of Mehi in Baluchistan.

(Stein, A., 1931, An archaeological tour in Gedrosia,Memoirs of ASI 43,: pi.32. Mehi II, 1.2.a; Possehl 1986: 48, Mehi II.1.2.a). These objects are similar to the head of the figure handle in the Mehi example is actually the face of the mirror itself. (Julian Reade, 2013, Indian Ocean in Antiquity, Routledge, p.26). These comments of Julian Reade have to be seen in the context of the artifacts with Indus Script hypertexts discovered in Kulli culture (Mehi). Kulli culture provides indication of working with magnetite, ferrite ore and with alloys of copper with high tin content resulting in the bronze mirrors. At Mehi were found several decorated chlorite vessels, imported from Tepe Yahya and attesting trade contacts with the Eastern Iran.^[5]Copper and bronze was known. These are indications that Kulli culture artisans were trade partners with Sarasvati Civilization.

Source:

Interactions between Meluhha metalsmiths and Barbar temple artisans evidenced by high-tin bronze mirror handles

https://tinyurl.com/y6weq27o

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280309195_Ancient_Metal_Mirror_Alloy_Revisited_Quasicrystalline_Nanoparticles_Observed

Metal mirror in casing

Optical micrograph revealing the microstructure to be composed of features at two different length scales: larger cells/dendrites with feature size > 70 nm (boundaries indicated by short arrows), and smaller rosette-shaped dendrites (centers indicatd y long arrows) contained within the larger features.

Ancient Metal Mirror Alloy Revisited: Quasicrystalline Nanoparticles Observed

Article (PDF Available) in JOM: the journal of the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 67(12) · July 2015 with 204 Reads

DOI: 10.1007/s11837-015-1524-3 Jainagesh Sekhar, Srinivas Mantri, S. Yamjala, Sabyasachi Saha

This article presents, for the first time, evidence of nanocrystalline structure, through direct transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations, in a Cu- 32 wt.% Sn alloy that has been made by an age-old, uniquely crafted casting process. This alloy has been used as a metal mirror for centuries. The TEM images also reveal five-sided projections of nano-particles. The convergent beam nano-diffraction patterns obtained from the nano-particles point to the nanophase being quasicrystalline, a feature that has never before been reported for a copper alloy, although there have been reports of the presence of icosahedral ‘clusters’ within large unit cell intermetallic phases. This observation has been substantiated by x-ray diffraction, wherein the observed peaks could be indexed to an icosahedral quasi-crystalline phase. The mirror alloy casting has been valued for its high hardness and high reflectance properties, both of which result from its unique internal microstructure that include nano-grains as well as quasi-crystallinity. We further postulate that this microstructure is a consequence of the raw materials used and the manufacturing process, including the choice of mold material. While the alloy consists primarily of copper and tin, impurity elements such as zinc, iron, sulfur, aluminum and nickel are also present, in individual amounts not exceeding one wt.%. It is believed that these trace impurities could have influenced the microstructure and, consequently, the properties of the metal mirror alloy.

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Subhash Kak: ‘It is wrong to assume that consciousness is just a computation’

March 2, 2019, 2:56 am

≫ Next: Innovation gave ancient India immense economic advantage -- Rajeev Srinivasan

≪ Previous: Erroneous report on Mirror in Vedic India by Asko Parpola (2019). Archaeological, linguistic evidence for ārśī 'bronze mirror' of 4th m. BCE

Subhash Kak says the absence of awareness makes AI machines a bit less of an existential threat. Photo courtesy: Subhash Kak

Subhash Kak: ‘It is wrong to assume that consciousness is just a computation’

Updated: 01 Mar 2019, 01:33 PM ISTNipa Charagi

The curriculum needs to move away from rote learning to critical thinking to deal with the AI challenge
Each generation needs to reinvent itself and that cannot be done by mimicking other societies

Subhash Kak, who was recently awarded the Padma Shri for science & engineering-technology, says India needs to move from rote learning to critical thinking. Each generation needs to reinvent itself, says the Regents professor emeritus, Oklahoma State University, US, whose research covers the fields of neural networks, cryptography and quantum computing.

Kak, who has written 20 books, including six books of poems, says what sets humans apart from intelligent machines is awareness, and it is “wrong to assume that consciousness is just a computation".

“My research has led me through various pathways, some of which touch on ancient wisdoms and others on modern science," writes Kak, who is also a Vedic scholar, in his book The Circle Of Memory: An Autobiography (2016).

In an email interview, Kak, who is on the Prime Minister’s science, technology and innovation advisory council, says: “As a scientist, I have worked on the problems of foundations and I took the same inquisitiveness to explore the Vedic world and I discovered that at its heart it is deeply scientific. It speaks of the objective sciences, like physics, chemistry, medicine and so on, and a separate science of consciousness." He says that while ancient Indians did not clone babies, they did have the most advanced logic and mathematics of their time. Edited excerpts:

Are we entering an inflection point, where machines will be able to take decisions and self-learn? In that context, what will the future look like?

Machines are already taking decisions in pattern-recognition applications, such as machine trading and auto-pilot flying an aeroplane. They can also self-learn once the parameters of the application have been defined. Indeed, AlphaGo, the computer that defeated the world champion at Go, a strategy game more complex than chess, honed its game by playing against itself.

What is changing now is the breadth and scope of applications, like cars that self-drive on crowded roads. Since computers are more reliable than humans, it is inevitable that their use will only increase. There are also unprecedented dangers of thought control using AI technologies. For instance, AI-designed bots can spread false stories and do it in a manner that pushes out real news, and public opinion can be manipulated.

A lot of jobs will become redundant. What kind of churning would this involve in the education system, especially in India?

India faces a huge challenge regarding the quality of its education. India has some excellent schools and colleges but not enough of them, so there is a huge skills shortfall. The other aspect of this is how students are taught in classrooms. The curriculum needs to move away from rote learning to critical thinking. Educators have long been aware of it but not enough has been done to bring about qualitative change. Education is of paramount importance to deal with the AI challenge because the nation will have to create new kinds of jobs in place of others that have become redundant due to automation technology.

Countries like South Korea and Japan are said to be the most prepared for automation. How do you think India fares in this regard?

Yes, South Korea and Japan, as well as China, are far ahead of India in the field of automation. But given that the Indian economy has momentum at this time, the gap need not be too much of a handicap if right investments are made in AI technologies. India also has the advantage that much more needs to be done here to fix its infrastructure, so (there is) potentially more work for local companies.

Will future computers be able to mimic the human mind?

Computers will be able to emulate human cognition, which means that they will be able to match and surpass routine human cognitive operations. But in my view they will not be able to mimic the human mind. That is, they will not have awareness.

From an economic point of view, the absence of awareness does not change the picture related to jobs loss, but it makes AI machines a bit less of an existential threat. If machines were to become aware, they would surely do away with humans. Although I believe this will not happen, there are many scientists and engineers who are sure machines will become conscious. They are wrong to assume that consciousness is just a computation.

Should AI be regulated?

If you really think of it, AI is nothing but machine-based pattern recognition. Once one grasps this idea, it is clear that regulating AI does not make sense. However, there could be situations where the risks of using AI are high and society will have to grapple with the issue. For example, should a robot soldier be allowed to pull the trigger when there is a chance that civilians may be killed? Or should the computer on a drone be allowed to shoot or bomb based on stored algorithms?

Some regulation will be necessary to determine where AI could be used and who would be liable when things go wrong.

You emphasize the need for development of the science of consciousness. What do you mean by that?

Consciousness is awareness and all indications are that it cannot be explained by normal science. Still there can be deeper understanding of the phenomenon through fields such as physics, computer science, neuroscience. For example, it has been discovered that there is almost a half-a-second lag between the time of the decision in the neural circuitry of the brain and the conscious awareness of that in the individual’s mind. This is a mystery that needs further elucidation. There are also questions, such as if consciousness is not a material property, how does it interact with the brain, and how does freedom emerge in a world governed by scientific laws?

How does neuroscience align with Vedic wisdom?

Let me take just the question of the structure of the human mind. The Vedic view is that cognitive centres are independent, and it is in that sense that they hold up the inner sky of the mind. The independence of these centres has been established in neuroscience by results, such as that in certain brain injuries a person can lose the ability to read without losing the ability to write! This is called alexia without agraphia.

You say Indians are notoriously ignorant about the past, and that as much as you see into the future, you have to look into the past too....

There is the story of two brothers who were each given an old heavy shawl by their mother on her deathbed. One of them gave the shawl away to a beggar, for he didn’t like its feel and look, but the other, upon careful examination, discovered it had little diamonds sewn into it, which made him wealthy.

The past is like that shawl. It provides insights for skilful navigation through the unfolding present. But it needs work to find those diamonds that are hidden in its folds. Each generation needs to reinvent itself and that cannot be done by mimicking other societies. India will not know where to go by copying others; it needs to find its own way and for that it needs to know the past, not to obsess over it but to make peace with it.

There should be no confusing of poetic metaphors with facts. Ancient Indians did not clone babies or have aeroplanes, but they did indeed have plastic surgery and the most advanced physics, logic, and mathematics of their times. A course on the history of Indian science as a part of the school curriculum should address this problem.

You are a scientist, a Vedic scholar, a poet. How do these worlds come together?

In the West, C.P. Snow spoke of two cultures: one of the arts and poetry and the other of the sciences, and this division is seen in the way people live out their lives, choosing one or the other. I don’t believe in this division, for all creativity, whether scientific or artistic, comes from the same place in the heart.

https://www.livemint.com/mint-lounge/features/subhash-kak-it-is-wrong-to-assume-that-consciousness-is-just-a-computation-1551423620368.html

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Innovation gave ancient India immense economic advantage -- Rajeev Srinivasan

March 2, 2019, 4:16 am

≫ Next: आ- √दृश् sg.perf.pass. used in R̥gveda 10.111.7 to mean 'mirrored'. Asko Parpola has to explain this expression in the context of Veda texts attesting 'mirroring'

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Rajeev Srinivasan

Rajeev Srinivasan worked at Bell Labs and in Silicon Valley for many years. He has taught innovation at several IIMs and writes widely on the impact of technology on society

The Aranmula mirror, an ancient metallurgical marvel
Keralaâs uru boat is based on a millennia-old design

Kerala’s uru boat is based on a millennia-old design

Innovation gave ancient India immense economic advantage

20 July 2018

IT IS A TRUISM that innovation is a buzzword and everyone wants it. But why? There is a single measure for innovation: what is the value it creates for society at large, and perhaps incidentally, for individuals and firms? Let us apply this metric to things of the past few decades that are accepted as highly innovative: the computer, certain drugs and medical procedures, the jet engine, the ocean-going container, the smartphone, search engines, social media, e-commerce, space exploration, air-conditioning and the internet. Of course, that is not a comprehensive list of innovations, merely a random one.

Do these things create value? Apparently, they do. Look at the current market valuation of companies like Apple, Alphabet, Amazon, Alibaba, Baidu, Microsoft, Tencent, etcetera. Now look at their offerings. Clearly, people like what these firms have created for them. In an earlier era, companies were appreciated for advances in telecommunications (AT&T), electrical engineering (GE) and oil (Exxon). Hard numbers in terms of revenues, profits and market capitalisation are good indicators of the value generated by innovation.

What is the value of India’s historical innovations? Arguably, Indians were highly innovative, as there are numerous examples of individual innovation. This is so not only with specific ideas, but also in the very generation of knowledge (perhaps the field of epistemology itself); we had a model wherein knowledge was created for the common good. That is, as soon as someone invented or discovered something, it was put in the public domain (and the creator might have been funded by a king or a temple while he laboured away). Thus, we do not know the actual creator of one of the greatest inventions of all time, the decimal notation with zero. It is believed that Brahmagupta (598 -665 CE) invented it, but he certainly did not apply for a patent or even sign the invention.

This is the polar opposite of the Intellectual Property regime prevalent today, wherein the value is appropriated as a property and defended strongly. But the Indian model is enjoying a slight resurgence with the popularity of ‘open-source’ software and Eric S Raymond’s The Cathedral & The Bazaar, which argues that it is generally better to have a creative, bottom-up bunch of independent people working on solving a problem, than to corral a whole lot of smart people under your roof and give them top-down directions. In that sense, the ‘gig-economy’ model may eventually lead to the death of the corporation and the rise of federations, with groups of free agents coming together for a project, only to disassemble and re-assemble elsewhere for another.

It is quite possible that a similar model of self-governing sreni (comparable to trade guilds)—which would qualify as a process innovation—was popular in Sarasvati-era India (as it was much later in the prosperous, trade guild-dominated Hanseatic League city states of northwestern Europe). That pre-industrial construct may become the post-industrial structure of work, something that was displaced by the First Industrial Revolution based on the Theory of the Firm, which asserts that companies exist because they keep work under a common roof and transaction costs low. Today, transaction costs are trending ever downwards anyway because of the internet and developments like blockchain technology.

That brings us back to the original question of the value of Indian innovation. And there is a dramatic answer from Angus Maddison’s history of the world economy: India at the beginning of his period of his study, 1 CE, accounted for a startling 33 per cent of the entire world’s econ0my. For comparison, the US, even at its dominant peak in the 1950s, accounted for no more than 25 per cent of the global economy. So how exactly did our ancestors get there? This has been a bit of a conundrum.

The conventional wisdom is that agricultural productivity got us there. There is surely a major element of truth in that assertion. India has some of the most productive agricultural land in the world: 54 per cent of the land of (modern-day) India is arable if irrigated, compared to numbers in the 15 per cent range for the US and China. Therefore, yes, it is likely that India had a tradable agricultural surplus.

Ancient Indians were highly innovative and evolved a model wherein knowledge was created for the common good. As soon as someone invented or discovered something, it was put in the public domain

In an Open article, '‘New Grain Theory’ (July 16th, 2018), Lucknow’s Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences suggests that rice was cultivated in India 9,250 years ago, thus challenging the prevalent hypothesis that China is where rice was first domesticated. There are bragging rights associated with the first use of rice, as it is probably the most important crop worldwide, and so this claim is bound to be contested. But an uncontroversial fact is that the indica strain of rice was indeed domesticated in India. The earlier date of 9,250 years, as compared to the traditional assumption of about 8,000 years ago, suggests continuity in rice production for even longer than we thought. The domestication event itself is an example of innovation because it takes a significant amount of observation, deduction and experimentation to arrive at a process for cultivating the grain. Furthermore, if Indians began growing rice nine millennia ago, it is likely that they had arrived at a level of agriculture-fuelled wealth a few thousand years after that. What would they have done with their prosperity?

One answer lies in the Sarasvati cities of Dholavira, Lothal, Rakhigarhi, Harappa, Mohenjodaro and so on. The almost- modern architecture, town planning and hygiene of the cities, plus the remarkably large hinterland in which they had uniform weights and measures, as well as the absence of obvious military and royal structures, all point to an advanced and wealthy civilisation that engaged in overland and maritime trade. These people traded widely too, as there is evidence of ocean-going vessels using the dry docks of Lothal, and their exports such as jewellery (carnelian and lapis lazuli beads) have been found as far away as West Asian ports like Bahrain. The absence of royalty suggests they may have been run by sreni rather than by warriors.

They may also have migrated westward; there was the Mitanni/Hurrian kingdom in what is now Syria and Iraq, which spoke a Sanskritic language and had prominent Hindu deities in its treatises. Of course, that brings us to the wretched question of the so-called Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT). There is increasing evidence that the premise of this hypothesis is faulty— that an invading group brought civilisation and the Sanskrit language to India. First, language transmission is not isomorphic with genetic movement (one can happen without the other: an example is the use of English in India without many British genes showing up in the Indian gene pool). Second, there was no need to import civilisation into India, as it was quite civilised already. Third, the language transmission—and migration—could just as well have been from India to Europe, the Out of India Theory (OIT), though there is no conclusive proof either way yet.

Without getting into the AIT (and its offshoots, such as the Aryan Migration Theory), the search for the putative Proto- Indo-European ancestor of Sanskrit continues to be a major academic thrust. So also, attempts to decipher the script found on Sarasvati seals, coins and signboards. One of these efforts has serendipitously resulted in a new hypothesis, that of a metalwork and trading nexus that spanned West Asia, the Sarasvati region and Southeast Asia in the third millennium BCE, that is, 5,000-6,000 years ago.

The Sarasvati people set up a metalwork supply chain across Asia, carving up a Tin Route a couple of millennia before the Silk Route

I REFER TO THE work of Dr Kalyanaraman of the Sarasvati Research Centre in Chennai. His paper will be presented at the World Association for Vedic Studies (WAVES2018) conference in Dallas, Texas, on August 3-5; the proceedings are already available on Amazon.com: ‘Vedic Traditions for Education and Learning: 13th International Conference of the WAVES2018’. Dr Kalyanaraman’s paper is titled, Sarasvati Civilization, Script and Veda Culture Continuum of Tin-Bronze Revolution: A Synopsis, and it proposes a truly revolutionary idea—the Sarasvati Civilisation as the centre of a metalwork empire.

‘The Sarasvati people constituted the key link between the Ancient Far East (AFE) and the Ancient Near East (ANE). Evidences of the Sarasvati Script have been found in AFE (e.g., over 200 Dong Son bronze drums with script hieroglyphs, such as frog, peacock, elephant, markhor, fish) and based on the tin (cassiterite) resources of the Mekong, Airavati and Salween Himalayan river deltas creating the largest tin belt of the globe. The brilliant discovery of tin to create Tin-Bronze alloys overcame the shortage of naturally occurring Arsenical Bronzes all over Eurasia,’ observes Dr Kalyanaraman. Furthermore, he mentions ‘3 pure tin ingots in a shipwreck off Haifa’ with Sarasvati markings.

It’s probable that Sarasvati people, once they had an agricultural surplus, decided to explore industry, namely metalwork. In addition to demand for industrial purposes and casting religious figurines, perhaps there was demand for jewellery; there are tin-bronze hand-held mirrors found in the Sarasvati area that surely catered to the vanity of its inhabitants. An intriguing link is today’s Aranmula (Val) Kannadi, a Geographical Indication for exquisite, highly polished tin-bronze mirrors from Kerala. As an Open article, ‘The Ultimate Souvenir’ (January 11th, 2016), points out, the proportion of tin in the alloy used is 33 per cent, which is critical for reflectiveness.

The ancient Indian genius for metallurgy is beyond question. There is nano-carbon wootz steel as well as the wondrous Iron Pillar of Delhi, which has not rusted after many centuries of exposure to the elements.

Thus the conjecture that the Sarasvati people set up a continent-spanning metalwork supply chain, with ore as raw material mined in Southeast Asia, smelted, refined and transported via maritime trade all the way around the Indian peninsula from Vietnam, or along the Himalayan river network. The final product was perhaps made in Sarasvati workshops, but some of the output was exported to Bahrain, Haifa and so on.

There you have it—a Tin Route a couple of millennia before the famous Silk Route. This is a stunning conjecture and it also brings into focus Indian maritime prowess, which apparently dominated the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. There have been instances of the discovery of Indian-made teakwood ocean-faring dhows (two ancient vessels were found preserved in the desert sands of Egypt some years ago). In the port of Beypore in Kerala, traditional shipwrights still make these ‘sewn’ teakwood boats known as urus, lashed together with coir-based rope, constructed without nails.

The Tin Route would have made traders and sailors wealthy. That innovation would have added economic value. All added up, Indian industrial and supply-chain innovation must have contributed to the wealth of the nation. This could well explain why India had one-third of the world’s GDP in 1 CE.

http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/essay/a-superpower-of-the-past

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आ- √दृश् sg.perf.pass. used in R̥gveda 10.111.7 to mean 'mirrored'. Asko Parpola has to explain this expression in the context of Veda texts attesting 'mirroring'

March 3, 2019, 6:24 pm

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≪ Previous: Innovation gave ancient India immense economic advantage -- Rajeev Srinivasan

https://tinyurl.com/y4c5vhft

This is an addendum to: Erroneous report on Mirror in Vedic India by Asko Parpola (2019). Archaeological, linguistic evidence for ārśī 'bronze mirror' of 4th m. BCE https://tinyurl.com/y4q4y9od

Bronze mirror. Rakhigarhi. Ca. 3^rd m. BCE

Asko Parpola fails to recognize the use of the expression आ- √दृश् in RV 10.111.7 in a verbal form, to mean 'mirrored' cognate with the word आ-दर्श 'mirror'; ādarśamu ādarśamu. [Skt.] n. A looking glass or mirror.(Telugu) darma-aina or -öna दर्म-ऐन । दानार्थादर्शः m. 'a piety-mirror'; a kind of small mirror intended to be used for giving in charity. (Kashmiri) Ādāsa [Sk. ādarśa, ā + dṛś, P. dass, of dassati¹ 2] a mir- ror Vin ii.107; D i.7, 11 (˚pañha mirror -- questioning, cp. DA i.97: "ādāse devataŋ otaretvā pañha -- pucchanaŋ"), 80; ii.93 (dhamna^ɔ -- ādāsaŋ nāma dhamma -- pariyāyaŋ desessāmi); S v.357 (id.); A v.92, 97 sq., 103; J i.504; Dhs 617 (˚maṇḍala); Vism 591 (in simile); KhA 50 (˚daṇḍa) 237; DhA i.226.-- tala the surface of the mirror, in similes at Vism 450, 456, 489.(Pali)

R̥gveda uses the word आ-दर्श in a third person singular perfect passive form as आ- √दृश् in RV 10.111.7 with the meaning 'mirroring'. This is a clear indicator that the high-tin-bronze mirror attested archaeologically from ca. 4th m.BCE finds a verbal form in a vivid R̥gveda metaphor related to Ushas.

आ-दर्श &c » आ- √दृश् m. the act of perceiving by the eyes; a looking-glass , mirror S3Br. Br2A1rUp. MBh. R. &c; आ- √ दृश् A1. (3. sg. perf. Pass. -द्/अदृशे RV. x , 111 , 7) to appear , be seen: Caus. -दर्शयति , to show , exhibit.

Translation (Griffith): 7 When the Dawns come attendant upon Surya their rays discover wealth of divers colours.

The Star of heaven is seen as it were approaching: none knoweth aught of it as it departeth.

Translation (Sayana/Wilson) 10.111.07 When the dawns are associated with the sun, his rays acquire wonderful beauty; but when the constellation of heaven is not seen, no one really knows (his rays) as he moves.

Anvaya:
nakṣatram na ā dadṟśe = Constellation is not seen
yatah addhã nu nakih veda = to the moving (rays) really, no one knows.

When the Ushas join again with Surya then the rays of the sun receive unique beauty. When the constellation of heaven is not seen, then no one knows the moving rays.

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Isn't Sarasvati a navigable waterway of the civilization?

March 4, 2019, 7:17 am

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≪ Previous: आ- √दृश् sg.perf.pass. used in R̥gveda 10.111.7 to mean 'mirrored'. Asko Parpola has to explain this expression in the context of Veda texts attesting 'mirroring'

Isn't Sarasvati a navigable waterway of the civilization?

sarasvatI the devI and the sarasvatI the nadI -- Manasa Taramgini

Posted on June 3, 2012by mAnasa-taraMgiNI

masitãm dûrât frasrûtãm ýâ asti avavaiti
masô ýatha vîspå imå âpô ýå zemâ paiti frataciñti
ýâ amavaiti fratacaiti hukairyât haca barezanghat aoi zrayô vouru-kashem ||

The large river, known afar, that is as large as the whole of the waters that run along the earth; that runs powerfully from the height hukairya down to the sea vouru-kasha.

ýaozeñti vîspe karanô zrayâi vouru-kashaya â-vîspô maidhyô ýaozaiti
ýat hîsh aoi fratacaiti ýat hîsh aoi frazhgaraiti aredvî sûra anâhitâ,
ýenghe hazangrem vairyanãm hazangrem apakhzhâranãm,
kascitca aêshãm vairyanãm kascitca aêshãm apakhzhâranãm
cathware-satem ayare-baranãm hvaspâi naire baremnâi ||

All the shores of the sea vouru-kasha are boiling over, all the middle of it is boiling over, when she runs down there, when she streams down there, she, aredvî sûra anâhitâ, who has a thousand cells and a thousand channels: the extent of each of those cells, of each of those channels is as much as a man can ride in forty days, riding on a good horse.

ainghåsca mê aêvanghå âpô apakhzhârô vî-jasâiti vîspâish aoi karshvãn ýâish hapta,
ainghåsca mê aêvanghå âpô hamatha ava-baraiti hãminemca zayanemca,
hâ-mê âpô ýaozhdadhâiti hâ arshnãm xshudrå hâ xshathrinãm garewãn hâ xshathrinãm paêma || yaShT 5.3-5

From this river of mine alone flow all the waters that spread all over the seven Karshvares; this river of mine alone goes on bringing waters, both in summer and in winter. This river of mine purifies the seed in males, the womb in females the milk in females’ breasts.

ambitame nadItame devitame sarasvati |
aprashastA iva smasi prashastim amba nas kR^idhi ||

Best mother, best of rivers, best of goddesses, sarasvati; We are,as though without praise, O mother, make us praised.

tve vishvA sarasvati shritAyUMShi devyAm |
shunahotreShu matsva prajAM devi didiDDhi naH ||

In you, O goddess sarasvati, all lives are situated; be, pleased with shunahotra-s; O goddess grant us progeny.

imA brahma sarasvati juShasva vAjinIvati |
yA te manma gR^itsamadA R^itAvari priyA deveShu juhvati || RV 2.41.16-18

Rich in vigor, O sarasvati, be pleased with these incantations of ours; the mental creations which the gR^itsamada-s dear to the gods bring to you the upholder of the R^ita.

The devI sarasvatI and her Iranian counterpart aredvI sUrA anAhitA are descendents of the ancestral proto-Indo-European trans-functional goddess. They retain practically all the features of this ancestral goddess, some of which might be muted or redistributed among the European branches of the Indo-European tree:
1) She is a regal or warrior goddess: This trait is very clear in the Vedic sarasvatI and the Iranian anAhitA, a trait, which in India, continues strongly in the later hypertrophy of the trans-functional goddess in the traditions of the purANa-s and the tantra-s. In the Greek world this trait is strongly preserved in their cognate Athena. In the Roman world she appears as seispes mAter regIna, and the last word in her triple title (like the Iranian triple title) corresponds to her role as the deity of the royal warrior, although far more muted than in the case of the former three. This regal link connection persists in the Celtic Eriu in the form of the tradition of the consecration of royal power in Ireland through Eriu and also is redistributed to the Celtic goddess Brigantia.

2) Most importantly she is a goddess of water and moisture: In the world of the Arya-s this is emphasized by her name sarasvatI – full of ponds (PIE seles->saras) and among the Iranians by the term aredvI meaning moisture. This is also preserved in Greece in the form of the epithets of Athena like Herse which means dew-giver. Likewise, her epithet Glaucopis is explained as being the one who pours water from the skies and then clears to be blue in color like her eyes. In the Slavic world her triple title is mAti syrA zemljA, in which the syrA indicates her moisture. Similarly, her other name mokoshi means moisture. In the roman world this function appears to have been redistributed to Ceres. In the Indic and Iranian texts in particular she may be described as having the form of a physical river flowing down from a great height, but at the same time she is also the heavenly water or river (including the Milky Way).

3) She is seen as bestowing various human wants like plants, ghee, oil, honey, progeny and being the cause of fertility of the land. She also importantly bestows good speech and intelligence – but this trait is prominently expressed only in the Indo-Aryan and Greek spheres in sarasvatI and Athena (though there are some allusions to this in the Iranian praise of anAhitA).

Now, the 10th maNDala of the R^igveda contains a famous sUkta that contains a list of rivers that every practicing Arya utters during his bathing rituals to this date:

imaM me ga~Nge yamune sarasvati shutudri stomaM sachatA paruShNy A |
asiknyA marudvR^idhe vitastayArjIkIye shR^iNuhy A suShomayA ||

Be pleased with my laud, O ga~NgA, yamunA, sarasvati, shutudri, and paruShNi;
with asikni, marudvR^idha, vitastA, ArjIkI and suShomA hear [me].

tR^iShTAmayA prathamaM yAtave sajUH susartvA rasayA shvetyA tyA |
tvaM sindho kubhayA gomatIM krumum mehatnvA sarathaM yAbhir Iyase || RV 10.75.5-6

First with tR^iShTAma you rapidly flow forth, with susartu and rasA with shvetI here,
You sindhu, with kubha, gomati, krumu and mehatnu, seek you course together.

The Indus system

The geographical concordance of these rivers to the hydrography of the north of the Indian subcontinent is strong. Most rivers can be identified and show some geographical ordering. In the first R^ik we have rivers largely going from east to northwest:

ga~NgA – yamunA – sarasvatI- shutudri (Sutlej)-paruShNi (Ravi) – asikni (Chenab) – marudvR^idha (maruvardhan) – vitastA (Jhelum) – ArjIkI (Haro) – suShomA (Sohan).

The first two are the primary rivers of the ga~NgA system. Then shutudri, paruShNi, asikni, vitastA, ArjIkI and suShomA represent 5 successive rivers forming the east bank tributary system of the Indus. Of these the first four form the pa~nchanadI system before joining the Indus. Only marudvR^idha which is apparently the minor stream called maruvardhan is obscure today. Geographically the description is largely regular in that the rivers are given in the order in which they would be encountered moving east to northwest till the Indus. Some have suggested that ArjIkI is actually Beas, but this would break the order. Further, Vedic tradition outside the nadi-sUkta does remember the vipAshA as a separate river; hence, ArjIki is more likely to be Haro.

In the second R^ik we have:
tR^iShTAma (Tochi?) – susartu (Kunar) – rasa (Panjkora?) – shvetI (Swat)– sindhu (Indus) – kubha (Kabul) – gomati (Gomal) – krumu (Kurrum) – mehatnu (Bara?).

Here Indus is named along with its west bank tributary system. In this case, the identity of some of the RV rivers with the modern streams is less certain to me, especially given that a clear direction pattern is not followed unlike the first R^ik. The general logic here appears to be to name the outer streams first followed by the main streams joining the Indus from the west. Nevertheless, given the abundance of extant tributary rivers in this region it is clear that all these streams can be “accounted for”. The main problem with the Indo-Iranian hydrography is that many of the hydronyms have been repeatedly used as the Indo-Iranians radiated out from their steppe homeland to occupy new territories. Thus, we have cognate names of sarasvati, sarayu, rasA, kubhA, sindhu both in the Indo-Aryan and Iranian spheres of activity, and appear in India proper, Afghanistan, and even the vicinity of the North Caucasus, where populations share a genetic signal with the Indo-Aryans that strongly stands out. Likewise, some cognate toponymns also appear in both in the Indic and Iranian worlds. However, in the case of the nadIsUkta the presence of multiple unique river names of the pa~nchanada as well as the unique ga~NgA and yamunA suggest that at least this sUkta was composed in northern India. This leaves us with only one major anomaly with respect to the rivers we see today – the river sarasvatI.

Indo-Aryan tradition has an internal answer for this anomaly, i.e. the vanishing of the sarasvatI. A persistent tradition first encountered in the brAhmaNa-s and reiterated by the mahAbhArata states that the sarasvatI river dried up or vanished. This is described best in the context of two major rituals, the sArasvata sattra and the aponaptrIya. While these rituals are described in several brAhmaNa-s, the best account vis-a-vis the disappearance of sarasvatI comes form the pa~nchaviMsha brAhmaNa (PVB) account of the first sArasvata sattra and the aitareya brAhmaNa account of the aponaptrIya ritual. The PVB 25.10 (and also the jaiminIya brAhmaNa 2.297) states that the sattra is performed to the south of the place where the sarasvatI river vanishes starting on a new moon day. Then they move up the course of the sarasvatI, along the east bank performing devayajana as per the new moon and fullmoon models, and depending on the parvan culminating in a goShToma or AyuShToma. The important points that emerge from this account are: 1) The explicit mention of a place where the sarasvatI vanishes. 2) The cryptic allusion to the end of the sarasvatI: the deva-s are supposed to have supported the sun in the sky with the sarasvatI but it collapsed and hence it is supposed to be full of curves (tasmAt sA kubjimatIva). This suggests that the river was taking a winding course by the time of the brAhmaNa probably suggestive of loss of velocity and sediment bulk. 3) At some point along the journey of the ritualists, the dR^iShadvatI is supposed to join the sarasvatI on the east bank. Here they offer a plate of boiled rice to apAm napAt with sUkta of gR^itsamada in RV maNDala 2. This indicates that the sarasvatI vanished to the south of the junction with the dR^ishadvatI, strongly supporting the identification of dR^ihadvatI with the chautang. 5) At a certain point from the point of the disappearance of sarasvatI they reach a place called prakSha prAshravaNa (plakSha prAsravana) where they terminate the rite with an iShTi to agnI kAma. 6) Here mention is made of a pool located to the north of a large ruined town where the ritualists like the videha king namin sApya are supposed to have had their avabhR^ita bath. The mention of a large ruin on the course of the sarasvatI/dR^ishadvatI is of great interest because there are two prominent abandoned Harappan sites on their courses namely Kalibangan close to the sarasvatI-dR^ishadvatI saMgaMa and Rakhigarhi further upstream on the dR^ishadvati.

The aponaptrIya rite described in 2.19 of the aitareya brAhmaNa mentions that the R^iShi kavaSha ailUSha was driven away from a sattra on the banks of the sarasvatI by the other ritualists who declared that he was a son of dAsa woman, not a brAhmaNa, and a fake. They drove him into the desert wishing that he would not drink the water of the sarasvatI and die there from thirst. As kavaSha was afflicted by thirst in the desert he invoked apAm napAt with a sUkta (RV 10.20) and the waters of the sarasvatI are said to welled out and run after him into the desert. The other ritualists realized that he was favored by the deva-s and called him back. From thence these mantra-s were used in the ritual for rains. What this account illustrates is that in the period of this brAhmaNa text Indo-Aryans were inhabiting the banks of the sarasvatI, which was proximal to a desert. Further the account cryptically describes the waters of the sarasvatI being drawn into the desert where they are lost as per the sAmavedic brAhmaNa-s. Thus, it is clear that the Indo-Aryans preserved a memory of the actual termination of the sarasvatI in the desert.

In the late 1800s and 1900s philology was joined by geomorphology and archaeology in the quest for the sarasvatI. It was realized that there was a potential river course that connected the seasonal Hakra-Ghaggar and Chautang channels all the way to the Indian ocean in Gujarat. This channel was taken to be the lost sarasvatI. A Hungarian acquaintance brought to our attention how the aged Aurel Stein had realized in the 1940s from investigation of this dried up river channel that it was probably the sarasvatI and had a bearing on the age of the ancient texts of the Indo-Aryans like the veda-s and itihAsa-s. Subsequently, archaeology of the Harappan sites brought up a curious observation. Rather than the Indus valley, the bulk of the sites from the Early and Mature Harappan period lay in an extremely arid area within in what is now the western Indian desert. Closer examination showed that these sites lay clustered along what was supposed to be the dried up course of the sarasvatI going all the way from the region of the Panjab to the sea in Gujarat. This suggested that during the period from the early to the mature Harappan the sarasvatI was probably flowing perennially through what is now desert terrain (~5200-3900 y BP).

Below are maps showing the geomorphology of the sindhu-sarasvatI-upper ga~NgA systems and the sites dating to the Early and Mature Harappan periods. The tracking of the sarasvatI channel by settlements is clear.

The big cities are R: Rakhigarhi; K: Kalibangan; H: Harappa; M: Mohenjo-daro; D: Dholavira (Giosan et al)

Temporal analysis of archaeological sites along the sarasvatI channels reveals that the peak of settlement was during the height of the Harappan civilization around 4500 y BP.

The decline of the Harappan urbanization and the rise of the regional settlements between 3900-3500 y BP show a dramatic decline in the settlements in the lower reaches of the sarasvatI channel along with a progressive withdrawal of settlements closer to the sarasvatI-dR^ishadvatI saMgama. Thus, in the period between 3900-3500 BP we see that sarasvatI was unlikely to perennially carry water into the Indian Ocean and the settlement were withdrawing north-eastwards consistent with its vanishing into the desert downstream of the dR^ishadvatI confluence. This, suggests that this period is likely to correspond to the accounts of aponaptrIya or sArasvata sattra ritual where the ritualist began from the point where it disappeared in the desert up to beyond the dR^iShadvatI confluence. Further, the occurrence of a large ruin (sthUlArma) beyond the dR^iShadvatI confluence noted in the PVB 25.10 is probably the ruin of the Harappan site of Kalibangan.

By around 3000 y BP, which marked the Painted-Greyware period, the settlements had nearly completely vanished downstream of the sarasvatI-dR^iShadvatI confluence and there remained only a few small sites along the upper reaches of the sarasvatI-dR^iShadvatI channels. This suggests that the brAhmaNa texts clearly predated the PGW period.

Until recently the causes for the drying up of the sarasvatI remained highly unclear. Geomorphology suggested that at some point the yamunA used to flow west and meet the sarasvatI system rather than the ga~NgA system. Similarly, it has been noted that there is an ancient channel of the shutudrI that meets the sarasvatI channel and causes a widening of its course, suggesting that it too might have flowed into the sarasvatI. However, recent studies have shown that the sarasvatI was an active glacier fed river only the Pleistocene and not the Holocene. The capture of the yamunA by the ga~NgA system might have happened as early as 49,000 y BP, which is well before human civilization in the region. Likewise the shutudrI’s capture by the Indus system was complete by at least 10,000 y BP (Clift et al). Thus, the capture of glacial sources probably had nothing direct to do with the final end of the sarasvatI in the late Harappan period though it indirectly contributed to it. Here, is where a recent combination of sedimentological and climatological studies comes in throw some light on what actually happened (Giosan et al). The results of this study are summarized in the below graphs: 1) Based on O18 isotopes they suggest a decline in the monsoons around 4000-5000 y BP. This decline contributed the relatively lower danger of massive flooding allowing the Harappan civilization to emerge as the flooding hit just the “right level” for agriculture by inundation. However, between 3000-4000 y BP the aridification went beyond the sustainability of agriculture by inundation. 2) Based on sediment dating it is clear that despite loss of the glacial sources the sarasvatI channel remained active with high sedimentation rate from 8000-4000 y BP both on the lower and upper courses. This suggests that it was sustained as a perennially flowing river by the monsoonal activity. However, as the monsoon decline reached a certain point around 3900 y BP the high sedimentation rate deposit vanish on the sarasvatI and low-sedimentation rate deposits are seen in the upper courses. This suggests that the immediate cause for end of the sarasvatI was the decline in monsoon activity rather than the loss of glacial sources, which had happened much earlier in the closing stages of the Pleistocene.

Here G-H is for Ghaggar-Hakra, i.e. sarasvatI; the black symbols are high sedimentation rates, the white symbols are low sedimentation rates and the grey symbols are sand dunes. In panel B, the grey line is westerly precipitation while the black line is monsoon precipitation (from legend to Fig. 4 of Giosan et al).

A study of the crop pattern shows that during the Early and Mature Harappan phases the most cultivated crop was barley (yava), whereas in the post-urban phase the most cultivated crop was rice (vR^ihi), with a clear decline of barley. Similarly, dAl (lentil) cultivation greatly increased in the post-urban period, suggesting that common Indian staple of dAl and rice became the mainstay around this period.This shift is marked by the increasing movement of settlements towards the ga~ngA system, where they were not affected by the aridification of the west. This shift is interesting because in the earlier Vedic texts like the R^igveda rice is very infrequently mentioned, but barley is frequently mentioned. In the later ritual formalization of the brAhmaNa period rice offerings become very important (odana). This again suggests that at least part of the brAhmaNa material corresponds to the time of the post-urban phase of the Harappan civilization.

This then leads to the question as to whether the early saMhitA texts correspond to the mature Harappan period and is there a knowledge of a full-flowing sarasvatI in them?

This question and its answer are by no means trivial as some might think. Given that the sArasvata sattra was being performed even when the sarasvatI was drying and the center of the civilization was moving towards the ga~NgA system, it is likely that it had some historic sanctity about it. This is corroborated by its extensive memory preserved in the mahAbharata in terms of holy spots even when it was drying. The same is true of the manu smR^iti, which preserves a memory of the holiness of the region between the sarasvatI and the dR^iShadvatI (brahmavarta), even after the river had terminated in the desert. This sanctity of sarasvatI and memory of it being the core civilizational center (brahmavarta or the land of nahuSha) is unlikely to have been associated with it if the invading Indo-Aryans had merely encountered it after its diminution and desiccation. This is especially so because at this point it was the ga~NgA system, not the sarasvatI, which was the main civilizational center (this is supported by the fact that in the sArasvata sattra they finally terminate their journey with an avabhR^ita bath at kArapachava in the yamunA river). One could of course suggest the alternative that the knowledge of sarasvatI’s civilizational significance came from the pre-existing Harappans, who at that point had been Aryanized by the invading Indo-Aryans and were adopting the Arya system. Or one might suggest that the Aryanized Harappans managed to convince the Arya-s of the sanctity of a drying river, to the point that the Arya-s now referred to it after their own great transfunctional goddess of proto-Indo-European vintage. These alternatives seem less likely to us because they do not go well with the processes surrounding the extensive Indo-Aryanization of Northern India, where the memetic contribution of the substratum was relatively limited in the early days of the Indo-Aryan entry. This raises a possibility, which we have mentioned even in the past, that the entry of Indo-Aryan happened during the peak of the Harappan period or before that. Of course this proposal has its own formidable, though not insurmountable, problems.

The RV saMhitA material is generally considered to be older than most (though not all) parts of the brAhmaNa material. This appears plausible based on the observation that some of these rituals are likely to have required a complete R^ik saMhitA. Thus, it is conceivable that the few explicit references to sarasvatI as the physical river in north India in the RV (e.g. the nadI sUkta and RV 3.23, i.e. the bhAratAgni sUkta) might belong to a period anterior to that alluded to in the brAhmaNa-s. This supports at least those parts being composed at a time when the sarasvatI was more active and overlapping with the peak of the Harappan civilization. Here one may ask: What is the big deal ? Does the RV not abound in references to sarasvatI ? This, in our considered opinion, is the most common confusion with respect to the RV. Yes, the RV abounds in references to sarasvatI, but this is the devI saravatI, and not a particular physical river. As noted above being a goddess fundamentally associated with water, she is often described in riverine terms – this does not at all mean that they are talking about any particular physical river. Here is where the comparative method illuminates the issue. Just as aredvI surA anAhitA is described as a massive physical river, the devI sarasvatI is also similarly described by gR^itsamada, bharadvAja and vasiShTha. This does not mean that all their sUkta-s are referring to the physical river. As there are so many parallels with the yaShT of anAhitA and the sUkta-s of sarasvatI it is clear that much of these compositions are based on models that were already present in the Indo-Iranian period and actually referred to the divine or celestial river that fed all the rivers as per the old Indo-European cosmography. This said, it is nevertheless notable that the Indo-Aryans chose to call the river flowing in the Ghaggar-Hakra course as sarasvatI after their great trans-functional goddess. This suggests that after their entry into the subcontinent, their center of activity was likely to be associated with the Ghaggar-Hakra river that was still displaying notable through flow.

This leads us to a model, which we have articulated in the past, that the Indo-Aryan invasion probably led to a stimulation of civilizational development in the Harappan zone, rather than destroying it as proposed by some. In particular, we suspect that the Indo-Aryans of pastoralist origin in the Inner Eurasian steppes could actually connect the disparate civilizational centers in the Harappan zone by virtue of their inherent mobility. This allowed the development of the material uniformity which characterized the Harappan civilization at its peak. This uniformity was probably further stabilized by the introduction of the varNa system along with organization of the pre-Aryan Harappan people into formal guilds of jAti-s . That this happened is strongly suggested by the remarkable recitation that accompanies the puruShamedha (the Indo-Aryan human sacrifice: both real and symbolic), which is found in all the complete yajurveda saMhitA-s. As an example let us consider that from the mAdhyandina saMhitA, adhyAya 30. This recitation lists a large number of specialized occupations that are typical of more settled rather than pastoralist societies, some of which clearly match the Harappan society as suggested by archaeology:

Manufacturers
maNikAra: A beadmaker (beads are a major production item of Harappan sites); A peshaskArI: a garment-maker woman; rajayitrI: A dyer woman (specialized dying workshops are found in Harappan sites); palpUlI: A tanner woman; ajinasandha: a hide-preparer; hiraNyakAra: a goldsmith; vAnija with a balance: a baniya (balance weights are found in Indus sites); An ayastApa: a metal smelter; a~njanIkArI: a woman who makes cosmetics; kulAla: A potter; iShukAra/ dhanuShkAra/ jyAkAra: arrow smith; bow makers; rajjusarja: a rope-maker; kaNTakIkArI: a woman who makes needles; surAkAra: a beer brewer; rathakAra: a car-maker; A koshakArI: box-maker woman or a silk-maker woman.

Diverse professionals
bhiShak: physician; nakShatradarsha: astronomer; gaNaka: an accountant; prashna-vivAka: an consultant for questions; takSha: carpenter; mAnaskR^ita: an designer; adhikalpin: a casino manager; abhiShektR^i: a road sprinkler; dAsha: a ferryman; bhAgadugha: A pay distributer; kAri: mechanic; karmAra: an engineer or smith.

Policing activity
gR^ihapa: a house guard; kShattR^i: a door-keeper; abhikrosha: a policeman; vanapa: A forest guard; dAvapa: fireman.

Agriculture and animal husbandry
kInAsha: plowman; vapa: a seed sower; hastipa: elephant herder; ashvapa: horse herder; gopAla: cowherd; avipAla: shepherd; ajapAla: goatherd; shvanin: dog-breeder.

The rare instances of the horse have been gathered but it should be mentioned that their provenance is uncertain

It is interesting to note that while only two entries are provided for farmers, a highly diversified animal husbandry is presented. The word for the farmer seems to be of non-Aryan origin, being one of the early loan-words of the “ka/ki/ku” variety into Sanskrit. It could very well be a native Harappan word. Of these the horse, cow, sheep, goat and dog breeders are referred to by vintage Indo-European names that are shared across the Indo-European groups. The elephant- breeder, while having a name of purely Indo-European origin, was a purely Indic profession. Images or representations on seals of all these animals are known from the Harappan site, although representations of the horse are very rare. They are not seen on seals and to date no depiction of the horse-borne chariot is known from Harappan sites. This has been the strongest argument against any Indo-European presence in Harappa and remains the one important bit of evidence that stands against the other concordances.

Forest and animal products
dArvahAra: woodcutter; dhaivara: fisherman; shauShkala: a fish-drier; bainda: a stone-age tribesman; Anda: a fowler; parNaka: A betel leaf vendor; mR^igayu: hunter;

Entertainment and music
puMshchalI: A public woman; strIShaka: a female companion; vINavAda: vINa player; pAnighna: jAlra player; tUNavadhma: flute player; sha~Nkhadhma: a conch blower; sUta: story teller; shailUSha: an actor; mAgadha: a bard.

Although some of the above occupations are clearly those of pastoralists, this diversification of occupations more consonant with settled societies. In general we observe that the Indo-Aryan texts, both the shruti and the early parts of the itihAsa, tend to emphasize only a few specific aspects and professions of this diversified society – they rarely or nowhere else mention the rest. This is in contrast with the West Asian and north African urban texts. Further, many of the professions have continued unbroken till recent times in bhArata, and interestingly most of the specialized jAti-s corresponding to these are categorized among the avarNa-s or mishra-varNa-s, outside of the four varNa-s. Thus, we posit that the Arya-s gained control of the Harappan civilization and fostered its integration by virtue of their mobility. They also helped organize the labor of the sedentary native Harappans into jati guilds, which were in large part outside the four varNa-s, and controlled the flow of goods and specialized labor between the the major urban and rural centers. In a sense a parallel might be seen with the activities of the tAntrika states in later day India. However, the Indo-Aryan elite remained mobile and did not participate directly in most professions of the Harappans – they just controlled them and consumed their products – this is reflected in their texts not frequently mentioning the above described professional diversity. Their role as a mobile force in linking up the urban centers made the Old-Indo-Aryan language the dominant link language, while the native Harappan languages remained restricted to the urban centers. Thus, when urbanization collapsed after 3900 y BP, the native languages of the urban centers faded out while Indo-Aryan languages proliferated and expanded as they were less affected by the loss of urban centers. It has often been remarked that the Harappan uniformity does not appear to be comparable to the uniformity imposed by a powerful monarch in a top-down fashion. Indeed, for a urban society there are hardly any depictions of the symbols of monarchy. We see this as also being consistent with a part of the controlling military and administrative elite being of a different type in this civilization – they were the mobile kShatriya-s and brAhmaNa-s. In reality several kShatriya clans and alliances could have operated in different zones, all unified by a common culture with divergence inhibited by marriage ties. A third kind of entity occasionally alluded to are the rich paNi or the vittadha who might be some kind of urban elite.

Now certain white indologists and their imitators might chime in that these urban features alluded to above are related to the second Iron age urbanization closer to the time of the nirgrantha and the tathAgata which came after the “Vedic night” imposed by the Indo-Aryans. This is unlikely to be a correct view: First, we see that the lists of profession are seen in all the complete yajus saMhitA-s. That means it was likely to have been in the ancestral yajus saMhitA. While there are several temporal layers in the ancestral yajus saMhitA itself, its core can be dated based on the unambiguous astronomical marker of the kR^ittikA period ~4100-4400 y BP. So, there is no strong objection to placing the puruShamedha recitation to that period, which overlaps with the core Harappan period. The AV saMhitA-s also mention making shell bead or ornaments that vanish in late Harappan. On the other hand the RV and AV saMhitA-s do not mention glass, whereas the later brAhmaNa texts of the yajurveda mention glass – this in a sense parallels the rise of prominence of rice and tila and the sarasvatI ending in the desert. Glass, rice and tila all rise in importance in the late Harappan. Thus, we capture certain transitions in the Vedic tradition that are compatible with the first Bronze age urbanization and not the second Iron Age urbanization by which time the move to the ga~NgA system, which is captured in the late vedic texts and itihAsa-s was complete.

In conclusion, we now see the idea of the invasion of the Indo-Aryans as a key force in the rise of the mature Harappan as being plausible. However, it is confronted with the formidable “horse problem”, so we can hardly be certain about it. Unfortunately, central Asian archaeology is guided by the late dates for the Indo-Aryans, thus seeing the Sintashta-Petrovka and Andronovo cultures as the beginning of the movement of Indo-Iranians southwards – the flawed Kuzmina hypothesis. These dates are simply untenable because the yajurveda contains unambiguous astronomical date markers that predate them and overlap precisely with the Mature Harappan. We opine that the focus should rather be on the Sredny Stog and Yamna cultures, which should closer to the old layers of the RV, for the beginning of the Indo-Aryan movement into the subcontinent. Another important exercise should be the plotting of the frequency of horse remains in the subcontinent over time to see if there are any preservational anomalies.

………………….
References
1) Clift PD, et al. (2012) U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and
Capture of the Yamuna River. Geology 40:211–214.

2) Giosan L, et al. Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization;
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1112743109
https://manasataramgini.wordpress.com/2012/06/03/sarasvati-the-devi-and-the-sarasvati-the-nadi/

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Spread of Indus Script hieroglyphs पोळ pōḷa zebu and pōladu 'black drongo' from South Asia, markers of IE population and language dispersal

March 5, 2019, 4:17 am

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I deem it a privilege to present a superb analytical report by Aleksandr Andreyvich Semenenko (April, 2019) correlating the spread of zebu cattle from South Asia to the East Mediterranean region as a marker of Indo-European population dispersal. He presents a combination of 1) bovine genetic admixture distribution maps (mitochondrial, autosomal and Y-chromosomal), 2) archaeology findings of zebu figurines, seals and 3 Indo-European linguistics.

I posit that paintings on pots of Sarasvati Civilization are Indus Script Meluhha hypertext inscriptions signifying wealth-accounting ledgers. Thus, if a large storage jar is found in Cemetery H, it is a recollection and ccelebration, as a homage to the memory of the deceased artisan's competence in metalwork and wealth creation for the commonwealth of the guild. This is demonstrated in this monograph.
A sherd of pottery with humped bull and birds, Indus Valley, Harappa, c2600 BCE.

Hypertext as hieroglyph composition of markhor + zebu: H. meṭhā m. ʻ ram ʼ.3. H. mejhukā m. ʻ ram ʼ. A. also mer (phonet. mer) ʻ ram ʼ (CDIAL 10310) Rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Gujarati) meḍ iron (Ho.) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda) PLUS poḷa 'zebu' rebus: poḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore'

A sherd of pottery with humped bull and birds, Indus Valley, Harappa, c2600 BCE. (Photo by CM Dixon/Print Collector/Getty Images)

Late Harappan Period dish or lid with perforation at edge for hanging or attaching to large jar. It shows a Blackbuck antelope with trefoil design made of combined circle-and-dot motifs, possibly representing stars. It is associated with burial pottery of the Cemetery H period, dating after 1900 BCE.

I suggest that this composite animal shown on the dish or lid on the potsherd from Harappa is a composition of zebu + markhor with wavy horns + tail signified by three prongs. poḷa 'zebu' rebus: poḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore' PLUS mr̤eka, melh 'goat' Rebus: milakkhu 'coppe' PLUS Wkh. merg f. 'ibex' (CDIAL 9885) Tor. miṇḍ'ram', miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (CDIAL 10310) Rebus: meḍ (Ho.); mẽṛhet 'iron' (Munda.Ho.) PLUS ranku 'antelope' rebus: ranku 'tin' PLUS horn: koḍ 'horns' Rebus: koḍ'artisan's workplace PLUS 'tail' on Sign 184: Kur. xolā tail. Malt. qoli id. (DEDR 2135) rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' kolle 'blacksmith'. The star hieroglyphs between and surrounding the horns signify: मेढ 'Polar star' Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Ho.Munda); medhā, 'yajña, dhanam'. Thus, the stars are semantic determinants of the wealth-accounting (dhanam) ledger message conveyed by the paintings and inscription on the pots showing the composite animal.

The lid or dish also signifies birds perched on the composite animal. The birds are: 1. Aquatic bird; and 2. black drongo.

Below the rim of the Susa storage pot, the contents are described in Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts: 1. Flowing water; 2. fish with fin; 3. aquatic + black drongo bird tied to a rope Rebus readings of these hieroglyphs/hypertexts signify metal implements from the Meluhha mint.

The birds are read rebus in Meluha

1. karaṇḍa‘duck’ (Samskrtam) rebus: karaḍā 'hard alloy'

2. pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu) पोळ pōḷa 'zebu'& pōlaḍu 'black drongo' signify polad 'steel'.

3. kanku 'crane, egret, heron' rebus: kangar 'portable furnace'

An early representation of a zebu, on the Rampurva capital of the Pillars of Ashoka, third century BCE. "The scientific name of zebu cattle was originally Bos indicus, but they are now more commonly classified within the species Bos taurus as B. t. indicus, together with taurine cattle (B. t. taurus) and the extinct ancestor of both of them, the aurochs (B. t. primigenius). Taurine ("European") cattle are descended from the Eurasian aurochs, while zebu are descended from the Indian aurochs...Zebu cattle are thought to be derived from Indian aurochs, sometimes regarded as a subspecies, B. p. namadicus. Wild Asian aurochs disappeared during the time of the Indus Valley Civilisation from its range in the Indus River basin and other parts of the South Asian region possibly due to interbreeding with domestic zebu and resultant fragmentation of wild populations due to loss of habitat." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebu

This presentation has to be combined with the black drongo associated with the zebu, often seen perched on the bovine's back.

Black drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus) Photograph by Shantanu Kuveskar Location : Mangaon, Raigad, Maharashtra, India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drongo#/media/File:Black_drongo_(Dicrurus_macrocercus)_Photograph_by_Shantanu_Kuveskar.jpg

Black drongo. Gotheghar, Alibag Taluka, Raigad District, Maharashtra, India http://orientalbirdimages.org/search.php?Bird_ID=2228

Subspecies
*Dicrurus macrocercus* (Vieillot, 1817)
D. m. macrocercus (Vieillot, 1817) D. m. albirictus (Hodgson, 1836) D. m. minor Blyth, 1850 D. m. cathoecus Swinhoe, 1871 D. m. thai Kloss, 1921 D. m. javanus Kloss, 1921 D. m. harterti Baker, 1918

Approximate range Breeding visitor Present year-round Winter visitor only

Combined with the Meluhha (Indian sprachbund, 'language union') decipherment of both zebu and a bird perched on its back called black drongo hieroglyphs, the dispersal of zebu in Eurasia is a definitive marker of the spread of Meluhha dialectical expressions into Eurasia to signify metalwork wealth-creation activities of Sarasvati Civilization.

Decipherment of Harappa zebu figurine with oval spots: magnetite ingots

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/o75bok6

Slide 33. Early Harappan zebu figurine with incised spots from Harappa.

Some of the Early Harappan zebu figurines were decorated. One example has incised oval spots. It is also stained a deep red, an extreme example of the types of stains often found on figurines that are usually found in trash and waste deposits. Approximate dimensions (W x H(L) x D): 1.8 x 4.6 x 3.5 cm. (Photograph by Richard H. Meadow) http://www.harappa.com/figurines/33.html

The oval spots are shaped like the copper ingots shown on this photograh of Maysar, c. 2200 BCE:

Maysar c.2200 BCE Packed copper ingots INGOTS

mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali)

Decipherment of the Harappa figurine on Slide 33:

पोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu' Rebus: magnetite, citizen.(See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/08/zebu-archaeometallurgy-legacy-of-india.html )
mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali)
खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. (Marathi)

The figurine signifies ingots of पोळ [pōḷa], ‘magnetite, ferrite ore’. This is a metalwork catalogue message in Indus Script Corpora.

Daimabad bronze chariot

Four cobra-hoods and membrum virile of charioteer गंडा[ gaṇḍā ] m An aggregate of four (cowries or pice). (Marathi) Rebus: khãḍ ʻtools'. Hieroglyph: rise of penis: lo: bhar̥kanu 'rise of penis' (N.)(CDIAL 9365) RebusL bhaṭa 'furnace, smelter' Together, lokhãḍ phaḍa 'metals equpment manfactory.' The birds perched on the axle: black drongo: pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: pōḷad 'steel'. Thus, lokhãḍ pōḷad phaḍa metals equipment, steel manufactory

lokhãḍ ‘overflowing pot’ Rebus: lokhãḍ ʻtools, iron, ironwareʼ (Gujarati)

काण्ड an arrow MBh. xiii , 265 Hit. (Monier-Williams, p. 269) Rebus: काण्ड abundance; a multitude , heap , quantity (ifc.) Pa1n2. 4-2 , 51 Ka1s3. as in: अयस्--काण्ड m. n. " a quantity of iron " or " excellent iron " , (g. कस्का*दि q.v.)अयस्--कान्त m. (g. कस्का*दि) , " iron-lover " , the loadstone (cf. कान्ता*यस) Ragh. xvii , 63 , &c (Monier-Williams) अधीलोह-कर्ण mfn. = अद्ध्यालोह-क्/अर्न q.v. TS. अधिरूढा-कर्ण mfn. = cf. अधीलोह-क्/अर्ण. अद्ध्या-लोह-क्/अर्ण , q.v. MaitrS. mfn. having ears quite red VS. cf. अधिरूढ-क्/अर्न.

Four-hooded cobra arches over membrum virile of Daimabad charioteer of bronze chariot with Indus Script hypertexts of metalwork wealth accounting

https://tinyurl.com/ybzbb2mc

This is a continuum of: Cire perdue bronze sculptural signifiers of wealth-creating kola phaḍa 'blackmith, metals manufactory'& Indus Script hypertexts of two dancing girls, Mohenjo-daro https://tinyurl.com/yau83plm

Indus script hypertext of four-hooded cobra arching over membrum virile of Daimabad charioteer of Daimabad bronze chariot ca. 2000 BCE.

This bronze sculpture of chariot is part of bronze repertoire as demonstration objects (utsava bera); the repertoire includes the following bronze sculptures of animals on wheels:
Image result for daimabad animals

A hypertext expression is composed on Daimabad bronze chariot with hieroglyphs: 1. Erect membrum virile with over-arching hieroglyph of four cobra hoods. 2. Crook stick; 3. Pair of black drongo birds perched on the axle rod; 4. Jackal standing on the rod which links the axle to the harness; 5. Pair of bullocks; 6. Chariot/cart with two solid wheels

फड phaḍa 'cobra hood' rebus: phaḍa 'metals manufactory' paṭṭaḍe 'metals workshop'. Thus, blacksmith's metals workshop.

Derivation of the expression paṭṭaḍe: Ta. paṭṭaṭai, paṭṭaṟai anvil, smithy, forge. Ka. paṭṭaḍe, paṭṭaḍi anvil, workshop. Te. paṭṭika, paṭṭeḍa anvil; paṭṭaḍa workshop.(DEDR 3835) PLUS Ta. aṭai prop. slight support; aṭai-kal anvil. Ma. aṭa-kkallu anvil of goldsmiths. Ko. aṛ gal small anvil. Ka. aḍe, aḍa, aḍi the piece of wood on which the five artisans put the article which they happen to operate upon, a support; aḍegal, aḍagallu, aḍigallu anvil. Tu. aṭṭè a support, stand. Te. ḍā-kali, ḍā-kallu, dā-kali, dā-gali, dāyi anvil (DEDR 86), Thus, paṭṭaṭai is composed of: phaḍa 'metals workshop' PLUS aḍe 'anvil' = paṭṭaḍe 'metals workshop with anvil', i.e.smithy/forge.

Two black drongo birds perched atop either end of the axle rod: पोळ pōḷa, 'Zebu, bos primigenius indicus' rebus: पोळ pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore' PLUS Hieroglyph: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS pōlaḍu, 'black drongo' rebus: pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), fuladh (Persian) folādī (Pashto).पोलाद [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel. (Marathi) bulad 'steel, flint and steel for making fire' (Amharic); fUlAd 'steel' (Arabic).

Four hoods of cobra arch over membrum virile. Hypertext expression reads: lo gaṇḍa phaḍa Rebus plaintext readings : 1. phaḍa lokhaṇḍa, 'metals manufacory,metalware,metal implements market (pun on the word paṇi, 'market'); 2. lokhaṇḍa phaḍa 'metals manufactory, metal implements production,metals quarry'.

Reinforcement of semantics for upraised penis, for lo: bhar̥kanu 'rise of penis' (N.)(CDIAL 9365) rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace, smelter' Thus, an alternative plain text is: bhaṭa phaḍa lokhaṇḍa 'furnace (for) metals manufactory, metal implements'.

Curved stick held in his right hand: मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick, horn &c.) rebus: मृदु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' meḍ 'iron, metal' (Ho.Mu.)

Ta. paṇṭi cart, waggon, carriage; vaṇṭi id., cartload; vaṇṭil cart, carriage, bandy, wheel; pāṇṭi cart with a top, bullock cart; pāṇṭil two-wheeled cart, horse-drawn chariot. Ma.vaṇṭi, vaṇṭil wheel, cart, bandy. Ko. vaṇḍy cart. To. poḍy bullock-cart. Ka. baṇḍi bandy, cart, carriage, wheel. Tu. baṇḍi, bhaṇḍi cart. Te. baṇḍi carriage, cart, any wheeled conveyance. Kol. baṇḍi bullock-cart for freight. Ga. (P. S.&super2;) banḍi cart. Kuwi (Su. Isr.) baṇḍi id. / Skt. (Hem. Uṇ. 608) Or. baṇḍi. Ultimately from Skt. bhāṇḍa- goods, wares, as carrying these; for an IE etymology for bhāṇḍa-,(DEDR 50)

Animal standing atop the cart pole linked to the axle rod: Hieroglyph: कोला (p. 105) kōlā m (Commonly कोल्हा) A jackal. For compounds see under कोल्हे. कोल्हा (p. 105) kōlhā m A jackal, Canis aureus. Linn. कोल्हें (p. 105) kōlhēṃ n A jackal. Without reference to sex. Pr. अडलें कोल्हें मंगळ गाय Even the yelling jackal can sing pleasantly when he is in distress. कोल्हें Ta. kol working in iron, lacksmith; kollaṉ blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. kole·l smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwala·l Kota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace; (Bell.; U.P.U.) konimi blacksmith (Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollë blacksmith. Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy (Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge.(DEDR 2133)

gaṇḍa set of four (Santali); rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar, furnace' (Santali) rebus: kāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’ (Marathi) खंडा [ khaṇḍā ] m A sort of sword. It is straight and twoedged. खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m A kind of sword, straight, broad-bladed, two-edged, and round-ended. खांडाईत [khāṇḍāīta] a Armed with the sword called खांडा. (Marathi)

Hieroglyph: lo 'penis' Go<luGguj>(Z) [lUGguy'] {NB} ``male ^genitals, ^penis, ^scrotum''.(Munda etyma) loe 'penis' (Ho.) Hieroglyph: ``^penis'':So. laj(R) ~ lij ~ la'a'j ~ laJ/ laj ~ kaD`penis'.Sa. li'j `penis, esp. of small boys'.Sa. lO'j `penis'.Mu. lOe'j ~ lOGgE'j `penis'. ! lO'jHo loe`penis'.Ku. la:j `penis'.@(C289) ``^penis'':Sa. lOj `penis'.Mu. lOj `penis'.KW lOj@(M084) <lO?Oj>(D),,<AlAj>(L)//<lAj>(DL) {N} ``^penis''. #43901.<ului>(P),,<uluj>(MP) {NB} ``^penis, male organ, male^genitals''. Cf. <kOlOb>(P),<susu>(M) `testicle'; <kuLij>(M), <kuRij>(P) `vulva'. *Sa., MuN<lO'j>, MuH, Ho<lo'e>,So.<laj-An>, U.Tem.<lo'> ??. %33271. #33031.So<lO?Oj>(D),,<AlAj>(L)//<lAj>(DL) {N} ``^penis''.<lohosua>(D) {NI} ``^dance''. #20141. lo-khaṇḍa, penis + gaṇḍa, 4 balls; Rebus: lokhaṇḍa 'iron, metalware.'Rebus: loh 'copper, iron, metal' (Indian sprachbund, Meluhha) लोह [p= 908,3]mfn. (prob. fr. a √ रुह् for a lost √ रुध् , " to be red " ; cf. रोहि , रोहिण &c ) red , reddish , copper-coloured S3rS. MBh.made of copper S3Br. (Sch.)made of iron Kaus3.m. n. red metal , copper VS. &c Rebus: <loha>(BD) {NI} ``^iron''. Syn. <luaG>(D). *@. #20131) laúha -- ʻ made of copper or iron ʼ Gr̥Śr., ʻ red ʼ MBh., n. ʻ iron, metal ʼ Bhaṭṭ. [lōhá -- ] Pk. lōha -- ʻ made of iron ʼ; L. lohā ʻ iron -- coloured, reddish ʼ; P. lohā ʻ reddish -- brown (of cattle) ʼ.lōhá 11158 lōhá ʻ red, copper -- coloured ʼ ŚrS., ʻ made of copper ʼ ŚBr., m.n. ʻ copper ʼ VS., ʻ iron ʼ MBh. [*rudh -- ] Pa. lōha -- m. ʻ metal, esp. copper or bronze ʼ; Pk. lōha -- m. ʻ iron ʼ, Gy. pal. li°, lihi, obl. elhás, as. loa JGLS new ser. ii 258; Wg. (Lumsden) "loa"ʻ steel ʼ; Kho.loh ʻ copper ʼ; S. lohu m. ʻ iron ʼ, L. lohā m., awāṇ. lōˋā, P. lohā m. (→ K.rām. ḍoḍ. lohā), WPah.bhad. lɔ̃u n., bhal. lòtilde; n., pāḍ. jaun. lōh, paṅ. luhā, cur. cam.lohā, Ku. luwā, N. lohu, °hā, A. lo, B. lo, no, Or. lohā, luhā, Mth. loh, Bhoj. lohā, Aw.lakh. lōh, H. loh, lohā m., G. M. loh n.; Si. loho, lō ʻ metal, ore, iron ʼ; Md.ratu -- lō ʻ copper ʼ.WPah.kṭg. (kc.) lóɔ ʻ iron ʼ, J. lohā m., Garh. loho; Md. lō ʻ metal ʼ. (CDIAL 11172).

lōhakāra m. ʻ iron -- worker ʼ, °rī -- f., °raka -- m. lex., lauhakāra -- m. Hit. [lōhá -- , kāra -- 1]Pa. lōhakāra -- m. ʻ coppersmith, ironsmith ʼ; Pk. lōhāra -- m. ʻ blacksmith ʼ, S. luhā̆ru m., L. lohār m., °rī f., awāṇ. luhār, P. WPah.khaś. bhal. luhār m., Ku. lwār, N. B. lohār, Or. lohaḷa, Bi.Bhoj. Aw.lakh. lohār, H. lohār, luh° m., G. lavār m., M. lohār m.; Si. lōvaru ʻ coppersmith ʼ.WPah.kṭg. (kc.) lhwāˋr m. ʻ blacksmith ʼ, lhwàri f. ʻ his wife ʼ, Garh. lwār m. (CDIAL 11159).lōhaghaṭa 11160 *lōhaghaṭa ʻ iron pot ʼ. [lōhá -- , ghaṭa -- 1]Bi. lohrā, °rī ʻ small iron pan ʼ.*lōhaphāla -- ʻ ploughshare ʼ. [lōhá -- , phāˊla -- 1]WPah.kṭg. lhwāˋḷ m. ʻ ploughshare ʼ, J. lohāl m. ʻ an agricultural implement ʼ Him.I 197; -- or < †*lōhahala -- .(CDIAL 11160) lōhala ʻ made of iron ʼ W. [lōhá -- ]G. lohar, lohariyɔ m. ʻ selfwilled and unyielding man ʼ.(CDIAL 11161).*lōhaśālā ʻ smithy ʼ. [lōhá -- , śāˊlā -- ]Bi. lohsārī ʻ smithy ʼ. (CDIAL 11162).lōhahaṭṭika 11163 *lōhahaṭṭika ʻ ironmonger ʼ. [lōhá -- , haṭṭa -- ] P.ludh. lōhṭiyā m. ʻ ironmonger ʼ.†*lōhahala -- ʻ ploughshare ʼ. [lōhá -- , halá -- ]WPah.kṭg. lhwāˋḷ m. ʻ ploughshare ʼ, J. lohāl ʻ an agricultural instrument ʼ; rather < †*lōhaphāla -- .(CDIAL 11163).

Wootz was imported into the Middle East from India. (Jeffrey Wadsworth and Oleg D. Sherby (1980). "On the Bulat – Damascus Steel Revisited". Prog. Mater. Sci. 25 (1): 35–68)

"The name булат is a Russian transliteration of the Persian word پولاد (transliterated pulad), meaning steel.

Plate with reclining zebu, Late 3rd-early 2nd millennium B.C.E. Met Museum.

Image result for Kausambi (U.P). Late Harappan period(c.2000 BCE). Two Bronze artifacts. Met Museum.

Woman Riding Two zebu, 2000-1750 B.C. (Late Harappan)

Kausambi (U.P). Late Harappan period(c.2000 BCE). Two Bronze artifacts. Met Museum. These are Indus Script hieroglyphs: 1. kola'woman' rebus; kol 'working in iron', kolhe'smelter' 2. (scarf worn on head) dhatu'scarf' rebus: dhatu'mineral ore' 3. Pair (of zebu) dula'pair' rebus; dul 'metal casting' 4. Bos indicus, zebu pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore'.

Thus, the artifacts constitute the hypertext, kol dhatu, dul pōḷa 'mineral ore smelter, metal casting magnetite, ferrite ore. The woman is in a worshipful state because kole.l 'temple' rebus: kole.l 'smithy, forge'.

Close-up of an 18th-century Iranian crucible-forged Damascus steel sword. The sword was made of wootz steel, a process said to have started in 300 BCE. [K. Kris Hirst Damascus Steel. Nanotechnology and SwordMaking. Archaeology.about.com (2010-06-10)]

[quote]Russian metallurgist Pavel Petrovich Anosov (see Bulat steel) was able to reproduce ancient Wootz steel with almost all its properties and the steel he created was essentially identical to traditional Wootz. He documented four different methods of producing Wootz steel that exhibited traditional patterns. He died before he could fully document and publish his research. Dr. Oleg Sherby and Dr. Jeff Wadsworth and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory have all done research, attempting to create steels with similar characteristics to Wootz, but without success. J.D Verhoeven and Al Pendray reconstructed methods of production, proved the role of impurities of ore in the pattern creation, and reproduced Wootz steel with patterns microscopically and visually identical to one of the ancient blade patterns. There are other smiths who are now consistently producing Wootz steel blades identical to the old patterns
One must remember while looking at reproduction efforts that Wootz was made over nearly a 2000 year period (the oldest sword samples date to around 200 AD) and that the methods of production of ingots, the ingredients, and the methods of forging varied from one area to the next. Some Wootz blades displayed a pattern, some did not. Heat treating was quite different as was forging, and there were many different patterns which were created by the various smiths who spanned from China to Scandinavia. It is easy to say that Wootz/Pulad/Bulat/Hindwani is one pattern and one method with one blade characteristic, but that is not a correct representation of the blades that we have or the accounts of witnessed methods from antiquity. Not all of the secrets of Wootz have been discovered, but it has essentially been recreated by Anosov, Pendray and many smiths in the 20th century. Research still continues however. [unquote]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wootz_steel

Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring igneous and metamorphic rocks with black or brownish-black with a metallic luster.

పొల [ pola ] or పొలసు pola. పొలుసు [ polusu ][Telugu] A scale of a fish. చేపమీది పొలుసు. Tu. poḍasů scales of fish. Te. pola, polasu, polusu id. Kui plōkosi id. (DEDR 4480). పొలుపు [ polupu ] or పొల్పు polupu. [Telugu] Firmness,స్థైర్యము. "పొలుపుమీరిన నెలవంకిబొమలు జూచి, రమణదళుకొత్తు బింబాధరంబుజూచి." Rukmang. i. 158

The magnetite ore stones could have been identified as pola iron by Meluhha speakers. Rebus: Ka. pola object of sight, direction, point of the compass. Te. polamu track, trace; polamari one who knows a clue; polakuva trace, track; pulugu mark or sign, trace, track, clue; ? pulapoḍucu to gaze, stare. (DEDR 4344). The Kannada gloss pola meaning 'point of the compass' may link with the characteristic of magnetite iron used to create a compass.


Hieroglyph: scorpion: <bichi>(B)  {NA} ``^scorpion''.  #3521. Kh<bichi>(B)  {NA} ``^scorpion''.vŕ̊ścika m. (vr̥ścana -- m. lex.) ʻ scorpion ʼ RV., ʻ cater- pillar covered with bristles ʼ lex. [Variety of form for ʻ scorpion ʼ in MIA. and NIA. due to taboo? <-> √vraśc?] Pa. vicchika -- m. ʻ scorpion ʼ, Pk. vicchia -- , viṁchia -- m., Sh.koh. bičh m. (< *vr̥ści -- ?), Ku. bichī, A. bisā (also ʻ hairy caterpillar ʼ: -- ī replaced by m. ending -- ā), B. Or. bichā, Mth. bīch, Bhoj. Aw.lakh. bīchī, H. poet. bīchī f., bīchā m., G. vīchī, vĩchī m.; -- *vicchuma -- : Paš.lauṛ. uċúm, dar. učum, S. vichū̃ m., (with greater deformation) L.mult. vaṭhũhã, khet.vaṭṭhũha; -- Pk. vicchua -- , viṁchua -- m., L. vichū m., awāṇ. vicchū, P. bicchū m., Or. (Sambhalpur) bichu, Mth. bīchu, H. bicchū, bīchū m., G. vīchu m.; -- Pk. viccu -- , °ua -- ,viṁcua -- m., K. byucu m. (← Ind.), P.bhaṭ. biccū, WPah.bhal. biċċū m., cur. biccū, bhiḍ. biċċoṭū n. ʻ young scorpion ʼ, M. vīċũ, vĩċū m. (vĩċḍā m. ʻ large scorpion ʼ), vĩċvī, °ċvīṇ, °ċīṇf., Ko. viccu, viṁcu, iṁcu. -- N. bacchiũ ʻ large hornet ʼ? (Scarcely < *vapsi -- ~ *vaspi -- ).Garh. bicchū, °chī ʻ scorpion ʼ, A. also bichā (phonet. -- s -- ) (CDIAL 12081)




Rebus: bichi 'hematite' Tu. bīḍu dross, alloy of iron. Te. bīḍu iron filings or dust.(DEDR 4218)




bica  'stone ore' as in: meṛed -bica = 'iron stone ore', in contrast to bali-bica , 'iron sand ore' (Munda).





Seal impession from Ur showing a squatting female. L. Legrain, 1936, Ur excavations, Vol. 3, Archaic Seal Impressions. [cf. Nausharo seal with two scorpions flanking a similar glyph with legs apart – also looks like a frog]. kuṭhi ‘pudendum muliebre’ (Mu.) khoḍu m. ‘vulva’ (CDIAL 3947). Rebus: kuṭhi ‘smelter furnace’ (Mu.) khŏḍ m. ‘pit’, khö̆ḍü f. ‘small pit’ (Kashmiri. CDIAL 3947),


















Rahman-dheri seal. Obverse: Two scorpions. Two holes. One T glyph. One frog in the middle. Reverse: two rams.







1.mūxā  ‘frog’. Rebus: mũh ‘(copper) ingot’ (Santali) Allograph: mũhe ‘face’ (Santali)

2.bicha ‘scorpion’ (Assamese) Rebus: bica ‘stone ore’ (Mu.)


3.tagaru ‘ram’ (Tulu) Rebus: tagarm ‘tin’ (Kota). damgar ‘merchant’ (Akk.)


4.T-glyph may denote a fire altar like the two fire-altars shown on Warrka vase below two animals: antelope and tiger. kand ‘fire-altar’ (Santali)


5.Two holes may denote ingots. dula ‘pair’ Rebus: dul ‘cast’ (Santali)

kola ‘woman’ Rebus: kol ‘working in iron’


kuṛī f. ʻ girl’ Rebus: kuṭhi ‘smelter’ 


Brass-worker catalog of implements and repertoire:There are five hieroglyphs on the cylinder seal (Figure 270): ‘dishevelled hair’, ‘pudendum muliebre’, ‘lizard’, ‘scorpion’, ‘woman’. The accent is on the sting of the scorpion: koṭṭu (koṭṭi-) to sting (as a scorpion, wasp) (Tamil) Rebus: Pk. koṭṭaga -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, koṭṭila -- , °illa -- m. ʻ mallet ʼ. (DEDR 3236). koṭṭu-k-kaṉṉār  brass-workers. the woman is shown with disheveled hair. A lizard is also shown in the field together with a scorpion (bica). <raca>(D)  {ADJ} ``^dishevelled'' (Munda) rasāṇẽ n. ʻglowing embersʼ (Marathi). rabca ‘dishevelled’ Rebus: రాచrāca (adj.) Pertaining to a stone (ore) (bica).




The squatting woman on the Ur cylinder seal impression may be showing dishevelled hair providing for rebus reading: <rabca?>(D)  {ADJ} ``with ^dishevelled ^hair''.  Rebus:రాచ (adj.) Pertaining to a stone. bicha, bichā ‘scorpion’ (Assamese) Rebus: bica ‘stone ore’ (Mu.) sambr.o bica = gold ore (Mundarica)  Thus, the reading of the Ur cylinder seal impression may depict: meṛed-bica‘iron stone-ore’ kuṭhi ‘smelter, furnace’.


kuṭire bica duljad.ko talkena, ‘they were feeding the furnace with ore’. (Santali) This use of bica in the context of feeding a smelter clearly defines bica as ‘stone ore, mineral’, in general. kuṭhi  ‘vagina’; rebus: kuṭhi  ‘smelting furnace bichā 'scorpion' (Assamese). Rebus: bica 'stone ore' as in meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) dul 'pair, likeness' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' (Santali) Thus the hieroglyphs connote a smelter for smelting and casting metal stone ore.






Gyphic: ‘copulation’: kamḍa, khamḍa 'copulation' (Santali) Rebus: kammaṭi a coiner (Ka.); kampaṭṭamcoinage, coin, mint (Ta.) kammaṭa = mint, gold furnace (Te.) Vikalpa: kaṇḍa ‘stone (ore)’. Glyph: vagina: kuṭhi ‘vagina’; rebus: kuṭhi ‘smelting furnace’. The descriptive glyphics indicates that the smelting furnace is for stone (ore). This is distinquished from sand ore. Glyph: ‘crocodile’: karā ‘crocodile’. Rebus: khar ‘blacksmith’. kāru a wild crocodile or alligator (Te.) Rebus: kāruvu ‘artisan’ 






kuṭhi = pubes. kola ‘foetus’ [Glyph of a foetus emerging from pudendum muliebre on a Harappa tablet.] kuṭhi = the pubes (lower down than paṇḍe) (Santali) kuṭhi = the womb, the female sexual organ; sorrege kuṭhi menaktaea, tale tale gidrakoa lit. her womb is near, she gets children continually (H. koṭhī, the womb) (Santali.Bodding) kōṣṭha = anyone of the large viscera (MBh.); koṭṭha = stomach (Pali.Pkt.); kuṭṭha (Pkt.); koṭhī heart, breast (L.); koṭṭhā, koṭhā belly (P.); koṭho (G.); koṭhā (M.)(CDIAL 3545). kottha pertaining to the belly (Pkt.); kothā corpulent (Or.)(CDIAL 3510). koṭho [Skt. koṣṭha inner part] the stomach, the belly (Gujarat)  kūti = pudendum muliebre (Ta.); posteriors, membrum muliebre (Ma.); ku.0y anus, region of buttocks in general (To.); kūdi = anus, posteriors, membrum muliebre (Tu.)(DEDR 188). kūṭu = hip (Tu.); kuṭa = thigh (Pe.); kuṭe id. (Mand.); kūṭi hip (Kui)(DEDR 1885). gūde prolapsus of the anus (Ka.Tu.); gūda, gudda id. (Te.)(DEDR 1891).




kuṭi, kuṭhi, kuṭa, kuṭha a tree (Kaus'.); kuḍa tree (Pkt.); kuṛā tree; kaṛek tree, oak (Pas;.)(CDIAL 3228).kuṭha, kuṭa (Ka.), kudal (Go.) kudar. (Go.)  kuṭhāra, kuṭha, kuṭaka = a tree (Sanskrit) kut., kurun: = stump of a tree (Bond.a); khuṭ = id. (Or.) kuṭamu = a tree (Telugu)      


   


Rebus: kuṭhi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kuṭhieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kuṭhi, kuṭi (Or.; Sad. koṭhi) (1) the smelting furnace of the blacksmith; kuṭire bica duljad.ko talkena, they were feeding the furnace with ore; (2) the name of ēkuṭi has been given to the fire which, in lac factories, warms the water bath for softening the lac so that it can be spread into sheets; to make a smelting furnace; kuṭhi-o of a smelting furnace, to be made; the smelting furnace of the blacksmith is made of mud, cone-shaped, 2’ 6” dia. At the base and 1’ 6” at the top. The hole in the centre, into which the mixture of charcoal and iron ore is poured, is about 6” to 7” in dia. At the base it has two holes, a smaller one into which the nozzle of the bellow is inserted, as seen in fig. 1, and a larger one on the opposite side through which the molten iron flows out into a cavity (Mundari) kuṭhi = a factory; lil kuṭhi = an indigo factory (koṭhi - Hindi) (Santali.Bodding) 




kuṭhi = an earthen furnace for smelting iron; make do., smelt iron; kolheko do kuṭhi benaokate baliko dhukana, the Kolhes build an earthen furnace and smelt iron-ore, blowing the bellows; tehen:ko kuṭhi yet kana, they are working (or building) the furnace to-day (H. koṭhī ) (Santali. Bodding)  kuṭṭhita = hot, sweltering; molten (of tamba, cp. uttatta)(Pali.lex.) uttatta (ut + tapta) = heated, of metals: molten, refined; shining, splendid, pure (Pali.lex.) kuṭṭakam, kuṭṭukam  = cauldron (Ma.); kuṭṭuva = big copper pot for heating water (Kod.)(DEDR 1668). gudgā to blaze; gud.va flame (Man.d); gudva, gūdūvwa, guduwa id. (Kuwi)(DEDR 1715). dāntar-kuṭha = fireplace (Sv.); kōti wooden vessel for mixing yeast (Sh.); kōlhāhouse with mud roof and walls, granary (P.); kuṭhī factory (A.); koṭhā brick-built house (B.); kuṭhī bank, granary (B.); koṭho jar in which indigo is stored, warehouse (G.); koṭhī lare earthen jar, factory (G.); kuṭhīgranary, factory (M.)(CDIAL 3546). koṭho = a warehouse; a revenue office, in which dues are paid and collected; koṭhī a store-room; a factory (Gujarat) koḍ = the place where artisans work (Gujarati)

bichi , ‘hematite’ is denoted by hieroglyph bicha ‘scorpion’ (Assamese) Rebus: bica ‘stone ore’ (Santali).

A Meluhha gloss for hard stone ore or iron stone is mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) which is denoted by the hieroglyph, 'markhor'. Meluhha glosses are annexed which indicate association with cire perdue (or lost wax) method of casting metals using beeswax, particularly in the glosses for miedź, med' 'copper' in Northern Slavic and Altaic languages and in Meluhha denoting both 'copper' and 'honey', beeswax'. Meluhha trade transactions along the Tin Road may explain the presence of Meluhha glosses in northern Europe.

Chanhudaro 23a miṇḍāl ‘markhor’ (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)

Sa. mE~R~hE~'d `iron'. ! mE~RhE~d(M).

Ma. mErhE'd `iron'.

Mu. mERE'd `iron'.

~ mE~R~E~'d `iron'. ! mENhEd(M).

Ho meD `iron'.

Bj. merhd(Hunter) `iron'.

KW mENhEd

@(V168,M080)

http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/AA/Munda/ETYM/Pinnow&Munda

— Slavic glosses for 'copper'

Мед [Med]Bulgarian

Bakar Bosnian

Медзь [medz']Belarusian

Měď Czech

Bakar Croatian

KòperKashubian

Бакар [Bakar]Macedonian

Miedź Polish

Медь [Med']Russian

Meď Slovak

BakerSlovenian

Бакар [Bakar]Serbian

Мідь [mid'] Ukrainian[unquote]

http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/element.php?sym=Cu

Miedź, med' (Northern Slavic, Altaic) 'copper'.

One suggestion is that corruptions from the German "Schmied", "Geschmeide" = jewelry. Schmied, a smith (of tin, gold, silver, or other metal)(German) result in med ‘copper’.

Rebus: meḍh‘helper of merchant’ (Gujarati) meḍ iron (Ho.) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda)

h1953B and A. Two sides of a seal: One side showed a zebu with 'fish' and 'four strokes' glyphs. The other had a five-glyph inscription including the 'fish' and 'arrow'

Indus Script decipherment of hieroglyph multiplex as hypertext: pola 'magnetite' PLUS ayaskāṇḍa अयस्--काण्ड m. n. "a quantity of iron " or " excellent iron".

Hieroglyph: kōḍ, kōḍu horn:

Ta. kōṭu (in cpds. kōṭṭu-) horn, tusk, branch of tree, cluster, bunch, coil of hair, line, diagram, bank of stream or pool; kuvaṭu branch of a tree; kōṭṭāṉ, kōṭṭuvāṉ rock horned-owl (cf. 1657 Ta. kuṭiñai). Ko. ko·ṛ (obl. ko·ṭ-) horns (one horn is kob), half of hair on each side of parting, side in game, log, section of bamboo used as fuel, line marked out. To.kw&idieresisside;ṛ (obl. kw&idieresisside;ṭ-) horn, branch, path across stream in thicket. Ka. kōḍu horn, tusk, branch of a tree; kōr̤ horn. Tu. kōḍů, kōḍu horn. Te. kōḍu rivulet, branch of a river. Pa. kōḍ (pl. kōḍul) horn. Ga. (Oll.) kōr (pl. kōrgul) id. Go. (Tr.) kōr (obl. kōt-, pl. kōhk) horn of cattle or wild animals, branch of a tree; (W. Ph. A. Ch.) kōr (pl.kōhk), (S.) kōr (pl. kōhku), (Ma.) kōr̥u (pl. kōẖku) horn; (M.) kohk branch (Voc. 980); (LuS.) kogoo a horn. Kui kōju (pl. kōska) horn, antler. (DEDR 2200).

Rebus:

koḍ 'workshop' Ma. koṭṭil cowhouse, shed, workshop, house. (DEDR 2058)

Hieroglyphs: पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods पोळी [ pōḷī ] dewlap.

Hieroglyph: aya 'fish'

Rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Rigveda)

Hieroglyph 1: काण्डः kāṇḍḥ ण्डम् ṇḍam An arrow. मनो दृष्टिगतं कृत्वा ततः काण्डं विसर्जयेत् Dhanur.3; Mb.5.155.7. -कारः (-रिन्) a maker of arrows कुसीदवृत्तयः काण्डकारिणश्चाहि- तुण्डिकाः Śiva. B.31.22. -स्पृष्टः one who lives by arms, a warrior, soldier. काण्डवत् m. An archer.(Samskritam. Apte)

Hieroglyph 2: गण्डकः gaṇḍakḥ [गण्ड स्वार्थे क] A coin of the value of four cowries.A mode of reckoning by fours. (Samskritam. Apte) gaṇḍa -- m. ʻ four' (Munda) गंडा[ gaṇḍā ] m An aggregate of four (cowries or pice). (Marathi) <ganDa>(P) {NUM} ``^four''. Syn. <cari>(LS4), <hunja-mi>(D). *Sa., Mu.<ganDa> `id.', H.<gA~Da> `a group of four cowries'. %10591. #10511.<ganDa-mi>(KM) {NUM} ``^four''. |<-mi> `one'. %10600. #10520. Ju<ganDa>(P) {NUM} ``^four''. gaṇḍaka m. ʻ a coin worth four cowries ʼ lex., ʻ method of counting by fours ʼ W. [← Mu. Przyluski RoczOrj iv 234]S. g̠aṇḍho m. ʻ four in counting ʼ; P. gaṇḍā m. ʻ four cowries ʼ; B. Or. H. gaṇḍā m. ʻ a group of four, four cowries ʼ; M. gaṇḍā m. ʻ aggregate of four cowries or pice ʼ.(CDIAL 4001)

Rebus: गण्ड [p=344,1] " the chief " , best , excellent (only in comp. ; cf. -ग्राम , -मूर्ख , -शिला , &c ) L.a hero (cf. गण्डीर) L. (Monier-Williams. Samskritam) आखण्डिः ākhaṇḍiḥ आखण्डिः m. N. of an artisan.-Comp.-शाला The workshop of the artisan. (Samskritam. Apte)

Hierolypy multiplex read rebus together: अयस्--काण्ड [p= 85,1] m. n. " a quantity of iron " or " excellent iron " , (g. कस्का*दि q.v.) (Monier-Williams) अयस् a. [इ-गतौ-असुन्] Going, moving; nimble. n. (-यः) 1 Iron (एति चलति अयस्कान्तसंनिकर्षं इति तथात्वम्; नायसोल्लिख्यते रत्नम् Śukra 4.169. अभितप्तमयो$पि मार्दवं भजते कैव कथा शरीरिषु R.8.43. -2 Steel. -3 Gold. -4 A metal in general. -5 An iron instrument; यदयोनिधनं याति सो$स्य धर्मः सनातनः Mb.6.17.11. -काण्डः 1 an iron-arrow. -2 excellent iron. -3 a large quantity of iron. (Samskritam. Apte)

1. pola 'magnetite'

पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large. पोळी [ pōḷī ] dewlap. Rebus: पोळें [ pōḷēṃ ], पोळी [ pōḷī ] The cake-form portion of a honeycomb.(Marathi)

पोळी [ pōḷī ] dewlap. Rebus: Russian gloss, bulat is cognate pola 'magnetite' iron in Asuri (Meluhha). Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring igneous and metamorphic rocks with black or brownish-black with a metallic luster. These magnetite ore stones could have been identified as pola iron by Meluhha speakers. Kannada gloss pola meaning 'point of the compass' may link with the characteristic of magnetite iron used to create a compass.pŏlāduwu made of steel; pŏlād प्वलाद् or phōlād फोलाद् मृदुलोहविशेषः ] m. steel (Gr.M.; Rām. 431, 635, phōlād). pŏlödi pōlödi phōlödi लोहविशेषमयः adj. c.g. of steel, steel (Kashmiri) urukku what is melted, fused metal, steel.(Malayalam); ukk 'steel' (Telugu)(DEDR 661) This is cognate with famed 'wootz'steel. "Polad, Faulad" for steel in late Indian languages is traceable to Pokkhalavat, Polahvad. Pokkhalavat is the name of Pushkalavati, capital of Gandhara famed for iron and steel products.

Allograph: पोळें [ pōḷēṃ ] ‘honeycomb’ (shown as a pictorial motif on Lothal Seal 51).

Pictorial motif on Seal Lothal 51 is a honeycomb.

Lothal 51

pola, ‘magnetite’ is denoted by pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’ hieroglyphs. polo, pwālo ʻ beehive ʼ (Nepali); polo id. (Ku.)(CDIAL 8398)
M. poḷ m. ʻ bull dedicated to the gods ʼ; Si. pollā ʻ young of an animal ʼ.

4. Pk. pōāla -- m. ʻ child, bull ʼ; A. powāli ʻ young of animal or bird ʼ(CDIAL 8399)

A tool used to use the magnetic qualities of iron is a lodestone (which is a natural magnetic iron oxide mineral). Such a tool could have enabled ancient blacksmiths to identify and distinguish a type if iron ore called ‘magnetite’ called in Meluhha: pola (which yields the Russian bulat steel) made from Latin wootz (Meluhha ukku).

CP Thornton had called for a paradigm shift in archaeometallurgical studies focusing on socio-cultural contexts. Consistent with this shift, in a remarkable monograph, Oleg D. Sherby and Jeffrey Wadworth underline the need for a fresh look at the categories called ‘bronze age’ and ‘iron age’. Reviewing the artistic accomplishments of Damascus steel swords using ultrahigh carbon steels (with 1.0 to 2.1% carbon), calling them hypereutectoid steels with improved mechanical properties, Oleg D. Sherby and Jeffrey Wadworth start with the question of ‘Iron Age’ the start of which received wisdom dates to 1000 BCE. They posit that possibility that iron age started well before the full bronze age, noting that ancient blacksmith had demonstrated the competence in three melting procedures needed to manufacture high-tin bronzes. They note: “The likelihood of wrought iron being utilized extensively at the start of, and even before, the copper and early Bronze Age is certainly supported by the fact that it is easier to produce. It would also have been motivated by the knowledge that wrought iron is considerably stronger than copper and early (unintentionally alloyed) bronze…wrought iron, even in its softest condition, has about the same hardness as hardened copper and early bronze. When wrought iron is cold or warm worked its hardness increases by a factor of two, making it considerably superior to copper and early bronze…When Damascus steels are warm worked their hardness is double that of warm worked wrought iron. Furthermore, Damascus steels can be heat treated to obtain very high hardness resulting in steels that are five times stronger than the strongest wrought iron. These steels represent a revolutionary change in the use of metals.”

Oleg D. Sherby and Jeffrey Wadworth proceed to suggest a provocative sequence of the iron and bronze ages. They speculate that Iron and early Bronze ages began at a similar time period (i.e. 7000 BCE) in large villages which were the scene of human activity. “Examples are Jericho, and Catal Huyuk and Hallan Cemi in Turkey. The town of Jericho is reported to have had 2,500 inhabitants at the time of its prime in 7000 BCE. The story of Catal Huyuk in Turkey is equally impressive with a history dating back to at least 6000 BCE, with a population estimated at over 7,000 people. Evidence of open hearths abounded in these ancient cities. Waldbaum (JC Waldbaum, in: Theodore A. Wertime and James D. Muhly (Eds.), The coming of the Age of Iron, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1980, pp. 127-150) has documented fourteen iron objects at another four sites dating before 3000 BCE. The oldest object is a four-sided instrument from a gravesite at Samara in northern Iraq, dated ca.5000 BCE. The object, which appears to be a tool, was identified as man-made iron. The full Bronze Age and the iron-carbon (Damascus steel) age are…at about 2500 to 2000 BCE where alloying was deliberately introduced as a way of increasing the strength of copper and iron. In this period, melting and remelting was extensively used. Contemporary metallurgists and blacksmiths who have made wrought iron, often consider that such a product could have been made going back to the era of Neanderthal man who dominated the European and African scene from 300,000 to 40,000 years ago. The original wrought iron was probably made in an open hearth where strong winds were available to reduce the starting material, iron oxide ore, into iron according to the reaction: iron oxide + charcoal + oxygen = iron + liquid slag + CO2…iron oxide was mined in many places. Iron oxide is known as ochre and the most common oxide is hematite (Fe2O3).”

Bulat steel blade of a knife "Bulat is a type of steel alloy known in Russia from medieval times; regularly being mentioned in Russian legends as the material of choice for cold steel. The name булат is a Russian transliteration of the Persian word fulad, meaning steel. This type of steel was used by the armies of nomadic peoples. Bulat steel was the main type of steel used for swords in the armies of Genghis Khan, the great emperor of the Mongolian Empire. The technique used in making wootz steel has been lost for centuries and the bulat steel used today makes use of a more recently developed technique...Carbon steel consists of two components: pure iron, in the form of ferrite, and cementite or iron carbide, a compound of iron and carbon. Cementite is very hard and brittle; its hardness is about 640 by the Brinell hardness test, whereas ferrite is only 200. The amount of the carbon and the cooling regimen determine the crystalline and chemical composition of the final steel. In bulat, the slow cooling process allowed the cementite to precipitate as micro particles in between ferrite crystals and arrange in random patterns. The color of the carbide is dark while steel is grey. This mixture is what leads to the famous patterning of Damascus steel.Cementite is essentially a ceramic, which accounts for the sharpness of the Damascus (and bulat) steel. "
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulat_steel

Picture shows 18th-century Persian-forged sword made from Damascus. Crucible steels, such as wootz steel and Damascus steel, exhibit unique banding patterns because of the intermixed ferrite and cementite alloys in the steel. "Wootz steel is a crucible steel characterized by a pattern of bands, which are formed by sheets of micro carbides within a tempered martensite or pearlite matrix in higher carbon steel, or by ferrite and pearlite banding in lower carbon steels. It is the pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in Southern India in the 6th century BCE and exported globally. It was also known in the ancient world by many different names including Wootz, Ukku, Hindvi Steel, Hinduwani Steel, Teling Steel and Seric Iron...Wootz steel originated in India.There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel since the time of Alexander's India campaign. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BCE,at production sites of Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, Golconda in Telangana, Karnataka and Sri Lanka and exported globally; the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty producing what was termed the finest steel in the world, i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BCE The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz." The Tamilakam method was to heat black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give wrought iron, then heated and hammered to be rid of slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as Avārai.... A 200 BCE Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period.The Arabs introduced the South Indian/Sri Lankan wootz steel to Damascus, where an industry developed for making weapons of this steel. The 12th century Arab traveler Edrisi mentioned the "Hinduwani" or Indian steel as the best in the world...Another sign of its reputation is seen in a Persian phrase – to give an "Indian answer", meaning "a cut with an Indian sword." (Manning, Charlotte Speir. Ancient and Medieval India2. p. 365.) Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe and the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wootz_steel

Wootz was imported into the Middle East from Im India. (Jeffrey Wadsworth and Oleg D. Sherby (1980). "On the Bulat – Damascus Steel Revisited". Prog. Mater. Sci. 25 (1): 35–68)

urukku, n. < -. [T. ukku, K. urku, M. urukku.] 1. Steel; . ( .) 2. Anything melted, product of liquefaction; . ( . . 91). urukku-t-taṭṭār , n. < id. +. Goldsmiths; . ( . 5, 31, .) urukku-maṇal , n. < - +. Iron ore, iron-sand; . (W.) - uruku-, 5 v. intr. [M. uruhu.] 1. To dissolve with heat; to melt, liquefy; to be fused; . eḵkam, n. < -. 1. Sharpness, pointedness; . ( . . 12). 2. Any weapon made of steel; . ( .) 3. Sword; . ( . 19). 4. Lance; . ( . 119). 5. Discus; . ( .) 6. Javelin; . ( .) 7. Trident; . ( . . 11.) ² eḵku

, n. < -. 1. Edge, pointedness, keenness; . ( , 773). 2. Acuteness of intellect, mental acumen; . ( , 137). 3. Steel; . ( .) 4. Weapon in general; . ( .) 5. Lance; . ( . 10, 109). - eḵku-paṭu-, v. intr. < id. +. To melt; to soften; . ( . 15, 210, ) உருக்கு² urukku, n. < உருக்கு-. [T. ukku, K. urku, M. urukku.] 1. Steel; எஃகு. (சூடா.) 2. Anything melted, product of liquefaction; உருக் கினபொருள். செப்புருக் கனைய (கம்பரா. கார்கா. 91).உருக்குத்தட்டார் urukku-t-taṭṭār

, n. < id. +. Goldsmiths; பொற்கொல்லர். (சிலப். 5, 31, உரை.)உருக்குமணல் urukku-maṇal

, n. < உருக் கு- +. Iron ore, iron-sand; அயமணல். (W.) எஃகம் eḵkam

, n. < எஃகு-. 1. Sharpness, pointedness; கூர்மை. எஃகவேற் புங்கவன் (கந்தபு. அவைய. 12). 2. Any weapon made of steel; உருக்காயுதப் பொது. (சூடா.) 3. Sword; வ��ள். எஃகம் புலியுறைகழிப்பு (பதிற்றுப். 19). 4. Lance; வேல். புலவுவாயெஃகம் (பெரும்பாண். 119). 5. Discus; சக்கரம். (திவா.) 6. Javelin; பிண்டி பாலம். (திவா.) 7. Trident; சூலம். (கம்பரா. மந் தரை. 11.)எஃகு² eḵku

, n. < எஃகு-. 1. Edge, pointedness, keenness; கூர்மை. ஒன்றுற்றக்கா லூராண்மை மற்றத னெஃகு (குறள், 773). 2. Acuteness of intellect, mental acumen; மதிநுட்பம். இகலில ரெஃகுடையார் தம்முட் குழீஇ (நாலடி, 137). 3. Steel; உருக்கு. (சூடா.) 4. Weapon in general; ஆயுதப்பொது. (பிங்.) 5. Lance; வேல். எஃகொடு வாண்மா றுழக்கி (பரிபா. 10, 109).

"In the Muslim world of the 9th-12th centuries CE, the production of fuladh, a Persian word, has been described by Al-Kindi, Al-Biruni and Al-Tarsusi, from narm-ahanand shaburqan, two other Persian words representing iron products obtained by direct reduction of the ore. Ahan means iron. Narm-ahan is a soft iron and shaburqan a harder one or able to be quench-hardened. Old nails and horse-shoes were also used as base for fuladh preparation. It must be noticed that, according to Hammer- Purgstall, there was no Arab word for steel, which explain the use of Persian words. Fuladh prepared by melting in small crucibles can be considered as a steel in our modem classification, due to its properties (hardness, quench hardened ability, etc.). The word fuladh means "the purified" as explained by Al-Kindi. This word can be found as puladh, for instance in Chardin (1711 AD) who called this product; poulad jauherder, acier onde, which means "watering steel", a characteristic of what was called Damascene steel in Europe."

The magnetite ore stones are identified as pola iron by Meluhha speakers. अयस्कान्त [p= 85,1] m.
(g. कस्का*दि) , " iron-lover " , the loadstone (cf. कान्ता*यस) Ragh. xvii , 63 , &c; ayaskānta m S (The iron gem.) The loadstone. (Marathi) Lodestone or Loadstone or Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring igneous and metamorphic rocks with black or brownish-black with a metallic luster.

Lodestones are naturally-occurring magnets, which can attract iron. Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite.

[quote]Magnetite, a ferrimagnetic mineral with chemical formula Fe3O4, one of several iron oxides, is one of the more common meteor-wrongs. Magnetite displays a black exterior and magnetic properties....A piece of intensely magnetic magnetite was used as an early form of magnetic compass. Iron, steel and ordinary magnetite are attracted to a magnetic field, including the Earth's magnetic field. Only magnetite with a particular crystalline structure, lodestone, can act as a natural magnet and attract and magnetize iron. The name "magnet" comes from lodestones found in a place called Magnesia. [unquote] http://meteorite-identification.com/Hot%20Rocks/magnetite.html

See: Srinivasan, Sharada; Ranganathan, Srinivasa (2004). "India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World". Iron & Steel Heritage of India. Bangalore: National Institute of Advanced Studies: 69–82.

See: http://tinyurl.com/nsfgedh Pōlāda: archaeometallurgy of ancient Indian metalwork. Signified on Indus Script Corpora by hieroglyph: zebu, bos indicus
See: http://met.iisc.ernet.in/~rangu/text.pdf (india's legendary 'wootz' steel - Materials Engineering)

Wootz Steel as the Acme of Mankind’s Metallurgical Heritage

“Wootz was the first high-quality steel made anywhere in the world. According to reports of travelers to the East, the Damascus swords were made by forging small cakes of steel that were manufactured in Southern India. This steel was called wootz steel. It was more than a thousand years before steel as good was made in the West.” -J. D. Verhoeven and A. Pendray, Muse, 1998
... ‘…’pulad’ of Central Asia. The oasis of Merv where crucible steel was also made by the medieval period lies in this region. The term ‘pulad’ appears in Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrianism and in a Manicheen text of Chinese Turkestan. There are many variations of this term ranging from the Persian ‘polad’, the Mongolian ‘bolat’ and ‘tchechene’, the Russian ‘bulat’, the Ukrainian and Armenian ‘potovat’, Turkish and Arab ‘fulad’, ‘farlad’ in Urdu and ‘phaulad’ in Hindi. It is this bewildering variety of descriptions that was used in the past that makes a study of this subject so challenging.’ (p.30)

PWLẠD (پولاد) > BOLD RUSSIAN (ПОЛАД) ORIGIN: PERSIAN (TĀJĪK) / MONGOLIAN

INDO-EUROPEAN > INDO-IRANIAN > INDO-ARYAN

This name derives from the Mongolian (Qalq-a ayalγu) “Bold”, from the Persian (Tājīk) "pwlạd", meaning “steel”. Bolad († 1313), was a Mongol minister of the Yuan Dynasty, and later served in the Ilkhanate as the representative of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and cultural adviser to the Ilkhans. Geographical spread:

http://www.name-doctor.com/name-polad-meaning-of-polad-25852.html

See: http://tinyurl.com/zadb5cz

Rebus 1: pōḷa ‘magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4'.

पोळ [ pōḷa ] ‘magnetite (ore)’ (Asuri) पोलाद (p. 533) [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel (Marathi)

Rebus 2: pol m. ʻgate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate': Ka. por̤al town, city. Te. prōlu, (inscr.) pr̤ōl(u) city. ? (DEDR 4555) पोवळ or पोंवळ [ pōvaḷa or pōṃvaḷa ] f पोवळी or पोंवळी f The court-wall of a temple. (Marathi) *pratōlika ʻ gatekeeper ʼ. [pratōlī -- ] H. pauliyā, pol°, pauriyā m. ʻ gatekeeper ʼ, G. poḷiyɔ m.(CDIAL 8632) pratōlī f. ʻ gate of town or fort, main street ʼ MBh. [Cf. tōlikā -- . -- Perh. conn. with tōraṇa -- EWA ii 361, less likely with *ṭōla -- ] Pk. paōlī -- f. ʻ city gate, main street ʼ; WPah. (Joshi) prauḷ m., °ḷi f., pauḷ m., °ḷi f. ʻ gateway of a chief ʼ, proḷ ʻ village ward ʼ; H. paul, pol m. ʻ gate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate ʼ, paulī f. ʻ gate ʼ; OG. poli f. ʻ door ʼ; G. poḷi f. ʻ street ʼ; M. pauḷ, poḷ f. ʻ wall of loose stones ʼ. -- Forms with -- r -- poss. < *pradura -- : OAw. paüri ʻ gatepost ʼ; H. paur, °rī, pãwar, °rī f. ʻ gate, door ʼ.WPah.poet. prɔ̈̄ḷ m., prɔḷo m., prɔḷe f. ʻ gate of palace or temple ʼ.(CDIAL 8633) Porin (adj.) [fr. pora=Epic Sk. paura citizen, see pura. Semantically cp. urbane>urbanus>urbs; polite= poli/ths>po/lis. For pop. etym. see DA i.73 & 282] belonging to a citizen, i. e. citizenlike, urbane, polite, usually in phrase porī vācā polite speech D i.4, 114; S i.189; ii.280=A ii.51; A iii.114; Pug 57; Dhs 1344; DA i.75, 282; DhsA 397. Cp. BSk. paurī vācā MVastu iii.322. Porisa2 (nt.) [abstr. fr. purisa, *pauruṣyaŋ, cp. porisiya and poroseyya] 1. business, doing of a man (or servant, cp. purisa 2), service, occupation; human doing, activity M i.85 (rāja˚); Vv 6311 (=purisa -- kicca VvA 263); Pv iv.324 (uṭṭhāna˚=purisa -- viriya, purisa -- kāra PvA 252). -- 2. height of a man M. i.74, 187, 365.(Pali) పౌరము [ pauramu ] pauramu. [Skt. from పుర.] adj. Belonging to a city or town (పురము.) పౌరసతులు the ladies of the place: citizens' wives. పౌరలోకము paura-lōkamu. n. The townsfolk, a body of citizens. పౌరుడు pauruḍu. n. A citizen. పౌరులు citizens, townsfolk.(Telugu)

Toy animals made for the Pola festival especially celebrated by the Dhanoje Kunbis. (Bemrose, Colo. Derby - Russell, Robert Vane (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India: volume IV. Descriptive articles on the principal castes and tribes of the Central Provinces. London: Macmillan and Co., limited. p. 40).

Rebus: cattle festival: पोळा [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. "Pola is a bull-worshipping festival celebrated by farmers mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra (especially among the Kunbis). On the day of Pola, the farmers decorate and worship their bulls. Pola falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya (the new moon day) in the month of Shravana (usually in August)."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_(festival) Festival held on the day after Sankranti ( = kANum) is called pōlāla paNDaga (Telugu).

These toy animals are comaprable to the Daimabad bronze chariot. It is possible that the chariot was a celebration of the Pola cattle festival.

“Pola, amongst the Mahrattas, a bull set at large, dedicated to Siva or Vishnu and stamped with the trident or discus. The Pola festival is held on the new moon of Sravana or Bhadra (July-September), in which bullocks are exempt from labour, are decorated and led through the fown in procession.” (Edward Balfour (1885). The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia. B. Quaritch. p. 241).

"Pola is a bull-respecting festival celebrated by farmers mainly in the Indian state of Chhattisgarhand Maharashtra (पोळा), Northern parts of Telangana as Polala Amavasya (పొలాల అమావాస్య). On the day of Pola, the farmers decorate and respect their bulls. Pola falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya (the new moon day) in the month of Shravana (usually in August).Pola is mainly a farmer's festival, wherein farmers respect their bulls and oxe, to thank them for their support in farming. It occurs after the monsoon sowing and field work, typically in late August or early September. On the day of Pola, the bulls are first given a bath, and then decorated with ornaments and shawls. Their horns are painted, and their necks are adorned with garlands of flowers. The bulls do not work that day, and they are part of procession where farmers celebrate the crop season. The work of decorated bulls, accompanied by the music and dancing, are carried out in the evenings. The first bullock to go out is an old bullock with a wooden frame (called makhar) tied on its horns. This bullock is made to break a rope of mango leaves stretched between two posts, and is followed by all the other cattle in the village.The festival is found among Marathas in central and eastern Maharashtra.A similar festival is observed by Hindus in other parts of India, and is called Mattu Pongal in south and Godhan in north and west India."

Oxen are decorated with such ornaments on the pola.

Ashy Drongo - Dicrurus leucophaeus, Marudam Farm School, Zebu - Bos primigenius indicus,

The hypertext expression is demonstrated in a number of examples from Sindhu-Sarasvati (Indus) Script Corpora in this monograph.

पोळ pōḷa, 'Zebu, bos indicus' of Sarasvati Script corpora is rebus:pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), fuladh(Persian) folādī (Pashto)
pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore) pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: pōḷad 'steel' The semantics of bull (zebu) PLUS black drongo bird are the reason why the terracotta bird is shown with a bull's head as a phonetic determinative to signify 'steel/magnetite ferrite ore'.

పోలడు (p. 820) pōlaḍu , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.) rebus: pōlaḍu 'steel' (Russian. Persian) PLUS

wings/plumage

Cylinder seal impression, Tell as-Sulema, Mesopotamia, level IV (Akkadian to Early Old Babylonian --1950–1530 BCE)(IM 87798); gypsum; length 2.6 cm., dia. 1.6 cm. Drawing by Lamia Al-Gailani Werr; cf. Collon 1987: 143, no. 609; Parpola, 1994, p. 181; bird over a unicorn; fish over a bison.al-Gailani Werr, 1983, p. 49 No. 7; Collon, 1987, Fig. 609.

Black drongo bird

A Black drongo in Rajasthan state, northern India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drongo

పసి (p. 730) pasi pasi. [from Skt. పశువు.] n. Cattle. పశుసమూహము, గోగణము. The smell of cattle, పశ్వాదులమీదిగాలి, వాసన. పసిపట్టు pasi-paṭṭu. To scent or follow by the nose, as a dog does a fox. పసిగొను to trace out or smell out. వాసనపట్టు. మొసలి కుక్కను పసిపట్టి when the crocodile scented the dog. పసులు pasulu. n. plu. Cattle, గోవులు. పసిగాపు pasi-gāpu. n. A herdsman, గోపకుడు పసితిండి pasi-tinḍi. n. A tiger, పెద్దపులి. పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu. n. The Black Drongo or King crow, Dicrurusater. (F.B.I.) ఏట్రింత. Also, the Adjutant. తోకపసులపోలిగాడు the Raquet-tailed Drongo shrike. Jerdon. No. 55. 56. 59. కొండ పనులపోలిగాడు the White bellied Drongo, Dicrurus coerulescens. వెంటికపనుల పోలిగాడు the Hair-crested Drongo, Chibia hottentotta. టెంకిపనుల పోలిగాడు the larger Racket-tailed Drongo, Dissemurus paradiseus (F.B.I.) పసులవాడు pasula-vāḍu. n. A herdsman, గొల్లవాడు.

Image result for bird zebu fish bull indus seal

Nausharo. Pot.

Ceramic from Nausharo showing transition from Early to Mature Phase of Sarasvati Civilization (Image after Jarrige, J.F., 1989, Excavations at Nausharo )

"With short legs, they sit upright on thorny bushes, bare perches or electricity wires. They may also perch on grazing animals."(Whistler, Hugh (1949). Popular handbook of Indian birds (4th ed.). Gurney and Jackson, London. pp. 155-157.) Hence, the expression, పనుల పోలిగాడు in Telugu: పసులు pasulu. n. plu. Cattle, గోవులు. పసిగాపు pasi-gāpu. n. A herdsman, గోపకుడు పసితిండి pasi-tinḍi. n. A tiger, పెద్దపులి. పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu. n. The Black Drongo or King crow, Dicrurusater. (F.B.I.) ఏట్రింత. Also, the Adjutant. తోకపసులపోలిగాడు the Raquet-tailed Drongo shrike. Jerdon. No. 55. 56. 59. కొండ పనులపోలిగాడు the White bellied Drongo, Dicrurus coerulescens. వెంటికపనుల పోలిగాడు the Hair-crested Drongo, Chibia hottentotta. టెంకిపనుల పోలిగాడు the larger Racket-tailed Drongo, Dissemurus paradiseus (F.B.I.) పసులవాడు pasula-vāḍu. n. A herdsman, గొల్లవాడు. Related image

A zebu bull tied to a post; a bird above. Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE.

Nausharo, Mehrgarh: ceramique c. 2500 BCE, C. Jarrige. Nausharo was inhabited later than Mehrgarh, probably first from about 2800 BCE C. Jarrige

http://www.guimet.fr/La-mission-archeologique-de-l,636

loc. cit. http://www.waa.ox.ac.uk/XDB/tours/indus6.asp

Roger Matthews, 2002, Zebu: harbingers of doom in Bronze Age western Asia? in: Antiquity 76 (2002) Number: 292: 438-446

https://www.scribd.com/doc/115702890/Ant-0760438 "The significance of zebu, or humped cattle as potential indicators of episodes of aridification in the Bronze Age of western Asia is explored through study of figurines and faunal remains from Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia."

After Fig. 3 in Roger Matthew: Zebu figurines from selected Bronze Age sites of western Asia. 1. Tepe Gawra, Iraq, after Speiser (1935: plate 77.5). 2. Tell Brak. Syria. see also Figure 4.3 Tell Brak, Syria, after McDonald (1997: 279, 20). 4. Tell Brak, Syria, after McDonald (1997: 279:22). 5. Tell Munbaqa, Syria, after Czichon & Werner (1998: Tafel 82: 456). 6. Meskono Emar, Syria, after Beyer (1982: 104, figure 6). 7. Geven Gedigi, Turkey, after Miller (1989: Abb 27:1)

After Figs. 1 and 2 in Roger Matthew. Zebu at rest between jobs, rajasthan, India. Zebu hauling a plough, Rajasthan, India. (Photos Mike Wells, 1980, 1982).

""In the Ganges river area of north India large quantities of bones, putatively from Bos indicus, have been recovered from the Mesolithic site of Sarai-Nahar-Rai, dated to around 8000 BCE, and there is a suggestion that some of the bones are from domesticated zebu (Allchin & Allchin 1982: 77). More convincing evidednce comes from sites in Baluchistan, modern Pakistan, with morphologically attested domestication of zebu at the site of Mehrgarh by 6000 BCE, and at Rana Gundai in the 5th-4th millennia BCE." (Roger Matthew, opcit., pp.440-441)

This remarkable study by Roger Matthews traces the migrations out of India into the Ancient Near East: “Uncertain early occurrences of zebu depictions in Mesopotamia include a highly dubious figurine from Arpachiyah near Mosul in north Iraq, of 5th-millennium date (Mallowan & Rose 1935: figure 48:14), depictions on seals from Nineveh of about 3000 BC (Zeuner 1963: 239), a clay tablet from Larsa with seal impression showing a zebu (Epstein 1971: 508), and a marble amulet from Ur in the form of a zebu (Hornblower 1927), both the Larsa and Ur items perhaps dating to around 3000 BC. At about the same time, late 4th millennium, representations of zebu are found as figurines and painted pottery motifs at Susa in southwest Iran (Epstein 1971: 508; Zeuner 1963: 239). These often questionable occurrences suggest that zebu may have been familiar beasts to some of the inhabitants of south Mesopotamia by 3000 BC, although their physical presence there has yet to be confirmed by the scant archaeozoological evidence. Significantly, zebu are not so far attested in any form, artistic rendering or faunal remains, in regions to the west or north of Mesopotamia before 2000 BCE. From 2500 BCE onwards there are increasing representations of zebu in the form of figurines and motifs on seals and painted pottery in the material culture of the Indus valley and beyond, at sites such as Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, as well as the Quetta-Pishin valley and the Makran coast of Baluchistan (Epstein & Mason 1984: 15; Zeuner 1963: 236). From here zebu probably reached Oman and the head of the Persian Gulf (Potts 1997: 257), and spread to the world-view of south Mesopotamia by the 3rd millennium BC. A stone bowl sherd, of mid 3rd-millennium date, from Tell Agrab in the Diyala region northeast of Baghdad, shows an impressive zebu bull (Zeuner 1963: 217), and a well-executed sketch of a zebu head and shoulder is preserved on a clay tablet of later 3rd-millennium date from Tell Asmar, also in the Diyala region (Frankfort 1934: figure 18). In Iranian Seistan zebu bones and figurines are attested in great quantities at the site of Shahr-i Sokhta in the period c. 2900-2500 BC (Ports 1997: 255), while later, questionable, examples occur at Anau in Turkmenistan (Pumpelly 1908: plate 47:4). As to north Mesopotamia, a well-shaped and painted example of a zebu bull from level IV at Tepe Gawra (FIGURE 3:1) dates probably to the mid 2nd millennium BC but may be earlier (Speiser 1935: plate 77:5). Also in north Mesopotamia, zebu are attested at Tell Brak in the form of figurines (FIGURES 3:2, 4) and bifurcate vertebrae (FIGURE 5) from levels dating to 1700-1600 BC (Matthews 1995: 98-9), as well as figurines from mid 2nd-millennium levels (McDonald 1997: 131) (FIGURES 3:3-4). Perhaps significantly, zebu are not depicted in the glyptic art of Brak in the 3rd millennium, a rich source of depictions of domesticated and wild animals (Matthews et al. 1994), nor are they depicted on the elaborately painted ceramics of highland Anatolia and the Caucasus of the early 2nd millennium which host depictions of many other animals (Ozfirat 2001). Approximately contemporary with the Brak zebu evidence, at around 1700 BC, is a fine example of a figurine from the nearby site of Chagar Bazar, sporting a painted representation of what may be a harness (Mallowan 1937: figure 10:30). From Beydar, to the northwest of Tell Brak, comes an ivory furniture inlay with zebu in relief, dated to 1400 BC (Bretschneider 2000: 65) and a plain zebu figurine comes from mid 2nd-millennium BC levels at Tall Hamad Aga in north Iraq (Spanos 1988: Abb 18:2). An early 2nd-millennium context at Ishchali in the Diyala region yielded a fine clay plaque depicting a bull zebu ridden by a man who grasps the animal's hump in one hand while inserting his knees under a simple belt around the its waist (Frankfort 1954: plate 59:c). [FIGURES 3-5 OMITTED] A fragmentary zebu figurine comes from late 2nd-millennium levels at Tell Sabi Abyad in northwest Mesopotamia (Akkermans 1993:31, figure 23:85). Large quantities of zebu figurines, varying in their degree of elaboration, have been found in Late Bronze Age deposits at Tell Munbaqa in north Syria (Machule et al. 1986; 1990; Czichon & Werner 1998: Taf 80-5) (FIGURE 3:5). There are also zebu figurines from the Late Bronze Age site of Meskene-Emar on the north Syrian Euphrates not far from Munbaqa (Beyer 1982: 104) (FIGURE 3:6), from mid 2nd-millennium BC period II at Umm el-Marra west of the Syrian Euphrates (Curvers & Schwartz 1997: figure 21) and from level VII of Alalakh in northwest Syria, dated to early/mid 2nd millennium (Woolley 1955: plate 57:a). Cylinder seals of 13th-century BC date from Upper Mesopotamia depict humped cattle pulling ploughs (Wiggermann 2000: figure 7) and there is a zebu pendant of 13th-century BC date from Assur on the Tigris in north-central Iraq (Boehmer 1972: 168, Abb 51). Zebu figurines appear in level 3A of Haradum on the Iraqi Euphrates, dated to the mid 17th century BC (Kepinski-Lecomte 1992: figure 159:6-7). On a Kassite seal from Mesopotamia, dated to c. 1500 BC, zebu are depicted drawing ploughs (Epstein 1971: 515). A study of cattle astragali from archaeological sites of western Asia has detected the gradual development of distinctive cattle breeds throughout the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, followed by an episode of rapid change at the end of the 2nd millennium, that is at the end of the Late Bronze Age (Buitenhuis 1984: 216). Buitenhuis connects this episode with the large-scale introduction of zebu into western Asia at this time, leading to cross-breeding of taurine and zebu stock (Buitenhuis 1984: 216). As we have seen above, it is possible that zebu had already been introduced to Mesopotamia by the mid 3rd millennium BC, but it seems that their spread into Syria and the Levant did not occur until the mid-later 2nd millennium.”

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Zebu%3a+harbingers+of+doom+in+Bronze+Age+western+Asia%3f-a089075892

Mohenjo-daro

Banawali Seal

Mohenjo-daro. Seal. steatite 2.8x2.8x1.3 cm

Mohenjo-daro Seals m1118 and Kalibangan 032, glyphs used are: Zebu (bos taurus indicus), fish, four-strokes (allograph: arrow).ayo ‘fish’ (Mu.) + kaṇḍa ‘arrow’ (Skt.) ayaskāṇḍa ‘a quantity of iron, excellent iron’ (Pāṇ.gaṇ) aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) gaṆḌa, ‘four’ (Santali); Rebus: kaṇḍ ‘fire-altar’, ‘furnace’), arrow read rebus in mleccha (Meluhhan) as a reference to a guild of artisans working with ayaskāṇḍa ‘excellent quantity of iron’ (Pāṇini) is consistent with the primacy of economic activities which resulted in the invention of a writing system, now referred to as Indus Writing.

khũṭro = entire bull; khũṭ= bra_hman.i bull (G.) khuṇṭiyo = an uncastrated bull (Kathiawad. G.lex.) khũ_ṭaḍum a bullock (used in Jhālwāḍ)(G.) kuṇṭai = bull (Ta.lex.) cf. khũ_dhi hump on the back; khuĩ_dhũ hump-backed (G.)(CDIAL 3902). Rebus: kūṭa a house, dwelling (Skt.lex.) khũṭ = a community, sect, society, division, clique, schism, stock; khũṭren peṛa kanako = they belong to the same stock (Santali)

Allograph: काण्डः kāṇḍḥ ण्डम् ṇḍam The portion of a plant from one knot to another. काण्डात्काण्ड- त्प्ररोहन्ती Mahānār.4.3. A stem, stock, branch; लीलोत्खातमृणालकाण्डकवलच्छेदे U.3.16; Amaru.95; Ms. 1.46,48, Māl.3.34.

కాండము [ kāṇḍamu ] kānḍamu. [Skt.] n. Water. నీళ్లు (Telugu) kaṇṭhá -- : (b) ʻ water -- channel ʼ: Paš. kaṭāˊ ʻ irrigation channel ʼ, Shum. xãṭṭä. (CDIAL 14349).

lokhãḍ ‘overflowing pot’ Rebus: ʻtools, iron, ironwareʼ (Gujarati)

काण्ड an arrow MBh. xiii , 265 Hit. (Monier-Williams, p. 269) Rebus: काण्ड abundance; a multitude , heap , quantity (ifc.) Pa1n2. 4-2 , 51 Ka1s3.

Figurine of zebu, humped bull discovered in Binjor 4MSR http://www.dailypioneer.com/vivacity/revelations-in-history.html

Addorsed zebu, Rakhigarhi. dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: pōḷa 'magenetite, ferrite ore'. Thus the addorsed pair of zebus signifies: dul pōḷa, 'magnetite casting'. [After Fig. 69 in: KN Dikshit, 2013, Origin of early Harappan cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent archaeological evidence and radiometric dates, Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology No. 9, 2013, pp. 88 to 142 (Plates)]

m0451A

m0451B

Text 3235

Field symbol 1: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu, bos indicus taurus' rebus: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, ferrite ore: Fe3O4'

Field symbol 2: seṇa 'falcon' rebus: seṇa, aśani 'thunderbolt', āhan gar 'blacksmith' PLUS kambha 'wing' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage[Metwork catalogues: ferrite ore, blacksmith mint] Alternate titles: sēnāpati m. ʻ leader of an army ʼ AitBr. [sḗnā -- , páti -- ]Pa. sēnāpati -- , °ika -- m. ʻ general ʼ, Pk. sēṇāvaï -- m.; M. śeṇvaī, °vī, śeṇai m. ʻ a class of Brahmans ʼ, Ko. śeṇvi; Si. senevi ʻgeneralʼ.(CDIAL 13589) Vikalpa:eruvai ‘eagle’ rebus: eruvai ‘copper’

Text 3235

loa 'ficus glomerata' Rebus: loha 'copper, iron'. PLUS karṇī  ‘ears’ rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' [supercargo in charge of copper, iron ores]

kuṭila ‘bent’ CDIAL 3230 kuṭi— in cmpd. ‘curve’, kuṭika— ‘bent’ MBh. Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass'  Old English ār 'brass, copper, bronze' Old Norse eir 'brass, copper', German ehern 'brassy, bronzen'. kastīra n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. 2. kastilla -- .1. H. kathīr* m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; G. kathīr n. ʻ pewter ʼ.2. H. (Bhoj.?) kathīl, °lā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; M. kathīl n. ʻ tin ʼ, kathlẽ n. ʻ large tin vessel ʼ(CDIAL 2984) कौटिलिकः kauṭilikḥकौटिलिकः 1 A hunter.-2 A blacksmith PLUS dula ‘duplicated’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’. Thus, bronze castings. [bronze castings]

khaṇḍa 'division'. rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' [metal implement castings]

dhāḷ 'slanted stroke' rebus: dhāḷako 'ingot' PLUS खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon).  khaṇḍa 'implements'. Thus, ingots and implements [ingots, implements]

ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' (Rigveda) PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.PLUS sal ‘splinter’ rebus: sal ‘workshop’ [alloy metal mint workshop]

Thus, the Mohenjodaro tablet is a metalwork catalogue of: 1.ferrite ore; 2.blacksmith mint, army general.

Accounted sub-categories:

[supercargo in charge of copper, iron ores]
[bronze castings]
[metal implement castings]
[ingots, implements]
[alloy metal mint workshop]
Chanhu-darho in Sindh in 1935-36. Steatite, Height: 3.20 Width: 3.20 cm (h:1 1/4 w:1 1/4 inches). Courtesy of The Cleveland Museum of Art, J. H. Wade Fund 1973.160.
poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite'
kaNDa 'square/divisions' rebus: kANDa 'implements' dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' PLUS meD 'body' rebus: meD 'iron or copper' Thus, metal implements.
Parenthesis may be orthographically a split rhombus, shaped like an ingot: Hieroglyph: mūhā 'ingot' rebus: mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; kolhe tehen me~ṛhe~t mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali) PLUS karaNDava 'aquatic bird' rebus: karaDa 'hard alloy' thus, hard alloy ingot.

khareḍo = a currycomb (Gujarati) खरारा [ kharārā ] m ( H) A currycomb. 2 Currying a horse. (Marathi) Rebus: 1. करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) 2. kharādī ‘ turner’ (Gujarati)

The hypertext message is thus a metalwork catalogue of a metals turner working with iron, hard alloy ingots and magnetite (ferrite ore).

Mohenjodaro seal (M-262) poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite ore' meD 'body' rebus: meD 'iron' med 'copper' gaNDa 'four' rebus: khaNDa 'implements'. Thus iron implements.

DK7856 Text 2923 Perhaps identical with DK7535 Text 2925 Line 1 (hence, missing hieroglyphs are surmised).

LIne 1: Hieroglyph: kolmo 'paddy plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS aḍaren 'lid' Rebus: aduru 'unsmelted metal ore' ayas 'metal'
ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin'
kōnṭa corner (Nk.)(DEDR 2054b) Rebus: kõdā 'to turn in a lathe'(B.) कोंद kōnda 'engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems'. खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.
kana, kanac = corner (Santali); Rebus: kañcu = bronze (Telugu)
aḍaren 'lid' Rebus: aduru 'unsmelted metal ore' ayas 'metal'
खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). (Marathi) Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’.
dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' PLUS eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper' arA 'spoke' rebus Ara 'brass'. Thus, brass metal casting

Line 2:
kolmo 'paddy plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.
kuTi 'water-carrier' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'
gaNDa 'four' rebus: kanda 'fire-altar'
dula 'two' rebus: dul 'cast metal'
kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'
The 'arch' hieroglyph (5th hieroglyph fromj right on line 2) may read rebus: Pa. kuṭila— ‘bent’, n. ‘bend’; Pk. kuḍila— ‘crooked’, °illa— ‘humpbacked’, °illaya— ‘bent’ (CDIAL 3231) Rebus: kuṭila ’bronze’ Rebus: खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. Thus, one 'arch' signifies one bronze ingot, wedge.
DK7535 Text 2925

Line 1: Hieroglyph: kolmo 'paddy plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS aḍaren 'lid' Rebus: aduru 'unsmelted metal ore' ayas 'metal'
ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin'
kōnṭa corner (Nk.)(DEDR 2054b) Rebus: kõdā 'to turn in a lathe'(B.) कोंद kōnda 'engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems'. खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.
kana, kanac = corner (Santali); Rebus: kañcu = bronze (Telugu)
aḍaren 'lid' Rebus: aduru 'unsmelted metal ore' ayas 'metal'
खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). (Marathi) Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’.
dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' PLUS eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper' arA 'spoke' rebus Ara 'brass'. Thus, brass metal casting

Line 2:
dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' Thus cast metal smithy
Ten arches: Pa. kuṭila— ‘bent’, n. ‘bend’; Pk. kuḍila— ‘crooked’, °illa— ‘humpbacked’, °illaya— ‘bent’ (CDIAL 3231) Rebus: kuṭila ’bronze’ Rebus: खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. Thus, 10 ingots/wedges of bronze.
The same line also occurs on a zebu seal.
Text 2119 on zebu seal Line 1: Hieroglyph: kolmo 'paddy plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS aḍaren 'lid' Rebus: aduru 'unsmelted metal ore' ayas 'metal'
ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin'
kōnṭa corner (Nk.)(DEDR 2054b) Rebus: kõdā 'to turn in a lathe'(B.) कोंद kōnda 'engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems'. खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.
kana, kanac = corner (Santali); Rebus: kañcu = bronze (Telugu)
aḍaren 'lid' Rebus: aduru 'unsmelted metal ore' ayas 'metal'
खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). (Marathi) Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’.
dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' PLUS eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper' arA 'spoke' rebus Ara 'brass'. Thus, brass metal casting

Line 2:
baTa 'rimless pot' rebus: baTa 'iron' bhaTa 'furnace' PLUS Te. garĩṭe, gaṇṭe, geṇṭe spoon, ladle rebus:  To. köḍm (obl. köḍt-) live coal. Ka. keṇḍa id.; keṇḍavisu to put live coals on (for blasting rocks). Tu. keṇḍa, geṇḍa live coal. (DEDR 1950)

Koḍ. kundï mountain Rebus: खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.

koṭi banner, flag, streamer rebus: koD 'workshop'

poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite, ferrite ore'

Hieroglyph: poLa 'zebu' Rebus: poLa 'magnetite'. Thus, read with the zebu hieroglyph, the decipherment of a segment of inscription on line 1 of the seal is that the metalimplements produced are from magnetite metal ore, using metalcasting together with moltencast copper.

It is debatable if the anthropomorphs are metal 'implements'.

The form of anthropomorph is sãgaḍ 'joined parts of animals' and the function rebus is sangara 'proclamation'.

The form and function of the anthropomorphs are emphatically intended to be sangara 'proclamation' as signature calling cards of the metalworkers and metal-merchants and hence, identified as integral parts of Indus Script Corpora -- catalogus catalogorum of metalwork.

Zebu is ligatured as distinctive high horns to create a composite hieroglyph ‘composite animal motif’ as in m0301: human face, body or forepart of a ram, body and forelegs of a unicorn, horns of a zebu, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail:

Mohenjo-daro Seal 1927 with epigraphs on two-side is a confirmation that the horns ligatured to the composite animal on m1927b are horns of zebu.

Mohenjodaro seal (M-328) poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite ore' meD 'body' rebus: meD 'iron' med 'copper' koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop' kuTi 'water-carrier' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' karNIka 'rim of jar' Rebus: karNI 'supercargo' karNIka 'scribe'.

Mohenjodaro seal (M-264) dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' adar 'lid' rebus: aduru 'native metal'

खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). (Marathi) Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’.karNIka 'rim of jar' Rebus: karNI 'supercargo' karNIka 'scribe'.

Image result for zebu bos indicus bharatkalyan97

kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' (Phonetic determinative)

Sign 162 kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'

Mohenjo-daro Seals m1118 and Kalibangan 032, glyphs used are: Zebu (bos taurus indicus), fish, four-strokes (allograph: arrow). ayo 'fish' (Mu.) rebus: aya 'iron'

(Gujarati) ayas 'alloy metal' (Rgveda) gaṇḍa 'four' kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus:khaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS poḷa ‘zebu' rebus polad 'steel'poḷa ‘magnetite ore'. Thus, the Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan seals inMeluhha Sarasvati Script cipher, signify plain-text message: poḷa ‘magnetite ore' PLUS ayas 'alloy

Mohenjodaro seal 2.8x2.8x1.3 cm

Hieroglyphs used are: Zebu (bos taurus indicus), fish, four-strokes (allograph: arrow).ayo ‘fish’ (Mu.) + kaṇḍa ‘arrow’ (Skt.) ayaskāṇḍa ‘a quantity of iron, excellent iron’ (Pāṇ.gaṇ) aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) gaṆḌa, ‘four’ (Santali); Rebus: kaṇḍ ‘fire-altar’, ‘furnace’), arrow read rebus in mleccha (Meluhhan) as a reference to a guild of artisans working with ayaskāṇḍa ‘excellent quantity of iron’ (Pāṇini) is consistent with the primacy of economic activities which resulted in the invention of a writing system, now referred to as Indus Writing. I suggest that the early Prakritam meaning of thelingua franca expression, ca. 3000 BCE is: ayaskāṇḍa 'iron (metal) implements.'

*khaṇḍaka3 ʻ sword ʼ. [Perh. of same non -- Aryan origin as khaḍgá -- 2](Gujarati) ayas 'alloy metal' (Rgveda) gaṇḍa 'four' kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus:khaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS poḷa ‘zebu' rebus polad 'steel'poḷa ‘magnetite ore'. Thus, the Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan seals inMeluhha Sarasvati Script cipher, signify plain-text message: poḷa ‘magnetite ore' PLUS ayas 'alloy metal' khaṇḍa 'implements'.Pk. khaṁḍa -- m. ʻ sword ʼ (→ Tam. kaṇṭam), Gy. SEeur. xai̦o, eur. xanro, xarno, xanlo, wel. xenlī f., S. khano m., P. khaṇḍā m., Ku. gng. khã̄ṛ, N. khã̄ṛo, khũṛo (X churi < kṣurá -- ); A. khāṇḍā ʻ heavy knife ʼ; B. khã̄rā ʻ large sacrificial knife ʼ; Or. khaṇḍā ʻ sword ʼ, H. khã̄ṛā, G. khã̄ḍũ n., M. khã̄ḍā m., Si. kaḍuva.(CDIAL 3793)

The magnetite ore stones are identified as pola iron by Meluhha speakers. अयस्कान्त [p= 85,1] m. (g. कस्का*दि) , " iron-lover " , the loadstone (cf. कान्ता*यस) Ragh. xvii , 63 , &c; ayaskānta m S (The iron gem.) The loadstone. (Marathi) Lodestone or Loadstone or Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring igneous and metamorphic rocks with black or brownish-black with a metallic luster.

Lodestones are naturally-occurring magnets, which can attract iron. Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite. [quote]The Indus Valley sites display a highly sophisticated technology of copper and bronze metalworking, even in the earliest excavated levels of the major cities (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1967). Issues with the integrity of the stratigraphy of early excavations of these major Indus sites makes it harder for present-day archaeologists to track the different developmental stages of the civilization's metallurgy though. However, based upon the wide array of metal artifacts found in these early deposits, it is suggested that these advanced metallurgical skills were known to the inhabitants of the Indus Valley before city constructions began and possibly originated in previous cultures to the west from which the Indus people progressed from. A large variety of bronze and copper artifacts have been recovered from all Indus sites. The most common types are flat axes, chisels, fishhooks, bracelets, arrowheads, spearheads, knives, razors, mirrors, and saws.

Examples of types of tools and metal works (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1967)

Indus metal working used many kinds of manufacturing processes. For example, from the artifact types mentioned above- flat axes and mirrors were made by open-mold casting; thick knives and chisels were hammered from rods of bronze or copper; and razors, saws, and arrow and spear heads were chiseled from thinly hammered sheets of copper.

Unfortunately, little is known about the means of production used by the Indus metal workers because very little remains of tools or architecture required to perform such a craft. The only two examples for possible metallurgy workshops in the whole of the Indus Valley were discovered at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. In a large building close to the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro a brick lined pit was discovered with an incredible amount of copper ore that archaeologists have interpreted as a smelting pit and possibly a casting site. The whole building is thought to have housed the city's metal workers. Also, the only furnace construction found in the region was discovered in the city of Harappa and was constructed to have been powered by large effective bellows positioned above the furnace (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1967).[unquote]Roger Matthews, 2002, Zebu: harbingers of doom in Bronze Age western Asia? in: Antiquity 76 (2002) Number: 292: 438-446 https://www.scribd.com/doc/115702890/Ant-0760438 "The significance of zebu, or humped cattle as potential indicators of episodes of aridification in the Bronze Age of western Asia is explored through study of figurines and faunal remains from Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia." "Magnetite is a mineral, ferrous-ferric oxide, one of the three common naturally occurring iron oxides (chemical formula Fe3O4) and a member of the spinel group. Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring minerals on Earth.[Harrison, R. J.; Dunin-Borkowski, RE; Putnis, A (2002). "Direct imaging of nanoscale magnetic interactions in minerals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (26): 16556–16561] Naturally magnetized pieces of magnetite, called lodestone, will attract small pieces of iron, and this was how ancient people first noticed the property of magnetism...Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite, and the mineral pair forms a buffer that can control oxygen fugacity."

Often, the zebu or bos indicus is shown in association with a unique bird called black drongo. పోలడు , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.). Thus, పోలడు pōlaḍu is a phonetic determinative of the signified normal text: पोलाद pōlāda, 'steel'.

Zebu and leaves. In front of the standard device and the stylized tree of 9 leaves, are the black buck antelopes. Black paint on red ware of Kulli style. Mehi. Second-half of 3rd millennium BCE. [After G.L. Possehl, 1986, Kulli: an exploration of an ancient civilization in South Asia, Centers of Civilization, I, Durham, NC: 46, fig. 18 (Mehi II.4.5), based on Stein 1931: pl. 30.

Decipherment:

meṛh f. ʻ rope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floor ʼ (Lahnda)(CDIAL 10317) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Santali.Mu.Ho.)

पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus: pōḷa ‘magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4', Vikalpa: adar ḍangra ‘zebu’ (Santali); Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.);ḍhan:gar

‘blacksmith’ (WPah.) ayir = iron dust, any ore (Ma.) aduru = gan.iyinda
tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to
melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretation
of the Amarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330) DEDR 192 Ta. ayil iron. Ma. ayir, ayiram any ore. Ka. aduru native
metal. Tu. ajirda karba very hard iron.

Hieroglyph: lo = nine (Santali); no = nine (B.) on-patu = nine (Ta.)

[Note the count of nine fig leaves on m0296] Rebus: loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus glomerata (Santali.lex.)(Phonetic determinant)

http://www.waa.ox.ac.uk/XDB/tours/indus6.asp
Related image

Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE. Cf. Fig. 2.18, J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Cat. No. 8.

http://www.guimet.fr/La-mission-archeologique-de-l,636

loc. cit. http://www.waa.ox.ac.uk/XDB/tours/indus6.asp

Hypertexs पोळ pōḷa 'zebu'& pōlaḍu 'black drongo' signify polad 'steel

A phonetic determinant is provided by the popular bird, black drongo with habitat in Bharatam.Hieroglyph: eagle పోలడు [ pōlaḍu ] , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu)

पोळा [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. "Pola is a bull-worshipping festival celebrated by farmers mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra (especially among the Kunbis). On the day of Pola, the farmers decorate and worship their bulls. Pola falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya (the new moon day) in the month of Shravana (usually in August)."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_(festival) Festival held on the day after Sankranti ( = kANum) is called pōlāla paNDaga (Telugu).A phonetic determinant is provided by the popular bird, black drongo with habitat in Bharatam.Hieroglyph: eagle పోలడు [ pōlaḍu ] , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu)పసి (p. 730) pasi pasi. [from Skt. పశువు.] n. Cattle. పశుసమూహము, గోగణము. The smell of "With short legs, they sit upright on thorny bushes, bare perches or electricity wires. They may also perch on grazing animals."(Whistler, Hugh (1949). Popular handbook of Indian birds (4th ed.). Gurney and Jackson, London. pp. 155–157.) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drongo

m1118

Image result for indus script bird zebu bullfish

Cylinder (white shell) seal impression; Ur, Mesopotamia (IM 8028); white shell. height 1.7 cm., dia. 0.9 cm.; cf. Gadd, PBA 18 (1932), pp. 7-8

Below the rim of the storage pot, the contents are described in Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts: 1. Flowing water; 2. fish with fin; 3. aquatic bird tied to a rope Rebus readings of these hieroglyphs/hypertexts signify metal implements from the Meluhha mint.

Clay storage pot discovered in Susa (Acropole mound), ca. 2500-2400 BCE (h. 20 ¼ in. or 51 cm). Musee du Louvre. Sb 2723 bis (vers 2450 avant J.C.)

The hieroglyphs and Meluhha rebus readings on this pot from Meluhha are: 1. kāṇḍa 'water' rebus: khāṇḍā 'metal equipment'; 2. aya, ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy'; khambhaṛā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaṭ a 'mint, coiner, coinage' 3. करड m. a sort of duck -- f. a partic. kind of bird ; S. karaṛa -ḍhī˜gu m. a very large aquatic bird (CDIAL 2787) karaṇḍa‘duck’ (Samskrtam) rebus: karaḍā 'hard alloy'; PLUS 4. meṛh 'rope tying to post, pillar’ rebus meḍ‘iron’ med ‘copper’ (Slavic)

Susa pot is a ‘Rosetta stone’ for Sarasvati Script

Water (flow)

Fish fish-fin

aquatic bird on wave (indicating aquatic nature of the bird), tied to rope, water

kāṇḍa 'water' rebus: kāṇḍa 'implements

The vase a la cachette, shown with its contents. Acropole mound, Susa.^[20]

It is a remarkable 'rosetta stone' because it validates the expression used by Panini: ayaskāṇḍa अयस्--काण्ड [p= 85,1] m. n. " a quantity of iron " or " excellent iron " , (g. कस्का*दि q.v.). The early semantics of this expression is likely to be 'metal implements compared with the Santali expression to signify iron implements: meď 'copper' (Slovāk), mẽṛhẽt,khaṇḍa (Santali) मृदु mṛdu,’soft iron’ (Samskrtam).

Santali glosses.

Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs painted on the jar are: fish, quail and streams of water;

aya 'fish' (Munda) rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Rigveda) khambhaṛā 'fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint' Thus, together ayo kammaṭa, 'metals mint'

baṭa 'quail' Rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'.

karaṇḍa 'duck' (Sanskrit) karaṛa 'a very large aquatic bird' (Sindhi) Rebus: करडा karaḍā 'Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c'. (Marathi) PLUS meRh 'tied rope' meṛh f. ʻ rope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floor ʼ (Lahnda)(CDIAL 10317) Rebus: mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formeḍinto an equilateral lump a little pointed at each end; mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)

Thus, read together, the proclamation on the jar by the painted hieroglyphs is: baṭa meṛh karaḍā ayas kāṇḍa 'hard alloy iron metal implements out of the furnace (smithy)'.

This is a jar closed with a ducted bowl. The treasure called "vase in hiding" was initially grouped in two containers with lids. The second ceramic vessel was covered with a copper lid. It no longer exists leaving only one. Both pottery contained a variety of small objects form a treasure six seals, which range from Proto-Elamite period (3100-2750 BCE) to the oldest, the most recent being dated to 2450 BCE (First Dynasty of Ur).

Therefore it is possible to date these objects, this treasure. Everything included 29 vessels including 11 banded alabaster, mirror, tools and weapons made of copper and bronze, 5 pellets crucibles copper, 4 rings with three gold and a silver, a small figurine of a frog lapis lazuli, gold beads 9, 13 small stones and glazed shard.

"In the third millenium Sumerian texts list copper among the raw materials reaching Uruk from Aratta and all three of the regions Magan, Meluhha and Dilmun are associated with copper, but the latter only as an emporium. Gudea refers obliquely to receiving copper from Dilmun: 'He (Gudea) conferred with the divine Ninzaga (= Enzak of Dilmun), who transported copper like grain deliveries to the temple builder Gudea...' (Cylinder A: XV, 11-18, Englund 1983, 88, n.6). Magan was certainly a land producing the metal, since it is occasionally referred to as the 'mountain of copper'. It may also have been the source of finished bronze objects."

"Susa... profound affinity between the Elamite people who migrated to Anshan and Susa and the Dilmunite people... Elam proper corresponded to the plateau of Fars with its capital at Anshan. We think, however that it probably extended further north into the Bakhtiari Mountains... likely that the chlorite and serpentine vases reached Susa by sea... From the victory proclamations of the kings of Akkad we also learn that the city of Anshan had been re-established, as the capital of a revitalised political ally: Elam itself... the import by Ur and Eshnunna of inscribed objects typical of the Harappan culture provides the first reliable chronological evidence. [C.J. Gadd, Seals of ancient style found at Ur, Proceedings of the British Academy, XVIII, 1932; Henry Frankfort, Tell Asmar, Khafaje and Khorsabad, OIC, 16, 1933, p. 50, fig. 22). It is certainly possible that writing developed in India before this time, but we have no real proof. Now Susa had received evidence of this same civilisation, admittedly not all dating from the Akkadian period, but apparently spanning all the closing years of the third millennium (L. Delaporte, Musee du Louvre. Catalogues des Cylindres Orientaux..., vol. I, 1920pl. 25(15), S.29. P. Amiet, Glyptique susienne,MDAI, 43, 1972, vol. II, pl. 153, no. 1643)... B. Buchanan has published a tablet dating from the reign of Gungunum of Larsa, in the twentieth century BC, which carries the impression of such a stamp seal. (B.Buchanan, Studies in honor of Benno Landsberger, Chicago, 1965, p. 204, s.). The date so revealed has been wholly confirmed by the impression of a stamp seal from the group, fig. 85, found on a Susa tablet of the same period. (P. Amiet, Antiquites du Desert de Lut, RA, 68, 1974, p. 109, fig. 16. Maurice Lambert, RA, 70, 1976, p. 71-72). It is in fact, a receipt of the kind in use at the beginning of the Isin-Larsa period, and mentions a certain Milhi-El, son of Tem-Enzag, who, from the name of his god, must be a Dilmunite. In these circumstances we may wonder if this document had not been drawn up at Dilmun and sent to Susa after sealing with a local stamp seal. This seal is decorated with six tightly-packed, crouching animals, characterised by vague shapes, with legs under their bodies, huge heads and necks sometimes striped obliquely. The impression of another seal of similar type, fig. 86, depicts in the centre a throned figure who seems to dominate the animals, continuing a tradition of which examples are known at the end of the Ubaid period in Assyria... Fig. 87 to 89 are Dilmun-type seals found at Susa. The boss is semi-spherical and decorated with a band across the centre and four incised circles. [Pierre Amiet, Susa and the Dilmun Culture, pp. 262-268].

Celebration of polupu, 'beauty' pōḷaḍu, పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu perched on pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' indus script hypertexts signify pōḷa 'magnetite ore', pōḷaḍ 'steel'

https://tinyurl.com/yd2ajn79 The abiding imagery of a black drongo perched on the back of a bos indicus, zebu is an exquisite 'visual language' metaphor celebrated in the Kannada cognate expression: hulisu, which means 'to grow rich'.The duo, black drongo and zebu show the affinity of the bird to the animal, the splendour of inter-relationships, proclamation of the life principle, ātmā, among the living organisms of the ecosystem; the bird protects the bull from insects and fights with birds diving down for prey. This friendship metaphor, this polupu, 'beauty' is celebrated with two words: pōḷa, pōḷaḍu of Indian sprachbund (speech union) which signify, respectively: 1. magnetite, ferrite ore; 2. steel. Iron (ferrite ore) in a molten state when infused with carbon through the fumes of wheat chaff called caṣāla (a process described in detail in an ancient text called Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa), the element carbon is infused to transform soft iron into carbon-alloyed hard steel. This knowledge system of carburization, is exemplified by the black drongo which is described in Telugu with an extraordinary expression: పొలి poli. [Tel.] n. Freshness, bloom. An offering to some village deity. The black drongo is called పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu, i.e. the bird which treats the zebu, bos indicus like a deity of the farmland and offers protection, by removing the insects from the body, skin-pores of the bos indicus.This friendship between a crow and a bull is a celebration.enshrined in hundreds of metaphors of Indus Script inscriptions and artifacts. Ta. poli (-v-, -nt-) to flourish, prosper, abound, increase, live long and prosperously; n. interest paid in kind; policai gain, profit, interest (esp. in kind); palicai profit, interest; polivu prosperity, abundance; pular (-v-, -nt-) to mature (as grain). Ma. poliyuka to be accumulated; polikka to measure corn-heaps, paying the reapers in kind; give clothes at a marriage; poli, policcal, polippu increase; polivu accumulation, contribution; polima increase, excellence; poliśa, polu interest on paddy; paliśa interest on money; pularuka to subsist, live; pular subsistence; pularcca living, livelihood; pularttuka to sustain, enable to live. Ka. hulisu to increase in bulk, thrive, grow rich; hulusu increase, richness. Koḍ. poli- (poliv-, poliñj-) to increase (intr.; crop, cattle); (polip-, polic-) (god) increases (crop, cattle); n. interest paid in kind (esp. on paddy); pola- (polav-, poland-) to live happily; polat- (polati-) to make to live happily. Tu. poli interest in kind, increase, abundance; pollusu, polsu interest, gain, luck; pullelů abundance, increase. Te. poli gain. Ta. poli (-v-, -nt-) to bloom (as the countenance), shine; polivu brightness of countenance, beauty, splendour, gold; polam, polaṉ gold, beauty, jewel. Ka. pol to be fit or proper, excel. Te. polucu to be suitable, agreeable, beautiful, appear, seem, (K. also) shine; pol(u)pu beauty, agreeableness; polāti, polātuka woman. Cf. 4305 Ta. pular and 4570 Ta. poṉ.(DEDR 4550, 4551)
Source: https://www.ancient.eu/image/7187/ This ritual vessel shows nude heroes protecting a bird and a bull. Such heroes were popular images in ancient Mesopotamia. Late Uruk Period, 3300-3000 BCE. Probably from Uruk (Warka), Southern Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq. (The British Museum, London)

A Tell as-Sulema cylinder seal shows one-horned young bull and an ox (perhaps a zebu, bos aurochs indicus since many Indus Script inscriptions associate 'fish' hieroglyph with 'zebu' hieroglyph). A black drongo and a fish, respectively, are perched on top of the backs of each of the two animals. The Tell as-Sulema cylinder seal compares with a square seal which shows a joined animal from Mohenjo-daro (?) in National Museum, Delhi. सांगडsāṅgaḍa, 'joined animal parts' (Marathi) Rebus: sangar̥h 'fortification' (Pashto) jangaḍa 'invoice on approval basis'jangaḍiyo 'military guard accompanying treasure into the treasury' (Gujarati). 'Fish' hieroglyph signifies 'iron' PLUS fish-fin signifies khambhaṛā 'fish-fin rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.
Mohenjo-daro (?) seal.National Museum, Delhi.

Cylinder seal impression, Tell as-Sulema, Mesopotamia, level IV (Akkadian to Early Old Babylonian --1950–1530 BCE)(IM 87798); gypsum; length 2.6 cm., dia. 1.6 cm. Drawing by Lamia Al-Gailani Werr; cf. Collon 1987: 143, no. 609; Parpola, 1994, p. 181; bird over a unicorn; fish over a bison.al-Gailani Werr, 1983, p. 49 No. 7; Collon, 1987, Fig. 609. The rebus rupaka, 'metaphor' Meluhha readings are: kō̃da कोँद 'one-horned young bull' rebus: 'kiln, furnace for smelting' PLUS pōlaḍu 'black drongo' rebus: pōlaḍu 'steel'.

pōla 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus: pōla 'magnetite, ferrite ore' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron'; ayas 'alloy metal' (i.e. after infusion of carbon element, to carburize iron and transform soft iron into hard steel).

ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron'. अयो (in comp. for अयस्) अयस् n. iron , metal RV. an iron weapon (as an axe , &c ) RV. vi , 3 ,5 and 47 , 10; gold Naigh.steel L. ; ([cf. Lat. aes , aer-is for as-is ; Goth. ais , Thema aisa ; Old Germ. e7r , iron; Goth. eisarn; Mod. Germ. Eisen.])अयस्--काण्ड m. n. " a quantity of iron " or " excellent iron " , (g. कस्का*दि q.v.)(Monier-Williams, p. 85)

pōlaḍu , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.) rebus: pōlaḍu 'steel' (Russian. Persian)

పసి (p. 730) pasi pasi. [from Skt. పశువు.] n. Cattle. పశుసమూహము, గోగణము. The smell of cattle, పశ్వాదులమీదిగాలి, వాసన. పసిపట్టు pasi-paṭṭu. To scent or follow by the nose, as a dog does a fox. పసిగొను to trace out or smell out. వాసనపట్టు. మొసలి కుక్కను పసిపట్టి when the crocodile scented the dog. పసులు pasulu. n. plu. Cattle, గోవులు. పసిగాపు pasi-gāpu. n. A herdsman, గోపకుడు పసితిండి pasi-tinḍi. n. A tiger, పెద్దపులి. పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu. n. The Black Drongo or King crow, Dicrurusater. (F.B.I.) ఏట్రింత. Also, the Adjutant. తోకపసులపోలిగాడు the Raquet-tailed Drongo shrike. Jerdon. No. 55. 56. 59. కొండ పనులపోలిగాడు the White bellied Drongo, Dicrurus coerulescens. వెంటికపనుల పోలిగాడు the Hair-crested Drongo, Chibia hottentotta. టెంకిపనుల పోలిగాడు the larger Racket-tailed Drongo, Dissemurus paradiseus (F.B.I.) పసులవాడు pasula-vāḍu. n. A herdsman, గొల్లవాడు.

Mohenjo-daro m1431 Tablet with four sides inscribed. Text 2805
Row of animals in file (a one-horned bull, an elephant and a rhinoceros from right); a gharial with a fish held in its jaw above the animals; a bird (?) at right. Pict-116: From R.—a person holding a vessel; a woman with a platter (?); a kneeling person with a staff in his hands facing the woman; a goat with its forelegs on a platform under a tree. [Or, two antelopes flanking a tree on a platform, with one antelope looking backwards?]

One side (m1431B) of a four-sided tablet shows a procession of a tiger, an elephant and a rhinoceros (with fishes (or perhaps, crocodile) on top?).
kāru ‘crocodile’ (Telugu). Rebus: artisan (Marathi) Rebus: khar ‘blacksmith’ (Kashmiri)
kola ‘tiger’ Rebus: kol ‘working in iron’. Heraka ‘spy’ Rebus: eraka ‘copper’. khōṇḍa ‘leafless tree’ (Marathi). Rebus: kõdār’turner’ (Bengali) dhamkara 'leafless tree' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'
Looking back: krammara ‘look back’ Rebus: kamar ‘smith, artisan’.

koḍe ‘young bull’ (Telugu) खोंड [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. Rebus: kõdā ‘to turn in a lathe’ (B.) कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi) कोंडण [kōṇḍaṇa] f A fold or pen. (Marathi) खोंड khōṇḍa 'A young bull, a bullcalf'; rebus kundaṇa, 'fine gold' (Kannada); konda 'furnace, fire-altar' kō̃da कोँद 'furnace for smelting': payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद । परिपाककन्दुः f. a kiln (a potter's, a lime-kiln, and brick-kiln, or the like); a furnace (for smelting). -thöji - or -thöjü -; । परिपाक-(द्रावण-)मूषाf. a crucible, a melting-pot. -ʦañĕ -। परिपाकोपयोगिशान्ताङ्गारसमूहः f.pl. a special kind of charcoal (made from deodar and similar wood) used in smelting furnaces. -wôlu -वोलु&below; । धात्वादिद्रावण-इष्टिकादिपरिपाकशिल्पी m. a metal-smelter; a brick-baker. -wān -वान् । द्रावणचुल्ली m. a smelting furnace.

ayakāra ‘ironsmith’ (Pali)[fish = aya (G.); crocodile = kāru (Te.)] baṭṭai quail (N.Santali) Rebus: bhaṭa = an oven, kiln, furnace (Santali)

ayo 'fish' Rebus: ayas 'metal'. kaṇḍa 'arrow' Rebus: khāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans, and metal-ware’. ayaskāṇḍa is a compounde word attested in Panini. The compound or glyphs of fish + arrow may denote metalware tools, pots and pans.kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'working in iron, alloy of 5 metals - pancaloha'. ibha 'elephant' Rebus ibbo 'merchant'; ib ‘iron'. Alternative: కరటి [ karaṭi ] karaṭi. [Skt.] n. An elephant. ఏనుగు (Telugu) Rebus: kharādī ‘ turner’ (Gujarati) kāṇḍa 'rhimpceros' Rebus: khāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans, and metal-ware’. The text on m0489 tablet: loa 'ficus religiosa' Rebus: loh 'copper'. kolmo 'rice plant' Rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge'. dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal'. Thus the display of the metalware catalog includes the technological competence to work with minerals, metals and alloys and produce tools, pots and pans. The persons involved are krammara 'turn back' Rebus: kamar 'smiths, artisans'. kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'working in iron, working in pancaloha alloys'. పంచలోహము pancha-lōnamu. n. A mixed metal, composed of five ingredients, viz., copper, zinc, tin, lead, and iron (Telugu). Thus, when five svastika hieroglyphs are depicted, the depiction is of satthiya 'svastika' Rebus: satthiya 'zinc' and the totality of 5 alloying metals of copper, zinc, tin, lead and iron.

Glyph: Animals in procession: खांडा [khāṇḍā] A flock (of sheep or goats) (Marathi) கண்டி¹ kaṇṭi Flock, herd (Tamil) Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, and metal-ware’.

Hieroglyph: heraka ‘spy’. Rebus: eraka, arka 'copper, gold'; eraka 'moltencast, metal infusion'; era ‘copper’. āra 'spokes' Rebus: āra 'brass'. Hieroglyph: हेर [ hēra ] m (हेरक S through or H) A spy, scout, explorator, an emissary to gather intelligence. 2 f Spying out or spying, surveying narrowly, exploring. (Marathi) hērati ʻ looks for or at ʼ. 2. hēraka -- , °rika* -- m. ʻ spy ʼ lex., hairika -- m. ʻ spy ʼ Hcar., ʻ thief ʼ lex. [J. Bloch FestschrWackernagel 149 ← Drav., Kuiēra ʻ to spy ʼ, Malt. ére ʻ to see ʼ, DED 765]
1. Pk. hēraï ʻ looks for or at ʼ (vihīraï ʻ watches for ʼ); K.ḍoḍ. hērūō ʻ was seen ʼ; WPah.bhad. bhal. he_rnū ʻ to look at ʼ (bhal. hirāṇū ʻ to show ʼ), pāḍ. hēraṇ, paṅ. hēṇā, cur. hērnā, Ku. herṇo, N. hernu, A. heriba, B. herā, Or. heribā (caus. herāibā), Mth. herab, OAw. heraï, H. hernā; G. hervũ ʻ to spy ʼ, M. herṇẽ. 2. Pk. hēria -- m. ʻ spy ʼ; Kal. (Leitner) "hériu"ʻ spy ʼ; G. herɔ m. ʻ spy ʼ, herũ n. ʻ spying ʼ. Addenda: hērati: WPah.kṭg. (Wkc.) hèrnõ, kc. erno* ʻ observe ʼ; Garh. hernu ʻ to look' (CDIAL 14165) Ko. er uk- (uky-) to play 'peeping tom'. Kui ēra (ēri-) to spy, scout; n. spying, scouting; pl action ērka (ērki-). ? Kuwi (S.) hēnai to scout; hēri kiyali to see; (Su. P.) hēnḍ- (hēṭ-) id. Kur. ērnā (īryas) to see, look, look at, look after, look for, wait for, examine, try; ērta'ānā to let see, show; ērānakhrnā to look at one another. Malt. ére to see, behold, observe; érye to peep, spy. Cf. 892 Kur. ēthrnā. / Cf. Skt. heraka- spy, Pkt. her- to look at or for, and many NIA verbs; Turner, CDIAL, no. 14165(DEDR 903)
h1953A
h1953B
h1953a,b

पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus: pōḷa ‘magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4',
aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal'
dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'
baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: baṭa 'iron' bhaṭa 'furnace'
Sign 387 bun-ingot shape (oval) + 'riceplant', i.e. ingots worked on in a smithy/forge. This hypertext DOES NOT occur on copper plates. This indicates that Sign 387 signifies ingots processed in a smithy/forge, i.e. to forge ingots into metalware, tools, implements, weapons.
Sign 67 khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS ayo, aya 'fish' rebus:aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'alloy metal'

Sign 171 dánta m. ʻ tooth ʼ RV. [dánt -- RV.]Pa. danta -- m. ʻ tooth, tusk ʼ; Pk. daṁta -- m. ʻ tooth, part of a mountain ʼ; Gy. eur. dand m. ʻ tooth ʼ, pal. dṓndă, Ash. dō˘nt, Kt. dut, Wg. dō̃t, dū̃t, Pr. letum, lätəm, 'ätəm ʻ my (?) tooth ʼ, Dm. dan, Tir. dlndə, Paš. lauṛ. dan(d), uzb. dōn, Niṅg. daṅ, Shum. dandem* ʻ my tooth ʼ, Woṭ. dan m., Gaw. dant, Kal.urt. dln, rumb. dhlndōŕylk (lit. ʻ front and back teeth ʼ? -- see dāṁṣṭra -- ); Kho. don, Bshk. dlndə, Tor. dln, Kand. dɔdi, Mai. dān, Sv. dānd, Phal. dān, pl. dānda, Sh.gil. do̯n, pl. dōnye̯ m. (→ Ḍ. don m.), pales. dln, jij. dɔn, K. dand* m., rām. pog. ḍoḍ. dant, S. ḍ̠andu m.; L. dand, mult. ḍand, (Ju.) ḍ̠ãd m., khet. dant ʻ tooth ʼ, (Shahpur) dãd f. ʻ cliff, precipice ʼ; P. dand m. ʻ tooth, ʼ WPah.bhad. bhal. paṅ. cur. dant, cam. dand, pāḍ. dann, Ku. N. dã̄t (< **dã̄d* in N. dã̄de ʻ harrow, a kind of grass ʼ), A. B. dã̄t, Or. dānta, Mth. Bhoj. Aw.lakh. H. Marw. G. M. dã̄t m., Ko. dāntu, Si. data. -- Ext. -- ḍa -- : Dm. dandə́ŕi, dánduri ʻ horse's bit ʼ, Phal. dándaṛi. -- See Add.
Addenda: dánta -- : S.kcch. ḍandh m.pl. ʻ teeth ʼ; WPah.kṭg. (kc.) dānd m., J. dã̄d m., Garh. dã̄t, Md. dat.(CDIAL 6152) Rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore'.
Sign 59 ayo, aya 'fish' rebus:aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'alloy metal'
Sign 211 kaṇḍa 'arrow' (Skt.) H. kãḍerā m. ʻ a caste of bow -- and arrow -- makers (CDIAL 3024) khaṇḍa 'equipment'.
Hình dáng trống đồng Làng Vạc 1

Zebu on a cire perdue inscription with Indus Script hieroglyphs on a Dong Son Bronze Drum
http://tranquanghai.info/p1807-trong-dong-dong-son-,-wikipedia.html

Hình thuyền trên một trống đồng Điền (nguồn 1).
See: http://www.vietnamvanhien.net/trongdongbsquang.html
Dong Son Bronze artiface. Zebu and a rider.
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/doremon360/3677155474/in/photostream/

Ukku signifies the ingot produced in the metallurgical alloying process which is subjected to forging to achieve the desired shape of a sabre, sword or knife. Thus, pōḷa signifies the ferrite mineral ore, pōḷad signifies the alloy metal using the ferrite mineral ore, ukku signifies the ingot cake produced in a crucible.

ولاد polād, s.m. (6th) The finest kind of steel. Sing. and Pl. folād P فولاد folād or fūlād, s.m. (6th) Steel. Sing. and Pl. folādī P فولادي folādī or fūlādī, adj. Made of steel, steel. (Pashto)
pŏlād प्वलाद् or phōlād फोलाद् । मृदुलोहविशेषः m. steel (Gr.M.; Rām. 431, 635, phōlād).   pŏlödⁱ प्वला॑दि॒,
pōlödⁱ फोला॑दि॒, or phōlödⁱ फोला॑दि॒ (= ) । लोहविशेषमयः adj. c.g. of steel, steel (Rām. 19, 974, 1607, pō^o).
pŏlāduw^u प्वलादुवु॒ । शस्त्रविशेषमयः adj. (f. pŏlādüv^ü प्वलाद॑वू॒), made of steel (H. v, 4). (Kashmiri)

पोलाद pōlāda n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel. (Marathi)

P پولاد polād, paulād, pūlād , s.m. The finest Damascus steel (which with that of Kum is esteemed the best in the East; see fūlād).  P فولاد fūlād, vulg. faulād (for orig. pūlād) , s.f. Steel:—fūlād-kā 'araq, Tincture of steel:—fūlād-kā kushta, Calcined steel. P فولادي fūlādī, vulg. faulādī (rel. n. fr. fūlād) , adj. Of steel, steel- (Urdu)

Ukku, ingot or cake of Crucible steel http://www.Bladesmithsforum.com
Crucible steel button. Steel smelted from iron sand in a graphite crucible.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crucible_steel_button.jpg
Crucible steel button

Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production.
Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007

"Crucible steel is steel made by melting pig iron (cast iron), iron, and sometimes steel, often along with sand, glass, ashes, and other fluxes, in a crucible. In ancient times steel and iron were impossible to melt using charcoal or coal fires, which could not produce temperatures high enough. However, pig iron, having a higher carbon content thus a lower melting point, could be melted, and by soaking wrought iron or steel in the liquid pig-iron for long periods of time, the carbon content of the pig iron could be reduced as it slowly diffused into the iron. Crucible steel of this type was produced in South and Central Asia during the medieval era. This generally produced a very hard steel, but also a composite steel that was inhomogeneous, consisting of a very high-carbon steel (formerly the pig-iron) and a lower-carbon steel (formerly the wrought iron). This often resulted in an intricate pattern when the steel was forged, filed or polished, with possibly the most well-known examples coming from the wootz steel used in Damascus swords." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_steel

"Henry Wilkinson, the famous sword manufacturer…Wilkinson’s experiments concluded that only the ingots from Cutch on the India-Pakistan border and where the term pulad was used, produced ‘jowhar’ or watering. He said ingots from Salem, in southern India, had only a slight indication of a pattern and the steel was inferior, but the sample from Cutch was of excellent quality and both the ‘cake’ and finished object exhibited a Damascus pattern. It seems, therefore, that wootz becomes associated with the Damascus pattern before the 1820s but the association is not madefrom ethnographic observations but via European replication experiments…Also in northern India the use of the word pulad indicates Persian connections in the process, further associating Central Asia with the presence of crucible Damascus steel swords. In Central Asia, the term pulad is always used to denote crucible steel. The word pulad can be traced back to the Avesta, the sacred book of the Zoroastrians. There is textual evidence suggesting that the word was used at least by the 6^th century CE. (H. Wilkinson, On iron, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (5), 1839, p. 389)…Variations of the word pulad can now be found in languages from the Middle East, Central Asia, and neighboring regions as far as Tibet and including the Russian term, bulat…Fundamentally, crucible steel is a homogeneous steel ingot produced by combining low-carbon iron (wrought iron or bloomery iron) with a high-carbon compound such as cast iron or plant matter in a crucible. The carbon diffuses into the low-carbon iron and the desired product is a slag-free steel ingot…The time and place for the origin of crucible steel remains unknown, however, it must be at least a few centuries before the 3^rd cent. CE. Because, by this time, it was well known outrside of its roduction area. During the 3^rd cent. CE, the Alexandrian historian Zosimos wrote a detailed description of crucible steel production and stated that it was being used in India and Persia. (P. Craddock, New light on the production of crucible steel in Asia, Bulletin of the Metals Museum, 29, 1998, p.49). There I also archaeological evidence to support the historical evidence. In India, the site at Kodumanal, attributed to the 3^rd century BCE to 3^rd century CE, is the earliest securely dated site containing crucible that may have been used for crucible steel production. (S. Srinivasan and D. Griffiths, Crucible steel in South India – Preliinary investigations on crucibles from some newly identified sites, Material issues in art and archaeology, 5, 1997, pp. 111-125.) Swords made of crucible steel have also been excavated from 3^rd-4^th cent. CE burials in the Russian Northern Caucasus. (A. Feuerbach, Crucible steel in central Asia: production, use and origins, University College London, Institute of Archaeology, Ph.D dissertation). One of these blades has aligned spheroidal cementite, the metallographic feature that produces the visible pattern. This is the earliest known crucible Damascus blade…Generally speaking, present archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence indicates that crucible steel was produced in Sri Lanka and India by the so-called Wootz process (B. Bronson, The making and selling of Wootz, A crucible steel of India,Archaeomaterials, 1, 1986, pp. 13-51) and in Central Asia by the so-called pulad process." (Ann Feuerbach, 2006, Crucible damascus steel: A fascination for almost 2,000 years, in: JOM, May 2006, Volume 58, Issue 5, pp 48–50).

https://www.academia.edu/397355/Crucible_Damascus_Steel_A_Fascination_for_Almost_2_000_Years

See: Ann Feuerbach: "PRODUCTION AND TRADE OF CRUCIBLE STEEL IN CENTRAL ASIA", Indian Journal of History of Science, 42.3 (2007) 319-336;
A. Feuerbach, D.R. Griffiths, and J.F. Merkel, “Crucible Steel Manufacturing at Merv,” Mining and Metal Production through the Ages", ed. P. Craddock and J. Lang (London: British Museum, 2003), pp. 258– 266.
Ann Feuerbach: "An investigation of the varied technology found in swords, sabres and blades from the Russian Northern Caucasus"; iams 25 for 2005, p. 27-43 (Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies Newsletter).
Abbott made the observation that patterned steel was being produced in northern India and there the producers called that product pulad.(Abbott, J. 1856. Narrative of a Journey from Heraut to Kivu, Moscow and S't. Petersburg. 2nd edition London James Madden. Abbott. J. 1847 Process of Working the Damascus Blade of Goo_jarat Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 16.1 417-423 )

“Variations of the word pulad can be found in New Persian (polad or pulad), Mongol (bolat), Russian (bulat), as well as in Tibetan, Armenian (p'otovat'), Ossetic, Grusinian (poladi), Ukranian (bulat), Chechnian (bolat), Turkish, and Modern Arabic (füläd) (Toussaint, pers. com.; Abaev, 1985,265). Additionally, "in Urdu the word is farläd for steel. But in Hindi itself the word exists as phaulad meaning steel " (Toussaint, pers. com. ). Detailed research into the etymology of the word pulad is wanting. Abaev (1985,265), during his search for the history of the Russian word bulat, proposed that the word may have come from Sanskrit. It can now be argued that theword does indeed come from Sanskrit or one of the many Sanskrit related languages. The word pulad can be viewed as the conjunction of two words pu (also transliterated as fu, phu) and lad (or ladh). In Sanskrit pu means cleaning or purifying (Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, 2001). There is no direct translation of lad or ladh, however, there are over a hundred words for iron in the various Indo-Aryan branch dialects that use variations of the word löhä, including lauha (see Grierson, 1928,77). The similarity between pu-lauha meaning purified iron, and pulad, meaning refined or purified steel should not be overlooked and strongly suggests a possible etymological origin for the word pulad.”(Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, use and origins Feuerbach, A.M.; (2002) Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, use and origins. Doctoral thesis , University of London, p.158).

"The initial origin of crucible steel probably lies centuries earlier than the first few centuries CE, as it would probably have taken decades, perhaps centuries, for the knowledge of crucible steel production to spread to other workshops, as well as the awareness of this apparently different type of ‘iron’ to become known and develop a positive reputation outside of the immediate production areas. Without more field research it is not possible to determine where or when the technology of crucible steel originated. However, a possible location and time period where future research should concentrate within lands that are roughly around the Indus Valley and Baluchistn, an area that sometimes was under Indian, and other times Persian, rule (Map 12) (Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, use and origins Feuerbach, A.M.; (2002) Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, use and origins. Doctoral thesis , University of London, p.258).
http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1317704/1/272398.pdf

"A prerequisite for manufacturing crucible steel is the production of iron on a regular basis, suggesting a date after the beginning of the 1s` millennium BC and probablyafter around 500 BC, by which time iron is thought to have been produced on a somewhat regular basis in eastern Central Asia (Pigott, 1985,626). However, there is no reason why crucible steel could not have developed at the same time as iron smelting was developing out of Bronze Age copper refining and casting traditions. Copper-alloy refining involves placing the smelted metal into a crucible and heating it. The slag separates thus refining the metal by removing slag and other impurities trapped in the metal during the smelting process. In addition, the liquid metal may be stirred with green wood which produce gasses reducing copper oxides to metal that would otherwise make the metal brittle when cast (Hodges, 1989,70). Removing slag from smelted iron requires the same materials, (i. e. a ceramic crucible, a furnace, and wood or other carbonaceous matter) but by a slightly different process. Iron has a higher melting temperature and oxidizes more readily than copper therefore higher furnace temperatures are needed and the crucible needs to be closed. However, by adding pieces of carbonaceous material to the iron and placing a lid on the crucible, the iron carbonises and becomes steel, which requires a lower temperature to become liquid, then the slag rises to the surface thus refining the steel. Therefore, the only differences between refining copper in a crucible and refining iron is the use of a lid and placing carbonaceous material into the crucible rather than stirring with green
wood. The similarity is even more pronounced if the smith is using a broken iron bloom and pieces of wood, such as that the proposed method used at Early Islamic Merv. Further supporting the argument that crucible steel may have developed out of refining smelted metal is the idea that crucible steel is "pure" or "refined" metal, proposed by Pliny and later by al-Kindi. The concept of "purifying" the iron may be a
significant clue to its origins not only because of the argument regarding the development from copper refining, but because a large part of Zoroastrianism, practiced in south-eastern Central Asia from the last half of the first millennium BC onwards, was concerned with purification and fire worship. One may speculate that the priests and the craftsmen/scholars would have studied the properties of materials
and fire. If the term "pulad" did indeed originate from a Sanskrit based language as proposed in Chapter 3 then the proposed etymology could be used to support the hypothesis that crucible steel originated in a region where a Sanskrit language was spoken and Zoroastrianism or a related religion, was practiced. The similarities between the languages and religious beliefs found in the Vedas, written in Sanskrit and used in
India, and the Zoroastrian Avesta written in Avestan and used in Eastern Iran/Persia (Asthana, 1976,121) further suggest that crucible steel might have developed somewhere between Northern India and Eastern Persia/Central Asia during the first half of the 1st millennium BC.
Regardless from where and when crucible steel may have originated, it was known since at least the 3rd century AD. Information regarding the spread of the technology, ingots and/or finished objects by trade is sparse. Al-Kindi and other writers provide some information on production and distribution centres, however the picture of the spread of the material and/or technology is incomplete. Apparently over the next thousand plus years, crucible steel spread to the Middle East, Africa, and Europe as far as Spain with Islamic armies, into Austria with Ottoman Turks, and occasionally as far west as England through trade. Crucible steel objects also spread northeast to Siberia and possibly as far east as China, Korea, and perhaps Japan. However, it seems that the technological know-how remained restricted to Central Asia and India. Perhaps it was the different forging traditions that caused the difficulties in producing crucible steel with the desired Damascus pattern. It is perhaps the presence of steadite that caused the European smiths, such as Moxon (1677), so much difficulty in forging crucible steel. European blacksmithing traditionally used a method of high temperature forging which was not applicable to crucible steel that contained steadite, because the ingot would have cracked. In addition, ethnographic and replication
experiments indicate that the ingot would have had to have been annealed before forging, unlike an ingot of carburized bloomery iron or directly smelted steel. Low temperatures, repeated forging and air cooling or low temperature quenching, were all necessary parts of the crucible and Damascus steel forging process, in contrast to other ferrous metallurgical traditions which used high temperature forging and high
temperature quenching." (Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, use and origins Feuerbach, A.M.; (2002) Crucible steel in Central Asia: production, use and origins. Doctoral thesis , University of London, p.259 - 261).
http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1317704/1/272398.pdf

"It is generally accepted that Damascus steel was made in southern India, most notably in the region of modern Hyderabad, and exported to the Middle East and China (where it was called fulad and binrespectively.)...By the 19th C the best swords were made in Persia, but still using crucible steel imported from India...Bin iron, which is produced by the Western Barbarians, is especially fine … It is so hard and sharp that it can cut gold and jade. (Li Shizhen, 10th C) The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron… They have also. workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world. …It is impossible to surpass the edge you get from Indian Steel. (al-Edrisi, c. 1160)...The damask or water patterns of forged Damascus steel are its most distinguishing visible feature. Medieval Arabic authors were effusive in their praise of the beauty and mystery of watered steel blades: It has a water whose wavy streaks are glistening. It is like a pond over whose surface the wind is gliding. (Aws bin-Hadjar, c. 540.)...Fraser74 and Egerton75 suggest that Timur’s relocation of metalworkers to Samarkand (in 1398) is responsible for Persia becoming the leading region for manufacture of Damascus swords by the 19th C...Following the Sepoy Mutiny and Indian Rebellion of 1857-9, the English government enacted new laws to regain control of its Indian colony. Damascus swords, which had become symbols of Indian cultural identity, were collected and destroyed, and the making of new swords was restricted. In 1866, the English prohibited Indian steel making, ostensibly to preserve the remaining forests... It does appear to be correct that much of this crucible steel came from India in medieval times, although there is evidence that it was also produced in Central Asia, Iran, and Moorish Spain. "

http://caidwiki.org/images/2017_Research_Paper_Damascus_Steel.pdf On slaves and silk hankies; seeking truth in Damascus steel by Stephen C. Alter (2017)

South Indian Iron Age iron and high carbon steel: with reference to Kadebakele and comparative insights from Mel-siruvalur: Sharada Srinivasan et al., 2009

"Abstract This paper is based on studies of the use and modes of production of high carbon iron alloys in relation to surface finds from Iron Age and early historic sites in southern India, in particular the site of Kadebakele where recent excavations have revealed finds of iron and steel, some of which according to preliminary studies, seem to be of a higher carbon content. Preliminary comparative studies are also made on surface finds of crucibles related to high carbon steel production at Mel-siruvalur. Introduction The iron and steel artefacts uncovered from the site of Kadebakele, Karnataka in southern India span the early phases of occupation radiocarbon dated from 800 to 400 BC. This site has been excavated by a collaborative team from the Karnataka Department of Archaeology, the University of Michigan, and the University of Chicago. The site was occupied from at least the early 1st millennium BC until the early centuries AD. Radiocarbon dates from the Iron Age period span from c.800 to 400 BC and it isthought that iron/ steel artefacts from these levels may rank among the very early well-dated examples of higher carbon steels."

"The black drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus) is a small Asian passerine bird of the drongo family Dicruridae. It is a common resident breeder in much of tropical southern Asia from southwest Iran through India and Sri Lanka east to southern China and Indonesia. It is a wholly black bird with a distinctive forked tail and measures 28 cm (11 in) in length. It feeds on insects, and is common in open agricultural areas and light forest throughout its range, perching conspicuously on a bare perch or along power or telephone lines. The species is known for its aggressive behaviour towards much larger birds, such as crows, never hesitating to dive-bomb any bird of prey that invades its territory. This behaviour earns it the informal name of king crow. Smaller birds often nest in the well-guarded vicinity of a nesting black drongo. Previously grouped along with the African fork-tailed drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis), the Asian forms are now treated as a separate species with several distinct populations." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drongo పోలడు (p. 820) pōlaḍu , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.) rebus: pōlaḍu 'steel' (Russian. Persian)

A zebu bull tied to a post; a bird above. Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE. Zebu and black Nausharo pot. Black drongo and zebu. Mohenjo-daro seal. Zebu PLUS a pair of black drongos. dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'.

Sign 286 variants, Indus Script

Circumscript: four short strokes: gaṇḍā 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar'. Sign 286 is a composite of Sign 284 with infixed spoked wheel. The reading of hypertext of Sign 286 is:

kaṇḍa āra eraka kancu mũh khāṇḍā 'fire-altar (for) brass, moltencast copper, bell-metal ingot, implements.' Four corners, four short linear strokes as circumscript. kaṇḍa kancu mũh khāṇḍā 'bell-metal ingot, implements (from) fire-altar'.

The rebus reading of hieroglyph spoked-wheel is: arā 'spoke' rebus: āra 'brass' PLUS eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast,copper'.

m1118

Cylinder (white shell) seal impression; Ur, Mesopotamia (IM 8028); white shell. height 1.7 cm., dia. 0.9 cm.; cf. Gadd, PBA 18 (1932), pp. 7-8

Louvre Museum. Susa pot .Clay storage pot discovered in Susa (Acropole mound), ca. 2500-2400 BCE (h. 20 ¼ in. or 51 cm). Musee du Louvre. Sb 2723 bis (vers 2450 avant J.C.)Shows 'fish' + black drongo hieroglyphs to signify the contents: aya 'alloy metal, steel implements'. The lid is also a hypertext: ḍhaṁkaṇa 'lid' rebusdhakka 'excellent, bright, blazing metal article' The hieroglyphs and Meluhha rebus readings on this pot from Meluhha are: 1. kāṇḍa 'water' rebus: khāṇḍā 'metal equipment'; 2. aya, ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy'; khambhaṛā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaṭ a 'mint, coiner, coinage' 3. करड m. a sort of duck -- f. a partic. kind of bird ; S. karaṛa -ḍhī˜gu m. a very large aquatic bird (CDIAL 2787) karaṇḍa‘duck’ (Samskrtam) rebus: karaḍā 'hard alloy'; PLUS 4. meṛh 'rope tying to post, pillar’ rebus meḍ‘iron’ med ‘copper’ (Slavic)

Susa pot is a ‘Rosetta stone’ for Sarasvati Script

Water (flow)

Fish fish-fin

aquatic bird on wave (indicating aquatic nature of the bird), tied to rope, water

kāṇḍa 'water' rebus: kāṇḍa 'implements

The vase a la cachette, shown with its contents. Acropole mound, Susa.^[20]

Santali glosses.

Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs painted on the jar are: fish, quail and streams of water;

aya 'fish' (Munda) rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Rigveda) khambhaṛā 'fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint' Thus, together ayo kammaṭa, 'metals mint'

baṭa 'quail' Rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'.

Thus, read together, the proclamation on the jar by the painted hieroglyphs is: baṭa meṛh karaḍā ayas kāṇḍa 'hard alloy iron metal implements out of the furnace (smithy)'.

Carved chlorite plaque of the Halil Rud. పోలడు pōlaḍu, 'black drongo' percfhed on the back of पोळ pōḷa, 'Zebu, bos indicus' rebus: magnetite ore, steel.

https://www.harappa.com/blog/indus-civilization-through-halil-rud-civilization-object

pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore'; pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: pōḷad 'steel' The semantics of bull (zebu) PLUS black drongo bird are the reason why the terracotta bird is shown with a bull's head as a phonetic determinative to signify 'steel/magnetite ferrite ore'.

of Sarasvati Script corpora is rebus: pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), fuladh (Persian) folādī (Pashto) पोलाद pōlāda n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel.(Marathi)

pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore) pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: pōḷad 'steel' The semantics of bull (zebu) PLUS black drongo bird are the reason why the terracotta pōladu bird is shown with pōḷa bull's head as a phonetic determinative to signify 'steel/magnetite ferrite ore'.

A hieroglyph signifies पोला pōlā a Hollow, unfilled, light--an ear or a grain of corn Rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore.

Kernos ring of Balochistan with Indus Script hypertext with pōḷa 'zebu' and pōladu 'black drongo' signify magnetite ore and steel

https://tinyurl.com/y7zupcay

Thanks to @manasataramgini for exquisite images of a Kernos ring (evidenced ca. 2000 BCE from Greek pottery) said to be from Balochistan. This artifiact (now said to be in Japan) contains Indus Script hypertext of hieroglyphs, zebu abd black drongo. The Indus Script hypertext readings are: 

pōḷa'bos indicus, zebu' rebus: pōḷa'magnetite, ferrite ore'

pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: [pōlāda] n ( or P) [pōlādi] 'steel'.

‏ @blog_supplement

A rare e.g. of a Kernos ring from the subcontinent. It was apprently smuggled to japan from a site in what's today Balochistan

Top view of same: Kernos rings were made frequently in bronze age and later West Asia and Greece. This e.g. from subcontinent suggests that it was made using local motifs but inspired closely by west Asian Kernos design.

Bottom view of same along with a stand alone bull from what's today Balochistan showing similar techinique of manufacture.

Background note on Kernos ring

In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings. Its unusual design is described in literary sources, which also list the ritual ingredients it might contain.^[1] The kernos was used primarily in the cults of Demeter and Kore, and of Cybele and Attis.^[2]

The Greek term is sometimes applied to similar compound vessels from other cultures found in the Mediterranean, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and South Asia.^[3]

Literary description

Athenaeus preserves an ancient description of the kernos as

“

a terracotta vessel with many little bowls stuck on to it. In them there is sage, white poppy heads, wheat, barley, peas (?), vetches (?), pulse, lentils, beans, spelt (?), oats, cakes of compressed fruit, honey, olive oil, wine, milk, and unwashed sheep's wool. When one has carried this vessel, like a liknophoros, he tastes of the contents.^[4]

”

The kernos was carried in procession at the Eleusinian Mysteries atop the head of a priestess, as can be found depicted in art. A lamp was sometimes placed in the middle of a stationary kernos.^[5]

References[edit]

Jump up^ Jacquelyn Collins-Clinton, A Late Antique Shrine of Liber Pater at Cosa (Brill, 1976), pp. 29 –30 online.
Jump up^ Phillippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: From Cybele to the Virgin Mary (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, English translation 2004), passim.
Jump up^ Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery (University of Pennsylvania Museum, 1986), p. 226 online.
Jump up^ Athenaeus 11.478c = Polemon, frg. 88 Preller; English translation from Homer A. Thompson, Hellenistic Pottery and Terracottas (American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1987), p. 448 online.
Jump up^ The verb kernophorein means "to bear the kernos"; the noun for this is kernophoria; Stephanos Xanthoudides, "Cretan Kernoi," Annual of the British School at Athens 12 (1906), p. 9.

Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos

In this votive plaque depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a female figure (top center of rectangular portion) wears a kernos on her head

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernos
Image result for kernos ring bull bird

Ring-shaped with bull's head and three small vases, part of fourth, and place for fifth on ring. Twisted basket handle with one of pair of doves on top. Conventional decoratin of herring-bone and floral patterns in dark brown on light pinkish brown clay. Nostrils of bull pierced, and a third hole below. Amphora, 2 skyphoi painted solid. Filled arcs connected by diagonals. Chevrons, triangles. Close Style, perhaps fr. Rhodes or Cyprus (EV) Early Aegean, Helladic, Bronze Age, Late Helladic Period, about 1200–1100 B.C.E Diameter: 26.7 cm (10 1/2 in.).http://educators.mfa.org/ancient/kernos-libation-vase-11183

Line-drawing of the tripartite kernos for the Heraion of Samos | Tripartite Offering Vessels

https://gath.files.wordpress.com/2007/12/close-up-view-of-2007-kernos.jpg

Terracotta tripartite kernos. Louvre Museum.https://www.pinterest.com/pin/457748749602706628/
A SYRIAN CERAMIC TRIPARTITE VESSEL WITH IBEX FIGURE

A SYRIAN CERAMIC TRIPARTITE VESSEL WITH IBEX FIGURE

Syrian ceramic tripartite vessel with ibex figure. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/457748749602703821/

Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase)

Period:: Cypro-Geometric I

Date:: ca. 1050–950 B.C.

Culture:: Cypriot

Medium:: Terracotta

Dimensions:: H. 4 7/16 in. (11.3 cm)

Classification:: Vases

Credit Line:: The Cesnola Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76

Accession Number:: 74.51.659

https://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/240246

Zebu, black drongo. Image result for indus script bird bull

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/b8/67/50/b867501368c6316a82a18bed4b1844e2.jpg

Hieroglyph: eagle పోలడు [ pōlaḍu ] , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu) पोळ pōḷa 'zebu'& pōlaḍu 'black drongo' signify polad 'steel

*skambha2 ʻ shoulder -- blade, wing, plumage ʼ. [Cf. *skapa -- s.v. *khavaka -- ]

S. khambhu, °bho m. ʻ plumage ʼ, khambhuṛi f. ʻ wing ʼ; L. khabbh m., mult. khambh m. ʻ shoulder -- blade, wing, feather ʼ, khet. khamb ʻ wing ʼ, mult. khambhaṛā m. ʻ fin ʼ; P. khambh m. ʻ wing, feather ʼ; G. khā̆m f., khabhɔ m. ʻ shoulder ʼ.(CDIAL 13640) rebus: ಕಮ್ಮಟ kammaṭa 'mint' kambāṟa 'blacksmith'

Jiroft artifact. Two zebu PLUS twisted cord mēḍhā 'twist' rebus: 'iron' PLUS पोळ pōḷa, 'Zebu, bos indicus' of Sarasvati Script corpora is rebus:pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. Thus, पोळ pōḷa, 'iron, ferrite, magnetite' metal casting.

मेढा (p. 391) mēḍhā A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl rebus: med 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic) medhā 'dhana, yajna'.

PLUS

wings/plumage

PLUS

*skambha2 ʻ shoulder -- blade, wing, plumage ʼ. [Cf. *skapa -- s.v. *khavaka -- ]

S. khambhu, °bho m. ʻ plumage ʼ, khambhuṛi f. ʻ wing ʼ; L. khabbh m., mult. khambh m. ʻ shoulder -- blade, wing, feather ʼ, khet. khamb ʻ wing ʼ, mult. khambhaṛā m. ʻ fin ʼ; P. khambh m. ʻ wing, feather ʼ; G. khā̆m f., khabhɔ m. ʻ shoulder ʼ.(CDIAL 13640) rebus: Central Asia seal. Bird (eagle) PLUS wings. ಕಮ್ಮಟ kammaṭa 'mint' kambāṟa 'blacksmith'

Indus Script hieroglyph: పోలడు pōlaḍu , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.); భారద్వాజము bhāradvājamu bhāra-dvājamu. [Skt.] n. The bird called the King crow: it is the Drongo shrike, Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.) పసులుపోలిగాడు, ఏట్రింత.; ఏట్రింత ēṭrinta ēṭrinta. [Tel.] adv. The bird called a king-crow: a drongo, Dicrurus ater (F.B.I.) పసులపోలిగాడు, భారద్వాజము, కాటుకపిట్ట "ఏనుగకు ఏట్టింతరాయభారము" కాటుకపిట్ట "ఏనుగుకు ఏట్టింతరాయభారము" (Prov.) much aid can the king-crow give to the elephant!(Telugu)

Indus Script Meluhha rebus reading: پولاد polād, s.m. (6th) The finest kind of steel. Sing. and Pl. See فولاد; P فولاد folād or fūlād, s.m. (6th) Steel. Sing. and Pl. P فولادي folādī or fūlādī, adj. Made of steel, steel. (Pashto) pŏlād प्वलाद् or phōlād फोलाद् । मृदुलोहविशेषः m. steel (Gr.M.; Rām. 431, 635, phōlād).(Kashmiri)

Hieroglyph: hump:ककुद् the hump on the shoulders of the Indian bullock AV. TS. BhP. &c (Monier-Williams) కకుత్తు kakuttu or కకుదము kakuttu. [Skt.] n. A bull's hump. R. vii. 174. kakúd f. ʻ peak ʼ RV., ʻ bull's hump ʼ AV.

Pa. kaku -- m. ʻ peak, projecting corner ʼ; Kt. kū ʻ cow's hump ʼ, kuaṭi, Dm. koṭ (cf. *kakudiṣṭha -- ? -- NTS xii 174 < *kōpa -- ?). -- Ext. with -- ḍa -- : Pk. kaüḍa -- n. ʻ bull's hump ʼ.(CDIAL 2580) *kakudiṣṭha ʻ on the hump ʼ. [For formation cf. *kākutstha -- : loc. sg. kakúd -- , stha -- ]

Kal. rumb. kōiṣṭ ʻ hump ʼ.(CDIAL 2582) *kakudha ʻ hump ʼ. 2. ʻ The tree Terminalia arjuna ʼ. [kákuda -- X kakubhá -- ]1. Pa. kakudha -- m. ʻ bull's hump, cock's comb ʼ; Pk. kakudha -- , ˚uha -- , kaüha -- m.n. ʻ bull's hump, peak of mountain ʼ; S. kūhom. ʻ bullock's hump ʼ; H. kauhā m. piece of wood supporting ridgepole; Si. kiyāva ʻ bullock's hump ʼ. -- Ext. with l: M. kohḷẽ, ˚hāḷẽ, ˚hoḷẽ n. ʻ bullock's hump ʼ; -- with obscure elements: S. kūhaṭu; L. kohāṭ m. (?) f., kohã̄ḍ f. ʻ camel's hump ʼ, P. kuhān.2. Pa. kakudha -- m. ʻ Terminalia arjuna ʼ, H. kauh m. (CDIAL 2583)

Hieroglyph: beehive: *pōḍa ʻ hollow ʼ. 2. *pōra -- 1. 3. *pōla -- . 4. *pōlla -- . 5. *phōra -- . 6. *phōlla -- . [Cf. Pa. pōṭa -- ʻ bubble ʼ. <-> See also list s.v. *pōka -- ; -- poss. conn. with *pūliya -- ]

1. Ku. nak -- poṛ ʻ nostril ʼ; N. poro ʻ small hole ʼ (or < 2); G. poṛũ n. ʻ thin scaly crust ʼ (semant. cf. *pōppa -- ); M. poḷ, ˚ḷẽ n. ʻ honeycomb ʼ (or < 3: semant. cf. *pōka -- ).
2. S. poru m. ʻ cavity ʼ, poro m. ʻ hollow ʼ (or < 3); P. por f. ʻ hollow bamboo ʼ (or < *pōra -- 2); N. see 1.
3. S. see 2; L. polā ʻ hollow, porous, loose (of soil) ʼ; M. see 1.
4. Pk. polla -- , ˚aḍa -- , pulla -- ʻ hollow ʼ; P. pollā ʻ hollow ʼ, pol m., pulāī f. ʻ hollowness ʼ; Or. pola ʻ hollow ʼ, sb. ʻ puffed -- up pastry ʼ, polā ʻ empty ʼ; G. poli f. ʻ cavity ʼ, polũ, polrũ ʻ hollow ʼ, polāṇ n. ʻ hollowness ʼ; M. pol n. ʻ empty tube or grain ʼ, polā ʻ hollow ʼ; -- altern. < 3: Woṭ. pōl, f. pyēl ʻ light (in weight) ʼ; Gaw. pōlá, f. pōlī ʻ small ʼ; K. pọ̆lu ʻ weak ʼ, pŏluru ʻ plump but unsubstantial ʼ; Ku. polo ʻ hollow, weak ʼ, m. ʻ beehive ʼ (l or ḷ?); N. pol, pwāl ʻ hole ʼ, polo, pwālo ʻ beehive ʼ; A. pola -- kaṭā ʻ burglar ʼ; B. polo ʻ basket open at both ends for catching fish ʼ; H. pol f. ʻ hollowness ʼ, polā ʻ hollow, empty, flabby ʼ.5. B. Or. phorā ʻ hollow ʼ.
6. P. pholuṛ m. ʻ chaff ʼ; H. pholā m. ʻ blister ʼ; G. pholvũ ʻ to husk ʼ; M. phol n. ʻ hollow grain ʼ.
Addenda: *pōḍa -- ʻ hollow ʼ. [~ Drav. DED 3726]4. *pōlla -- : WPah.kṭg. pollɔ ʻ hollow ʼ, J. polā.(CDIAL 8398)

Amaravati sculptural frieze signifies Indus Script hypertext pāṭa ʻthroneʼ rebus फड phaḍa 'metals manufactory guild', పట్టడ paṭṭaḍa paṭṭaḍu. [Tel.] n. A smithy, a shop. కుమ్మరి వడ్లంగి మొదలగువారు పనిచేయు చోటు. polā 'haystacks' rebus polā 'magnetite, ferrite ore'.

பட்டறை¹ paṭṭaṟai , n. < பட்டடை¹. 1. See பட்டடை, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 14. 2. Machine; யந்திரம். 3. Rice-hulling machine; நெல்லுக் குத்தும் யந்திரம். Mod. 4. Factory; தொழிற்சாலை. Mod. 5. Beam of a house; வீட்டின் உத்திரம். 6. Wall of the required height from the flooring of a house; வீட்டின் தளத்திலிருந்து எழுப்ப வேண்டும் அளவில் எழுப்பிய சுவர். வீடுகளுக்குப் பட்டறை மட்டம் ஒன்பதடி உயரத்துக்குக் குறை யாமல் (சர்வா. சிற். 48).

bhráṣṭra n. ʻ frying pan, gridiron ʼ MaitrS. [√bhrajj] Pk. bhaṭṭha -- m.n. ʻ gridiron ʼ; K. büṭhü f. ʻ level surface by kitchen fireplace on which vessels are put when taken off fire ʼ; S. baṭhu m. ʻ large pot in which grain is parched, large cooking fire ʼ, baṭhī f. ʻ distilling furnace ʼ; L. bhaṭṭh m. ʻ grain -- parcher's oven ʼ, bhaṭṭhī f. ʻ kiln, distillery ʼ, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭh m., °ṭhī f. ʻ furnace ʼ, bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ; N. bhāṭi ʻ oven or vessel in which clothes are steamed for washing ʼ; A. bhaṭāʻ brick -- or lime -- kiln ʼ; B. bhāṭi ʻ kiln ʼ; Or. bhāṭi ʻ brick -- kiln, distilling pot ʼ; Mth. bhaṭhī, bhaṭṭī ʻ brick -- kiln, furnace, still ʼ; Aw.lakh. bhāṭhā ʻ kiln ʼ; H. bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ, bhaṭ f. ʻ kiln, oven, fireplace ʼ; M. bhaṭṭām. ʻ pot of fire ʼ, bhaṭṭī f. ʻ forge ʼ. -- X bhástrā -- q.v. bhrāṣṭra -- ; *bhraṣṭrapūra -- , *bhraṣṭrāgāra -- .Addenda: bhráṣṭra -- : S.kcch. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ʻ distil (spirits) ʼ.(CDIAL 9656) Ta. paṭṭaṭai, paṭṭaṟai 3865 Ta. paṭṭaṭai, paṭṭaṟai anvil, smithy, forge. Ka. paṭṭaḍe, paṭṭaḍi anvil, workshop. Te. paṭṭika, paṭṭeḍa anvil; paṭṭaḍa workshop. (DEDR 3865)

Mohenjo-daro seal with inscription m0304 is a detailed narrative of फड phaḍa 'metals manufactory guild'. The seal also shows a pair of haystacks which are: polā 'haystacks' rebus: polā 'magnetite, ferrite ore'.

Note: An allograph (alternative hieroglyph, hypertext) to signify polā 'magnetite, ferrite ore'. occurs on a Lothal seal. A homonym of polā 'haystacks' is polo, pwālo ʻ beehive ʼ(Ku.); poḷ, °ḷẽ n. ʻ honeycomb ʼ(Marathi)(CDIAL 8398) This is an Indus Script hieroglyph:

Lothal 51 Text of inscription: koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'; kāru 'pincers' rebus:khār 'blacksmith'; ayo 'fish' rebus:aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS खांडा (p. 116) khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). Rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'; PLUS lid: aḍaren 'lid' Rebus: aduru 'unsmelted metal ore'. Thus the message of seal is blacksmith smithy/forge workshop for alloy metal, native metal implements. The honeycomb signifies that the workshop also works in magnetite, ferrite ore.

पोळें [ pōḷēṃ ] ‘honeycomb’ (shown as a pictorial motif on Lothal Seal 51).

Lothal Seal 51 The pictorial motif shows two rows with 12 holes in each row.

Ku. nak -- poṛ ʻ nostril ʼ; N. poro ʻ small hole ʼ (or < 2); G. poṛũ n. ʻ thin scaly crust ʼ (semant. cf. *pōppa -- ); M. poḷ, °ḷẽ n. ʻ honeycomb ʼ (or < 3: semant. cf. *pōka-- ) L. polā ʻ hollow, porous, loose (of soil) ʼ; M. see 1.4. Pk. polla -- , °aḍa -- , pulla -- ʻ hollow ʼ; P. pollā ʻ hollow ʼ, pol m., pulāī f. ʻ hollowness ʼ; Or. pola ʻ hollow ʼ, sb. ʻ puffed -- up pastry ʼ, polā ʻ empty ʼ; G. poli f. ʻ cavity ʼ, polũ, polrũ ʻ hollow ʼ, polāṇ n. ʻ hollowness ʼ; M. pol n. ʻ empty tube or grain ʼ, polā ʻ hollow ʼ; WPah.kṭg. pollɔ ʻ hollow ʼ, J. polā.(CDIAL 8398) Br. pōlō hollow, empty; Ta. poḷḷal boring a hole, chiselling, hole, rent, fissure, hollow in a tree; poḷ, poḷḷai hole; Kuwi. porongo hollow; (Isr.) poloṅgã hollow in a tree. (DEDR 4560). Rebus: pola, ‘magnetite’

pola, ‘magnetite’ is denoted by pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’ hieroglyphs.

Amaravti sculptural frieze

Image result for bharatkalyan97 amaravati scribe

The frieze is a proclamation of iron workings displayed on tablets atop haystacks by a scribe and merchants of Amaravati. The tablets with writing are atop haystacks. The messages are displayed by फडनीस phaḍanīsa, 'public officers.' The tablets are: paṭṭa1 m. ʻ slab, tablet ʼ MBh., °ṭaka -- m., °ṭikā -- f. Kathās. [Derivation as MIA. form of páttra -- (EWA ii 192), though very doubtful, does receive support from Dard. *paṭṭa -- ʻ leaf ʼ and meaning ʻ metal plate ʼ of several NIA. forms of páttra -- ] Pa. paṭṭa -- m. ʻ slab, tablet ʼ; Pk. paṭṭa -- , °ṭaya -- m., °ṭiyā<-> f. ʻ slab of stone, board ʼ; NiDoc. paṭami loc. sg., paṭi ʻ tablet ʼ; K. paṭa m. ʻ slab, tablet, metal plate ʼ, poṭu m. ʻ flat board, leaf of door, etc. ʼ, püṭü f. ʻ plank ʼ, paṭürü f. ʻ plank over a watercourse ʼ (< -- aḍikā -- ); S. paṭo m. ʻ strip of paper ʼ, °ṭi f. ʻ boat's landing plank ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ board to write on, rafter ʼ; L. paṭṭ m. ʻ thigh ʼ, f. ʻ beam ʼ, paṭṭā m. ʻ lease ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ narrow strip of level ground ʼ; P. paṭṭ m. ʻ sandy plain ʼ, °ṭā m. ʻ board, title deed to land ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ writing board ʼ; WPah.bhal. paṭṭ m. ʻ thigh ʼ, °ṭo m. ʻ central beam of house ʼ; Ku. pāṭo ʻ millstone ʼ, °ṭī ʻ board, writing board ʼ; N. pāṭo ʻ strip, plot of land, side ʼ, °ṭi ʻ tablet, slate, inn ʼ; A. pāṭ ʻ board ʼ, paṭā ʻ stone slab for grinding on ʼ; B. pāṭ, °ṭā ʻ board, bench, stool, throne ʼ, °ṭi ʻ anything flat, rafter ʼ; Or. pāṭa ʻ plain, throne ʼ, °ṭi, paṭā ʻ wooden plank, metal plate ʼ; Bi. pāṭ ʻ wedge fixing beam to body of plough, washing board ʼ, °ṭī ʻ side -- piece of bed, stone to grind spices on ʼ, (Gaya) paṭṭā ʻ wedge ʼ; Mth. pāṭ ʻ end of handle of mattock projecting beyond blade ʼ, °ṭāʻ wedge for beam of plough ʼ; OAw. pāṭa m. ʻ plank, seat ʼ; H. pāṭ, °ṭā m. ʻ slab, plank ʼ, °ṭī ʻ side -- piece of bed ʼ, paṭṭā m. ʻ board on which to sit while eating ʼ; OMarw. pāṭī f. ʻ plank ʼ; OG. pāṭīuṁ n. ʻ plank ʼ, pāṭalaüm. ʻ dining stool ʼ; G. pāṭ f., pāṭlɔ m. ʻ bench ʼ, pāṭɔ m. ʻ grinding stone ʼ, °ṭiyũ n. ʻ plank ʼ, °ṭṛɔ m., °ṭṛī f. ʻ beam ʼ; M. pāṭ m. ʻ bench ʼ, °ṭā m. ʻ grinding stone, tableland ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ writing board ʼ; Si. paṭa ʻ metal plate, slab ʼ. -- Deriv.: N. paṭāunu ʻ to spread out ʼ; H. pāṭnā ʻ to roof ʼ.paṭṭakila -- ; *akṣapaṭṭa -- , *upparapaṭṭa -- , kaṣapaṭṭikā -- , *catuṣpaṭṭa -- , candanapaṭṭa -- , *talapaṭṭa -- , *tāmrapaṭṭa -- , *dhurapaṭṭa -- , *dhūḍipaṭṭa -- , *pakṣapaṭṭa -- , *prastarapaṭṭa -- , *phalapaṭṭa -- , lalāṭapaṭṭa -- , śilāpaṭṭa -- , *śr̥ṅgapaṭṭa -- , *skandhapaṭṭa -- .Addenda: paṭṭa -- 1: WPah.kṭg. pāṭ m. ʻ mill -- stone ʼ (poss. Wkc. pāṭ m. ʻ female genitals ʼ, paṭṭɔ m. ʻ buttocks, back ʼ; bhal. paṭṭ m. ʻ thigh ʼ Him.I 110); kṭg. paṭḷɔ m. ʻ small wooden stool ʼ.(CDIAL 7699) Rebus: फड (p. 313) phaḍa m ( H) A place of public business or public resort; as a court of justice, an exchange, a mart, a counting-house, a custom-house, an auction-room: also, in an ill-sense, as खेळण्या- चा फड A gambling-house, नाचण्याचा फड A nachhouse, गाण्याचा or ख्यालीखुशालीचा फड A singingshop or merriment shop. The word expresses freely Gymnasium or arena, circus, club-room, debating-room, house or room or stand for idlers, newsmongers, gossips, scamps &c. 2 The spot to which field-produce is brought, that the crop may be ascertained and the tax fixed; the depot at which the Government-revenue in kind is delivered; a place in general where goods in quantity are exposed for inspection or sale. 3 Any office or place of extensive business or work,--as a factory, manufactory, arsenal, dock-yard, printing-office &c. 4 A plantation or field (as of ऊस, वांग्या, मिरच्या, खरबुजे &c.): also a standing crop of such produce. 5 fig. Full and vigorous operation or proceeding, the going on with high animation and bustle (of business in general). v चाल, पड, घाल, मांड. 6 A company, a troop, a band or set (as of actors, showmen, dancers &c.) 7 The stand of a great gun. फड पडणें g. of s. To be in full and active operation. 2 To come under brisk discussion. फड मारणें- राखणें-संभाळणें To save appearances, फडकरी (p. 313) phaḍakarī A superintendent or master of a फड or public place. See under फड. 3 A retail-dealer (esp. in grain). फडनीस (p. 313) phaḍanīsa m ( H) A public officer,--the keeper of the registers &c. By him were issued all grants, commissions, and orders; and to him were rendered all accounts from the other departments. He answers to Deputy auditor and accountant. Formerly the head Kárkún of a district-cutcherry who had charge of the accounts &c. was called फडनीस.

Segments of the sculptural frieze of Amaravati showing: 1. scribe; 2. stacks of straw asociated with epigraphs (incribed ovals -- cartouches -- atop the stacks) and the row of seated artisans. There are two hieroglyphs on these segments: 1. scribe; 2. straw-stacks. Both can be read as Meluhha hieroglyphs.

The scribe shown on Amaravati sculpture is kanka, karṇika 'scribe, accountant'.

Hieroglyph: polā ʻ large bundle (of reeds &c.) (Assamese): pūla m. ʻ bunch, bundle ʼ MānGr̥., pl. ʻ straw ʼ ĀśvŚr. com., °aka -- m. KātyŚr.com.Pk. pūla -- m. ʻ sheaf ʼ; K. pul m. ʻ straw ʼ; P. pūlā m., °lī f. ʻ sheaf ʼ, Ku. pulo m.; N. pulo ʻ bundle of grass ʼ; A. polā ʻ large bundle (of reeds &c.) ʼ; B. pulā ʻ sheaf ʼ; Or. puḷā (dial. poḷā) ʻ handful ʼ, puḷi ʻ small do. ʼ; Bi. pūlā, pullā ʻ bundle of straw ʼ, (south) pūrī ʻ third smallest sheaf ʼ; H. pūlā m. ʻ small bundle of grass or straw ʼ, pūlī f. ʻ bundle of sheaves of corn given at harvest time to village officers ʼ; G. pū˘ḷɔ m. ʻ bundle of grass ʼ, °ḷī f. ʻ small do. ʼ, M. pulā m., °lī f. (< *pulla -- ). *triṁśapūla -- , *muñjapūlaka -- , *rasapūlikā -- .Addenda: pūla -- BHSk. m.pl. ʻ buskin(s) ʼ. [Cf. †pula -- 1] WPah.kṭg. pvḷɔ m. ʻ shoe, esp. one made of jute ʼ, J. puḷē m.pl. ʻ a kind of jute shoes ʼ; kṭg. pvḷṛɔ m. ʻ shoe, esp. one made of jute for men ʼ, pvḷṛi f. ʻ woman's shoe, esp. of jute ʼ. -- (X palāla -- or poss. < palāva -- or palāla-- ) pəḷau m. ʻ bundle of grass ʼ, J. puḷā m.(CDIAL 8349)Ta. pollu empty glume or husk of grain. Ma. poḷḷu empty, hollow; poḷḷu kāyi abortive fruit or grain; poḷḷu a lie; poḷḷan liar; (Tiyya) poḷi falsehood, lie. To. wïḷ husk (< Badaga). Ka. poḷḷu, hoḷḷu hollowness, emptiness, unsubstantialness, trash; poḷḷu- mātu an empty, vain word. Koḍ. poḷḷenellï paddy ear with no grain inside; poḷḷï empty (of a seed-pod), light in weight (of bad money). Tu. poḷḷu, pollu, poḷḷa devoid of pulp or kernel (as a fruit), empty, timid, spiritless. Te. pollu, polla empty ears of corn, chaff, trash, useless thing or word; useless, fruitless, good-for-nothing; bollu to lie, tell lies; n. lie; adj. false; bolli a lie; false. Nk. (Chanda; LSI 4. 572) pollē husk. Pa. pol chaff; polka hollow; hollowness, unsubstantiality. Ga. (S.3) pollu husk. Go. (LSI, Kanker) paṛk husks (Voc. 2151); (G. Ma. S. Ko.) polle chaff (Voc. 2424); (Ko.) bol- to lie, speak falsehood (Voc. 2643). Konḍa polu, (BB) poṛu chaff. Pe. pol chaff, empty grain, husk. Kui polgu (pl. polka) husk, chaff, bran. Kuwi (F.) porū husk, chaff; (Su. P.) poṛu chaff; (Isr.) pōṛu husks, chaff. Cf. 4491 Ta. poṭṭu. /Cf. Skt. pulāka- shrivelled grain, Pali pulaka- id., Pkt. pulāga-, pulāya- id. (Turner, CDIAL, no. 8350); ? Skt. phalgu- weak, pithless (ibid., no. 9064); Pkt. polla- hollow (ibid., no. 8398, *pōlla-, *phōlla-, e.g. Mar. phol hollow grain, Panj. pholuṛ chaff, Guj. pholvũ to husk). Cf. DBIA 280 for reborrowings from IA. (DEDR 4562)

Rebus: poḷā 'magnetite, ferrite ore'.

Hseal (m0304). Image result for bharatkalyan97 haystack

The platform is a plank atop a pair of haystacks. Indus Script hypertexts of the bottom register: polā 'haystacks' rebus: polā 'magnetite, ferrite ore'. The plank or slab of the platform is pāṭa ʻ plain, throne ʼ (Oriya), paṭṭa rebus: फड phaḍa 'metals manufactory guild'. miṇḍāl 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Munda.Ho.) PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. Thus, iron castings.

Hieroglyph: husk, hollow: Ta. pollu empty glume or husk of grain. Ma. poḷḷu empty, hollow; poḷḷu kāyi abortive fruit or grain; poḷḷu a lie; poḷḷan liar; (Tiyya) poḷi falsehood, lie. To. wïḷ husk (< Badaga). Ka. poḷḷu, hoḷḷu hollowness, emptiness, unsubstantialness, trash; poḷḷumātu an empty, vain word. Koḍ. poḷḷenellï paddy ear with no grain inside; poḷḷï empty (of a seed-pod), light in weight (of bad money). Tu. poḷḷu, pollu, poḷḷa devoid of pulp or kernel (as a fruit), empty, timid, spiritless. Te. pollu, polla empty ears of corn, chaff, trash, useless thing or word; useless, fruitless, good-for-nothing; bollu to lie, tell lies; n. lie; adj.false; bolli a lie; false. Nk. (Chanda; LSI 4. 572) pollē husk. Pa. pol chaff; polka hollow; hollowness, unsubstantiality. Ga. (S.3) pollu husk. Go. (LSI, Kanker) paṛk husks (Voc. 2151); (G. Ma. S. Ko.) polle chaff (Voc. 2424); (Ko.) bol- to lie, speak falsehood (Voc. 2643). Konḍa polu, (BB) poṛu chaff. Pe. pol chaff, empty grain, husk. Kui polgu (pl. polka) husk, chaff, bran. Kuwi (F.) porū husk, chaff; (Su. P.) poṛu chaff; (Isr.) pōṛu husks, chaff. Cf. 4491 Ta. poṭṭu. /Cf. Skt. pulāka- shrivelled grain, Pali pulaka-id., Pkt. pulāga-, pulāya- id. (Turner, CDIAL, no. 8350); ? Skt. phalgu- weak, pithless (ibid., no. 9064); Pkt. polla- hollow (ibid., no. 8398, *pōlla-, *phōlla-, e.g. Mar. phol hollow grain, Panj. pholuṛ chaff, Guj. pholvũ to husk). Cf. DBIA 280 for reborrowings from IA.(DEDR 4562)

Rebus: kákuda m.n. ʻ peak ʼ AV., ʻ chief ʼ ŚBr., ʻ bull's hump ʼ MBh. [kakúd -- ]

Pk. kaüa -- adj. ʻ chief ʼ.(CDIAL 2581)

RV 1.46.3 (Griffith translation)3 Your giant coursers hasten on over the region all in flames,

When your car flies with winged steeds.

RV 1.124.4 (Grifffith translation) 4 In joy of this thou didst restore, for worship, the lowing company of hidden cattle.

When the threepointed- one descends with onslaught he opens wide the doors that cause man trouble.

RV 1.181.5 (Griffith translation) 5 May your carseat-, downgliding-, goldencoloured-, according to your wish approach our dwellings.

Men shall feed full the bay steeds of the other, and, Asvins they with roars shall stir the regions.

RV I.184.3 (Griffith translation) 3 Nasatyas, Pusans, ye as Gods for glory arranged and set in order Suryas' bridal.

Your giant steeds move on, sprung from the waters, like ancient times of Varuna the Mighty.

RV IV.44.2 (Griffith translation) 2 Asvins, ye gained that glory by your Godhead, ye Sons of Heaven, by your own might and power.

Food followeth close upon your bright appearing when stately horses in your chariot draw you.

RV V.73.7 (Griffith translation) 7 Strong is your swiftly moving steed, famed his exertion in the course

When by your great deeds, Asvins, Chiefs, Atri is brought to us again.

RV V.75.4 (Griffith translation) 4 O strong and Good, the voice of him who lauds you well cleaves to your car.

And that great beast, your chariotsteed-, fair, wonderful, makes dainty food. Lovers of sweetness, hear my call.

RV VIII.20.21 (Griffith translation) 21 Allied by common ancestry, ye Maruts, even the Cows, alike in energy,

Lick, all by turns, each others' head.

RV X.8.2 (Griffith translation) 2 The Bull, the youngling with the hump, hath frolicked, the strong and never ceasing- Calf hath bellowed.

Bringing our offerings to the Gods' assembly, he moves as Chief in his own dwellingplaces-.

RV X.102.7 (Griffith translation) 7 Deftly for him he stretched the carpole- forward, guided the bull thereto and firmly yoked him.
Indra vouchsafed the lord of cows his favour: with mighty steps the buffalo ran onward.

http://tinyurl.com/y6ef8kyh Semenenko, Aleksandr Andreyevich, 2019, The spread of zebu cattle from South Asia to the East Mediterranean region as a marker of Indo-European population dispersal // Journal Bulletin Social-Economic and Humanitarian Research. — № 2(4). — 2019. — e-ISSN 2658-5561. — P. 3–22.

Abstract and Introduction

The paper develops the hypothesis that zebu cattle (depictions) are a marker of Indo-European population dispersal from the Indus Valley to Syria and Anatolia in 7000 –1000 BCE. It combines the exploration of the data on human genetics (full genomes and Y-Haplogroups originating from South Asia), bovine genetic admixture distribution maps (mitochondrial, autosomal and Y-chromosomal), archaeology (findings of zebu figurines, pictures, images and seals) and Indo-European linguistics. "Zebu cattle endemic in South Asia were domesticated in the Indus valley around 7000 BC. Zebu bullsplayed an important role in the religion and mythology of Indo-Aryans native to Hindustan since the compositionof Rigveda where they are mentioned in an exclusive connection with Indo- Aryan Devas ('Playing-in-Light‘) in all main chronological layers of the text (I.46.3; I.121.4; I.181.5; I.184.3; IV.44.2; V.73.7; V.75.4; VIII.20.21; X.8.2;X.102.7). The spread of zebu cattle (depictions) from India through Afghanistan, southern Central Asia andmodern day Iran to the East Mediterranean region including Syria, Anatolia, Cyprus and Palestine correlates wellwith the present geographical distribution of human Y- haplogroups L-M11, R2 (R-L266) and R1a-Z93 originatingfrom Hindustan and of South Asian human genome K5 and South Indian human genome K16 (see the mapspublished by Dr. O. Balanovsky on the website Генофонд рф) (Photographic Applications, Plate 1). Both sets ofdata correlate well with the bovine genetic admixture distribution maps of the present day Near East publishedby C.J. Edwards et. al. (Photographic Applications, Plate 2). These territories are or used to be populated byIndo-European speaking people (from the East to the West respectively Indo-Aryans, Iranians, extinct Kassiteand Mitanni Aryans and Anatolians). "

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Spice Route: Left pact with colonialism -- BS Harishankar

March 6, 2019, 1:21 am

≫ Next: Mohenjo-daro inscribed ivoery stick m1650. Daybook of Supercargo, (worker in) minerals, bronze, bellmetal implements, smithy/forge, metal caster, (Alternative: मुष्टिक goldsmith)

≪ Previous: Spread of Indus Script hieroglyphs पोळ pōḷa zebu and pōladu 'black drongo' from South Asia, markers of IE population and language dispersal

Spice Route: Left pact with colonialism

by B S Harishankar

on 06 Mar 2019

When Portuguese ships reached the Malabar coast in 1498, Vasco da Gama’s messenger was asked by Tunisian merchants who conversed in Spanish: “The devil take you, what brought you here?” the Muslim merchants asked. “We came to look for Christians and spices”, replied the Portuguese. Six years before this event at Malabar coast, in 1492, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella brought the Christian wars of reconquest to a triumphant end. They conquered the Muslim kingdom of Granada in Spain, the last stronghold of Islam in Europe. The fall of Granada marked the final act in the Reconquista; the campaign by the medieval Christian states of Spain to drive out the Moors. This event was not unknown to the Muslim merchants who met Gama’s messenger in 1498 at Malabar coast in India. The fifteenth century maritime expeditions which launched Europe’s contact with the east was also launched by the end of the Crusades.

It has been reported that the UNESCO will cooperate with the Kerala Government to promote the Spice Route project in the State. The Spice Route marks the opening of Portuguese arrival in India. A delegation from Kerala recently met UNESCO officials in New Delhi; it comprised State ministers and Kerala History Research Council chairman P.K. Michael Tharakan (UNESCO, Kerala government agree to reinvigorate Spice Route Project, The New Indian Express, Feb. 22, 2019). It is also reported that archaeological excavations carried out at Muziris (now identified as the controversial Pattanam) have provided evidence to implement the Spice Route project.

As part of a concealed agenda by left historians, the Portuguese-sponsored five hundred years old Spice Route legacy is getting implemented by the Left government associated with Euro-American lobbies. By manufacturing a dubious archaeological heritage for Pattanam in Kerala, it claims a fake history for India with the Mediterranean world, three centuries before the Christian era. The archaeological site of Pattanam was included in 2005 in the Spice Route and Muziris heritage projects by the Left government. The Left historians privileged Apostle Thomas in the Pattanam excavation, which was claimed as a west Asian trade emporium. Pattanam has lost its credibility, rejected by eminent archaeologists and historians. The Spice Route is now hastily launched with Pattanam as a Trojan horse. But it essentially facilitates the re-entry of western colonialism through the Communist backdoor.

The bloody Crusades provided the religious ideology for the Reconquista (reconquest), the 800 years of violence and expulsion of Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula after the Crusades. The violent clash between Christianity and Islam in the Iberian peninsula began in the early eighth century and was transformed into a Crusade by the Papacy during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Damascene preacher As-Sulami in 1105 called the Crusades a Christian Jihad. After the barbaric Crusades, several events changed history. The Byzantine empire ceased to exist, the Pope became de facto leader of the Christian Church, the Italian maritime states cornered the Mediterranean market in East-West trade, the Balkans were Christianized, and the Iberian peninsula saw the Moors pushed back to North Africa.

The Crusades and the Reconquista cemented religious intolerance, and the Catholic church looked to colonization partly as a means of continuing religious conquests. Until the fifteenth century, trade with the east was achieved through the Silk Road and Italian merchant cities acted as middlemen. Italian commercial cities such as Amalfi, Genoa, Venice and Florence strengthened trade ties with ports in the Levant, where they allied with Crusader states to gain access to ports such as Latakia, Tripoli, Acre, Alexandria, and Damietta. Italians from the maritime republics poured into the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea, creating bases, ports and commercial establishments known as “colonies”. Now, as a tribute to Italy which was nucleus of Imperial Rome, the Left has launched the Biennale Art and Trade Fair in Kerala. The term was first popularized by Venice Biennale, first held in 1895. Since the Spice Route project launched in 2005 also magnified Italy, the Congress government gave all support.

The necessity of Europe for discovering a maritime route to Asia commenced with the loss of Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman empire. In 1453, the Turks took Constantinople (renamed Istanbul). The Turks held hegemony to charge hefty taxes on merchandise bound for the west. Europe considered it unsafe to be dependent on an expansionist non-Christian power for lucrative trade with the east, especially after the bloody Crusades.

Two Papal Bulls, Romanus Pontifex (1454) and Inter Cetera (1493), confiscated indigenous lands and converted them into Christian Empires. The Papal Bull Romanus Pontifex was issued by Pope Nicholas V to King Alfonso V of Portugal, and confirmed to the Crown of Portugal dominion over all lands south of Cape Bojador in Africa. The Inter Cetera was issued by Pope Alexander VI to Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of Castile, and granted them all lands to the “west and south” of a pole-to-pole line 100 leagues west and south of any of the islands of the Azores or the Cape Verde islands. It gave Spain the right to colonise, convert, and enslave, and also justified the enslavement of Africans.

Those who attempted to controvert this Papal Bull were threatened with incurring “the wrath of Almighty God and of the blessed apostles Peter and Paul”. Currently there are worldwide demands to Pope Francis to abolish this Papal Bull behind colonization.

The advent of Portuguese in India finds spine-chilling expression at Malabar on the west coast of India. Even colonial historians such as Sanjay Subrahmanyam narrate how the colonial powers, especially the Portuguese, entered into bloody conflict with Muslim Mappillas of Malabar. Subrahmanyam underlines that Mappilla guerilla warfare was much feared by the Portuguese and is the best known struggle of the sixteenth century.

The current Spice Route project by the Left government in Kerala suppresses many episodes of religious violence against Malabar Muslims by the Portuguese. Their entanglements with the Hajj can be considered the earliest European encounters with this Muslim pilgrimage in the age of empires. The Estado introduced an official cartaz (pass) system for all ships. Any ship without this pass was captured, attacked and sunk in the sea. Turkish and Arab ships with Hajj pilgrims were the main victims of this new regulation. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Malabar developed trade links with West Asia in which the port of Jeddah had a crucial role, which has been highlighted by Portuguese historian, Fernao Lopes de Castanheda. Until the sixteenth century, Malabar merchants and pilgrims went directly from Kozhikkode to Arabia, Egypt and Venice via the port of Jeddah. Returning pilgrims voyaged into the Arabian Sea and anchored at Jeddah. This was interrupted by constant blockades and attacks by the Portuguese. It is this Spice Route which was opened by the colonial Portuguese to attack Muslim pilgrims and merchants that is currently being promoted by the Left government as part of its Spice Route project.

The Portuguese attack on Hajj pilgrims provoked local Mappilla Muslims of Malabar. The Ulama of Ponnani, in current Malappuram district of Kerala, issued various fatwas and sermons asking Malabari Muslims to unite against the Portuguese atrocities. They sought support from various Mamluk and Ottoman rulers. The ideological setting for an anti-Portuguese jihad was set by the Ulama educated in religious centres of Mecca and Cairo. Mahmood Kooria presents five monographs on Portuguese atrocities against Muslims in the Malabar, viz.: Tahrid ahl-al-iman, Qasidat al-Jihadiyyat, Khutbat al-jihadiyyat, Fath al-ubin, and Tuhfat al-Mujahidin.

The atrocities on hajj pilgrims by the Portuguese are frequently referred to in these monographs. The Tahrid ahl-al-iman ‘alajihad ‘abadat al-Sulban (Enticement of the People of Faith to launch Jihad against Worshippers of Crosses) is a long Arabic poem by Shaykh Zayn al Din who migrated in the fifteenth century from Kochi to Ponnani. In a chapter titled, “Certain shameful deeds of the Portuguese”, Zayn al Din narrates how Portuguese massacred Hajj pilgrims, plundered wealth, burnt down mosques and trampled the Quran under feet. The work set a paradigm for Jihadi texts in Malabar.

During Vasco da Gama’s second voyage, there was a brutal massacre of some 300 pilgrims in a ship owned by Khwoja Kasim, a rich merchant in Kozhikode and the Zamorin’s favorite. It was returning from Mecca to Malabar where it was attacked on the high seas close to the Indian shore. It lasted for more than five days (Sept. 29 to Oct. 3, 1502), till the ship went into the sea. It is this Spice Route which heralded colonialism, plunder and massacre in India that the Left government plans to revive in 2019 for tourism and heritage.

In 1997, the then Left Government in Kerala announced that it would celebrate the 500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama’s arrival on the Kerala coast as an ‘international tourist occasion’. The Portuguese government welcomed the decision and planned to chalk out its own programmes on this occasion. The celebrations comprised plans to finance a voyage of replicas of Gama’s ships to India and a world exhibition in Lisbon. India was invited to join a bilateral committee to oversee the events. Congress finance minister P. Chidambaram said before a conference of business leaders in Washington in September 1996: “To those of you who wish to come to India, I say come there for a long term. The last time you came to India to take a look, you stayed for 200 years. So this time if you come, you must come prepared to stay for another 200 years. That is where the largest rewards lie”. (Claude Alvares and Sanjay Subrahmanyam debate on Vasco da Gama Quincentenary, in India Today, July 28, 1997)

The Kochi diocese in Ernakulam district of Kerala asserted that it intends to commemorate the Portuguese advent as “the East meeting the West”, attributing printing, universal education and the Church’s very existence in India to the Portuguese. “The opposition is rubbish”, said Bishop Joseph Kureethara of Kochi, whose diocese was the first center of Portuguese activity in Asia. “It is not colonialism that we celebrate, but the encounter of two cultures, the great missionary saga, the historic discovery of a sea route to India and the advent of the modern era”. (Da Gama Centenary Sinks in Controversy, But a Diocese Plans to Celebrate, Ucanews.com, June 23, 1997) From 2005, the Liturgical Research Centre of the Syro-Malabar Church launched seminars and programmes in support of Spice Route, Pattanam and Muziris heritage project.

Early in 1997, in the context of the Vasco da Gama Quincentenary, civil society in Kerala declared that commemorating the ‘advent of colonization of India’ was improper. There were protest marches at Kozhikode where Vasco da Gama landed in 1498. But the most vehement protests came from Hindu and Muslim organizations. Fearing a Muslim backlash in Malabar in 1997, two preliminary meetings of Indo Portuguese joint commission were cancelled and the Left government in Kerala quit the celebrations.

This aborted Vasco da Gama Centenary is now being camouflaged and re-launched by the current Left government under the title ‘Spice Route Project’. The Apostle Thomas episode has been woven into it for pampering the church, to project that Indian heritage has been considerably influenced by semitic cultures.

In 1992, the Spanish attempted to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus. The plan was thwarted by global protests. Historians concede that over 100 million indigenous South and North American Indians and Blacks were exterminated by the turbulent events that followed the arrival of Columbus, creating 500 years of hostility. The left parties and historians in Kerala who are launching the Spice Route Project should learn some lessons from this episode.

User Comments

Great article. I am wondering whether Hindus should stand on the sideline and let Islam and Christianity fight it out!

Dr Rama Krishnan
7 Hours ago

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Something could have been mentioned about the Goa Inquisition against the Hindus.

The Spanish conquests of South America was amongst the most barbarous acts, possibly equalled by the European massacre of the natives of North America.

The details narrated here about the Portuguese massacres of Muslims are informative. However, the Spice Route is also an attempt to validate the false archaeologial finds in Pattanam is also the Church's attempt to reinstate the theory of the coming of St.Thomas to Kerala.

All in all, it might be best to let the others fight it out and allow the Hindus of India to stay out of it all, while being vigilant about both the Christian and Islamic attempts to take over Hindu India.

Dr. Vijaya Rajiva
7 Hours ago

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“It is not colonialism that we celebrate, but the encounter of two cultures, the great missionary saga, the historic discovery of a sea route to India and the advent of the modern era”! What a joke! And there are still literate keralites falling for such propaganda!

Regarding Indian heritage being considerably influenced by semitic cultures, the less said the better. In fact, in Kerala, the church has literally adopted almost all the paraphernalia and rituals that go with hindu religion, from flag masts in front of churches to renaming bible as yesu vedam and from using caparisoned elephants in religious processions to saffron overalls for priests, the church has appropriated to itself everything but a hindu name for Jesus.

P M Ravindran
3 Hours ago

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This write up has brought out all the points for further scrutiny of the project .Through this project they are trying to link the Spice Route with the Muziris Heritage Project, featuring the ancient port town of Kodungalloor and nearby areas in Central Kerala, which were the focus of India's spice trade with West Asia and Europe..

Pradeesh
35 Minutes ago

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The fact is that if there is something which directly or indirectly shows the influences of the west , here academic community will start their works to glorify , This spice route project will be a medium to invite foreign funds to conduct further research and studies .

Pradeesh
27 Minutes ago

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The Spice Route is by the church for the church and of the church. Since Pattanam has been tarnished by the academic community and put in garbage , the Marxist historians and government is trying to bring the Spice Route project with Pattanam and Apostle Thomas under the wrap.

The Portugese and Catholic church has a history of slaughtering the Muslims and Hindus in India.Remember the notorious Inquisition. Now they want to get UNESCO recognition for it.The Marxist historians have given full support as usual.

The Hindu and Muslim organisations should launch massive protest against it.

Paurnami

7 Minutes ago
http://vijayvaani.com/ArticleDisplay.aspx?aid=4971

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Mohenjo-daro inscribed ivoery stick m1650. Daybook of Supercargo, (worker in) minerals, bronze, bellmetal implements, smithy/forge, metal caster, (Alternative: मुष्टिक goldsmith)

March 7, 2019, 12:11 am

≫ Next: Duck, dotted circles on Ivory rod, Mohenjo-daro seal, vartaka, karaṛa 'aquatic bird' Rebus karandi 'fire-god' (Munda.Remo), करडा [ karaḍā ] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. vartaka 'bell-metal merchant' dhāvaḍa 'iron smelter'

≪ Previous: Spice Route: Left pact with colonialism -- BS Harishankar

http://tinyurl.com/y6yqkbrm

Inscribed stick with double bands of hatching at each end, Mohenjo-daro. Seven script signs right to left. Traces of vermillion fill all the lines.

m1650 Ivory stick

Hypertext 3505 daṭo 'claws of crab' rebus: dhatu 'mineral' kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze, bellmetal' gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'; baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace' Alternative reading: Sign 358 मुष्टिक 'fist' rebus: मुष्टिक goldsmith. (Thus, metal casting smithy with furnace) karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka 'teersman'; khareḍo 'a currycomb' (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati) Rebus: kharada खरडें daybook

A variant reading of third sign from the left is:

Hieroglyph Sign 358

raised, closed fists. 20 out of 32 occurrences of Sign 358 are on Mohenjodaro copper tablets. Indus Script Hypertext and rebus reading: मुष्टिक 'fist' rebus: मुष्टिक goldsmith.

(Products) Investigated daybook

179 final position; 90 on miniature tablets कारणिक investigating; khareḍo 'a currycomb' rebus: kharada खरडें daybook

Thus, the message is: Daybook of Supercargo, (worker in) minerals, bronze, bellmetal implements, smithy/forge, metal caster, (Alternative: मुष्टिक goldsmith) Metals turner (alloys) using furnace (in smithy/forge).

Indus Script Cipher of ANE cylinder seals, Mohenjodaro cylinder ivory rods, AFE bronze drums suggest an Ancient Maritime Tin Route

https://tinyurl.com/yalwxs8k

ANE is an abbreviation for Ancient Near East; AFE is an abbreviation for Ancient Far East

This monograph posits that Ancient MaritimeTin Route is suggested by Indus Script Cipher deployed on ANE cylinder seals, Mohenjodaro cylindrical ivory rods, AFE bronze drums.

The focus of attention is on the presence of cylinder seals in Sarasvati Civilization epicentre area and peripheral contact areas. The most surprising find is a cylinder seal in Rakhigarhi which should certainly been close to the riverine waterway routes to facilitate long-distance trade. It is possible that Rakhigarhi was a port town on the banks of a river tributary to Sarasvati River System.

"The yellow colored spots are the places mentioned in the Balarama’s pilgrimage along the Sarasvati River. The red spots are the excavated sites. The high density of settlements in the Kuru-region is clearly evident."

A reconstruction of the waterways hypothesised by Jijith Nadumuri Ravi.

Source: After Map 2 in: http://indiafacts.org/yamuna-study-links-sarasvati-findings/

The discovery of cylinder seals in Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi in Sarasvati Civilization epicentre suggests that the Vedic River Sarasvati was a navigable rivering waterway in 5th to 3rd millennia BCE facilitating seafaring merchants engaged in maritime trade activities of the metalwork of Sarasvati Civilization artisans and acting as trading agents for tin sources from Ancient Far East, thus suggesting a hypothesis of an Ancient Maritime Tin Route which linked Hanoi (Vietnam) and Haifa (Israel) ca. 4th-3rd millennium BCE.

I have presented a monograph deciphering scribe Aḍḍa's cylinder seal in Indus Script Cipher (dul meḍ kuṭhi āra kammaṭa sena dhangar ‘metal casting iron smelter, brass, mint, thunderbolt blacksmith’) and declaring it as a Rosetta stone Akkadian-Indus Script bilingual seal of Aḍḍa, scribe, śyena, 'falcon', aśáni ‘thunderbolt’(R̥gveda), آهن ګر āhangar, ‘ironsmith’ https://tinyurl.com/ycc3tcf4

British Museum.Greenstone seal of Aḍḍa. Akkadian, about 2300-2200 BCE From Mesopotamia Height: 3.900 cm Diameter: 2.550 cm Acquired by E.A.W. Budge ME 89115 Room 56: Mesopotamia

http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/g/greenstone_seal_of_adda.aspx

The Indus Script hypertext of 'one-horned young bull' is signified on the cyinder seal of Aḍḍa, scribe

This is a clear demonstration that Ancient Near East (ANE) was not only a contact area for Sarasvati Civilization but Meluhha artisans/merchants had settlements in ANE and had adapted to the use of Cuneiform syllabic writing system to write name and title in Akkadian syllables.

Indus Script 'dotted circles' on ANE (Altyn Depe, Shahr-i Sokhta) artifacts)

Dilmun seal impression

About 2000 circular seals -- so-called 'Dilmun or Persian Gulf' Seals-- have been found with Indus Script inscriptions; over 1000 cylinder seals have been found in Ancient Near East deploying Indus Script Cipher mostly as pictorial motifs comparable to Indus Script hypertexts.

About 200 Dong Son/Karen Bronze Drums have been found in Ancient Far East with Indus Script hypertexts (e.g. elephant, frog, peacock).

Thus, the Indus Script Corpora has now reached over 8000 inscriptions.

The contact area is established thanks to seafaring Meluhha merchants engaged in maritime trade activities along the Indian Ocean Rim and the use of the Persian Gulf and rivers -- Sarasvati, Sindhu, Tigris-Euphrates-- as navigable waterways.

Lothal, Dholavira, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro, Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi are port towns along this Ancient Maritine Trade Route. A signifier of a port town is the 'trough' hieroglyph of Indus Script.

Feeding trough with stripes deciphered as pattar paṭra 'goldsmith guild port town (paṭṭaṇa)' See:

Indus Script hieroglyph pāṭroṛo, pattar 'feeding trough' rebus paṭṭī 'inventory'; పట్ర paṭra, patta 'village, hamlet, maritime town' pāṭan 'market'https://tinyurl.com/y6vd6bmu

Seal impression, Ur (Upenn; U.16747); dia. 2.6, ht. 0.9 cm.; Gadd, PBA 18 (1932), pp. 11-12, pl. II, no. 12; Porada 1971: pl.9, fig.5; Parpola, 1994, p. 183; water carrier with a skin (or pot?) hung on each end of the yoke across his shoulders and another one below the crook of his left arm; the vessel on the right end of his yoke is over a receptacle for the water; a star on either side of the head (denoting supernatural?). The whole object is enclosed by 'parenthesis' marks. The parenthesis is perhaps a way of splitting of the ellipse (Hunter, G.R.,JRAS, 1932, 476). An unmistakable example of an 'hieroglyphic' seal.

Splitting the ellipse () results in the parenthesis, ( ) within which the hieroglyph multiplex (in this case of Ur Seal Impression, a water-carrier with stars flanking her head) is infixed, as noted by Hunter.

The ellipse is signified by Meluhha gloss with rebus reading indicating the artisan's competence as a professional: kōnṭa 'corner' (Nk.); kōṇṭu angle, corner (Tu.); rebus: kõdā ‘to turn in a lathe’ (Bengali) Alternative reading; kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze'.

kõdā is a metals turner, a mixer of metals to create alloys in smelters.

The signifiers are the hieroglyph components: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal'; meḍha ‘polar star’ rebus: meḍ ‘iron’; kōnṭa 'corner' rebus: kõdā ‘to turn in a lathe’; kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron/kuṭila, 'tin metal').

The entire hieroglyph multiplex stands deciphered: kõdā, 'metals turner' (with) meḍ ‘iron’ kuṭhi 'smelter', kuṭila, 'tin metal'.

2. This hieroglyph multiplex of the Ur Seal Impression confirms the rebus-metonymy-layered cipher of Meluhha glosses related to metalwork.

3. A characteristic feature of Indus writing system unravels from this example: what is orthographically constructed as a pictorial motif can also be deployed as a 'sign' on texts of inscriptions. This is achieved by a stylized reconstruction of the pictorial motif as a 'sign' which occurs with notable frequency on Indus Script Corpora -- with orthographic variants (Signs 12, 13, 14).

Signs 12 to 15. Indus script:

Identifying Meluhha gloss for parenthesis hieroglyph or ( ) split ellipse: குடிலம்¹ kuṭilam, n. < kuṭila. 1. Bend curve, flexure; வளைவு. (திவா.) (Tamil) In this reading, the Sign 12 signifies a specific smelter for tin metal: kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' rebus: rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron/ kuṭila, 'tin (bronze)metal; kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. āra-kūṭa, ‘brass’ (Samskritam) See: http://download.docslide.us/uploads/check_up03/192015/5468918eb4af9f285a8b4c67.pdf

It will be seen from Sign 15 that the basic framework of a water-carrier hieroglyph (Sign 12) is superscripted with another hieroglyph component, Sign 342: 'Rim of jar' to result in Sign 15. Thus, Sign 15 is composed of two hieroglyph components: Sign 12 'water-carrier' hieroglyph; Sign 342: "rim-of-jar' hieroglyph (which constitutes the inscription on Daimabad Seal 1).

kaṇḍ kanka ‘rim of jar’; Rebus: karṇaka ‘scribe’; kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar’. Thus the ligatured Glyph is decoded: kaṇḍ karṇaka ‘furnace scribe'

Daimabad Seal 1 (Sign 342: Two hieroglyph components: jar with short-neck and rim-of-jar) -- distringuished from broad-mouthed rimless pot which is another Sign hieroglyph.

Each hieroglyph component of Sign 15 is read in rebus-metonymy-layered-meluhha-cipher: Hieroglyph component 1: kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron/kuṭila, 'tin metal'. Hieroglyph component 2: kanka, kārṇī-ka 'rim-of-jar' rebus: kanka, kārṇī-ka m. ʻsupercargo of a shipʼ 'scribe'.

Sign 12 variants

Sign 12

Ligatured hieroglyph 15 using two ligaturing components: 1. water-carrier; 2. rim-of-jar. The ‘rim-of-jar’ glyph connotes: furnace account (scribe). Together with the glyph showing ‘water-carrier’, the ligatured glyphs of kuṭi ‘water-carrier’ + ‘rim-of-jar’ can thus be read as: kuṭhi kaṇḍa kanka ‘smelting furnace account (scribe)’. Though this is a circular seal discovered in Ur (ANE), clear Indus Script hypertexts in Indus Script Cipher have been identified to consider this as an Indus Script inscription. A set of parentheticl marks constitute the circumscript of the pictorial motif.

mũh 'face'; rebus: metal ingot (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each end; kolhe tehen me~ṛhe~t mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali)

The split parentheses are a splitting of a bun-ingot oval/lozenge shape

split as: ( ) This device split parenthesis and signifiers of two stars on flanking the head of the water-carrier signify the hieroglyphic nature of the Indus Writing System. This inscription has been deciphered with following hypertexts:

mũh, muhã 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.'.PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS meḍha ‘polar star’ (Marathi). meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.Mu.) PLUS Hieroglyph: kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' (Telugu) Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron' (Santali) (Parentheses kuṭila is a phonetic determinan of the substantive gloss: kuṭhi 'smelter'. It could also denote a smelter for kuṭila, 'tin metal'). kuṭi కుటి : శంకరనారాయణ తెలుగు-ఇంగ్లీష్ నిఘంటువు 1953 a woman water-carrier. Thus, the inscription is read as: dul meḍ muhã kuṭila kuṭhi 'casting iron ingot, tin metal smelter'.

Rakhigarhi cylinder seal. karā 'crocodile' rebus:khār 'blacksmith'

Kalibangan cylinder seal

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kūtī = bunch of twigs (Skt.)The bunch of twigs = kūdī, kūṭī(Skt.lex.) kūdī (also written as kūṭī in manuscripts) occurs in the Atharvaveda(AV 5.19.12) and KauśikaSūtra (Bloomsfield's ed.n, xliv. cf. Bloomsfield,American Journal of Philology, 11, 355; 12,416; Roth, Festgruss anBohtlingk, 98) denotes it as a twig. This is identified as that of Badarī, the jujube tied to the body of the dead to efface their traces. (See Vedic Index, I, p. 177).Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelting furnace‘; koṭe ‘forged metal’ (Santali)

Kalibangan065 Cylinder seal impression. Note the scarf of the person ligatured to a tiger.

dhaṭu m. (also dhaṭhu) m. ‘scarf’ (WPah.) (CDIAL 6707);

Rebus: dhātu ‘mineral (Pali).

kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter'

kuṭi 'tree' Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelting furnace‘; koṭe ‘forged metal’ (Santali)(Phonetic determinant of the twig on the horns of the woman ligatured to the tiger'

koḍu 'horn' Rebus: koḍ 'workshop'

kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'

tagaraka, tabernae montana 'flower', 'hair fragrance' Rebus: tagara 'tin'

karaṭi, karuṭi, keruṭi fencing, school or gymnasium where wrestling and fencing are taught (Ta.); garaḍi, garuḍi fencing school (Ka.); garaḍi, garoḍi (Tu.); gariḍi, gariḍī id., fencing (Te.)(DEDR 1262).

Rebus 1: करडा [ karaḍā ] Hard fromalloy--iron, silver &c. Rebus 2: kharādī = turner (G.) Rebus 3: kharaḍa, brief memoranda of metalwork Rebus: karaṇḍi 'fire-god' (Remo)Remo <karandi>E155 {N} ``^fire-^god''.(Munda).

Hieroglyph: karã̄ n. pl. ʻ wristlets, bangles ʼ (Gujarati) Rebus: khār 'blacksmith' kola 'woman' Rebus: kolhe 'smelter' kol 'working in iron' kolle 'blacksmith' kolimi 'smithy, forge'.kole.l 'smithy, forge' kole.l 'temple'.

Mohenj-daro cylinder seal

Hypertext: bull (zebu) + black drongo, antelope + black drongo, sprout, cobrahood

The classifier is the cobra hood hieroglyph/hypertext:

फडा (p. 313) phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága &c. Ta. patam cobra's hood. Ma. paṭam id. Ka. peḍe id. Te. paḍaga id. Go. (S.) paṛge, (Mu.) baṛak, (Ma.) baṛki, (F-H.) biṛki hood of serpent (Voc. 2154). / Turner, CDIAL, no. 9040, Skt. (s)phaṭa-, sphaṭā- a serpent's expanded hood, Pkt. phaḍā- id. For IE etymology, see Burrow, The Problem of Shwa in Sanskrit, p. 45.(DEDR 47) Rebus: phaḍa फड ‘manufactory, company, guild, public office’, keeper of all accounts, registers.

Black drongo is పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu perched on pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus, 'pōlaḍu, rebus pōlaḍ 'steel' The black drongo is perched on both zebu and antelope:

pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore'

ranku 'antelope' Rebus:ranku 'tin'. . Thus, the bird is a signifier of producting hard alloys out of tin ore and magnetite (ferrite) ore.

Antelope has a tail: xolā Rebus: kolle 'blacksmith,kolhe 'smelter'. Thus, the signifier of 'tail of anelope' is: tin smelting.

kūdī, kūṭī ‘bunch of twigs’ (Sanskrit) Rebus: kuṭhi ‘smelter furnace’ (Santali) kūdī (also written as kūṭī in manuscripts) occurs in the Atharvaveda (AV 5.19.12) and Kauśika Sūtra (Bloomsfield’s ed.n, xliv. Cf. Bloomsfield, American Journal of Philology, 11, 355; 12,416; Roth, Festgruss an Bohtlingk, 98) denotes it as a twig. This is identified as that of Badarī, the jujube tied to the body of the dead to efface their traces. (See Vedic Index, I, p. 177).

Ivory sticks as cylinder seals, Mohenjo-daro

Mesopotamian seals in Frankfort (Note: Dotted circles, safflowers, antelope Indus Script hieroglyphs)

Source: https://www.harappa.com/blog/indus-cylinder-seals

Image result for tell asmar cylinder seal

Tell Asmar Cylinder seal modern impression [elephant, rhinoceros and gharial (alligator) on the upper register] bibliography and image source: Frankfort, Henri: Stratified Cylinder Seals from the Diyala Region. Oriental Institute Publications 72. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, no. 642. Museum Number: IM14674 3.4 cm. high. Glazed steatite. ca. 2250 - 2200 BCE. Imported Indian seal from Tell Asmar. "The Indus civilization used the signet, but knew the cylinder seal. Whether the five tall ivory cylinders [4] tentatively explained as seals in Sir John Marshall's work were used for that purpose remains uncertain. They have nothing in common with the seal cylinders of the Near East. In the upper layers of Mohenjo Daro, however, three cylinder seals were found [2,3]. The published specimen shows two animals with birds upon their backs [2], a snake and a small conventional tree. It is an inferior piece of work which displays none of the characteristics of the finely engraved stamp-seals which are so distinctive a feature of early Indian remains. Another cylinder of glazed steatite was discovered at Tell Asmar in Iraq, but here the peculiarities of design, as well as the subject, show such close resemblances to seals from the Indus valley that its Indian origin is certain [3]. The elephant, rhinoceros and crocodile (gharial), foreign to Babylonia, were obviously carved by an artist to whom they were familiar, as appears from the faithful rendering of the skin of the rhinoceros (closely resembling the plate-armour) and the sloping back and bulbous forehead of the elephant. Certain other peculiarities of style connect the seal as definitely with the Indus civilisation as if it actually bore the signs of the Indus script. Such is the convention by which the feet of the elephant are rendered and the network of lines, in other Indian seals mostly confined to the ears, but extending here over the whole of his head and trunk. The setting of the ears of the rhinoceros on two little stems is also a feature connecting this cylinder with the Indus valley seals." (H. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, Macmillan and Co., 1939, p. 304-305.)

https://www.harappa.com/blog/indus-cylinder-seals Indus Script hypertexts: karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus:karba, ib 'iron' ibbo 'merchant'; kāṇḍa 'rhinoceros' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'; karā 'crocodile' rebus:khār 'blacksmith'

Image result for bharatkalyan97 serpent tabernae montana

Cylinder seal with a zebu, scorpion, man, snake and tree. Enstatite.H. 2.6 cm (1 in.); diam. 1.55 cm (5/8 in.). Mesopotamia, Ur, U. 16220. Late 3rd millennium BCE. British Museum. BM 122947

Gadd seal 6. (cut down into Ur III mausolea from Larsa level; U. 16220), enstatite; Legrain, 1951, No. 632; Collon, 1987, Fig. 611 Cylinder seal; BM 122947;humped bull stands before a palm-tree, a thorny stone(?), tabernae montana (five-petalled fragrant flower); snake; person with long legs; behind the bull a scorpion .Deciphered Indus writing: pola 'zebu, bos indicus'; pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri); bichi 'scorpion'; 'hematite ore'; tagaraka 'tabernae montana'; tagara 'tin'; ranga 'thorny'; Rebus: pewter, alloy of tin and antimony; kankar., kankur. = very tall and thin, large hands and feet; kankar dare = a high tree with few branches (Santali) Rebus: kanka, as in: karNaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo', karNika 'scribe, account'.

I suggest that the 'dotted circle' is of significance as a rebus representation of Meluhha metalwork with mineral ores in case the hypertext is demonstrated to have been used by Meluhha speakers or Meluhha artisans or those in Ancient Near East familiar with the Indus Script hypertext tradition.

In Meluhha hypertext tradition smelting of minerals is signified by 'dotted circle' hypertext.

Indus Script inscriptions on ivory artifacts signify metalwork wealth accounting

John Marshall wrote about five ivory rods discovered in Mohenjodaro as seals: "Seals of this group [cylinder seals, although Mackay above is not sure they are true cylinder seals]], if indeed they are seals, are very rarely found at Mohenjo-daro, only five specimen being obtained in all. They are all made of ivory and differ from the cylinder seals of other countries in being very long and thing; nor are they perforated for suspension on a cord. It is possible that these so-called seals are not true seals at all. The incised characters upon them might conceivably be identification marks for a game or something similar. On the other hand, they are certainly suitable for use a seals and in this account they are included in this chapter For the sake of clearness the actual seal is shown side by side with each impression." (John Marshall, ed., 1931, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus civilization: being an official account of archaeological excavations at Mohenjo-Daro carried out by the government of India between the years 1922 and 1927, Vol. 1, London, Arthur Probsthain, p.371)

The 5 ivory rod inscriptions (529 to 533 Marshall) are flipped left horizontally and presnted with rebus readings:

No 529 (Pl. CXIV, HR 5515). Ivory. 2.7 inches long by 0.25 in. in diameter. Double groove at one end for attachment of cord. The other end is decorated with three parallel grooves. Level, 4 feet below surface. Central Courtyard (30), House LIII, Block 7, HR Area.

(529 Marshall Ivory rod inscription) kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. khareḍo 'a currycomb' (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.) karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka

'scribe, engraver, account' kaṇīka 'helmsman/steersman'; karã̄ 'wristlets, bangles' rebus: khār 'blacksmith' sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' khāṇḍā
'notch' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' Fish-fin: ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron'
ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS khambhaṛā ʻfinʼ rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Thus, the message is: Blacksmith, Turner, Supercargo (engraver), steersman, implements workshop, mint-master/coiner, (working in) smithy/forge. (529 and 530 ivory rods have identical inscriptions. Both the rods show three linear strokes, at the bottom edge).

No 530 (Pl. CXIV, HR 4985). Ivory. 2.05 inches long by 0.25 in. in diameter. Double groove at one end for a cord; the other end is broken. Level 3 feet below surface. Central Courtyard (30), House LIII, Block 7, HR Area.

(530 Marshall Ivory rod inscription) kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. khareḍo 'a currycomb' (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.) karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, engraver, account' kaṇīka 'helmsman/steersman'; karã̄ 'wristlets, bangles' rebus: khār 'blacksmith' sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' khāṇḍā 'notch' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' Fish-fin: ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS khambhaṛā ʻfinʼ rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Thus, the message is: Blacksmith, Turner, Supercargo (engraver), steersman, implements workshop, mint-master/coiner, (working in) smithy/forge.

No 531 (Pl. CXIV, DK 2666). Ivory. Now 2.05 inches long by 0.3 in. in diameter. Its polish shows that it has been much used. About one-half of the seal is covered with an inscription, deeply and roughly incised and bordered by two deep cut lines. One end of the seal is shaped into a conical head with a deep groove possibly intended for a cord. The seal is not bored; nor is it perfectly round. Level, 4 feet below surface. Street between Blocks 1 and 2, Section B, DK Area.

(531 Marshall Ivory rod inscription) dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' khareḍo 'a currycomb' (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati) kamaṭha 'bow and arrow' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'; dãtɔ m. a kind of rake or harrow (Gujarati) rebus: dhatu 'mineral'' khāṇḍā 'notch' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop'. Thus, the message is: Turner of metal castings, mint-master-coiner, metal (alloys), minerals, iron (metal) implements workshop.

No 532 (Pl. CXIV, VS 875). Ivory. Now 2 inches long by 0.3 in. in diameter. One end is broken and a small piece is missing. The seal tapers slightly towards its complete end. Five deeply incised characters occupy a space of about two-thirds of the circumference of the seal. Level, 12 feet below surface. Found in front of Room 70, House XXVII, VS Area.

(532 Marshall Ivory rod inscription) kuṭi 'water carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS karṇika 'spread legs' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇīka 'helmsman' meḍ 'body' rebus: meḍ 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic)

baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace' gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'. Thus the message is: Smelter, metalcaster, Supercargo/Helmsman responsible for/working with iron/copper implements and furnace.

No 533 (Pl. CXIV, VS 958). Ivory. 2.75 inches long by 0.3 in. in diameter. Decorated at 0-.5 in. from each end with a deeply incised cross-hatched border. Towards one end of the intervening space are two deeply incised characters This seal is not perfectly round. Level, 10 feet below surface of the ground. From Room 69, House XXVIII, VS Area.

(533 Marshall Ivory rod inscription) khaṇḍa 'divisions'; rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' dhāv 'strand' dhāv 'string' rebus: dhāvaḍ 'smelter' dhaṭo 'claws of crab' rebus: dhatu 'minerals'. Thus the message is: Smelter of minerals, (maker of metal) implements.

Fourteen Indus Script inscriptions on ivory objects (including 3 ivory plaques and ivory cube from Mohenjodaro and one ivory rod from Harappa) have been found after the report of Marshall on five ivory rods detailed above.

Thus, there are a total of nineteen inscriptions on ivory objects in Indus Script Corpora.. The details of the additional fourteen inscriptions on ivory objects are deciphered in the following sections (Ivory inscription 6 to Ivory inscription 19).

Ivory inscription 6

m1650 Ivory stick

Hypertext 3505 daṭo 'claws of crab' rebus: dhatu 'mineral' kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze, bellmetal' gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'; baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace' (Thus, metal casting smithy with furnace) karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka 'teersman'; khareḍo 'a currycomb' (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati.)Thus, the message is: Supercargo, (worker in) minerals, bronze, bellmetal implements, smithy/forge, metal caster, Metals turner (alloys) using furnace (in smithy/forge).

Ivory inscription 7

Pict-141 Geometrical pattern

Hypertext 2942 karṇoka,'spread legs' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka

'steersman'; meḍ 'body' rebus: meḍ 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic) PLUS khāṇḍā 'notch' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'. kanac 'corner' rebus:kancu 'bronze,bellmetal' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' khaṇḍa 'divisions' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' Thus, the message is: Supercargo (working in), Steersman of (cargo) iron/bronze, bellmetal implements workshop.

Ivory inscription 8

Pict 142 geometrical pattern

Hypertext 2941 Ivory or bone rod geometrical pattern --X hieroglyph on either end of the text: dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'minerals' PLUS followed by inscription koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace' karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka 'Steersman'; khareḍo 'a currycomb' (G.) Rebus: kharādī 'turner' (G.). Thus, the message is: Turner, Supercargo-Steersman in metal casting workshop and smithy, forge (working with) furnace.

Ivory inscription 9

Hypertext 2943 Hypertext 2943 is a duplication of the Hypertext 2941: Ivory or bone rod geometrical pattern --PLUS followed by inscription koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace' karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka 'Steersman'; khareḍo 'a currycomb' (G.) Rebus: kharādī 'turner' (G.). Thus, the message is: Turner, Supercargo-Steersman in metal casting workshop and smithy, forge (working with) furnace.

Ivory inscription 10

Pict 143 Geometrical pattern X hieroglyph: dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'minerals'

Hypertext 2948 gaṇḍa 'four' (circumscript) rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin' (Thus, tin implements) kuṭi 'water carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' PLUS karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka 'Steersman'(Thus,smelter accounting in-charge); khareḍo 'a currycomb'

(G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.). Thus, the message is: Steersman-Supercargo (working with smelter,minerals) Tin implements and Turner (of metal alloys) working with furnace and engraving.

Ivory inscription 11

Hypertext 2944 Ivory or bone rod Phal. tērc̣hi ʻadzeʼ (with "intrusive" r).Rebus: takṣa in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ VarBr̥S PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' (Thus, carpenter working with smithy/forge). mũh 'ingot' (circumscript) PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' (Thus smithy/forge ingots) kuṭi 'water carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' PLUS kuṭi 'water carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' PLUS karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka 'Steersman'

(Thus,smelter accounting in-charge). Thus the message is: Carpenter working with smithy/forge with ingots furnace and Supercargo Smelter accounting in-charge, working with engraving.

Ivory inscription 12

Hypertext 2945 Ivory or bone rod gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' (Alternative: panja 'palm or paw' rebus: panja 'kiln, furnace') Thus, the message is: (Maker of) implements in smithy/forge (furnace).

Ivory inscription 13

Ivory rod, ivory plaques with dotted circles. Mohenjo-daro (Musee National De Arts Asiatiques, Guimet, 1988-1989, , Les cites oubliees de l’Indus Archeologie du Pakistan.]

The fillet worn on the forehead and on the right-shoulder signifies one strand; while the trefoil on the shawl signifies three strands. A hieroglyph for two strands is also signified.
Semantics of single strand of rope and three strands of rope are: 1. Sindhi dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, Lahnda dhāī˜ id.; 2. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ (RigVeda).

Single strand (one dotted-circle)

Two strands (pair of dotted-circles)

Three strands (three dotted-circles as a trefoil)

There are orthographic variants with one, two or three dotted circles with X hieroglyph as circumscript. Semantic elucidations for a single dotted circle as a cross-section view of a strand (for e.g. of rope or twisted rope with three strands): dhātu, dhāū, dhāv 'red stone mineral' or two minerals: dul PLUS dhātu, dhāū, dhāv 'cast minerals' or tri- dhātu, -dhāū, -dhāv 'three minerals' to create metal alloys'. The artisans producing alloys are dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻa caste of iron -- smeltersʼ, dhāvḍī ʻcomposed of or relating to ironʼ)(CDIAL 6773). dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā]Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773)

dāu m. ʻ opportunity, throw in dice ʼ (Old Awadhi); akṣa -- dāya -- m. ʻ playing of dice ʼ Naiṣ. (CDIAL 6258)தாயம் tāyam, n. < dāya Number one in the game of dice; கவறுருட்ட விழும்ஒன்று என்னும் எண்.
Colloq. dāˊtu n. ʻ share ʼ RV. [Cf. śatádātu -- , sahásradātu -- ʻ hundredfold, thousandfold ʼ: Pers. dāv ʻ stroke, move in a game ʼ prob. ← IA. -- √dō] K. dāv m. ʻ turn, opportunity, throw in dice ʼ; S. ḍ̠ã̄u m. ʻ mode ʼ; L. dā m. ʻ direction ʼ, (Ju.) ḍ̠ā, ḍ̠ã̄ m. ʻ way, manner ʼ; P. dāu m. ʻ ambush ʼ; Ku. dã̄w ʻ turn, opportunity, bet, throw in dice ʼ, N. dāu; B. dāu, dã̄u ʻ turn, opportunity ʼ; Or. dāu, dāũ ʻ opportunity, revenge ʼ; Mth. dāu ʻ trick (in wrestling, &c.) ʼ; OAw. dāu m. ʻ opportunity, throw in dice ʼ; H. dāū, dã̄w m. ʻ turn ʼ; G. dāv m. ʻ turn, throw ʼ, ḍāv m. ʻ throw ʼ; M. dāvā m. ʻ revenge ʼ. -- NIA. forms with nasalization (or all NIA. forms) poss. < dāmán -- 2m. ʻ gift ʼ RV., cf. dāya -- m. ʻ gift ʼ MBh., akṣa -- dāya -- m. ʻ playing of dice ʼ Naiṣ.(CDIAL 6258)

X hieroglyph on ivory plaques or as circumscript of dotted circles signifies: dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'minerals'
Hieroglyph, orthographed dotted circle: dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'. dATu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral'. Thus, the message signified by dotted circles and X hieroglyph refers to dhā̆vaḍ priest of 'iron-smelters'. The aquatic duck shown atop an ivory rod is: karaṇḍa 'duck' (Sanskrit) karaṛa 'a very large aquatic bird' (Sindhi) Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) Thus, the metalworker (smelter) works with hard alloys (using carburization process). Three dotted circles: kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus working with minerals and hard alloys for smithy, forge.

Ivory inscription 14

m1652 Ivory stick sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' PLUS daṭo 'claws of crab' rebus: dhatu 'mineral' ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. Thus the message is: workshop for minerals, metals and metalcaster.

Ivory inscription 15

m1651 Ivory stick A, D, F

Hypertext 2947 Dotted circle hieroglyphs at the ends of the rod: dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'. dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' (Two long linear strokes are drawn on either end of the rod-- as semantic determinatives). Fish-fin: ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS khambhaṛā ʻfinʼ rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. mũh 'ingot' PLUS khāṇḍā 'notch' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' (Thus, ingot implements) koḍa 'sluice'; Rebus: koḍ 'artisan's workshop (Kuwi) Alternative: Rebus: खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka 'Steersman' (Thus,smelter accounting in-charge); khareḍo 'a currycomb'

(G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.). Thus, the message is: Steersman-Supercargo (working with smelter,minerals, scribe, account), mint (coiner), ingot implements, Caster of metal alloys.

Ivory inscription 16

Hypertext 2940 Ivory or bone rod dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' arā 'spokes' rebus: āra 'brass' eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'molten cast, copper'. kamaṭha 'bow and arrow' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' karṇīka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'Supercargo' karṇaka 'scribe, account' karṇīka 'Steersman' (Thus,smelter accounting in-charge); khareḍo 'a currycomb'(G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.). Thus, the message is: Supercargo (scribe, account), Turner (of alloys, molten copper), mint-master, working with metal casting.

Ivory inscription 17

m1653 ivory plaque

Hypertext 1905 bhaṭa 'warrior' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace' kuṭila 'bent' CDIAL 3230) Rebus:kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin). Thus, a bronze furnace worker.

Ivory inscription 18.

m1654 Ivory cube with dotted circles Dotted circle hieroglyphs on each side of the cube (one dotted circle surrounded by 7 dotted circles): dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'.(smelter). Thus, dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻa guild of iron -- smelters'

Ivory inscription 19

Ivory is also used to record an inscription in Harappa:

h101 Ivory stick Hypertext 4561 dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'.(smelter) koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop' khāṇḍā 'notch' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'. Thus, dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻa guild of iron -- smelters'(ores) and implements workshop.

The use of dotted circles as an Indus Script hypertext has been demonstrated in the context of inscritions on ivory objects. These hypertexts were used on other media of Indus Script Corpora.

m0352 cdef

Rebus readings of m0352 hieroglyphs:

dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'

1. Round dot like a blob -- . Glyph: raised large-sized dot -- (gōṭī ‘round pebble);goTa 'laterite (ferrite ore)

2. Dotted circle khaṇḍa ‘A piece, bit, fragment, portion’; kandi ‘bead’;

3. A + shaped structure where the glyphs 1 and 2 are infixed. The + shaped structure is kaṇḍ ‘a fire-altar’ (which is associated with glyphs 1 and 2)..

Rebus readings are: 1. khoṭ m. ʻalloyʼgoTa 'laterite (ferrite ore); 2. khaṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’; 3. kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar, consecrated fire’.

Four ‘round spot’; glyphs around the ‘dotted circle’ in the center of the composition: gōṭī ‘round pebble; Rebus 1: goTa 'laterite (ferrite ore); Rebus 2:L. khoṭf ʻalloy, impurityʼ, °ṭā ʻalloyedʼ, awāṇ. khoṭā ʻforgedʼ; P. khoṭ m. ʻbase, alloyʼ M.khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ (CDIAL 3931) Rebus 3: kōṭhī ] f (कोष्ट S) A granary, garner, storehouse, warehouse, treasury, factory, bank. khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ metal is produced from kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar’ yielding khaṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’. This word khaṇḍā is denoted by the dotted circles.

Dotted circles and three lines on the obverse of many Failaka/Dilmun seals are read rebus as hieroglyphs:

Hieroglyph: ḍāv m. ʻdice-throwʼ rebus: dhāu 'ore'; dã̄u ʻtyingʼ, ḍāv m. ʻdice-throwʼ read rebus: dhāu 'ore' in the context of glosses: dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻa caste of iron -smelters', dhāvḍī ʻcomposed of or relating to ironʼ. Thus, three dotted circles signify: tri-dhāu, tri-dhātu 'three ores' (copper, tin, iron).

A (गोटा) gōṭā Spherical or spheroidal, pebble-form. (Marathi) Rebus: khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ (metal) (Marathi) खोट [khōṭa] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge (Marathi). P. khoṭ m. ʻalloyʼ (CDIAL 3931) goṭa 'laterite ferrite ore'. goṭo m. ʻgold or silver lace' (Sindhi); goṭa m. ʻedging of gold braidʼ(Kashmiri)(CDIAL 4271)

*gōṭṭa ʻ something round ʼ. [Cf. guḍá -- 1. -- In sense ʻ fruit, kernel ʼ cert. ← Drav., cf. Tam. koṭṭai ʻ nut, kernel ʼ, Kan. goṟaṭe &c. listed DED 1722] K. goṭh f., dat. °ṭi f. ʻ chequer or chess or dice board ʼ; S. g̠oṭu m. ʻ large ball of tobacco ready for hookah ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; P. goṭ f. ʻ spool on which gold or silver wire is wound, piece on a chequer board ʼ; N. goṭo ʻ piece ʼ, goṭi ʻ chess piece ʼ; A. goṭ ʻ a fruit, whole piece ʼ, °ṭā ʻ globular, solid ʼ, guṭi ʻ small ball, seed, kernel ʼ; B. goṭā ʻ seed, bean, whole ʼ; Or. goṭā ʻ whole, undivided ʼ, goṭi ʻ small ball, cocoon ʼ, goṭāli ʻ small round piece of chalk ʼ; Bi. goṭā ʻ seed ʼ; Mth. goṭa ʻ numerative particle ʼ; H. goṭ f. ʻ piece (at chess &c.) ʼ; G. goṭ m. ʻ cloud of smoke ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ kernel of coconut, nosegay ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ lump of silver, clot of blood ʼ, °ṭilɔ m. ʻ hard ball of cloth ʼ; M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ a marble ʼ, goṭuḷā ʻ spherical ʼ; Si. guṭiya ʻ lump, ball ʼ; -- prob. also P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H. goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ.*gōḍḍ -- ʻ dig ʼ see *khōdd -- .Addenda: *gōṭṭa -- : also Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271) Ta. koṭṭai seed of any kind not enclosed in chaff or husk, nut, stone, kernel; testicles; (RS, p. 142, items 200, 201) koṭṭāṅkacci, koṭṭācci coconut shell. Ma. koṭṭa kernel of fruit, particularly of coconut, castor-oil seed; kuṟaṭṭa, kuraṭṭa kernel; kuraṇṭi stone of palmfruit. Ko. keṭ testes; scrotum. Ka. koṭṭe, goṟaṭe stone or kernel of fruit, esp. of mangoes; goṭṭa mango stone. Koḍ. koraṇḍi id. Tu. koṭṭè kernel of a nut, testicles; koṭṭañji a fruit without flesh; koṭṭayi a dried areca-nut; koraṇtu kernel or stone of fruit, cashew-nut; goṭṭu kernel of a nut as coconut, almond, castor-oil seed. Te. kuriḍī dried whole kernel of coconut. Kol. (Kin.) goṛva stone of fruit. Nk. goṛage stone of fruit. Kur. goṭā any seed which forms inside a fruit or shell. Malt. goṭa a seed or berry. / Cf. words meaning 'fruit, kernel, seed' in Turner, CDIAL, no. 4271 (so noted by Turner). (DEDR 2069)

Rebus: खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'

Ivory Indus Script metalwork catalogues on cylinder seals (18) from HR, DK and VS Areas, Mohenjo-daro and one ivory stick from Harappa

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/hym7qo2

Area excavated by Hargreaves is called HR Area; area excavated by K. N. Dikshit is called DK Area; area excavated by Madhu Swarup Vats is called VS Area.

See:

Definition of kole.l 'smithy, forge, temple' from 12 Indus Script inscriptions found in and layout of House 1 (with several rooms) HR Area, Mohenjo-daro http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/06/definition-of-kolel-smithy-forge-temple.html for a report on kole.l'smithy' found in HR Area House 1. This house had several rooms on the upper storey with two clear entry and exit stairways.

In the same temple (kole.l) area, Ivory Indus Script cylinder seals were found.

The 19 Indus Script inscriptions on ivory rods, plaques and cubes of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are presented in this monographs with their decipherment as metalwork catalogues.

530 and 531 ivory rods are shaped like a meDga 'stake' rebus: medha 'yajna' (yupa) with caSAla (as described in Satapatha Brahmana and Taittiriya Samhita) for a Soma yaga.

John Marshall wrote: "Seals of this group [cylinder seals, although Mackay above is not sure they are true cylinder seals]], if indeed they are seals, are very rarely found at Mohenjo-daro, only five specimen being obtained in all. They are all made of ivory and differ from the cylinder seals of other countries in being very long and thing; nor are they perforated for suspension on a cord. It is possible that these so-called seals are not true seals at all. They incised characters upon them might conceivably be identification marks for a game or something similar. On the other hand, they are certainly suitable for use a seals and in this account they are included in this chapter For the sake of clearness the actual seal is shown side by side with each impression.

No 529 (Pl. CXIV, HR 5515). Ivory. 2.7 inches long by 0.25 in. in diameter. Double groove at one end for attachment of cord. The other end is decorated with three parallel grooves. Level, 4 feet below surface. Central Courtyard (30), House LIII, Block 7, HR Area.
No 530 (Pl. CXIV, HR 4985). Ivory. 2.05 inches long by 0.25 in. in diameter. Double groove at one end for a cord; the other end is broken. Level 3 feet below surface. Central Courtyard (30), House LIII, Block 7, HR Area.
No 531 (Pl. CXIV, DK 2666). Ivory. Now 2.05 inches long by 0.3 in. in diameter. Its polish shows that it has been much used. About one-half of the seal is covered with an inscription, deeply and roughly incised and bordered by two deep cut lines. One end of the seal is shaped into a conical head with a deep groove possibly intended for a cord. The seal is not bored; nor is it perfectly round. Level, 4 feet below surface. Street between Blocks 1 and 2, Section B, DK Area.
No 532 (Pl. CXIV, VS 875). Ivory. Now 2 inches long by 0.3 in. in diameter. One end is broken and a small piece is missing. The seal tapers slightly towards its complete end. Five deeply incised characters occupy a space of about two-thirds of the circumference of the seal. Level, 12 feet below surface. Found in front of Room 70, House XXVII, VS Area.
No 533 (Pl. CXIV, VS 958). Ivory. 2.75 inches long by 0.3 in. in diameter. Decorated at 0-.5 in. from each end with a deeply incised cross-hatched border. Towards one end of the intervening space are two deeply incised characters This seal is not perfectly round. Level, 10 feet below surface of the ground. From Room 69, House XXVIII, VS Area. (John Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, p. 371

The 5 ivory rod inscriptions (529 to 533 Marshall) are flipped left horizontally and presnted with rebus readings:

Ivory inscription 1

kuTi 'water carrier' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS karNika 'spread legs' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' meD 'body' rebus: meD 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic) baTa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace' gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements'. Thus the message is: Smelter, metalcater, Supercargo working with iron/copper implements and furnace.

Ivory inscription 2

khaNDa 'divisions'; rebus: kaNDa 'implements' dhAv 'strand' dhAv 'string' rebus: dhAvaD 'smelter' dhaTo 'claws of crab' rebus: dhatu 'minerals'. Thus the message is: Smelter of minerals, (maker of metal) implements.'

Ivory inscription 3

dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.) kamaTha 'bow and arrow' rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage' ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' khANDA 'notch' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' PLUS khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.) muh 'ingot'.Thus, the message is: Turner of metal castings, mins-master-coiner, iron (metal) implements, ingots and metal (alloys) turner.

Ivory inscription 4

(529 Marshall Ivory rod) khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.) karNaka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' karã̄ 'wristlets, bangles' rebus: khAr 'blacksmith' sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' khANDA 'notch' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' Fish-fin: ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS khambhaṛā ʻfinʼ rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Thus, the message is: Blacksmith, Turner, Supercargo implements workshop, mint-master/coiner. (529 and 530 ivory rods have identical inscriptions; 530 has an additional hieroglyph: three linear strokes)

Ivory inscription 5

(530 Marshall Ivory rod) khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.) karNaka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, engraver, account' karã̄ 'wristlets, bangles' rebus: khAr 'blacksmith' sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' khANDA 'notch' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' Fish-fin: ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS khambhaṛā ʻfinʼ rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus, the message is: Blacksmith, Turner, Supercargo (engraver) implements workshop, mint-master/coiner, (working in) smithy/forge..

Ivory inscription 6

m1650 Ivory stick

Hypertext 3505 daTo 'claws of crab' rebus: dhatu 'mineral' kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze' gaNDA 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS baTa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace' karNaka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.)Thus, the message is: Supercargo, (worker in) minerals, bronze implements, smithy/forge, metal caster, Metals turner (alloys) using furnace

Ivory inscription 7

Pict-141 Geometrical pattern

Hypertext 2942 karNika 'spread legs' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' meD 'body' rebus: meD 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic) PLUS khANDA 'notch' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' khaNDa 'divisions'; rebus: kaNDa 'implements'. Tus, the message is: Supercargo (working in) iron/copper implements workshop.

Ivory inscription 8

Pict 142 geometrical pattern

Hypertext 2941 Ivory or bone rod geometrical pattern followed by inscription koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS baTa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace' karNaka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.). Thus, the message is: Turner, Supercargo in metal casting workshop and (working with) furnace

Ivory inscription 9

Hypertext 2943 Hypertext 2943 is a duplication of the Hypertext 2941: koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS baTa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace' karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.). Thus, the message is: Turner, Superargo in metal casting workshop and (working with) furnace.

Ivory inscription 10

Pict 143 Geometrical pattern

Hypertext 2948 gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin' (thus, tin implements) kuTi 'water carrier' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' PLUS karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.). (thus, Supercargo, engraver working with smelter) khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.) Thus, the message is: Supercargo (working with smelter) Tin work and Turner (of metal alloys) working with furnace and engraving.

Ivory inscription 11

Hypertext 2944 Ivory or bone rod Phal. tērc̣hi ʻ adze ʼ (with "intrusive" r).Rebus: takṣa in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ VarBr̥S PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' (Thus, carpenter working with smithy/forge). muH 'ingot' PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' (Thus smithy/forge ingots) kuTi 'water carrier' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' PLUS karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' Thus the message is: Carpenter working with smithy/forge, ingots for smithy and Supercargo working with smelter and engraving.

Ivory inscription 12

Hypertext 2945 Ivory or bone rod gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' Thus, the message is: (Maker of) implements in smithy/forge.

Ivory inscription 13

Ivory rod, ivory plaques with dotted circles. Mohenjo-daro (Musee National De Arts Asiatiques, Guimet, 1988-1989, , Les cites oubliees de l’Indus Archeologie du Pakistan.] dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'. dATu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral'. Thus, the message signified by dotted circles and X hieroglyph refers to dhā̆vaḍ priest of 'iron-smelters'. The aquatic duck shown atop an ivory rod is: karaṇḍa 'duck' (Sanskrit) karaṛa 'a very large aquatic bird' (Sindhi) Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) Thus, the metalworker (smelter) works with hard alloys (using carburization process). Three dotted circles: kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus working with minerals and hard alloys for smithy, forge.

Ivory inscription 14

m1652 Ivory stick sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' PLUS daTo 'claws of crab' rebus: dhatu 'mineral' ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop' dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. Thus the message is: workshop for minerals, metals and metalcaster.

Ivory inscription 15

m1651 Ivory stick A, D, F

Hypertext 2947 Dotted circle hieroglyphs at the ends of the rod: dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'.(smelter) dATu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral'. Fish-fin: ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS khambhaṛā ʻfinʼ rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.muh 'ingot' PLUS khANDA 'notch' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' (Thus, ingot implements) koḍa 'sluice'; Rebus: koḍ 'artisan's workshop (Kuwi) karNaka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.). thus the message is: Working with dhatu (minerals), mint (coiner), ingot implements workshop, Supercargo (scribe, account), Turner (alloys) of metal, Smelter

Ivory inscription 16

Hypertext 2940 Ivory or bone rod dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' arA 'spokes' rebus: Ara 'brass' eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'molten cast, copper'.kamaTha 'bow and arrow' rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage' karNaka, kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' karNaka 'scribe, account' khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.). Thus, the message is: Supercargo (scribe, account), Turner (of alloys) of metal, mint-master, working with metal casting.

Ivory inscription 17

m1653 ivory plaque

Hypertext 1905 bhaTa 'warrior' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace' kuṭila 'bent' CDIAL 3230) Rebus:kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin).Thus, a bronze furnace worker.

Ivory inscription 18.

m1654 Ivory cube with dotted circles Dotted circle hieroglyphs on each side of the cube (one dotted circle surrounded by 7 dotted circles): dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'.(smelter).

Ivory inscription 19

Ivory is also used to record an inscription in Harappa:

h101 Ivory stick Hypertext 4561 dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'.(smelter) koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop' khANDA 'notch' rebus: kaNDa 'implements'. Thus, Smelter (ores) and implements workshop.

Indus Script Hypertexts on chariot lynchpins: मुष्टिक 'fist' rebus: मुष्टिक goldsmith, ram animal heads, rams signify metalwork

https://tinyurl.com/ya22wmd2

Pins in the shape of clenched fist signify Indus Script Hypertexts. Such pins may have been used as alloy metal lynch-pins on chariot axles.

A remarkable terracotta object was found in Lothal and reported by SR Rao. This shows a person with clenched fists which is an Indus Script Hieroglyph Sign 358

Detachable perforatedarms of an alabaster statue. Source: Lothal, Vol. II: Plate CCLXIIB. Image inverted to show fisted hands. "The object is interpreted by us as the physical basis of the Indus Ideogram, depicting a pair of raised hands with folded fingers, conveying the intended meanings 'dexterity, skill, competence'. "
http://www.iiserpune.ac.in/userfiles/files/Evidence_for_the_Artisan_in_the_Indus_Script.pdf

mẽḍha 'ram' Indus Script hypertext rebus mẽḍh 'iron', meḍho 'helper of merchant' signified on (chariot?) lynch-pins

Fig.2 (Mackay 1937: pl. C3)

Bactria; metal pins; fig 2.10 is a pin with a head in the shape of two sitting rams; this resembles a pin was found in Mohenjodaro with a head in the form of seated goats with helically bent horns (Mackay 1937: pl. C3). Pins with zoomorphic heads is typically noticed in southwest Iran and the Near East. Fig. 2.11-12 show pins with heads in the shape of clenched fist with parallels of similar pins in Mesopotamian royal tombs of Ur (Maxwell-Hyslop 1971: 13, fig.11). Good examples of Iranian-Afghan-Indian ties.

A bronze hairpin with "cartwheel" design as the head from Tepe Yahya, Iran

(note the incised circled cross or "X" in the center) (Potts 2001: 64). (Image after Diwiyana)

Bronze. Chariot axle cap linchpin (xia) with kneeling human figure.Source: Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery. H x W x D (overall): 11.5 x 4.9 x 4 cm (4 1/2 x 1 15/16 x 1 9/16 in) Accession Number S2012.9.617

https://www.freersackler.si.edu/object/S2012.9.617/ China. late Anyang period, Late Shang dynasty, ca. 1100-1050 BCE Mirror: https://learninglab.si.edu/resources/view/236341#more-info

Antique Chinese bronze axle cap with a lynchpin decorated as a tiger attacking a buffalo. Bronze axle cap which dates from the ‘Spring & Autumn’ period (770 – 476BC). The axle cap is obviously corroded and has some tiny holes in line with its stay underground for a few thousand years but the linchpin is in perfect condition. This particular linchpin is exceptional because it depicts a small tiger sitting on top of a buffalo head. This is quite rare and we have not seen a similar subject on a linchpin before. Axle cap length 13.5 cm. Linchpin length 10 cm. For an almost identical set see the January – February 2011 edition of ‘Arts of Asia’ (page 85). Last mentioned set is in the Long County Museum in Shanxi. Acryllic glass
http://vanderwerf-collection.nl/product_info.php?products_id=2473&osCsid=61f45bc7961b3e3ad493d0a3a185808e
Image result for chariot axle linchpin

Bronze. Pair of chariot wheel linchpins. Early Western Zhou dynasty (about 1050-771 BCE) H: 12.7 cm. https://www.comptonverney.org.uk/cv_collections/pair-chariot-wheel-linchpins/

Ekron example is the first wheeled cult stand found in Israel. It is also the closest in time (11th century B.C.E.) to Solomon’s Temple (mid-tenth century B.C.E.).

Lynch-pin? "And this inventory raises anew the question of the Philistines’ role in the introduction of ironworking technology." https://members.bib-arch.org/biblical-archaeology-review/16/1/2

Face on a lynch-pin is an Indus Script Hypertext: mũh 'a face' in Indus Script Cipher signifies mũh, muhã 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.'https://members.bib-arch.org/biblical-archaeology-review/16/1/2

Top register shows a chariot. A hypertext on the field is cobra hood with multiple hoods.

फड, phaḍa 'hood of cobra' rebus: फड, phaḍa 'metalwork artisan guild in charge of manufactory'

Nāgaraja, Erapattra worshipping at the smelter and tree. kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter. Bharhut, 100 BCE. The cobra hood is an Indus Script hypertext:

Wagon wheel, with forged linchpin https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linchpin

A 3,200-year-old round bronze tablet with a carved face of a woman, found at the El-ahwat excavation site near Katzir in central Israel, is part of a linchpin that held the wheel of a battle chariot in place. This was revealed by scientist Oren Cohen of the Zinman Institute of Archaeology at the University of Haifa. “Such an identification reinforces the claim that a high-ranking Egyptian or local ruler was based at this location, and is likely to support the theory that the site is Harosheth Haggoyim, the home town of Sisera, as mentioned in Judges 4-5,” says Prof. Zertal.

The El-ahwat site, near Nahal ‘Iron, was exposed by a cooperative delegation excavating there during 1993-2000 from the Universities of Haifa and Cagliari (Sardinia), headed by Prof. Zertal. The excavated city has been dated back to the end of the Bronze Age and early Iron Age (13th-12th centuries B.C.E.). The city’s uniqueness - its fortifications, passageways in the walls, and rounded huts - made it foreign amidst the Canaanite landscape. Prof. Zertal has proposed that based on these unusual features, the site may have been home to the Shardana tribe of the Sea-Peoples, who, according to some researchers, lived in Harosheth Haggoyim, Sisera’s capital city. The city is mentioned in the Bible’s narratives as Sisera’s capital, and it was from there that the army of chariots set out to fight the Israelites, who were being led by Deborah the prophetess and Barak, son of Avinoam. The full excavation and its conclusions have been summarized in Prof. Zertal’s book “Sisera’s Secret, A Journey following the Sea-Peoples and the Song of Deborah” (Dvir, Tel Aviv, 2010 [Hebrew]).

One of the objects uncovered at the site remained masked in mystery. The round, bronze tablet, about 2 cm. in diameter and 5 mm. thick, was found in a structure identified as the “Governor’s House”. The object features a carved face of a woman wearing a cap and earrings shaped as chariot wheels. When uncovered in 1997, it was already clear that the tablet was the broken end of an elongated object, but Mr. Cohen, who included the tablet in the final report of the excavations, did not manage to find its parallel in any other archaeological discoveries.

Now, 13 years later, the mystery has been solved. When carrying out a scrutinizing study of ancient Egyptian reliefs depicting chariot battles, Mr. Cohen discerned a unique decoration: the bronze linchpins fastening the chariot wheels were decorated with people’s faces - of captives, foreigners and enemies of Egypt. He also noticed that these decorations characterized those chariots that were used by royalty and distinguished people.

“This identification enhances the historical and archaeological value of the site and proves that chariots belonging to high-ranking individuals were found there. It provides support for the possibility, which has not yet been definitively established, that this was Sisera’s city of residence and that it was from there that the chariots set out on their way to the battle against the Israelite tribes, located between the ancient sites of Taanach and Megiddo,” Prof. Zertal concludes.

Photos:

Chariot linchpin (Moshe Einav)
See:

Archaeological mystery solved: Site of Harosheth Haggoyim. Mystery of Sea-Peoples identity yet to be solved.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/11/archaeological-mystery-solved-site-of.html

The inscription on the m557 copper plate is deciphered:) ḍāṅgā 'mountain' rebus: dhangar 'smith'. N. ḍāṅro ʻ term of contempt for a blacksmith ʼ (CDIAL 5324); khaṇḍa 'division' rebus: kaṇḍa .'fire-altar','equpment';

dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS muka 'blow with fist' (Sindhi)(CDIAL 10150). Rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) kanda kanka 'rim of jar' Rebus: कर्णिक m. a steersman (Monier-Williams)karaṇī 'supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.' (Marathi).

Thus, together, the rebus Meluhha reading is: dhangar mũhe kanda kanka 'blacksmith furnace ingot (from) goldsmith (for) supercargo/steersman'. Thus, the catalogue (samgaha) entry of wealth accounting ledger related to metalwork is documented on the inscription. Meaning of 'goldsmith' is validated by the etyma which are semantic expansions of the Bhāratīya sprachbund word: muka 'blow with fist' (Sindhi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali): मुष्टिक a partic. position of the hands rebus: मुष्टिक a goldsmith L.; (pl.) of a despised race (= डोम्बास्) R.;N. of an असुर Hariv. अ-क्षर--मुष्टिका f. the art of communicating syllables or ideas by the fingers (one of the 64 कलाs) वात्स्यायन

The etyma Kur. muṭkā ʻfistʼ Prj. muṭka ʻblow with fistʼ are cognate with phonetic forms: Ku. muṭhagī,
muṭhkī f. ʻblow with fistʼ, N. muṭki, muṛki, M. muṭkā (CDIAL 10221). This suggests the basis for a hypothesis that an early spoken form in Bhāratīya sprachbund is: muka 'blow with fist' (Sindhi)(CDIAL 10150). This is read rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

*mukka1 ʻ blow with fist ʼ. [Prob. ← Drav., Prj. muṭka ʻ blow with fist ʼ, Kur. muṭkā ʻ fist ʼ, DED. 4041]
K. muköli f. ʻ blow with fist ʼ, (El.) mukāl m. ʻ fist ʼ; S. muka f. ʻ blow with fist ʼ, L. mukk, °kī f.; P. mukk m. ʻ fist ʼ, °kī f.; WPah.bhal. mukki f. ʻ blow with fist ʼ; N. mukkā, °ki ʻ fist ʼ, H. mūkā, mukkā m., °kī f., mukkhī f. (X muṭṭhī < muṣṭí -- ); G. mukkɔ m., °kī f. ʻ blow with fist ʼ.(CDIAL 10150).

muṣṭí m.f. ʻ clenched hand, fist ʼ RV., ʻ handful ʼ ŚBr. Pa. Pk. muṭṭhi -- f. ʻ fist, handful, handle of an instrument ʼ; Ash. mušt ʻ fist ʼ NTS ii 267, mūst NTS vii 99, Wg. müṣṭ, Kt. muṣṭ, miṣṭ; Bashg. "misht"ʻ hilt of sword ʼ; Pr. müšt ʻ fist ʼ, muṣ (?) ʻ hilt of knife ʼ; Dm. muṣṭ ʻ fist ʼ, muṣṭi ʻ handle ʼ; Paš. uzb. muṣṭī ʻ fist ʼ, lauṛ. muṭhīˊ; Gaw. muṣṭ ʻ handle (of plough) ʼ, muṣṭāˊk, muṣṭīke ʻ fist ʼ, muṣ -- kaṭāˊrī ʻ dagger ʼ; Kal.rumb. muṣṭí ʻ fist ʼ; Kho. muṣṭi ʻ fist, grip ʼ; Phal. muṣṭ ʻ a measure of length (elbow to end of fist) ʼ, múṣṭi f. ʻ fist ʼ, muṭṭi f. ʻ arm below elbow ʼ (← Ind.?) → Bshk. mut (= *muṭh?) ʻ fist ʼ AO xviii 245; Sh.gil. muṭ(h), pl. muṭí m. ʻ fist ʼ, muṣṭí ʻ handle of plough ʼ, jij. mv́ṣṭi ʻ fist ʼ, koh. gur. mŭṣṭăkf., pales. muṭh ʻ arm, upper arm ʼ; K. mŏṭh, m&obrevdotdot;ṭhü f. ʻ fist ʼ; S. muṭhi f. ʻ fist, fistful, handle ʼ; L. muṭṭh ʻ fist, handle ʼ, muṭṭhī f. ʻ handful ʼ, awāṇ. muṭh; P. muṭṭh, muṭṭhī f. ʻ fist ʼ, muṭṭhā m. ʻ handle, bundle ʼ; Ku. muṭhī f. ʻ fist, handful ʼ, muṭho ʻ handle ʼ; N. muṭh ʻ handle ʼ, muṭhi ʻ fist ʼ, muṭho ʻ handful ʼ; A. muṭhi ʻ fist, handful, handle ʼ, muṭhan ʻ measure of length (elbow to middle joint of little finger) ʼ; B. muṭh, muṭi ʻ fist, handful ʼ, muṭ(h)ā ʻ handful ʼ; Or. muṭhi ʻ fist ʼ, muṭha ʻ hilt of sword ʼ, muṭhā ʻ clenched hand ʼ; Bi. mūṭh, muṭhiyā ʻ knob on body of plough near handle ʼ, mūṭhā, muṭṭhā ʻ the smallest sheaf (about a handful) ʼ; Mth. muṭhā ʻ handle of mattock ʼ; Bhoj. mūṭhi ʻ fist ʼ; OAw. mūṭhī f. ʻ handful ʼ; H. mūṭh f., mūṭhā m. ʻ fist, blow with fist ʼ, mūṭhī, muṭṭhī f. ʻ fist, handful ʼ, muṭṭhā m. ʻ handful, handle (of plough), bundle ʼ; G. mūṭh f. ʻ fist ʼ, muṭṭhī f. ʻ handful ʼ; M. mūṭh f. ʻ fist ʼ, Ko. mūṭ; Si. miṭa, pl. miṭi ʻ fist, handful ʼ, miṭiya ʻ hammer, bundle ʼ; Md. muři ʻ hammer ʼ: the forms of P. H. Si. meaning ʻ bundle ʼ perh. rather < *muṭṭha -- 2 s.v. mūta -- ; -- in Gy. wel. mušī, gr. musī ʻ arm ʼ loss of ṭ is unexpl. unless -- ī is secondary. -- Poss. ← or infl. by Drav. (Prj. muṭka ʻ blow with fist ʼ &c., DED 4041: see *mukka -- 1): Ku. muṭhagī, muṭhkī f. ʻ blow with fist ʼ, N. muṭki, muṛki, M. muṭkā m. nimuṣṭi -- .Addenda: muṣṭí -- : WPah.kṭg. mvṭ -- (in cmpd.), múṭṭhi f. ʻ clenched hand, handful ʼ; J. muṭhā m. ʻ handful ʼ, Garh. muṭṭhi; A. muṭh (phonet. muth) ʻ abridgement ʼ AFD 94; Md. muř ʻ fist, handle ʼ, muři ʻ hammer ʼ.(CDIAL 10221). Pa. muṭṭ- to hammer; muṭkablow with fist. Ga. (P.) muṭa fist. Go. (Mu.) muṭ, (Ko.) muṭiya hammer; (Mu.) muṭka a blow (Voc. 2874). Pe. muṭla hammer. Manḍ. muṭla id.

Kuwi (Su.) muṭla id. Kur. muṭga'ānā to deal a heavy blow with the fist; muṭgā, muṭkā clenched hand or fist, hammering with the fist; muṭka'ānā to hit or hammer at with the fist. / Cf. Skt. muṭ- to crush, grind, break; Turner, CDIAL, no. 10186: root, muṭáti ʻ *twists ʼ (ʻ kills, grinds ʼ Dhātup.) . (DEDR 4932) Muṭṭhi (f.) [Vedic muṣṭi, m. f. Does defn "muṭ=mad- dane" at Dhtm 125 refer to muṭṭhi?] the fist VvA 206.; Muṭṭhika [fr. muṭṭhi] 1. a fist -- fighter, wrestler, boxer Vin ii.105 (malla˚); J iv.81 (Np.); vi.277; Vism 31 (+malla). -- 2. a sort of hammer J v.45.(Pali) मुष्टि the clenched hand , fist (perhaps orig. " the hand closed to grasp anything stolen ") RV. &c; a compendium , abridgment सर्वदर्शन-संग्रह (Monier-Williams).

See:

Indus Script decipherment validated by Catalogue of मुष्टिक goldsmith signified on Mohenjodaro copper tablet m557. dula muka 'two fists' rebus dul mũhe 'ingot metalcasting'

https://tinyurl.com/y7qx5jr3

Clenched fist as an Indus Script Hypertext which signifies

मुष्टिक 'fist' rebus: goldsmith

Evidence from Anatolia.

Drinking vessel in the shape of a fist

Near Eastern, Anatolian, Hittite
Hittite New Kingdom, reign of Tudhaliya III
14th century B.C.

Place of Manufacture: central Anatolia

This ceremonial drinking vessel is shaped in the form of a human fist with a procession of musicians in relief along the cuff.

https://www.mfa.org/collections/ancient-world/tour/ancient-near-eastern-a rt

↧

Duck, dotted circles on Ivory rod, Mohenjo-daro seal, vartaka, karaṛa 'aquatic bird' Rebus karandi 'fire-god' (Munda.Remo), करडा [ karaḍā ] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. vartaka 'bell-metal merchant' dhāvaḍa 'iron smelter'

March 7, 2019, 7:13 pm

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≪ Previous: Mohenjo-daro inscribed ivoery stick m1650. Daybook of Supercargo, (worker in) minerals, bronze, bellmetal implements, smithy/forge, metal caster, (Alternative: मुष्टिक goldsmith)

https://tinyurl.com/yxfo2otj

This is an addendum to:

Abiding Indus Script hypertext dotted circle is dhāv, dāya 'one in dice' + vaṭṭa 'circle' rebus धावड dhāvaḍa 'red ferrite ore smelter'

https://tinyurl.com/y8fed8xd

Tablets.Ivory objects. Mohenjo-daro.

Hieroglyph: Aquatic bird

Ivory rod, ivory plaques with dotted circles. Mohenjo-daro (Musee National De Arts Asiatiques, Guimet, 1988-1989, , Les cites oubliees de l’Indus Archeologie du Pakistan.] dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'. dATu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral'. Thus, the message signified by dotted circles and X hieroglyph refers to dhā̆vaḍ priest of 'iron-smelters'. The aquatic duck shown atop an ivory rod is: karaṇḍa 'duck' (Sanskrit) karaṛa 'a very large aquatic bird' (Sindhi) Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) Thus, the metalworker (smelter) works with hard alloys (using carburization process). Three dotted circles: kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus working with minerals and hard alloys for smithy, forge.

Bird 1: quail or duck

vartaka = a duck (Skt.) batak = a duck (Gujarati) vartikā quail (Rigveda) baṭṭai quail (Nepalese) vártikā f. ʻ quail ʼ RV. 2. vārtika -- m. lex. 3. var- takā -- f. lex. (eastern form ac. to Kātyāyana: S. Lévi JA 1912, 498), °ka -- m. Car., vārtāka -- m. lex. [Cf.vartīra -- m. Suśr., °tira -- lex., *vartakara -- ] 1. Ash. uwŕe/ ʻ partridge ʼ NTS ii 246 (connexion denied NTS v 340), Paš.snj. waṭīˊ; K. hāra -- wüṭü f. ʻ species of waterfowl ʼ (hāra -- < śāˊra -- ).2. Kho. barti ʻ quail, partridge ʼ BelvalkarVol 88.3. Pa. vaṭṭakā -- f., °ka -- in cmpds. ʻ quail ʼ, Pk. vaṭṭaya -- m., N. baṭṭāi (< vārtāka -- ?), A. batā -- sarāi, B. batui, baṭuyā; Si. vaṭuvā ʻ snipe, sandpiper ʼ (ext. of *vaṭu < vartakā -- ). -- With unexpl. bh -- : Or. bhāṭoi, °ṭui ʻ the grey quail Cotarnix communis ʼ, (dial.) bhāroi, °rui (< early MIA. *vāṭāka -- < vārtāka -- : cf. vāṭī -- f. ʻ a kind of bird ʼ Car.).Addenda: vartikā -- [Dial. a ~ ā < IE. non -- apophonic o (cf. Gk. o)/rtuc and early EMIA. vāṭī -- f. ʻ a kind of bird ʼ Car. < *vārtī -- ) (CDIAL 11361)

Rebus: paṭṭar-ai community; guild as of workmen (Ta.); pattar merchants (Ta.); perh. vartaka (Skt.) pātharī ʻprecious stoneʼ (OMarw.) (CDIAL 8857) பத்தர் pattar, n. perh. vartaka. Merchants; வியாபாரிகள். (W.) battuḍu. n. The caste title of all the five castes of artificers as vaḍla b*, carpenter. वर्तक mfn. who or what abides or exists , abiding , existing , living; n. a sort of brass or steel; merchant. వర్తకము vartakamu vartakamu. [Skt.] n. Trade, traffic, commerce. బేరము, వ్యాపారము. A sort of quail, Perdix oilvacca. వెలిచెపిట్ట, మీనవల్లంకిపిట్ట, వర్తకుడు vartakuḍu. n. A merchant, or trader. బేరముచేయువాడు.

Rebus: *varta2 ʻ circular object ʼ or more prob. ʻ something made of metal ʼ, cf. vartaka -- 2 n. ʻ bell -- metal, brass ʼ lex. and vartalōha -- . [√vr̥t?] Pk. vaṭṭa -- m.n., °aya -- m. ʻ cup ʼ; Ash. waṭāˊk ʻ cup, plate ʼ; K. waṭukh, dat. °ṭakas m. ʻ cup, bowl ʼ; S. vaṭo m. ʻ metal drinking cup ʼ; N. bāṭā, ʻ round copper or brass vessel ʼ; A. bāṭi ʻ cup ʼ; B. bāṭā ʻ box for betel ʼ; Or. baṭā ʻ metal pot for betel ʼ, bāṭi ʻ cup, saucer ʼ; Mth. baṭṭā ʻ large metal cup ʼ, bāṭī ʻ small do. ʼ, H. baṭṛī f.; G. M. vāṭī f. ʻ vessel ʼ.*aṅkavarta -- , *kajjalavarta -- , *kalaśavarta -- , *kṣāṇavartaka -- , *cūrṇavarta -- , parṇavartikā -- , *hiṅgulavarta -- .Addenda: *varta -- 2: Md. vař ʻ circle ʼ (vař -- han̆du ʻ full moon ʼ).(CDIAL 11347)

वर्तक a [p= 925,2] n. a sort of brass or steel वर्तः (Usually at the end of comp.) Living, liveli- hood; as in कल्यवर्त q. v. -Comp. -जन्मन् m. a cloud. -तीक्ष्णम्, -लोहम् bell-metal, a kind of brass.

Bird 2: aquatic bird or crane

Grus Virgo or Numidian or Demoiselle Crane The Demoiselle Crane breeds in C Eurasia, from Black Sea to Mongolia and NE China. It winters in Indian Subcontinent and in Sub-Saharan Africa. http://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-demoiselle-crane.html

Image result for crane dongson bronze drum bharatkalyan97

Hieroglyphs on Dongson bronze drum tympanums.

करड m. a sort of duck -- f. a partic. kind of bird ; S. karaṛa -ḍhī˜gu m. a very large aquatic bird (CDIAL 2787) karaṇḍa ‘duck’ (Samskrtam)కారండవము (p. 274) [ kāraṇḍavamu ] rebus: karaḍā 'hard alloy' करडा karaḍā 'Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c'.

khambhaṛā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaTa ‘mint, coiner, coinage’ gaṇḍa 'four' Rebus: khaṇḍa 'metal implements. Together with cognate ancu 'iron' the message is: native metal implements mint

Thus, the hieroglyph multiplex reads: aya ancu khaṇḍa kammaṭa ‘metallic iron alloy implements, mint, coiner, coinage’.koḍi ‘flag’ (Ta.)(DEDR 2049). Rebus 1: koḍ ‘workshop’ (Kuwi) Rebus 2: khŏḍ m. ‘pit’, khö̆ḍü f. ‘small pit’ (Kashmiri. CDIAL 3947)

kāraṇḍava m. ʻ a kind of duck ʼ MBh. [Cf. kāraṇḍa- m. ʻ id. ʼ R., karēṭu -- m. ʻ Numidian crane ʼ lex.: see karaṭa -- 1]Pa. kāraṇḍava -- m. ʻ a kind of duck ʼ; Pk. kāraṁḍa -- , °ḍaga -- , °ḍava -- m. ʻ a partic. kind of bird ʼ; S. kānero m. ʻ a partic. kind of water bird ʼ < *kāreno.(CDIAL 3059) करढोंक or की (p. 78) karaḍhōṅka or kī m करडोक m A kind of crane or heron (Marathi) kāraṇḍava m. ʻ a kind of duck ʼ MBh. [Cf. kāraṇḍa- m. ʻ id. ʼ R., karēṭu -- m. ʻ Numidian crane ʼ lex.: see karaṭa -- 1]Pa. kāraṇḍava -- m. ʻ a kind of duck ʼ; Pk. kāraṁḍa -- , °ḍaga -- , °ḍava -- m. ʻ a partic. kind of bird ʼ; S. kānero m. ʻ a partic. kind of water bird ʼ < *kāreno.(CDIAL 3059) करढोंक or की (p. 78) karaḍhōṅka or kī m करडोक m A kind of crane or heron (Marathi)

Bird 3: pōlaḍu, 'black drongo' rebus: pōlaḍ 'steel'

Hypertext Meluhha steel mint signified by hieroglyphs मेढा mēḍhā 'twisted cord', pōlaḍu, 'black drongo', पोळ pōḷa 'zebu', ayo 'fish', khambhaṛā ʻfish-finʼ

http://tinyurl.com/kruoold

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m1278 Text 2028

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kuṭhi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore, to smelt iron’;koṭe ‘forged (metal)(Santali) kuṭhi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kuṭhieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kuṭhi, kuṭi (Or.; Sad. koṭhi) (1) the smelting furnace of the blacksmith; kuṭire bica duljad.ko talkena, they were feeding the furnace with ore; (2) the name of ēkuṭi has been given to the fire which, in lac factories, warms the water bath for softening the lac so that it can be spread into sheets; to make a smelting furnace; kuṭhi-o of a smelting furnace, to be made; the smelting furnace of the blacksmith is made of mud, cone-shaped, 2’ 6” dia. At the base and 1’ 6” at the top. The hole in the centre, into which the mixture of charcoal and iron ore is poured, is about 6” to 7” in dia. At the base it has two holes, a smaller one into which the nozzle of the bellow is inserted and a larger one on the opposite side through which the molten iron flows out into a cavity (Mundari) kuṭhi = a factory; lil kuṭhi = an indigo factory (koṭhi - Hindi) (Santali.Bodding) kuṭhi = an earthen furnace for smelting iron; make do., smelt iron; kolheko do kuṭhi benaokate baliko dhukana, the Kolhes build an earthen furnace and smelt iron-ore, blowing the bellows; tehen:ko kuṭhi yet kana, they are working (or building) the furnace to-day (H. koṭhī ) (Santali. Bodding) kuṭṭhita = hot, sweltering; molten (of tamba, cp. uttatta)(Pali.lex.) uttatta (ut + tapta) = heated, of metals: molten, refined; shining, splendid, pure (Pali.lex.) kuṭṭakam, kuṭṭukam = cauldron (Ma.); kuṭṭuva = big copper pot for heating water (Kod.)(DEDR 1668). gudgā to blaze; gud.va flame (Man.d); gudva, gūdūvwa, guduwa id. (Kuwi)(DEDR 1715). dāntar-kuṭha = fireplace (Sv.); kōti wooden vessel for mixing yeast (Sh.); kōlhā house with mud roof and walls, granary (P.); kuṭhī factory (A.); koṭhā brick-built house (B.); kuṭhī bank, granary (B.); koṭho jar in which indigo is stored, warehouse (G.); koṭhīlare earthen jar, factory (G.); kuṭhī granary, factory (M.)(CDIAL 3546). koṭho = a warehouse; a revenue office, in which dues are paid and collected; koṭhī a store-room; a factory (Gujarat) koḍ = the place where artisans work (Gujarati)

पोळ pōḷa, 'Zebu, bos indicus' PLUS పోలడు [ pōlaḍu ] 'black drongo' PLUS dula 'two' rebus:pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian) PLUS dul 'metal casting'. PLUS kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze'. Thus, a dealer in bronze and steel castings.

kuṭhi ‘smelter furnace’ (Santali) kuṛī f. ‘fireplace’ (H.); krvṛI f. ‘granary (WPah.); kuṛī, kuṛo house, building’(Ku.)(CDIAL 3232) kuṭi ‘hut made of boughs’ (Skt.) guḍi temple (Telugu)

Allograph: fire divinity

करडी [ karaḍī ] f (See करडई) Safflower: also its seed.

Rebus: karaḍa 'hard alloy' of arka 'copper'.

Photograph of excavation site. Shows three culd stands in situ in Room 6 of Ishtar temple of Tukulti-Ninurta I at Ashur. Courtesy: Vorderaslatisches Museum.

Andrae, 1935, 57-76, pls. 12, 30 1. Jakob-Rust, in Vorderaslatisches Museum 1992, 160, no. 103; Andrae, 1935, 16, figs. 2,3.

करंडा [karaṇḍā] A clump, chump, or block of wood. 4 The stock or fixed portion of the staff of the large leaf-covered summerhead or umbrella. करांडा [ karāṇḍā ] m C A cylindrical piece as sawn or chopped off the trunk or a bough of a tree; a clump, chump, or block.

Rebus: fire-god: @B27990. #16671. Remo <karandi>E155 {N} ``^fire-^god''.(Munda)

[quote]Description: Although the cult pedestal of the Middle Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta mentions in its short inscription that it is dedicated to the god Nuska, the relief on the front that depicts the king in a rare kind of narrative, standing and kneeling in front of the very same pedestal was frequently discussed by art-historians. More strikingly on top of the depicted pedestal there is not the lamp, the usual divine symbol for the god Nuska, but most likely the representation of a tablet and a stylus, symbols for the god Nabû. (Klaus Wagensonner, University of Oxford)[unquote] http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/doku.php?id=pedestal_tukulti_ninurta

No, it is not a representation of a tablet and a stylus, but a chump, a block of wood, karaṇḍā read rebus: karandi 'fire-god' (Munda). Thus, the chump is the divine symbol of fire-god.

Image result for tiger woman indus script

Kalibangan065 Cylinder seal impression. Note the scarf of the person ligatured to a tiger.

kuṭi 'tree' Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelting furnace‘; koṭe ‘forged metal’ (Santali)(Phonetic determinant of the twig on the horns of the woman ligatured to the tiger'

Part of Kalibangan cylinder seal narrative. Ligatured to a tiger. Scarf, markhor horn, twig, next to tree. Rice-plant. dhatu 'scarf' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral' mũh 'face' Rebus mũhã̄ 'iron furnace output' kōḍu horn rebus: koD 'workshop' kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron'.

koḍu 'horn' Rebus: koḍ 'workshop'

kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'

tagaraka, tabernae montana 'flower', 'hair fragrance' Rebus: tagara 'tin'

Two fencers: dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS

Below the rim of the Susa storage pot, the contents are described in Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts: 1. Flowing water; 2. fish with fin; 3. aquatic bird tied to a rope Rebus readings of these hieroglyphs/hypertexts signify metal implements from the Meluhha mint.

Clay storage pot discovered in Susa (Acropole mound), ca. 2500-2400 BCE (h. 20 ¼ in. or 51 cm). Musee du Louvre. Sb 2723 bis (vers 2450 avant J.C.)

Susa pot is a ‘Rosetta stone’ for Sarasvati Script

Water (flow)

Fish fish-fin

aquatic bird on wave (indicating aquatic nature of the bird), tied to rope, water

kāṇḍa 'water' rebus: kāṇḍa 'implements

The vase a la cachette, shown with its contents. Acropole mound, Susa.^[20]

Santali glosses.

Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs painted on the jar are: fish, quail and streams of water;

aya 'fish' (Munda) rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Rigveda) khambhaṛā 'fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint' Thus, together ayo kammaṭa, 'metals mint'

baṭa 'quail' Rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'.

Thus, read together, the proclamation on the jar by the painted hieroglyphs is: baṭa meṛh karaḍā ayas kāṇḍa 'hard alloy iron metal implements out of the furnace (smithy)'.

Hieroglyphs: Dotted circles

Indus Script hypertext/hieroglyph: Dotted circle: दाय 1 [p= 474,2] dāya n. game , play Pan5cad.; mfn. ( Pa1n2. 3-1 , 139 ; 141) giving , presenting (cf. शत- , गो-); m. handing over , delivery Mn. viii , 165 (Monier-Williams)

தாயம் tāyam :Number one in the game of dice; கவறுருட்ட விழும் ஒன்று என்னும் எண். Colloq. (Tamil)

rebus: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā]Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ(whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻrelic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773) धाव (p. 250) dhāva m f A certain soft, red stone. Baboons are said to draw it from the bottom of brooks, and to besmear their faces with it. धावड (p. 250) dhāvaḍa m A class or an individual of it. They are smelters of iron. In these parts they are Muhammadans. धावडी (p. 250) dhāvaḍī a Relating to the class धावड. Hence 2 Composed of or relating to iron. (Marathi).

PLUS

Hieroglyph: vaṭṭa 'circle'.

Thus, together, the hypertext reads rebus dhā̆vaḍ 'smelter'

The dotted circle hypertexts link with 1. iron workers called धावड (p. 250) dhāvaḍa and 2. miners of Mosonszentjános, Hungary; 3. Gonur Tepe metalworkers, metal traders and 4. the tradition of अक्ष-- पटल [p= 3,2] n. court of law; depository of legal document Ra1jat. Thus, अक्ष on Indus Script Corpora signify documents, wealth accounting ledgers of metal work with three red ores. Akkha2 [Vedic akṣa, prob. to akṣi & Lat. oculus, "that which has eyes" i. e. a die; cp. also Lat. ālea game at dice (fr.* asclea?)] a die D i.6 (but expld at DA i.86 as ball -- game: guḷakīḷa); S i.149 = A v.171 = Sn 659 (appamatto ayaŋ kali yo akkhesu dhanaparājayo); J i.379 (kūṭ˚ a false player, sharper, cheat) anakkha one who is not a gambler J v.116 (C.: ajūtakara). Cp. also accha3. -- dassa (cp. Sk. akṣadarśaka) one who looks at (i. e. examines) the dice, an umpire, a judge Vin iii.47; Miln 114, 327, 343 (dhamma -- nagare). -- dhutta one who has the vice of gambling D ii.348; iii.183; M iii.170; Sn 106 (+ itthidhutta & surādhutta). -- vāṭa fence round an arena for wrestling J iv.81. (? read akka -- ).

Dotted circles and three lines on the obverse of many Failaka/Dilmun seals are read rebus as hieroglyphs:

m0352 cdef

dhātu 'layer, strand'; dhāv 'strand, string' Rebus: dhāu, dhātu 'ore'

1. Round dot like a blob -- . Glyph: raised large-sized dot -- (gōṭī ‘round pebble);goTa 'laterite (ferrite ore)

2. Dotted circle khaṇḍa ‘A piece, bit, fragment, portion’; kandi ‘bead’;

3. A + shaped structure where the glyphs 1 and 2 are infixed. The + shaped structure is kaṇḍ ‘a fire-altar’ (which is associated with glyphs 1 and 2)..

Rebus readings are: 1. khoṭ m. ʻalloyʼgoTa 'laterite (ferrite ore); 2. khaṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’; 3. kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar, consecrated fire’.

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Contributions of Hindu civilization to Modern Science -- Subhash Kak

March 8, 2019, 4:08 pm

≫ Next: Kanmer Indus Script inscriptions, hypertext spread legs + currycomb rebus kanahār 'helmsman', karaḍā खरडें 'daybook'

≪ Previous: Duck, dotted circles on Ivory rod, Mohenjo-daro seal, vartaka, karaṛa 'aquatic bird' Rebus karandi 'fire-god' (Munda.Remo), करडा [ karaḍā ] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. vartaka 'bell-metal merchant' dhāvaḍa 'iron smelter'

Indian Foundations of Modern Science

Subhash Kak

Jul 25, 2018

Scholars see India and Greece as the two principal birthplaces of science. School textbooks tell us about Pythagoras, Aristotle, Euclid, Archimedes, and Ptolemy, geometry of the Vedic altars, the invention of zero in India, Yoga psychology, and Indian technology of steel-making that went into the manufacture of the best swords. But if you take the trouble of reading scholarly books, articles and encyclopedias, you will find that in many ways the early Indian contributions are the more impressive for they include a deep theory of mind, Pāṇini’s astonishing Sanskrit grammar, binary numbers of Piṅgala, music theory, combinatorics, algebra, earliest astronomy, and the physics of Kaṇāda with its laws of motion.

Of these, Kaṇāda is the least known. He may not have presented his ideas as mathematical equations, but he attempted something that no physicist to date has dared to do: he advanced a system that includes space, time, matter, as well as observers. He also postulated four types of atoms, two with mass (like proton and electron) and two without (like neutrino and photon), and the idea of invariance. A thousand or more years after Kaṇāda, Āryabhaṭa postulated that earth rotated and advanced the basic idea of relativity of motion.

And then there is India’s imaginative literature, which includes the Epics, the Purāṇas and the Yoga Vāsiṣṭha (perhaps the greatest novel ever written), that speaks of time travel, airplanes, exoplanets (that is many solar-like systems), cloning of embryos, sex change, communication over distances, and weapons that can destroy everything. Some nationalists take these statements to mean the literal scientific truth, which claim is ridiculed by their political opponents who then use this broad brush to tar all Indian science.

There are also anomalous statements in Indian texts whose origin is not understood. Just to mention a few: the correct speed of light, the correct distance to the sun, cosmological cycles that broadly correspond to the numbers accepted currently, the fact that the sun and the moon are approximately 108 times their respective diameters from the earth, the correct number of species on earth (about 8.4 million), and so on. Historians either ignore them or say that they are extraordinary coincidences. We will come to these anomalies later in the essay.

To return to the history of mainstream science, the discovery of infinite series and calculus by Newton and Leibniz heralded the Scientific Revolution that was to change the world. But new research has shown that over two centuries prior the Kerala School of Mathematics had already developed calculus and some historians suggest that this and advanced astronomical knowledge from Kerala went abroad via the Jesuits and provided the spark for its further development in Europe. Other historians discount the transmission of this knowledge to Europe.

There is more agreement about the many achievements of Indian medical sciences. For example, the Royal Australia College of Surgeons in Melbourne, Australia has a prominent display of a statue of Suśruta (600 BCE) with the caption “Father of Surgery”. The ancient Ayurveda texts include the notion of germs and inoculation and also postulate mind-body connection, which has become an important area of contemporary research. Indian medicine was strongly empirical; it used Nature (which is governed by Ṛta) as guide, and it was informed by a sense of skepticism. In the West the notion of skepticism is usually credited to the Scottish philosopher of science, David Hume, but scholars have been puzzled by the commonality between his ideas and the earlier Indian ones. Recently, it was shown that Hume almost certainly learnt Indian ideas from Jesuits when he was at the Royal College of La Flèche in France.

There are also indirect ways that Indian ideas led to scientific advance. Mendeleev was inspired by the two-dimensional structure of the Sanskrit alphabet to propose a similar two-dimensional structure of chemical elements.

A Vedantic vision guided Jagadis Chandra Bose in his pathbreaking discoveries in a variety of fields. Bose is considered the true father of radio science which, as we know, has changed the world. Bose also discovered millimeter length electromagnetic waves and was a pioneer in the fields of semiconductor electronics and biophysics.

Erwin Schrödinger, a founder of quantum theory, credited ideas in the Upanishads for the key notion of superposition that was to bring about the quantum revolution in physics that changed chemistry, biology, and technology.

I now briefly touch upon Indian influence on linguistics, logic, philosophy of physics, and theory of mind.

Linguistics, algorithms and society

Pāṇini’s work (4th or 5th century BCE) showed the way to the development of modern linguistics through the efforts of scholars such as Franz Bopp, Ferdinand de Saussure, Leonard Bloomfield, and Roman Jakobson. Bopp was a pioneering scholar of the comparative grammars of Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages. Ferdinand de Saussure in his most influential work, Course in General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale), that was published posthumously (1916), took the idea of the use of formal rules of Sanskrit grammar and applied them to general linguistic phenomena.

The structure of Pāṇini‘s grammar contains a meta-language, meta-rules, and other technical devices that make this system effectively equivalent to the most powerful computing machine. Although it didn’t directly contribute to the development of computer languages, it influenced linguistics and mathematical logic that, in turn, gave birth to computer science.

The works of Pāṇini and Bharata Muni also presage the modern field of semiotics which is the study of signs and symbols as a significant component of communications. Their template may be applied to sociology, anthropology and other humanistic disciplines for all social systems come with their grammar.

The search for universal laws of grammar underlying the diversity of languages is ultimately an exploration of the very nature of the human mind. But the Indian texts remind that the other side to this grammar is the idea that a formal system cannot describe reality completely since it leaves out the self.

Modern logic

That Indian thought was central to the development of machine theory is asserted by Mary Boole — the wife of George Boole, inventor of modern logic — who herself was a leading science writer in the nineteenth century. She claimed that George Everest, who lived for a long time in India and whose name was eventually applied to the world’s highest peak, was the intermediary of the Indian ideas and they influenced not only her husband but the other two leading scientists in the attempt to mechanize thought: Augustus de Morgan and Charles Babbage. She says in her essay on Indian Thought and Western Science in the Nineteenth Century (1901): “Think what must have been the effect of the intense Hinduizing of three such men as Babbage, De Morgan, and George Boole on the mathematical atmosphere of 1830–65.” She further speculates that these ideas influenced the development of vector analysis and modern mathematics.

Much prior to this, Mohsin Fani’s Dabistani-i Madhahib (17th Century) claimed that Kallisthenes, who was in Alexander’s party, took logic texts from India and the beginning of the Greek tradition of logic must be seen in this material. In Indian logic, minds are not empty slates; the very constitution of the mind provides some knowledge of the nature of the world. The four pramāṇas through which correct knowledge is acquired are direct perception, inference, analogy, and verbal testimony.

Physics with observers

Indian physics, which goes back to the Vaiśeṣika Sūtras (c. 500 BCE), does not appear to have directly influenced the discovery of physical laws in Europe. But Indian ideas that place the observer at center prefigure the conceptual foundations of modern physics, and this is acknowledged by the greatest physicists of the twentieth century.

In the West, the universe was seen as a machine going back to Aristotle and the Greeks who saw the physical world consisting of four kinds of elements of earth, water, fire, and air. This model continued in Newton’s clockwork model of the solar system. Indian thought, in contrast, has a fifth element, ākāśa, which is the medium for inner light and consciousness. With the rise of relativity theory and quantum mechanics, the observer could no longer be ignored. In one sense, the journey of science is the discovery of self and consciousness.

It is one of those obscure footnotes to the history of physics that Nikola Tesla, who was very famous in the 1890s, was asked by Swami Vivekananda to find an equation connecting mass and energy. We know that Tesla didn’t quite succeed at this but he was to work on various models of wireless transfer of energy for the remainder of his career.

Cosmology and evolution

The Ṛgveda speaks of the universe being infinite in size. The evolution of the universe is according to cosmic law. Since it cannot arise out of nothing, the universe must be infinitely old. Since it must evolve, there are cycles of chaos and order or creation and destruction. The world is also taken to be infinitely old. Beyond the solar system, other similar systems were postulated, which appear to have been confirmed with the modern discovery of exoplanets.

The Sāṅkhya system describes evolution at cosmic and individual levels. It views reality as being constituted of puruṣa, consciousness that is all-pervasive, and prakṛti, which is the phenomenal world. Prakṛti is composed of three different strands (guṇas or characteristics) of sattva, rajas, and tamas, which are transparency, activity, and inactivity, respectively.

Evolution begins by puruṣa and prakṛti creating mahat (Nature in its dynamic aspect). From mahat evolves buddhi (intelligence) and manas (mind). Buddhi and manas in the large scale are Nature’s intelligence and mind. From buddhi come individualized ego consciousness (ahaṅkāra) and the five tanmātras (subtle elements) of sound, touch, sight, taste, smell. From the manas evolve the five senses (hearing, touching, seeing, tasting, smelling), the five organs of action (with which to speak, grasp, move, procreate, evacuate), and the five gross elements (ākāśa, air, fire, water, earth).

The evolution in Sāṅkhya is an ecological process determined completely by Nature. It differs from modern evolution theory in that it presupposes a universal consciousness. In reality, modern evolution also assigns intelligence to Nature in its drive to select certain forms over others as well as in the evolution of intelligence itself.

The description of evolution of life is given in many texts such as the Mahābhārata. I present a quote from the Yoga Vāsiṣṭha on it:

“Iremember that once upon a time there was nothing on this earth, neither trees and plants, nor even mountains. For a period of eleven thousand [great] years the earth was covered by lava. In those days there was neither day nor night below the polar region: for in the rest of the earth neither the sun nor the moon shone. Only one half of the polar region was illumined. [Later] apart from the polar region the rest of the earth was covered with water. And then for a very long time the whole earth was covered with forests, except the polar region. Then there arose great mountains, but without any human inhabitants. For a period of ten thousand years the earth was covered with the corpses of the asuras.” [YV 6.1]

The reverse sequence, of the end of the world, is also described in various texts. First, the sun expands in size incinerating everything on the earth (quite similar to modern accounts of the aging sun becoming a red giant). The specific sequence mentioned is that the fireball of the sun transforms the Pṛthivī atoms into Āpas atoms, which then together change into Tejas atoms and further into Vāyu atoms, and finally to sound energy that is an attribute of space, and so on (Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva Section 233). In our modern language, it means that as temperatures become high, matter breaks down becoming a sea of elements, then the protons break down into electrons, further into photons, and finally into neutrinos, and on to acoustic energy of space. At the end of this cycle the world is absorbed into Consciousness.

Vivekananda was aware of this sequence which is why he asked Tesla to find the specific equation for transformation between mass and energy.

Mind and Yoga

We are in the midst of a worldwide Yoga revolution. For many, it is about health and well-being but that is only a portal that leads to the understanding of the self and its relationship with the body.

Although the roots of Yoga lie in the Vedas, most read Patañjali’s Yoga-sūtra for a systematic exposition of the nature of the mind. The text is logical and it questions the naïve understanding of the world. According to it, there is a single reality and the multiplicity we see in it is a consequence of the projections of our different minds. Therefore to obtain knowledge one must experience reality in its most directness.

The Vedic texts claim to be ātmavidyā, “science of self” or “consciousness science” and they also provide a framework to decode its narrative, establishing its central concern with consciousness.

In the Vedic view, reality is unitary at the deepest level since otherwise there would be chaos. Since language is linear, whereas the unfolding of the universe takes place in a multitude of dimensions, language is limited in its ability to describe reality. Because of this limitation, reality can only be experienced and never described fully. All descriptions of the universe lead to logical paradox.

Knowledge is of two kinds: the higher or unified and the lower or dual. The higher knowledge concerns the perceiving subject (consciousness), whereas the lower knowledge concerns objects. The higher knowledge can be arrived at through intuition and meditation on the paradoxes of the outer world. The lower knowledge is analytical and it represents standard sciences with its many branches. There is a complementarity between the higher and the lower, for each is necessary to define the other, and it mirrors the one between mind and body.

The future of science

I have gone through a random list of topics to show that Indian ideas and contributions have shaped science in fundamental ways. I hope to show now that they remain equally central to its future growth.

We first note that in spite of its unprecedented success and prestige, science is facing major crises. The first of these crises is that of physics for it has found no evidence for dark matter and dark energy that together are believed to constitute 95% of the observable universe, with another 4.5% being intergalactic dust that doesn’t influence theory. How can we claim that we are near understanding reality if our theories are validated by only 0.5% of the observable universe?

The second crisis is that neuroscientists have failed to find a neural correlate of consciousness. If there is no neural correlate, then does consciousness reside in a dimension that is different from our familiar space-time continuum? And how do mind and body interact with each other?

The third crisis is that there is no clear answer to the question if machines will become conscious. The fourth crisis is related to the implications of biomedical advances such as cloning on our notions of self.

It becomes clear that the three crises are actually interrelated when it is realized that consciousness is also an issue at the very foundations of physics. These questions also relate to the problem of free will.

Researchers are divided on whether conscious machines will ever exist. Most computer scientists believe that consciousness is computable and that it will emerge in machines as technology develops. Bu there are others who say there’re things about human behavior that cannot be computed by a machine. Thus creativity and the sense of freedom people possess appear to be more than just an application of logic or calculations.

Quantum views

Quantum theory, which is the deepest theory of physics, provides another perspective. According to its orthodox Copenhagen Interpretation, consciousness and the physical world are complementary aspects of the same reality. Since it takes consciousness as a given and no attempt is made to derive it from physics, the Copenhagen Interpretation may be called the “big-C” view of consciousness, where it is a thing that exists by itself — although it requires brains to become real. This view was popular with the pioneers of quantum theory such as Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger.

The opposing view is that consciousness emerges from biology, just as biology itself emerges from chemistry which, in turn, emerges from physics. We call this less expansive concept of consciousness “little-C.” It agrees with the neuroscientists’ view that the processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain.

Philosophers of science believe that these modern quantum physics views of consciousness have parallels in ancient philosophy. Big-C is like the theory of mind in Vedanta — in which consciousness is the fundamental basis of reality and at the experienced level it complements the physical universe. The pioneers of quantum theory were aware of this linkage with Vedanta.

Little-C, in contrast, is quite similar to what many take to be standard Buddhism. The Buddha chose not to address the question of the nature of consciousness until the end of his life, and many of his followers believe that mind and consciousness arise out of emptiness or nothingness. Yet in the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, the Buddha acknowledges a transcendent category underlying constant change which is quite similar to the conception of Vedanta.

Big-C, anomalies, and scientific discovery

Scientists question if consciousness is a computational process. More restrictively, scholars argue that the creative moment is not at the end of a deliberate computation. For instance, dreams or visions are supposed to have inspired Elias Howe‘s 1845 design of the modern sewing machine and August Kekulé’s discovery of the structure of benzene in 1862, and these may be considered to be examples of the anomalous workings of the mind.

A dramatic piece of evidence in favor of big-C consciousness existing all on its own is the life of self-taught mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan, who died in 1920 at the age of 32. His notebook, which was lost and forgotten for about 50 years and published only in 1988, contains several thousand formulas — without proof in different areas of mathematics — that were well ahead of their time, and the methods by which he found the formulas remain elusive. Ramanujan himself claimed that the formulas were revealed to him by Goddess Nāmagiri while he was asleep. The idea of big-C provides an explanation for the anomalous scientific results from old Indian texts that were mentioned at the beginning of the essay.

The concept of big-C consciousness raises the questions of how it is related to matter, and how matter and mind mutually influence each other. Consciousness alone cannot make physical changes to the world, but perhaps it can change the probabilities in the evolution of quantum processes as was first proposed by George Sudarshan and Baidyanath Misra in what they called the Quantum Zeno Effect. The act of observation can freeze and even influence atoms’ movements, as has been demonstrated in the laboratory, and this may very well be an explanation of how matter and mind interact.

With cognitive machines replacing humans at most tasks, the question of what selfhood means will become more central to our lives. It appears to me that the only way to find fulfilment in life will be through wisdom of ātmavidyā. Vedic science will bring humanity full circle back to the source of all experience, which is consciousness. It will also reveal unknown ways mind and body interact and this will have major implications for medicine.

Indian sciences are universal and they have within them the power to inspire people to find their true potential and find meaning in life, as also having the potential to facilitate the next advances in both physical and biological sciences.

Historians may quibble about whether a certain equation should be called Baudhāyana’s Theorem or Pythagoras Theorem, but in the larger scheme names do not matter. The direction of science is the more important thing and it is clear that the mystery of consciousness will be one of its major concerns.

https://medium.com/@subhashkak1/indian-foundations-of-modern-science-72259046700f

A Very Brief History of Indian Science

Subhash Kak

Jan 11, 2019

The annual Indian Science Congress, which just concluded, had its usual share of controversies about history of Indian science and I have been asked to weigh in. It so turns out that I did precisely that in a brief account titled “Science” for Stanley Wolpert’s Encyclopedia of India(2005) and since that is freely available online, I shall be more selective of themes in this revision of the previous essay. This account does not include the modern period for which many excellent histories exist.

Indian archaeology and literature provide considerable layered evidence related to the development of science. The chronological time frame for this history is provided by the archaeological record that has been traced, in an unbroken tradition, to about 8000 BCE. Prior to this date, there are records of rock paintings that are considerably older. The earliest textual source is the Ṛgveda, which is a compilation of very ancient material. The astronomical references in the Vedic books recall events of the third or the fourth millennium BCE and earlier. The discovery that Sarasvati, the preeminent river of the Ṛgvedic times, went dry around 1900 BCE, if not earlier, suggests that portions of the Ṛgveda may be dated prior to this epoch.

The third millennium urbanization is characterized by a very precise system of weights and monumental architecture using cardinal directions. Indian writing (the so-called Indus script) goes back to the beginning of the third millennium BCE, but it has not yet been deciphered. However, statistical analysis shows that the later historical script called Brahmi evolved from this writing.

Laws and cosmology

The Vedic texts assert that the universe is governed by ṛta (laws) and that consciousness transcends materiality. The universe is taken to be infinite in size and infinitely old. By the time of the Purāṇas, other worlds were postulated beyond our solar system.

It is asserted that language (as a formal system) cannot describe reality completely and linguistic descriptions suffer from paradox. Because of this limitation, reality can only be experienced and never described fully. Knowledge was classified in two ways: the lower or dual अपरा; and the higher or unified परा. The seemingly irreconcilable worlds of the material and the conscious were taken as aspects of the same transcendental reality.

The texts present a tripartite and recursive view of the world. The three regions of earth, space, and sky are mirrored in the human being in the physical body, the breath (prāṇa), and mind. The processes in the sky, on earth, and within the mind are assumed to be connected. This connection is a consequence of a binding (bandhu) between various inner and outer phenomena and it is because of this binding that it is possible to know the world.

The connection between the outer and the inner cosmos is seen most strikingly in the use of the number 108 in Indian religious and artistic expression. It was known that this number is the approximate distance from Earth to the sun and the moon, in sun and moon diameters, respectively. This number was probably obtained by taking a pole of a certain height to a distance 108 times its height and discovering that the angular size of the pole was the same as that of the sun or the moon. It is a curious fact that the diameter of the sun is also approximately 108 times the diameter of Earth.

This number of dance poses (karaṇas) given in the Nāṭya Śāstra is 108, as is the number of beads in a japamālā. The distance between the body and the inner sun is also taken to be 108, and thus there are 108 names of the gods and goddesses. The number of marmas (weak points) in Āyurveda is 107, because in a chain 108 units long, the number of weak points would be one less.

Ancient Indian views of the universe are more subtle than the corresponding Western views.

Physical laws and motion

The history of Indian physics goes back to Kaṇāda (कणाद) (~ 600 BCE) who asserted that all that is knowable is based on motion, thus giving centrality to analysis in the understanding of the universe.

Kaṇāda asserted that there are nine classes of substances: ether, space, and time, which are continuous, and four kinds of atoms two of which have mass and two are massless. He also made a distinction between mind and the self, or consciousness. The conscious subject is separate from material reality but is, nevertheless, able to direct its evolution. Kaṇāda presented laws of motion and also spoke of invariants. He saw the atom to be spherical since it should appear the same from all directions.

The atoms combined to form different kinds of molecules that break up under the influence of heat. The molecules come to have different properties based on the influence of various potentials.

Indian chemistry developed many different alkalis, acids, and metallic salts by processes of calcination and distillation, often motivated by the need to formulate medicines. Metallurgists developed efficient techniques of extraction of metals from ore.

Astronomy

We know quite a bit about how astronomical science evolved in India. The Yajurvedic sage Yājñavalkya knew of a ninety-five-year cycle to harmonize the motions of the sun and the moon, and he also knew that the sun’s circuit was asymmetric. The second millennium BCE text Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa of Lagadhawent beyond the earlier calendrical astronomy to develop a theory for the mean motions of the sun and the moon. An epicycle theory was used to explain planetary motions. Given the different periods of the planets, it became necessary to assume yet longer periods to harmonize their cycles. This led to the notion of mahāyugas and kalpas with periods of billions of years.

The innovations of the division of the circle into 360 parts and the zodiac into 27 nakṣatras and 12 rāśis took place first in India. The schoolbook accounts of how these innovations first emerged in Mesopotamia in the 7th century BCE and then arrived in India centuries later are incorrect.

The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa which was compiled soon after the Vedas says: “The sun strings these worlds [the earth, the planets, the atmosphere] to himself on a thread. This thread is the same as the wind…” This suggests a central role to the sun in defining the motions of the planets and ideas such as these must have ultimately led to the theory of expanding and shrinking epicycles.

Astronomical texts called siddhāntas begin appearing sometime in the first millennium BCE. According to the tradition there were eighteen early siddhāntas, of which only a few have survived. Each siddhānta is an astronomical system with its own constants. The Sūrya Siddhānta speaks of the motion of planets governed by “cords of air” that bind them, which is a conception like that of the field.

The great astronomers and mathematicians include Āryabhaṭa (b. 476), who took Earth to spin on its own axis and who spoke of the relativity of motionand provided outer planet orbits with respect to the sun. This work and that of Brahmagupta (b. 598) and Bhāskara (b. 1114) was passed on to Europe via the Arabs. The Kerala School with figures such as Mādhava (c. 1340–1425) and Nīlakaṇṭha (c. 1444–1545) came up with new innovations of analysis based on advanced mathematics.

Evolution of Life

The Sāṅkhya system speaks of evolution both at the levels of the individual as well as the cosmos. The Mahābhārata and the Purāṇas have material on creation and the rise of humankind. It is said that man arose at the end of a chain that began with plants and various kind of animals. In Vedic evolution the urge to evolve into higher forms is taken to be inherent in nature. A system of an evolution from inanimate to progressively higher life is assumed to be a consequence of the different proportions of the three basic attributes of the guṇas (qualities): sattva (“truth” or “transparence”), rajas (activity), and tamas (“darkness” or “inertia”). In its undeveloped state, cosmic matter has these qualities in equilibrium. As the world evolves, one or the other of these becomes preponderant in different objects or beings, giving specific character to each.

Geometry and mathematics

Indian geometry began very early in the Vedic period in altar problems, as in the one where the circular altar is to be made equal in area to a square altar. The historian of mathematics, Abraham Seidenberg, saw the birth of geometry and mathematics in the solution of such problems. Two aspects of the “Pythagoras” theorem are described in the texts by Baudhāyana and others. Problems are often presented with their algebraic counterparts. The solution to planetary problems also led to the development of algebraic methods.

Binary numbers were known at the time of Piṅgala’s Chandaḥśāstra. Piṅgala, who might have lived as early as fourth century BCE used binary numbers to classify Vedic meters. The knowledge of binary numbers indicates a deep understanding of arithmetic.

The sign for zero within the place value decimal number system that was to revolutionize mathematics and facilitate development of technology appears to have been devised around 50 BCE to 50 CE. Indian numerals were introduced to Europe by Fibonacci (13th century) who is now known for a sequence that was described earlier by Virahaṅka (between 600 and 800), Gopāla (prior to 1135) and Hemacandra (~1150 CE). Nāryāna Paṇḍit (14th century) showed that these numbers were a special case of the multinomial coefficients.

Bharata’s Nāṭya Śāstra has results on combinatorics and discrete mathematics, and Āryabhaṭa has material on mathematics including methods to solve numerical problems effectively. Later source materials include the works of Brahmagupta, Lalla (eighth century), Mahāvīra (ninth century), Jayadeva, Śrīpati (eleventh century), Bhāskara, and Mādhava. In particular, Mādhava’s derivation and use of infinite series predated similar development in Europe, which is normally seen as the beginning of modern calculus. Some scholars believe these ideas were carried by Jesuits from India to Europe and they eventually set in motion the Scientific Revolution.

A noteworthy contribution was by the school of New Logic (Navya Nyāya) of Bengal and Bihar. At its zenith during the time of Raghunātha (1475–1550), this school developed a methodology for a precise semantic analysis of language. Navya Nyāya foreshadowed mathematical logic and there is evidence that it influenced modern machine theory.

Grammar

Pāṇini’s grammar Aṣṭādhyāyī (Eight chapters) of the fifth century BCE provides four thousand rules that describe Sanskrit completely. This grammar is acknowledged to be one of the greatest intellectual achievements of all time. The great variety of language mirrors, in many ways, the complexity of nature and, therefore, success in describing a language is as impressive as a complete theory of physics. Scholars have shown that the grammar of Pāṇini represents a universal grammatical and computing system. From this perspective, it anticipates the logical framework of modern computers.

Medicine

Āyurveda, the Indian medicine system, is a holistic approach to health that builds upon the tripartite Vedic approach to the world. Health is maintained through a balance between three basic humors (doṣa) of wind (vāta), fire (pitta), and water (kapha). Each of these humors had five varieties. Although literally meaning “air,” “bile,” and “phlegm,” the doṣas represented larger principles. Its division of states into three categories rather than two is more efficient than the binary division of other medicine systems.

Caraka and Suśruta are two famous early physicians. According to Caraka, health and disease are not predetermined, and life may be prolonged by human effort. Suśruta defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, to protect the healthy, and to prolong life. The Saṃhitās speak of organisms that circulate in the blood, mucus, and phlegm. In particular, the organisms in the blood that cause disease are said to be invisible. It is suggested that physical contact and sharing the same air can cause such diseases to spread. Inoculation was practiced for protection against smallpox.

Indian surgery was quite advanced. The caesarian section was known, as was plastic surgery, and bone setting reached a high degree of skill. Suśruta classified surgical operations into eight categories: incision, excision, scarification, puncturing, probing, extraction, evacuation and drainage, and suturing. Suśruta lists 101 blunt and 20 sharp instruments that were used in surgery. The medical system tells us much about the Indian approach to science. There was emphasis on observation and experimentation.

Mind and consciousness

Vedic deities represent cognitive centers. It is asserted that parā-vidyā or ātma-vidyā (science of consciousness) cannot be described in words or design. In the Śrī-yantra, which is a representation of the cosmos, consciousness (Śiva) is shown as an infinitesimal dot in the middle.

The interaction between matter and consciousness is postulated in terms of an observation process called dṛṣṭi-sṛṣṭi (creation through observation), which is consistent with a world governed by laws. In the orthodox interpretation of quantum theory, consciousness is a separate category as in Vedanta.

Modern scientific subjects like physics, computer science, and neuroscience have been unable to explain the phenomenon of consciousness. Philosophy cannot reconcile our sense of freedom and agency with the framework of machine-like laws. In physical theory there is no place for the observer, computer science cannot explain how awareness arises in the brain machine, and neuroscience has not found any neural correlate of consciousness.

At the same time, the very association of information with physical systems as is done using entropy implies postulation of consciousness. So the use of the reductionist method in the analysis of consciousness has hit a wall.

Indian texts assert that the phenomenon of consciousness cannot be studied directly as a material property. Their analysis of consciousness using indirect methods may very well be relevant for further progress of this question in contemporary science.

Scientific speculations and more

Indian thought is unique in the breadth and scope of its scientific speculations that are scattered within its high literature. These range from airplanes (Rāmāyaṇa) to weapons that can destroy the world (Mahābhārata), and to the most astonishing abstract ideas in a text called Yoga-Vāsiṣṭha.

Many texts speak of the relativity of time and space — abstract concepts that developed in the scientific context just a hundred years ago. The Purāṇas describe countless universes and time flowing at different rates for different observers.

The Mahābhārata has an account of an embryo divided into one hundred parts each becoming, after maturation in a separate pot, a healthy baby; this is how the Kaurava brothers are born. There is also mention of a conception in one womb transferred to another: this is how Balarāma is a brother to Krishna although he was born to a different mother. This Epic has a major section on battle with a space ship whose occupants wear airtight suits (Saubha Parva). Are these to be seen as an early form of science fiction?

Universes defined recursively are described in the famous episode of Indra and the ants in Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa. Here Viṣṇu in the guise of a boy, explains to Indra that the ants he sees walking on the ground have all been Indras in their own solar systems in different times. These flights of imagination are more than a straightforward generalization of the motions of the planets into a cyclic universe.

The context of modern science fiction is clear: it is the liberation of the earlier modes of thought by the revolutionary developments of the 20th century science and technology. But how was science fiction integrated into the mainstream of Indian literary tradition over two thousand years ago? What was the intellectual ferment in which such sophisticated ideas arose?

— — — — — — — — — -

Concluding, India’s civilization valued science and knowledge above all and some of the most extraordinary scientific advances took place there. These include the earliest astronomy, geometry, number theory, the Indian numeral system, the idea of physical laws and invariance, the earliest formal system to describe a complex natural phenomenon (as in Pāṇini’s computer program-like grammar that was not rivaled for 2,500 years), a very subtle Yoga psychology, and the idea of immunization in medicine.

This creativity did not end with the ancient period. For India’s continuing relevance in the world of science, see The Indian foundations of modern science

https://medium.com/@subhashkak1/a-very-brief-history-of-indian-science-a73a885b5664

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Kanmer Indus Script inscriptions, hypertext spread legs + currycomb rebus kanahār 'helmsman', karaḍā खरडें 'daybook'

March 8, 2019, 5:19 pm

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Three seal impressions of Kanmer are used on a string to constitute a set. The seal impressions are composed of the inscription:

PLUS

These two hieroglyphs read from r. to l.: koḍa'one' rebus: koḍ'workshop' PLUS khareḍo 'a currycomb'rebus kharada खरडें daybook PLUS karṇaka कर्णक 'spread legs' rebus kanahār 'helmsman'. Thus, the message is: khareḍo koḍ karṇaka rebus: khareḍo 'daybook' (of) koḍ'workshop' (of) kanahār'helmsman'. Together, the inscription message is: daybook of workshop of helmsman. Three such seal impressions on three tokens of Kanmer constitute the consolidated cargo to be compiled on a seal message.

khareḍo 'a currycomb' (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati) Rebus: kharada
खरडें daybook

Sign 38 is a hypertext composed of kharada

खरडें daybook PLUS kanahār 'helmsman'. Thus, helmsman's daybook.

Variants of Sign 176

Sign 176 khareḍo 'a currycomb (Gujarati) Rebus: karaḍā खरडें 'daybook, wealth-accounting ledger'. Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati).

कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 'spread legs'; (semantic determinant) Rebus: kanahār'helmsman', karNI 'scribe, account''supercargo'. कर्णक 'spread legs' rebus: 'helmsman', karNi 'supercargo'; meṛed 'iron' rebus: meḍh 'merchant' ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal'; 2. कर्णक 'spread legs' rebus: 'helmsman', karṇi 'supercargo' Indicative that the merchant is seafaring metalsmith. karṇadhāra m. ʻ helmsman ʼ Suśr. [kárṇa -- , dhāra -- 1]Pa. kaṇṇadhāra -- m. ʻ helmsman ʼ; Pk. kaṇṇahāra -- m. ʻ helmsman, sailor ʼ; H. kanahār m. ʻ helmsman, fisherman ʼ.(CDIAL 2836) Decipherment: कर्णक 'helmsman' PLUS mē̃d, mēd 'body' rebus: mē̃d, mēd 'iron', med 'copper' (Slavic). Thus the body hieroglyph signifies mē̃d कर्णक karṇi 'an iron helmsman seafaring, supercargo merchant.'

khoṇḍ, kõda 'young bull-calf' खोंड [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. (Marathi) ‘Pannier’ glyph: खोंडी [ khōṇḍī ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a कांबळा, to hold or fend off grain, chaff &c.) Rebus: kõdā ‘to turn in a lathe’ (Bengali) kũdār ‘turner, brass-worker’. कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi)

Kanmer

Kanmer: Ancient Village or Settlement in India

Source:Kharakwal, JS, YS Rawat and Toshiki Osada, Excavations at Kanmer: A Harappan site in Kachchh, Gujarat, Puratattva, Number 39, 2009

koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ'workshop' PLUS meD 'body' rebus: meD 'iron' hieroglyph: karNaka 'legs spread' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo' (responsible for products of brazier's workshop). Three seal impressions of Kanmer relate to three braziers whose products are entrusted to the Supercargo in charge of the shipment.

Hieroglyph: kangha (IL 1333) 'comb' Rebus 1: ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.) Rebus 2: kangar 1 कंगर् m. a large portable brazier; or kã̄gürü काँग&above;रू&below; or kã̄gar काँग््र्् । हसब्तिका f. (sg. dat. kã̄grĕ काँग्र्य or kã̄garĕ काँगर्य, abl. kã̄gri काँग्रि), the portable brazier, orkāngrī, much used in Kashmīr (K.Pr. kángár, 129, 131, 178; káṅgrí, 5, 128, 129). For particulars see El. s.v. kángri; L. 7, 25, kangar; and K.Pr. 129. The word is a fem. dim. of kang, q.v. (Gr.Gr. 37). kã̄gri-khŏphürü kangar ‘portable furnace’ (Kashmiri) kan:g portable brazier (B.); kā~guru, ka~gar (Ka.); kan:gar = large brazier (K.) kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332)

Obverse of the three seal impressions (common to all three impressions of Kanmer): Coppersmith guild

One-horned heifer in front of standard device: Coppersmith guild (damr.a sam.gara)

kangha ‘comb’; kangar ‘portable furnace’ (K.)

med. ‘body’; rebus: med. ‘iron’ (Mu.)

Reverse:
Seal impression 1 metal workshop

ayo, hako 'fish'; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.)

sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.) Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (H.)

kod. 'one' (Santali); kod. 'workshop' (G.)

Seal impression 2 Mineral workshop

dāṭu = cross (Te.); dhatu = mineral (Santali)

sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.) Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (H.)

kod. 'one' (Santali); kod. 'workshop' (G.)

Seal impression 3 Furnace workshop

aṭar ‘splinter’ (Ma.); aḍaruni ‘to crack’ (Tu.) aduru ‘native metal (Ka.)

baṭa = a kind of iron (G .) baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada)

S. baṭhu m. ‘large pot in which grain is parched, large cooking fire’, baṭhī f. ‘distilling furnace’; L. bhaṭṭh m. ‘grain—parcher's oven’, bhaṭṭhī f. ‘kiln, distillery’, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭh m., °ṭhī f. ‘furnace’, bhaṭṭhā m. ‘kiln’; S. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ‘distil (spirits)’. (CDIAL 9656)

Kanmer elephant seal, Gola Dhoro (Bagasra) 5 seals and 1 sealing

Elephant glyph: ibha 'elephant' (Skt.) Rebus: ib 'iron' (Santali) ibbo 'merchant' (Gujarati)

Metal

ayo ‘fish’ (Mu.); kaṇḍa ‘arrow’; kaṇḍa, kāṇḍa, kāḍe = an arrow (Ka.) kāṇḍ kāṇ kōṇ, ko~_, ka~_ṛ arrow (Pas'.);ka~_ḍī arrow (G.) Cf. kaṇṭam ‘arrow’ (Ta.) Rebus: ayaskāṇḍa “a quantity of iron, excellent iron” (Pāṇ gaṇ)

Workshop

sal “stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty” (H.);

Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (Santali); śāla id. (Skt.)

Turner

kundau, kundhi corner (Santali) kuṇḍa corner (S.): khoṇḍ square (Santali) *khuṇṭa2 ʻ corner ʼ. 2. *kuṇṭa -- 2. [Cf. *khōñca -- ] 1. Phal. khun ʻ corner ʼ; H. khū̃ṭ m. ʻ corner, direction ʼ (→ P. khũṭ f. ʻ corner, side ʼ); G. khū̃ṭṛī f. ʻ angle ʼ. <-> X kōṇa -- : G. khuṇ f., khū˘ṇɔ m. ʻ corner ʼ. 2. S. kuṇḍa f. ʻ corner ʼ; P. kū̃ṭ f. ʻ corner, side ʼ (← H.).(CDIAL 3898).

Allograph: kunta 'lance, spear' (Kannada)

Rebus: kunda1 m. ʻ a turner's lathe ʼ lex. [Cf. *cunda -- 1] N. kũdnu ʻ to shape smoothly, smoothe, carve, hew ʼ, kũduwā ʻ smoothly shaped ʼ; A. kund ʻ lathe ʼ, kundiba ʻ to turn and smooth in a lathe ʼ, kundowā ʻ smoothed and rounded ʼ; B. kũd ʻ lathe ʼ, kũdā, kõdā ʻ to turn in a lathe ʼ; Or. kū˘nda ʻ lathe ʼ, kũdibā, kū̃d° ʻ to turn ʼ (→ Drav. Kur. kū̃d ʻ lathe ʼ); Bi.kund ʻ brassfounder's lathe ʼ; H. kunnā ʻ to shape on a lathe ʼ, kuniyā m. ʻ turner ʼ, kunwā m. (CDIAL 3295). kundakara m. ʻ turner ʼ W. [Cf. *cundakāra -- : kunda -- 1, kará -- 1] A. kundār, B. kũdār, °ri, Or. kundāru; H. kũderā m. ʻ one who works a lathe, one who scrapes ʼ, °rī f., kũdernā ʻ to scrape, plane, round on a lathe ʼ.(CDIAL 3297). Ta. kuntaṉam interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (< Te.). Ka. kundaṇa setting a precious stone in fine gold; fine gold; kundana fine gold.Tu. kundaṇa pure gold. Te. kundanamu fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold. (DEDR 1725).

Ka. kunda a pillar of bricks, etc. Tu. kunda pillar, post. Te. kunda id. Malt. kunda block, log. ? Cf. Ta. kantu pillar, post.(DEDR 1723). கற்கந்து kaṟ-kantu , n. < கல் +. Stone pillar; கற்றூண். கற்கந்தும் எய்ப்போத்தும் . . . அனை யார் (இறை. 2, உரை, 27).

m1162. Mohenjo-daro seal with the same hieroglyph which appears on Kanmer circular tablets.

Glyph 33. Text 2068 kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus: kaṁsa bronze'; kã̄sāri ʻpewterer’ (Bengali) Also: khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (G.).Ibha'elephant' Rebus: ibbo 'merchant'.

m1162 Text 2058 Ligatured glyph of two sememes: 1. meḍ ‘body’(Mu.); rebus: ‘iron’ (Ho.) 2. karNaka 'spread legs' rebus: karNI 'Supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.'

Thus, alternate reading of the inscription is:

Sign 38 is a hypertext composed of kharada खरडें daybook PLUS kanahār 'helmsman'. Thus, helmsman's daybook PLUS karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron'.Thus, helmsman's iron (work) daybook.

kōḍu horn (Kannada. Tulu. Tamil) खोंड [khōṇḍa] m A young bull, a bullcalf. (Marathi) Rebus: कोंड [kōṇḍa] A circular hamlet; a division of a मौजा or village, composed generally of the huts of one caste. खोट [khōṭa] Alloyed--a metal (Marathi).

Hieroglyph: sãgaḍ, 'lathe' (Meluhha) Rebus 1: sãgaṛh , 'fortification' (Meluhha). Rebus 2:sanghAta 'adamantine glue'. Rebus 3:

sangāṭh संगाठ् 'assembly, collection'. Rebus 4: sãgaḍa 'double-canoe, catamaran'.

Hieroglyph: one-horned young bull: खोंड (p. 216) [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. Rebus: कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi)

Hieroglyph: one-horned young bull: खोंड (p. 216) [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf.

Rebus: कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi) खोदगिरी [ khōdagirī ] f Sculpture, carving, engraving.

ko_d.iya, ko_d.e = young bull; ko_d.elu = plump young bull; ko_d.e = a. male as in: ko_d.e du_d.a = bull calf; young, youthful (Te.lex.)

Hieroglyph: ko_t.u = horns (Ta.) ko_r (obl. ko_t-, pl. ko_hk) horn of cattle or wild animals (Go.); ko_r (pl. ko_hk), ko_r.u (pl. ko_hku) horn (Go.); kogoo a horn (Go.); ko_ju (pl. ko_ska) horn, antler (Kui)(DEDR 2200). Homonyms: kohk (Go.), gopka_ = branches (Kui), kob = branch (Ko.) gorka, gohka spear (Go.) gorka (Go)(DEDR 2126).

खोंड (p. 216) [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. 2

kot.iyum = a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal; kot. = neck (G.lex.) [cf. the orthography of rings on the neck of one-horned young bull].खोंड (p. 216) [ khōṇḍa ]A variety of जोंधळा.खोंडरूं (p. 216) [ khōṇḍarūṃ ] n A contemptuous form of खोंडा in the sense of कांबळा-cowl.खोंडा (p. 216) [ khōṇḍā ] m A कांबळा of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood. 2 fig. A hollow amidst hills; a deep or a dark and retiring spot; a dell. 3 (also खोंडी & खोंडें) A variety of जोंधळा.खोंडी (p. 216) [ khōṇḍī ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a कांबळा, to hold or fend off grain, chaff &c.)

Rebus signifier of the rings on neck: A ghanjah or ganja (Arabic: غنجه ), also known as kotiya in India, is a large wooden trading dhow, a traditional Arabic sailing vessel. Thus, the rebus reading could be: kotiya 'a ghanjah dhow seafaring vessel'.

Kanmer: Meluhha hieroglyphs of lapidary, turners' workshop

Kanmer epigraphs with Meluhha hieroglyphs used in trade

This is a tribute to the meticulous care with which JS Kharakwal and the team of archaeologists and epigraphists have documented the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization site of Kanmer in Gujarat (Rann of Kutch). Even though the epigraphs are few, the archaeological work has provenienced the finds of seals/seal impressions/tablets with Meluhha hieroglyphs providing a unique opportunity to provide rebus readings of the hieroglyphs in the archaeological context of minerals and stones worked at the site to create trade-able artifacts such as beads, etched beads, perforated beads.

Location map of Kanmer (After Fig. 1 in:

Kanmer. A large number of bead-making goods — 150 stone beads and roughouts, 160 drill bits, 433 faience beads and 20,000 steaite beads — were found here, indicating the site's importance as an industrial unit. Agatequarries were also located at a distance of 20 kilometres (12 mi) from the site. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanmer

http://www.scribd.com/doc/212393968/Kanmer-seals-sealing-and-other-script-material-Chapter-8

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/08/bronze-age-kanmer-bagasra.html

https://www.academia.edu/4891402/Harappan_Script_Material_from_Kanmer
Kanmer: seals, sealing and other script material (Chapter 8) Hansmukh Seth & JS Kharakwal, R. Menaria and H. Bunker (2014)

Three hieroglyphs painted in black pigment on a red slipped surface of a dish on stand (No. 09-2047) loa ‘ficus religiosa’
Rebus: lo 'copper'. ranku 'antelope' Rebus: ranku 'tin'. Alternative: kamaṛkom,kamaḍha ‘ficus’ (Santali) Rebus: kammaṭa ‘mint, coiner’.

Five examples of hieroglyph in black pigment on the inner and outer surface of a pot of Red ware and redware with buffs slipped type oron dishes, mostly in pre-firing stage. arā 'spokes' Rebus: āra 'brass' eraka 'knave of wheel' Rebus: eraka 'moltencast copper'.

(No. 09-2048; Tr. Z28, Layer 10; No. 09-2049; Tr. Z28, Layer 10; No. 09-2050; Tr. Z28, Qua SE, Layer 10; No. 09-2050, Tr. Z28, Qua SE, Layer 10); No. 09-2053; Tr. Z28, Layer 11).

(After Figure 9 in: Kharakwal et al, p. 364)"Furnace. A bulb shaped furnace with a central cylindrical hollow column (dia. 31 cm, depth 35 cm)(Fig.9) was exposed in trench Z17...The clay walls of the furnace were barely 4 cm thick and the area between the column and outer clay wall was found completely filled with ash. The burnt red colour of the cylindrical column, the outer clay wall and the earth around the furnace indicate that the temperature raised in the furnace may have been more than 700 degrees C...Several tubular faience beads and bangles were recovered from the furnace area and near the square platform. We do not know if it could be a faience bead making furnace?..."The beads of semi precious stone have been identified as carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli/sodalite, chalcedony, serpentine and bloodstone. The site yielded raw material of agate besides, chipped, roughouts, grinded, unpolished bead blanks...Except for lapis lazuli/sodalite, sources of raw material for all these bead types could have been the Little Rnn and its adjacent areas...A few examples of shell, bone and metal ones have been found from the KMR II and KMR III levels...The discovery of seals, seal impressions suggested that they were involved in trade." ( in: Kharakwal, JS, YS Rawat, T. Osada, LC Patel, Hanmukh Seth, Rajesh Meena, S. Meena, KP Singh, & A. Hussain, 2010, Kanmer: a multicultural site in Kachchh, Gujarat, India, p.371, 373)"

http://www.scribd.com/doc/212400235/Kharakwal-JS-YS-Rawat-T-Osada-LC-Patel-Hanmukh-Seth-Rajesh-Meena-S-Meena-KP-Singh-A-Hussain-Kanmer-a-multicultural-site-in-Kachchh-Gu (Embedded)

Etched carnelian bead from Kanmer (After Figure 11 in Kharakwal et al)

After Figures 12 and 13 in: Kharakwal, JS, YS Rawat, T. Osada, LC Patel, Hanmukh Seth, Rajesh Meena, S. Meena, KP Singh, & A. Hussain, Kanmer: a multicultural site in Kachchh, Gujarat, India, pp.355-376)

Rebus readings of Meluhha hieroglyphs:

koḍa ‘one’(Santali) Rebus: koḍ ‘artisan’s workshop’. kõda ‘young bull-calf’. Rebus: kũdār ‘turner’. sangaḍa ‘lathe, furnace’. Rebus: samgara ‘living in the same house, guild’. Hence, smith guild.

kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus: kaṁsa 'bronze' (Te.) [See Meluhha glosses given below.]

mēd ‘body’ (Kur.)(DEDR 5099); meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.) kāḍ 2 काड् a man's length, the stature of a man (as a measure of length); rebus: kāḍ ‘stone’; Ga. (Oll.) kanḍ , (S.) kanḍu (pl. kanḍkil) id.

m1162. Mohenjo-daro seal with the same hieroglyph which appears on Kanmer circular tablets.

Glyph 33. Text 2068 kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.)

Rebus: kaṁsa bronze'; kã̄sāri ʻpewterer’ (Bengali) kāḍ 2 काड् a man's length, the stature of a man (as a measure of length) Rebus: kāḍ ‘stone’. ibha 'elephant'

Rebus: ibbo 'merchant'. ib 'iron'.

m1162 Text 2058 Ligatured glyph of three sememes: 1. meḍ ‘body’(Mu.); rebus: ‘iron’ (Ho.); kāḍ 2 काड् a man's length, the stature of a man (as a measure of length); rebus: kāḍ ‘stone’;Ga. (Oll.) kanḍ , (S.) kanḍu (pl. kanḍkil) stone; 2. aḍar ‘harrow’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’. ibha ‘elephant’; rebus: ibbo ‘merchant’ (Gujarati)

kã̄ḍ reed Rebus: kāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’ Ku. lokhaṛ ʻiron tools ʼ; H. lokhaṇḍ m. ʻ iron tools, pots and pans ʼ; G. lokhãḍ n. ʻtools, iron, ironwareʼ; M. lokhãḍ n. ʻ iron ʼ(CDIAL 11171).

kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus: kaṁsa= bronze (Te.) kã̄sāri ʻpewterer’ (Bengali) kãsārī; H. kasārī m. ʻ maker of brass pots’ (Or.) Rebus: kaṁsá1 m. ʻ metal cup ʼ AV., m.n. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ Pat. as in S., but would in Pa. Pk. and most NIA. lggs. collide with kāˊṁsya -- to which L. P. testify and under which the remaining forms for the metal are listed. 2. *kaṁsikā -- .1. Pa. kaṁsa -- m. ʻ bronze dish ʼ; S. kañjho m. ʻ bellmetal ʼ; A. kã̄h ʻ gong ʼ; Or. kãsā ʻ big pot of bell -- metal ʼ; OMarw. kāso(= kã̄ -- ?) m. ʻ bell -- metal tray for food, food ʼ; G. kã̄sā m. pl. ʻ cymbals ʼ; -- perh. Woṭ. kasṓṭ m. ʻ metal pot ʼ Buddruss Woṭ 109. 2. Pk. kaṁsiā -- f. ʻ a kind of musical instrument ʼ; A. kã̄hi ʻ bell -- metal dish ʼ; G. kã̄śī f. ʻ bell -- metal cymbal ʼ,kã̄śiyɔ m. ʻopen bellmetal panʼ kāˊṁsya -- ; -- *kaṁsāvatī -- ? Addenda: kaṁsá -- 1: A. kã̄h also ʻ gong ʼ or < kāˊṁsya – (CDIAL 2576). kāṁsya ʻ made of bell -- metal ʼ KātyŚr., n. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ Yājñ., ʻ cup of bell -- metal ʼ MBh., aka -- n. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ. 2. *kāṁsiya -- .[kaṁsá -- 1] 1. Pa. kaṁsa -- m. (?) ʻ bronze ʼ, Pk. kaṁsa -- , kāsa -- n. ʻ bell -- metal, drinking vessel, cymbal ʼ; L. (Jukes) kã̄jāadj. ʻ of metal ʼ, awāṇ. kāsā ʻ jar ʼ (← E with -- s-- , not ñj); N. kã̄so ʻ bronze, pewter, white metal ʼ, kas -- kuṭ ʻ metal alloy ʼ; A. kã̄hʻ bell -- metal ʼ, B. kã̄sā, Or. kãsā, Bi. kã̄sā; Bhoj. kã̄s ʻ bell -- metal ʼ,kã̄sā ʻ base metal ʼ; H. kās, kã̄sā m. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ, G.kã̄sũ n., M. kã̄sẽ n.; Ko. kã̄śẽ n. ʻ bronze ʼ; Si. kasa ʻ bell -- metal ʼ. 2. L. kã̄ihã̄ m. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ, P. kã̄ssī, kã̄sī f., H. kã̄sīf.*kāṁsyakara -- , kāṁsyakāra -- , *kāṁsyakuṇḍikā -- , kāṁsyatāla -- , *kāṁsyabhāṇḍa -- .Addenda: kāṁsya -- : A. kã̄h also ʻ gong ʼ, or < kaṁsá -- . (CDIAL 2987).*kāṁsyakara ʻ worker in bell -- metal ʼ. [See next: kāṁsya -- , kará -- 1] L. awāṇ. kasērā ʻ metal worker ʼ, P. kaserā m. ʻ worker in pewter ʼ (both ← E with -- s -- ); N. kasero ʻ maker of brass pots ʼ; Bi. H. kaserā m. ʻ worker in pewter ʼ. (CDIAL 2988). kāṁsyakāra m. ʻ worker in bell -- metal or brass ʼ Yājñ. com., kaṁsakāra -- m. BrahmavP. [kāˊṁsya -- , kāra -- 1] N. kasār ʻ maker of brass pots ʼ; A. kãhār ʻ worker in bell -- metal ʼ; B. kã̄sāri ʻ pewterer, brazier, coppersmith ʼ, Or. kãsārī; H. kasārī m. ʻ maker of brass pots ʼ; G.kãsārɔ, kas m. ʻ coppersmith ʼ; M. kã̄sār, kās m. ʻ worker in white metal ʼ, kāsārḍā m. ʻ contemptuous term for the same ʼ. (CDIAL 2989).

The evidence from Kanmer, shows the use of tablets created with duplicate seal impressions. These tablets may have been used as category tallies of lapidary, turners' workshops.

(Source: http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/agrawal323/Antiquity, D.P. Agrawal et al, Redefining the Harappan hinterland, Anquity, Vol. 84, Issue 323, March 2010). It is a category mistake to call these as ‘seals’. These are three duplicate tablets created with seal impressions (glyphs: one-horned heifer, standard device, PLUS two text inscription glyphs (or ‘signs’ as written characters): one long linear stroke, ligatured glyph of body + ‘harrow’ glyph. There are perforations in the center of these duplicate seal impressions which are tablets and which contained identical inscriptions. It appears that three duplicates of seal impressions -- as tablets -- were created using the same seal.

Obverse of these tiny 2 cm. dia. tablets show some incised markings. It is unclear from the markings if they can be compared with any glyphs of the Indus script corpora. They may be ‘personal’ markings like ‘potter’s marks’ – designating a particular artisan’s workshop (working platform) or considering the short numerical strokes used, the glyphs may be counters (numbers or liquid or weight measures). More precise determination may be made if more evidences of such glyphs are discovered. Excavators surmise that the three tablets with different motifs on the obverse of the three tablets suggest different users/uses. They may be from different workshops of the same guild but as the other side of the tables showed, the product taken from three workshops is the same.

'The perforations may have been used for inserting some kind of thread perhaps to hang it on the neck.' Three terracotta seal impressions all with perfoations (dia 4.15 mm) off center. Stamped by a squarish seal with a unicorn motif and two Indus hieroglyphs on top. All the three seal impressions have the same motif and hieroglyphs.

On the reverse, each one has a different picture or symbol (Kharakwal et al 2009: 147-163). These are comparable to the following Meluhha hieroglyphs:

Broken clay circular sealing. 2.05cmX2.03cmX0.90cm Wt. 2.7 g. Unicorn motif with three hieroglyphs. Comparable to Seal H156A, impression H156a (Harappa)

Hieroglyphs

No. 06-1054 (Kanmer)

No 09-1997 Squarish steatite button seal. 1.06cm X 1.10cm X 0.48 cm Wt. 0.4 g; perforated knob on reverse. Goat with short tail standing facing left.
Two hieroglyphs:

Mineral workshop

dāṭu = cross (Te.); dhatu = mineral (Santali)

sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.) Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (H.)

kod. ‘one’ (Santali); rebus: kod. ‘workshop’ (G.)

Furnace workshop

aṭar ‘splinter’ (Ma.); aḍaruni ‘to crack’ (Tu.) aduru ‘native metal (Ka.)

baṭa = a kind of iron (G .) baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada)

Metal workshop

ayo, hako 'fish'; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.)

sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.) Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (H.)

kod. ‘one’ (Santali); rebus: kod. ‘workshop’ (G.)

Decoding of the identical inscription on the three tablets of Kanmer.

Glyph: One long linear stroke. koḍa ‘one’ (Santali) Rebus: koḍ ‘artisan’s workshop’ (Kuwi) Glyph: meḍ ‘body’ (Mu.) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.) Ligatured glyph : aḍar ‘harrow’ Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Kannada). Thus the glyphs can be read rebus. Glyph: koḍiyum ‘heifer’ (G.) Rebus: koḍ ‘workshop (Kuwi) Glyph: sangaḍa ‘lathe’ (Marathi) Rebus 1: Rebus 2: sangaḍa ‘association’ (guild). Rebus 2: sangatarāsu ‘stone cutter’ (Telugu). The output of the lapidaries is thus described by the three tablets: aduru meḍ sangaḍa koḍ ‘iron, native metal guild workshop’.

Elephant glyph: ibha 'elephant' (Skt.) Rebus: ib 'iron' (Santali) ibbo 'merchant' (Gujarati)

Metal

Workshop

sal “stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty” (H.);

Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (Santali); śāla id. (Skt.)

Turner

Allograph: kunta 'lance, spear' (Kannada)

Kanmer: seals, sealing and other script material (Chapter 8)

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Gabarband water management, water reservoirs, drainage and sewerage systems of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization, dated to ca. 3000 BCE are unparalleled features in civilizational history. See: Possehl, Gregory L., 1975. The chronology of gabarbands and palas in western South Asia. Expedition 17 (2): 33-37. A corollary to the gabarband water management tradition of the civilization is the drainage and sanitation system of unparalleled sophistication and hydrological initiatives evidenced in sites such as Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal.

Indus Script hieroglyph, Sign 194:

koḍa 'sluice'; Rebus: koḍ 'artisan's workshop' (Kuwi). A hieroglyph Sign 194 signifies a water sluice.

An overview of the sites of the civilization clearly indicates navigable waterways of Sindhu and Sarasvati rivers for ancient maritime tin-bronze trade across long distances from Ancient Far East to Ancient Near East. On these rivers water management systems, including gabarbands, were constructed.

Gabarband of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization

A remarkable article by Robert L. Raikes in the Anthropologist (1961) is appended. https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/aa.1961.63.2.02a00020 The prehistoric climate of Baluchisthan and the Indus Valley by Robert L.Raikes (1961). This article highlights the importance of a unique hydrological irrigation system called gabarband. This gabarband system is a precursor to the Grand stone anicut of Kallanai on Kaveri river 2000 years' old which created a stone anicut to create the Kollidam river diverting the surplus waters of Kaveri and brought an additional 5 acres of land under cultivation in the delta region.

[quote] Aurel Stein and others have discovered dams built across the mountain streams in Baluchistan estimated to have been built during neolithic-calcholithic period for irrigation of lands. Wheeler also mentioned the existence of such dams in Baluchistan which are known locally as gabarband. These had been strongly built by stone rubble, even up to height of 10 to 15 feet, to hold sufficient silt and water.[Sir Mortimer Wheeler, The Indus Civilization, Cambridge University Press, 1968, Third Edition, pp.10-11.] Walter A. Fairservis also mentioned such evidence of dams in Las Bela discovered near an Amri site on the Upper Hab River that were built to catch the small annual overflow from the surrounding mountains and by storing it to render it available to normally arid silt tracts which the position of the site indicates were cultivated.[Walter A. Fairservis, “The Harappan Civilization – New Evidence and More Theory,” in, American Museum Novitates, Published by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, No. 2055, 1961, p. 5. ] He also refers to the presence of bund agriculture in southwest Sind mentioned by O.H.K. Spate and earlier by the residents of a Harappan village on the edge of the Malir oasis. All these evidences indicate that these dams were constructed as a rather desperate attempt to store the available water from small rivers and utilize for agriculture. Such bund or dam based agriculture was not unknown in the ancient world as mentioned by some authors. R.S. Bisht has also mentioned the existence of dams at three places that were raised across the Manhar and at two places across the Mansar, both the storm water runnels were embraced the site Dholavira.[ R.S. Bisht, “Dholavira and Banawali: Two Different Paradigms of the Harappan Urbis Forma,” in, Puratattva, No. 29, 1999, pp. 26-28.] The purpose of damming was to harvest water for filling the reservoir in the urban site of Dholavira. At Mehrgarh although no dam was reported, it is mentioned that there is possible evidence for the construction of irrigation ditches, which may have been helpful to agricultural intensification and, eventually population growth.[Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, “Households and Neighborhoods of the Indus Tradition: An Overview,” in, eds, Bradley J. Parker and Catherine P. Foster, New Perspectives on Household Archaeology, Eisenbrauns, Indiana, 2012, p. 381.] C. Benveniste and L. Renou first mentioned Vṛitra from purely philological consideration to mean “obstacle,” “barrage,” or “bloquage,” not a demon, with which D.D. Kosambi also agreed. [Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, First Published 1956, Revised Second Edition 1975, Reprinted 1985, pp. 74, 75.] Kosambi had the same view that Indra’s breaking up dams is related to the breaking of prehistoric dams, called “Gebr-band” and are still found on many water-courses in the western parts of this region. M.K. Dhavalikar mentions the connection on gabarbands to the Vṛitra whom Indra slew, burst the cloud, broke the strongholds and drove the floods.[M.K. Dhavalikar, The Aryans: Myth and Archaeology, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2007, pp. 100,101.] He mentions “This interpretation is more plausible because it prevents the water flowing down where the Aryans were living in the Indus plains.”

On this ground it can be suggested that artificial irrigation based on building dams on rivers was employed in the Indus Civilization to increase the agricultural production which was essential for the subsistence of the huge number of the people living in the Indus-Saraswati Valley in so many settlements distributed throughout the vast region. Till now there is no intensive study conducted on the river based irrigation system of the Harappan people which is related to the subsistence agriculture. It can be assumed that the Harappan people built dams on the rivers to impound water and then sent them to distant places through cannels to irrigate agricultural lands. It can also be surmised that there were sluicegates at the dams to control the river waters as required for the irrigation purpose to distribute water to different communities of people. Sluicegates were not unknown to the Harappan people as its existence is mentioned from dockyard of Lothal where there was an arrangement of sliding wooden door in the recesses of the spill-way to control water level at the dock[S.R. Rao, (1979), Lothal: A Harappan Port Town (1955-62), Volume I, Published by the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 1979, p.126.] and the wooden sluicegate or grill at the drains of Harappa[Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, 1998, p. 61]. The water management for the irrigation system was solely controlled by the Harappan state, which was a very sensitive task and requires some kind of control and authority over the whole population living under its jurisdiction[unquote] https://www.ongshumali.com/en/decline-of-indus-civilization-and-vedic-upheaval-chapter-4/

Lothal: Sanitary drainage at the acropolis

"The most unique aspect of planning during the Indus Valley civilization was the system of underground drainage. The main sewer, 1.5 meters deep and 91 cm across, connected to many north-south and east-west sewers. It was made from bricks smoothened and joined together seamlessly. The expert masonry kept the sewer watertight. Drops at regular intervals acted like an automatic cleaning device. A wooden screen at the end of the drains held back solid wastes. Liquids entered a cess poll made of radial bricks. Tunnels carried the waste liquids to the main channel connecting the dockyard with the river estuary. Commoner houses had baths and drains that emptied into underground soakage jars."(Dinesh Shukla)

An elaborate sanitary and drainage system, a hallmark of ancient Indus cities, is in evidence everywhere at Lothal.

"The proximity of the seat of power to the warehouse may have ensured that the ruler and his entourage could inspect stocks easily. An ivory workshop in the acropolis suggests that elephants may have been domesticated to produce the raw material." (Dinesh Shukla) https://www.harappa.com/category/slide-subject/sanitation

Near the warehouse, also on a high plinth, is the upper town or acropolis which spans 128 by 61 meters and has extensive drainage systems.

This bathing area in Harappa today is identical to ancient bathing areas.

Many of the buildings at Mohenjo-daro had two or more stories. Water from the roof and upper storey bathrooms was carried through enclosed terracotta pipes or open chutes that emptied out onto the street, such as this one on a house in DK-G Area. (See a modern example of this type of open drain chute in Slide 100). harappa.com

In the modern town of Harappa, a covered drain built along the outside of a house takes sewage water from a second storey latrine and bathroom to the street level drain without splashing people passing by on the street.

A bathing platform in UM area with blocked up doorway leading into the room. The brick floor was made with carefully fitted flat paved bricks and a smaller catchment drain along the side of the platform. A small step was placed at one side of the platform, and a ledge of finely fitted bricks protected the base of the wall.

A bathing platform in SD area with brick floor made with flat paved bricks. Many bathing platforms were made with watertight floors constructed with bricks laid on their edge. (JM Kenoyer)

This bathing platform is located next to the street, and is made with bricks laid flat. A small drain running along one side of the bathing floor channels dirty water out to the street. A brick on edge with a notch was placed across the drain hole to keep objects from flowing out with the bath water. It is possible that such bathing floors were also used to wash clothes that may have washed out with the rinse water. (JM Kenoyer)

This well was associated with a finely constructed bathing platform. A stairway leads up to the well and platform from a lower room. The walls and well have been covered with mud brick and sprayed with clay slurry to protect them from salt crystallization. (JM Kenoyer)

Toilets would have been an essential feature in Mohenjo-daro, but the early excavators identified most toilets as post-cremation burial urns or sump pots. This brick structure (one of two - see Slide 48) had a hole in the top that was connected to a small drain leading out of the base into a rectangular basin (not reconstructed). Early excavators suggested this might have been a toilet. (JM Kenoyer)

The corbelled arch drain from the great bath is large enough to walk into. It has a small ledge on either side of the actual drain channel. (JM Kenoyer)

A large public well and public bathing platforms were found in the southern part of Mound AB at Harappa. These public bathing areas may also have been used for washing clothes as is common in many traditional cities in Pakistan and India today. (JM Kenoyer)

Almost every house unit at Mohenjo-daro was equipped with a private bathing area with drains to take the dirty water out into a larger drain that emptied into a sewage drain. Many of these bathing areas had water tight floors to keep moisture from seeping into the other rooms nearby or below.j (JM Kenoyer)

Private wells were rebuilt over many generations to serve the needs of a large household or neighborhood. This well in DK G area at Mohenjo-daro stands like a chimney because all of the surrounding earth has been removed by excavation. (JM Kenoyer)

Town planning. Harappa.Mohenjo-daro. Lothal.

House bathroom and outlet. House bathing platform at Mohenjo-daro and row of private baths at Lothal. After Kenoyer, JM, 1998.

Great bath outlet.Mohenjo-daro and Lothal. After Kenoyer 1998

Drainage and sanitation system. Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. After Kenoyer, JM, 1988

Hydraulic engineering. Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. Dholavira. Rann. Gujarat.

Great bath at Mohenjo-daro compares with Dholavira reservoir. The "great bath" is without doubt the earliest public water tank in the ancient world. The tank itself measures approximately 12 meters north-south and 7 meters wide, with a maximum depth of 2.4 meters. Two wide staircases lead down into the tank from the north and south and small sockets at the edges of the stairs are thought to have held wooden planks or treads. At the foot of the stairs is a small ledge with a brick edging that extends the entire width of the pool. People coming down the stairs could move along this ledge without actually stepping into the pool itself.

The floor of the tank is water tight due to finely fitted bricks laid on edge with gypsum plaster and the side walls were constructed in a similar manner. To make the tank even more water tight, a thick layer of bitumen (natural tar) was laid along the sides of the tank and presumably also beneath the floor. Brick colonnades were discovered on the eastern, northern and southern edges. The preserved columns have stepped edges that may have held wooden screens or window frames. Two large doors lead into the complex from the south and other access was from the north and east. A series of rooms are located along the eastern edge of the building and in one room is a well that may have supplied some of the water needed to fill the tank. Rainwater also may have been collected for this purposes, but no inlet drains have been found.

Most scholars agree that this tank would have been used for special religious functions where water was used to purify and renew the well being of the bathers. (JM Kenoyer)

https://www.harappa.com/slide/great-bath-mohenjo-daro-0

The floor slopes down to the southwest corner where a small outlet (top right) leads to a brick drain, which takes the water to the edge of the mound.

This drain cuts through the edge of the so-called granary. If the entire drain were constructed along with the Great Bath, this feature would indicate that the original "granary" was built before the great bath. (JM Kenoyer)

Dockyards at Lothal

Different types of wells. After Kenoyer, JEM, 1988

Dholavira. Water-reservoir. Dholavira had a series of water storing tanks and step wells. Dholavira had at least five baths, at least one even larger than the Great Bath in Mohenjodaro.

Water tank. Mohenjodaro. After Kenoyer, JEM, 1988.

After Fig. 2.14. Indus Valley Civilization Open toilets Commodes, Kenoyer, J.M., 1998, Mohenjo-daro, An ancient Indus Valley metropolis, Unvi. of Wisconsin, Madison).

Public toilets. Open toilet and household toilet in Indus Valley Civilization. After Fig. 2.13 Kenoyer 1998)

Storm water storage in rock tank and dry well at Dholavira and Lothal. After Wales, R.P., 2010."Bisht, who retired as the Joint Director-General of the ASI, said, "The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation, harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic engineering, given the state of technology in the third millennium BCE." One of the unique features of Dholavira is the sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs, the earliest found anywhere in the world, built completely of stone. The city had massive reservoirs, three of which are exposed. They were used for storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water diverted from two nearby rivulets.^[20] This clearly came in response to the desert climate and conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall. A seasonal stream which runs in a north-south direction near the site was dammed at several points to collect water. In 1998, another reservoir was discovered in the site.The inhabitants of Dholavira created sixteen or more reservoirs of varying size during Stage III.Some of these took advantage of the slope of the ground within the large settlement, a drop of 13 metres (43 ft) from northeast to northwest. Other reservoirs were excavated, some into living rock. Recent work has revealed two large reservoirs, one to the east of the castle and one to its south, near the Annexe. The reservoirs are cut through stone vertically, and are about 7 m (23 ft) deep and 79 m (259 ft) long. They skirt the city, while the citadel and bath are centrally located on raised ground. There is also a large well with a stone-cut trough connecting it to a drain meant for conducting water to a storage tank. The bathing tank had steps descending inwards.In October 2014, excavation began on a rectangular stepwell which measured 73.4 m (241 ft) long, 29.3 m (96 ft) wide, and 10 m (33 ft) deep, making it three times bigger than the Great Bath of Mohenjedaro." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavira

In the settlements of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization, drinking water was separately provided by drinking wells and reservoirs. A central underground waste and disposal sanitation system was designed, which connected through indoor plumbing to homes. [quote] Almost every house had a bathroom and the waste water was drained out and went into the central drainage system which emptied outside of the city in cesspits or river estuaries. They drains were multi level and deliberately designed to filter out solid waste from liquid waste, and were inspected and cleaned regularly. A very high standard of sanitation and hygiene was achieved. This feature was found universally in all Indus cities(Harappa, Mohenjadro, Lothal, Dholavira). The extent of hydraulic engineering in water harvesting is particularly notable in Dholavira. Dholavira was built in a desert area(in modern day Kutch) and had little access to water, and because it was near the sea it was being constantly flooded. The Indus engineers were able to turn this to their advantage by building a dam to prevent the cities from flooding, and channelled the waters to irrigate their fields and fill their reservoirs which would provide constant water all year round. They also harvested rain water using water tanks...Almost every house had a bathroom, usually a fine sawn burnt brick pavement, often with a surrounding curb. The house drains start from the bathrooms of the houses and join up to the main sewer in the street, which was covered by brick slabs or corbelled brick arches (Figures 2.5, 2.7, and 2.8). On the streets there are manholes for cleaning; some drains flow to closed seeps, others flow out of the city (Jansen, 1985). These water wells and well planned sanitation and sewerage system is one of the great signs that lead to the well developed Indus Valley Civilization (Jones, 1967). The bath and kitchen waters, as well as drainage from the latrines, and the roof drainage, usually did not run into the street drains direct, but entered them via tightly brick-lined puts, with outlets to the streets drains about three-quarters of the distance above the bottom. Apparently these pits were cleaned out from time to time, as were the setting basins or soakage pits located along the street drains. These pits may have been the ancient precursors of our present day septic tanks and grit chambers. In some houses the drainage water discharged into large pottery jars places in the street at the foot of the vertical drains in the street walls (Gray, 1940). Houses also had rubbish chutes built into the walls and descending from the upper floors, at the foot of which chutes there were sometimes provided bins at the street level which could be cleaned out by the scavengers. Public rubbish bins were also provided at convenient places (Gray, 1940). The most unique aspect of planning during the Indus Valley civilization at Lothal was the system of underground drainage. The main sewer, 1.5 meters deep and 91 cm across, connected to many north-south and east-west sewers. It was made from bricks smoothened and joined together seamlessly. The expert masonry kept the sewer watertight. Drops at regular intervals acted like an automatic cleaning device (Figure 2.6). A wooden screen at the end of the drains held back solid wastes. Liquids entered a cess poll made of radial bricks. Tunnels carried the waste liquids to the main channel connecting the dockyard with the river estuary. Commoner houses had baths and drains that emptied into underground soakage jars. The rooms of the upper town were obviously built for upper classes. They had private pathed brick baths (Figure 2.5) and a remarkable network of drains and cesspools (Mulchandani and Shukla, 2010). Baths and wells One of the best-known excavations is the Great Bath of Moen-Jo-Daro, which has before discussed. In addition to wells, archaeologists have also found remains of giant reservoirs for water storage. Reservoirs were situated around the metropolis which was fortified with stonewalls. The Archaeological Survey of India has revealed that one third of the area of the city of Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch, was devoted to collection and distribution of fresh water (Figure 2.2). The city was situated on a slope between two streams. At the point where one of the streams meets the city's walls, people carved a large reservoir out of rock. This was connected to a network of small and big reservoirs that distributed water to the entire city all year round. All the reservoirs together could hold about 248480 cubic meters of water. Such was the importance they gave for water storage. According to Gray (1940), many of the houses in Indus civilization had their individual wells within buildings. These wells were usually circular in plan, thought at time oval, and had copings of stones or bricks at the floor level, and brick lining for a moderate depth below the surface (Figure 2.8). In a few instances the streets drains ran rather too close to the wells, and it is possible that some contamination of the well occurred. But in most cases the wells were located at adequate distances from the drains. Generally, the Moen-Jo-Daro ruins present a picture of a community in which both personal and community cleanliness was quite effectively practiced, and the water supply reasonably safeguarded from contamination as a rule. Practically every house in Moen-Jo-Daro had its bathroom, always placed on the street side of the building for the convenient disposal of waste water into the street drains. Where latrines have been found in the houses, they were placed on the street wall for the same reason. Ablution places were set immediately adjacent to the latrines, thus conforming to one of the most modern of sanitary maxims. Where baths and latrines were located on the upper floor, they were drained usually by vertical terra-cotta pipes with closely fitting spigot joints, set in the building wall (Figure 2.5). In the bathroom, people stood on a brick 'shower tray' and tipped water over themselves from a jar. The clean water came from a well. Dirty water drained through a pipe out through the wall into the drain in the street ( Lofrano and Brown, 2010) These ancient terra-cotta pipes, still sound after nearly five thousand years, are the precursor of our modern verified clay spigot-and-socket sewer pipe) Drainage system The Indus civilization had an elaborate sanitary and drainage system, the hallmark of ancient Indus cities. The authorities maintained a highly efficient drainage system. Each and every house had a connection with the main drain. These even had inspection holes for maintenance. The conduits to the main drains ran through the middle of the streets below the pavement level and were covered with flat stones and sturdy tile bricks. The covered drain was connected to the larger sewerage outlets which finally led the dirty water outside the populated areas. The urban plan found in these cities included the word's first urban sanitation system. The elaborate brick-linked drainage system for the removal of rainwater is of unparalleled engineering skill (Rothermund and Kulke, 1998). With such an extensive domestic water storage system, the associated problem that arises is that of drainage. Town planners of Moen-Jo-Daro had built the worlds first known main drainage system. It was a central system that connected every household in the city (Figure 2.6). Every house had a drinking water well with a private bathroom. Earthenware waste pipes carried sewage from each home into covered channels that ran along the centres of the city's main streets into the nearby agricultural fields, rivers, or streams. The drains took waste from kitchens, bathrooms, and indoor toilets. The main drains even had movable stone slabs as inspection points. The houses had excellent plumbing facilities for provision of water (Rothermund and Kulke, 1998). Toilets had brick seats. The toilet was flushed with water from jars.The waste flowed out through clay pipes into a drain in the street. Waste was carried away along the drains to 'soak pits' (cesspits), Cleaners dug out the pit and took the waste away. They also took away rubbish from bins on the side of houses. Each street and lane had one or two drainage channels, with brick or stone covers which could be lifted to remove obstructions in the drains. The drains were usually ranged from 46 to 61 cm below the street level, and varied in dimensions from 30.50 cm deep and 23.00 cm wide (Gray, 1940). When the drain could not be covered by flat bricks, or stone slabs, the roof of the drain was corbelled. Rainwater harvesting and storage system. The Indus Valley Civilization, that flourished along the banks of the river Indus and other parts of western and northern India about 5,000 years ago, had one of the most sophisticated urban water supply and sewage systems in the world. The fact that the people were well acquainted with hygiene can be seen from the covered drains running beneath the streets of the ruins at both Moen-Jo-Daro and Harappa. Another very good example is the well-planned city of Dholavira, on Khadir Bet, a low plateau in the Rann in Gujarat. One of the oldest water harvesting systems is found about 130 km from Pune along Naneghat in the Western Ghats (Kenoyer, 1991) A large number of tanks were cut in the rocks to provide drinking water to tradesmen who used to travel along this ancient trade route. Each fort in the area had its own water harvesting and storage system in the form of rock-cut cisterns, ponds, tanks and wells that are still in use today. A large number of forts like Raigad had tanks that supplied water (Figure 2.10). "The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation, harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic engineering, given the state of technology," (Subramanian, 2010). One of the unique features of Dholavira is the sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs, the earliest found anywhere in the world and completely built out of stone, of which three are exposed. Dholavira had massive reservoirs. They were used for storing the freshwater brought by rains or to store the water diverted from two nearby rivulets. This clearly came in wake of the desert climate and conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall.[unquote]

https://historum.com/threads/greatest-ancient-hydraulic-engineers.91466/page-3

"Major human settlements could initially develop only where fresh surface water was plentiful, such as near rivers or natural springs. Throughout history, people have devised systems to make getting water into their communities and households and disposing (and later also treating) wastewater more convenient."
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation)

[quote] Saifullah Khan, Sanitation and wastewater technologies in Harappa/Indus valley civilization (ca. 2600-1900 BCE):

Archaeologists have found evidence in the highlands of agriculture and domesticated sheep and goats dating to about 7000 BCE. By ca .3200 BCE people were farming in villages along the Indus River (Smith, M.L., 2006, The archaeology of South Asian cities, J. Archaeol. Res. 14, 97-142)… One of the most remarkable achievements of the Indus Valley people was their sophisticated city planning. The cities of the early Mesopotamians were a jumble of

buildings connected by a maze ofwinding streets. In contrast, the people of the Indus laid out their cities on a precise grid system. Cities featured a fortified area called a citadel, which contained the major buildings of the city. Buildings were constructed of oven baked bricks cut in standard sizes, unlike the simpler, irregular, sun-dried mud bricks of the Mesopotamians. Early engineers also created sophisticated plumbing and sewage systems. These systems could rival any urban drainage systems built before the 19th century…So far as the origin of the word Indus is concerned, Scholars are of the opinion that thename "Indus" is the origin of the word "Hindu." The original Indian name of the river is Sindhu. Theancient Iranians had difficulty in pronouncing an initial sibilant "s" and changed it to an aspirate sound "h",hence, "H-indu" instead of "S-indhu." The Greeks referred to the river as the "Indos," and the later Arabsreferred to it as "al-Hind." Eventually the name came to be applied to the people of the subcontinent,namely, the "Hindi," the "Hindus" and the "Indians". (Kosambi, D.D., 1964, The culture and civilization of Ancient India in Historial Outline, House 803, Poona 4, India, p.188).

[quote]2.4.7 Public Toilets

In each society from time to time the administration felt the need to provide public toilet facilitiesto those who could not afford to have individual toilets. The public toilets have a long history in number ofcountries and most of these were constructed and managed by municipalities. But there was all arounddisgust with their poor maintenance, vandalism and lack of basic facilities (Pathak, 1995). In the absence of proper toilet facilities, people perforce had to defecate and urinate wherever they could. Defecating on theroad, open spaces, or just easing themselves in the river was very common (Figures 2.13 and 2.14).The third millennium BC was the "Age of Cleanliness." Toilets and sewers were invented inseveral parts of the world, and Moen-Jo-Daro ca . 2800 BC had some of the most advanced, with lavatories built into the outer walls of houses. These were primitive "Western-style" toilets made from bricks withwooden seats on top. They had vertical chutes, through which waste fell into street drains or cesspits (Pathak, 1995).Figure 2.13 Public toilets, Open toilet and house hold toilet in Indus Valley Civilization, (Kenoyer,1998) The toilets at Moen-Jo-Daro, built about 2600 BC, were only used by the affluent classes. Most people would have squatted over old pots set into the ground or used open pits (Figure 2.14). The people ofthe Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and north-western India had primitive water-cleaning toilets thatused flowing water in each house that were linked with drains covered with burnt clay bricks. The flowingwater removed the human wastes (Hooper, 2011).Toilets would have been an essential feature in Moen-Jo-Daro, but the early excavators identifiedmost toilets as post-cremation burial urns or sump pots. This brick structure had a hole in the top that wasconnected to a small drain leading out of the base into a rectangular basin (not reconstructed). Earlyexcavators suggested that structure with a hole and drain located are thought to have been toilets (Figure2.14). For the human urinate, they may have used a hole in the ground at open places that connected to near by drain. The toilets of Indus Valley Civilization were different than the Roman and Greek Civilizations.This difference is the main evidence of the cultural difference between them (Hooper, 2011). The figure3.13 reveals that the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan has the concept of toilet and latrine and a wellestablished waste system at that time.

2.4.8 Dockyard at Lothal The dominant sight at Lothal is the massive dockyard which has helped make this place soimportant to international archaeology. Spanning an area 37 meters from east to west and nearly 22 metersfrom north to south, the dock is said by some to be the greatest work of maritime architecture before the birth of Christ (Mulchandani and Shukla, 2010). To be sure, not all archaeologists are convinced that thestructure was used as a dockyard and some prefer to refer to it as a large tank that may have been areservoir (Figure 2.9).It was excavated besides the river Sabarmati, which has since changed course. The structure'sdesign shows a thorough study of tides, hydraulics and the effect of sea water on bricks. Ships could haveentered into the northern end of the dock through an inlet channel connected to an estuary of the Sabramatiduring high tide. The lock gates could then have been closed so the water level would rise sufficiently forthem to float (Figure 2.9).An inlet channel 1.7 meters above the bottom level of the 4.26 meter deep tank allowed excesswater to escape. Other inlets prevented siltation of the tanks and erosion of the banks. After a ship wouldhave unloaded its cargo, the gates would have opened and allowed it to return to the Arabian sea waters inthe Gulf of Combay (Mulchandani and Shukla, 2010).Archaeological finds from the excavations testify to trade with ancient Egypt and Mespotamia.The hydraulic knowledge of the ancient Harappans can be judged by the fact that boats could dock atLothal in the 1850's. In 1942 timber was brought from Baruch to nearby Sagarwala. It is said that then thedockyard could hold 30 ships of 60 tons each or 60 ships of 30 tons each. This would be comparable to themodern docks at Vishakapatnam (Mulchandani and Shukla, 2010).A long wharf connected the dockyard to the main warehouse, which was located on a plinth some3.5 meters above the ground. The first concern of the Harappan engineers might have been to ensureagainst floods and tides (which may have been their undoing at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa).

2.5 CONCLUSION

By about 1700 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization was on the verge of decline. The causes of its declineare not certain. The physical existence of the civilization ended due to various factors as given below.(a)

Ecological changes led to the decline of land and agriculture, thereby enforcing the need toevacuate to other areas might have been the reason for the disintegration of the Indus valleycivilization. Shifts in the monsoon pattern and changes in temperature led to the area becomeeven more arid (Carr, 2012).(b)

Increase in population, excessive deforestation, decline in agriculture might have createdeconomic problems leading to the gradual decay of the culture. The marked decline in the quality

The changes in the Indus flow and correspondent widespread flooding would have disrupted theagricultural base and destroyed the civilization.(d)

The invasion of the Aryans is the other view that is said to be another reason which might havealso led to the decline of the Indus valley. Thus ended the most brilliant civilization of the ancientworld.(e)

Hypothesis is made here that the destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization is the result of anearthquake caused by the plate tectonic moment of the Indian plate. This earthquake was causedat night time when most of the people were asleep. The dead bodies that buried in the Harappaand Moen-Jo-Daro sites are the evidences of the earthquake disaster as most of them lay properlyalong with juvenile. The people who were safe and a live shifted to other areas and constructednew sites for survival. However, this needs further research to study the evidence of earthquakedisaster that destroyed the Indus valley civilization.The first basic concept embodied in the Indus civilization was the belief that no one individual hadthe right to usurp the wealth and resources of the land and use them for his or his family's benefit. Thewealth of the cities was distributed among all segments of the society. There were rich people and poor people, but the executive hold of one individual or family on the wealth of the cities is nowhere found.The second basic concept ingrained in the Indus civilization is the separation of the clergy from thestate administration. Religion was a very important part of the spiritual, social and cultural life of the Indus people. The role of the priests was to provide spiritual comfort and to promote cleanliness and purity ofthought and actions. There is no evidence to suggest that they craved for power or to indicate their involvement in the affairs pertaining to state administration.The third basic concept, which characterized the Indus valley civilization, was that of unified culture and decentralized form of government. The Indus civilization was spread far and wide over widely different regions and terrain, yet these regions were knit together by common bonds of religion and culture. The design of the artifacts and the layout of the towns were all very similar. All this uniformity was achieved without the direct interference of the central regime in the administration of the city states. The fourth concept which characterized the Indus civilization was that of well planned drainage,sanitation system, dockyards, and hydraulic engineering. The houses had their own wells, bathroom and toilet.

Almost every house had a bathroom, usually a fine sawn burnt brick pavement, often with asurrounding curb. The house drains start from the bathrooms of the houses and join up to the main sewer inthe street.The proud people of Indus were docile, peace loving and accommodative. The Indus persondemonstrated tolerance and broadmindedness. Our quest to search for our identity has taken us to the landof Mighty Indus. There is absolutely no doubt that the Pakistani are the people of the forgotten Induscivilization, who were docile, peace loving, accommodative, moderate and open minded, traits that we havelost. It is time to rediscover and restore Pakistan as a liberal, progressive, modern Muslim state with itsrightful place into the community of nations.[unquote]

https://www.academia.edu/5937322/Chapter_2_Sanitation_and_wastewater_technologies_in_Harappa_Indus_valley_civilization_ca._26001900_BC Mirror: https://www.scribd.com/document/335936547/Chapter-2-Sanitation-and-wastewater-tech-pdf

References:

Nambiar, A. (2006) Indus Valley - How They Managed Their Water Resources,

Water Management in the Ancient Indus Valley, online,http://voices.yahoo.com/indus-valley-they-managed-their-water-resources-82580.html.

Pathak, B., 1995, The history of toilets, Intl. symposium on public toielts,Hongkong. http://www.plumbingsupply.com/toilethistoryindia.html

Violett, P.L. 2007. Water Engineering in Ancient Civilizations: 5,000 Years of History, (Translation into English by Forrest M. Holly), International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research (IAHR),Madrid.

http://www.amazon.com/Water-Engineering-Ancient-Civilizations-Monographs/dp/9078046058

Water-well at Lothal. In Lothal all houses had their own private toilet which was connected to a covered sewer network constructed of brickwork held together with a gypsum-based mortar that emptied either into the surrounding water bodies or alternatively into cesspits, the latter of which were regularly emptied and cleaned.

Mohenjo-daro, located in Sindh, Pakistan is one of the best excavated and studied settlements from this civilization. The Great Bathmight be the first of its kind in the pre-historic period. This ancient town had more than 700 wells, and most houses in Mohenjo-Daro had at least one private well.(Singh, Upinder (2008). A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century. New Delhi: Pearson Education. pp. 151–155.)

"The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi of Indus Valley civilization. This urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Devices such as shadoofs and sakias were used to lift water to ground level. Ruins from the Indus Valley Civilization like Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan and Dholavira in Gujarat in India had settlements with some of the ancient world's most sophisticated sewage systems. They included drainage channels, rainwater harvesting, and street ducts...With a number of courtyard houses having both a washing platform and a dedicated toilet / waste disposal hole. The toilet holes would be flushed by emptying jar of water, drawn from the house's central well, through a clay brick pipe and into a shared brick drain, that would feed into an adjacent soakpit (cesspit). The soakpits would be periodically emptied of their solid matter, possibly to be used as fertilizer. Most houses also had private wells. City wallsfunctioned as a barrier against floods. The urban areas of the Indus Valley provided public and private baths, sewage was disposed through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and a sophisticated water management system with numerous reservoirs was established. In the drainage systems, drains from houses were connected to wider public drains...he ancient Indus Valley Civilization of South Asia, including current day Pakistan and Northwest India, was prominent in hydraulic engineering, and had many water supply and sanitation devices that were the first of their kind. The urban areas of the Indus Valley civilization included public and private baths. Sewage was disposed through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and a sophisticated water management system with numerous reservoirs was established. In the drainage systems, drains from houses were connected to wider public drains. Many of the buildings at Mohenjo-daro had two or more stories. Water from the roof and upper storey bathrooms was carried through enclosed terracotta pipes or open chutes that emptied out onto the street drains. (Rodda, J. C. and Ubertini, Lucio, 2004, The Basis of Civilization - Water Science, p 161. International Association of Hydrological Sciences, International Association of Hydrological Sciences Press)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation

https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/aa.1961.63.2.02a00020 The prehistoric climate of Baluchisthan and the Indus Valley by Robert L.Raikes (1961)

↧

Does New Genetic Evidence Prove Aryan Invasion Theory? Not Quite. -- Shrikant Talageri. Tocharian ancu is cognate amśu (Veda) -- Kalyanaraman

March 11, 2019, 3:13 am

≫ Next: aṃśu = upāṃśu a Soma libation, offering = dhanamjaya 'wealth acquiring' cognate ancu 'iron' (Tocharian)

≪ Previous: Itihāsa 4th m. BCE Gabarband water management, drainage and sanitation systems of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization

https://tinyurl.com/y4l8nbzs

As always, a lucid account by Shrikant Talageri ji. Let me add a note on the Harappan language as seen from Indus Script hypertexts/hieroglyphs.

On the issue of Harappan language (which is evidenced by over 8000 Indus Script inscriptions from ca. 3300 BCE -- Harappa to 1400 BCE -- Daimabad), including about 2000 inscriptions from Persian Gulf sites, one insight by Geoerges Pinault has to be noted. See http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/10/itihasa-and-eagle-narratives.html Georges-Jean Pinault has done remarkable work in pinning down Tocharian as an IE language. George Pinault has reported one concordant etymon from Tocharian and Vedic: ancu in Tocharian and amśu in Vedic. It is a fundamental proposition since amśu or its synonym soma is central to the entire Veda corpora. See also: Gerd Carling, Georges-Jean Pinault, Werner Winter, 2008, Dictionary and thesaurus of Tocharian A,Volume 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. Georges-Jean Pinault, 2006, Further links between the Indo-Iranian substratum and the BMAC language in: Bertil Tikkanen & Heinrich Hettrich, eds., 2006, Themes and tasks in old and middle Indo-Aryan linguistics, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 167 to 196. "...we have Toch. A. *ancu 'iron', the basis of the derived adjective ancwaashi 'made of iron', to which corresponds Toch. B encuwo, with the parallel derived adjective encuwanne 'made of iron'...The two forms go back to CToch. oencuwoen- non.sg. *oencuwo, the final part of which is a regular product of IE *-on...This noun is deprived of any convincing IE etymology...The term Ved. ams'u-, Av . asu- goes back to a noun borrowed from some donor language of Central Asia, as confirmed by CToch. *oencuwoen-...the BMAC language would not belong to the Indo-European family; it does not seem to be related to Dravidian either...New identifications and reconstructions will certainly help to define more precisely the contours of the BMAC vocabulary in Indo-Iranian, as well as in Tocharian."(p.192)]

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/09/central-asian-seals-seal-impressions.html

Pinault parallels amśu of Rigveda with añcu of Tocharian. In Tocharian it means 'iron'. Tocharin language as an Indo-European language has revealed a word anzu in Tocharian which meant 'iron'. It is likely that this is the word used for soma in Rigveda. I have posted about this in the context of identification (discussed in this blog) of Muztagh Ata of Kyrgystan as Mt. Mujavat (mentioned as a source of soma in Rigveda). It is notable that in Mesopotamian legend of Ninurta, god of war and agricultural fertility hunts on the mountains, Anzu which is the lion-headed Eagle with the power of the stolen Tablet of Destinies. The 'eagle' is identified as śyena in Rigveda and Avesta (saena meregh) as the falcon which brought the nectar, Soma. It is likely that soma as electrum (silver-gold ore) was bought from the traders who brought anzu from Mt. Mujavat.

http://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/an/web-large/1982.5.jpg

Shaft-hole axhead with a double-headed eagle ligatured to a human body, boar,and winged tiger, late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BCE Central Asia (Bactria-Margiana) Silver, gold foil; 5 7/8 in. (15 cm) “Western Central Asia, now known as Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and northern Afghanistan, has yielded objects attesting to a highly developed civilization in the late third and early second millennium B.C. Artifacts from the region indicate that there were contacts with Iran to the southwest. Tools and weapons, especially axes, comprise a large portion of the metal objects from this region. This shaft-hole axhead is a masterpiece of three-dimensional and relief sculpture. Expertly cast in silver and gilded with gold foil, it depicts a bird-headed hero grappling with a wild boar and a winged dragon. The idea of the heroic bird-headed creature probably came from western Iran, where it is first documented on a cylinder seal impression. The hero's muscular body is human except for the bird talons that replace the hands and feet. He is represented twice, once on each side of the ax, and consequently appears to have two heads. On one side, he grasps the boar by the belly and on the other, by the tusks. The posture of the boar is contorted so that its bristly back forms the shape of the blade. With his other talon, the bird-headed hero grasps the winged dragon by the neck. The dragon, probably originating in Mesopotamia or Iran, is represented with folded wings, a feline body, and the talons of a bird of prey.”

Double-headed eagle, श्येन  sēṇa, signify آهنګر āhan gar, 'blacksmith', maker of asaṇi, vajrāśani thunderbolt weapon, manager of kiln. On this artifact, eagle, the pair of eagle-heads signify dula 'pair' rebus: dul'metal casting'. Thus,metal casting blacksmith.
The winged tiger: kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron'kolhe 'smelter' PLUS kambha 'wing' rebus: kammata 'mint'. baḍhia 'a castrated boar, a hog'(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant'
barea  'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant. Thus, the hypertexts on the silver gold foil shaft-hole axe constitute metalwork catalogues.

baḍhia 'a castrated boar, a hog'(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea  'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant (Hemacandra Desinamamamala).
bārakaśa 'seafaring vessel'. Shaft-hole axhead with a double-headed eagle ligatured to a human body, boar,and winged tiger, late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BCE Central Asia (Bactria-Margiana) Silver, gold foil; 5 7/8 in. (15 cm) “Western Central Asia, now known as Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and northern Afghanistan, has yielded objects attesting to a highly developed civilization in the late third and early second millennium B.C. Artifacts from the region indicate that there were contacts with Iran to the southwest. Tools and weapons, especially axes, comprise a large portion of the metal objects from this region. This shaft-hole axhead is a masterpiece of three-dimensional and relief sculpture. Expertly cast in silver and gilded with gold foil, it depicts a bird-headed hero grappling with a wild boar and a winged dragon. The idea of the heroic bird-headed creature probably came from western Iran, where it is first documented on a cylinder seal impression. The hero's muscular body is human except for the bird talons that replace the hands and feet. He is represented twice, once on each side of the ax, and consequently appears to have two heads. On one side, he grasps the boar by the belly and on the other, by the tusks. The posture of the boar is contorted so that its bristly back forms the shape of the blade. With his other talon, the bird-headed hero grasps the winged dragon by the neck. The dragon, probably originating in Mesopotamia or Iran, is represented with folded wings, a feline body, and the talons of a bird of prey.”

Double-headed eagle, श्येन  sēṇa, signify آهنګر āhan gar, 'blacksmith', maker of asaṇi, vajrāśani thunderbolt weapon, manager of kiln. On this artifact, eagle, the pair of eagle-heads signify dula 'pair' rebus: dul'metal casting'. Thus,metal casting blacksmith.
The winged tiger: kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron'kolhe 'smelter' PLUS kambha 'wing' rebus: kammata 'mint'. baḍhia 'a castrated boar, a hog'(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant'
barea  'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant. Thus, the hypertexts on the silver gold foil shaft-hole axe constitute metalwork catalogues.

baḍhia 'a castrated boar, a hog'(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea  'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant (Hemacandra Desinamamamala).
bārakaśa 'seafaring vessel'.

Gold sheet and silver, Late 3rd/early 2nd millennium B.C.E.
L. 12.68 cm. Ceremonial Axe Baktria,Northern Afghanistan http://www.lessingimages.com/search.asp?a=L&lc=202020207EE6&ln=Collection+George+Ortiz%2C+Geneva%2C+Switzerland&p=1

"The whole cast by the lost wax process. The boar covered with a sheet of gold annealed and hammered on, some 3/10-6/10 mm in thickness, almost all the joins covered up with silver. At the base of the mane between the shoulders an oval motif with irregular indents. The lion and the boar hammered, elaborately chased and polished. A shaft opening - 22 holes around its edge laced with gold wire some 7/10-8/10 mm in diameter - centred under the lion's shoulder; between these a hole (diam: some 6.5 mm) front and back for insertion of a dowel to hold the shaft in place, both now missing. Condition: a flattening blow to the boar's backside where the tail curled out and another to the hair between the front of his ears, his spine worn with traces of slight hatching still visible, a slight flattening and wear to his left tusk and lower left hind leg. A flattening and wear to the left side of the lion's face, ear, cheek, eye, nose and jaw and a flattening blow to the whole right forepaw and paw. Nicks to the lion's tail. The surface with traces of silver chloride under the lion's stomach and around the shaft opening." https://www.flickr.com/photos/antiquitiesproject/4616778973

Shaft-hole axe head with bird-headed demon, boar, and dragon; Met Museum. Silver, gold foil; 15 cm. long; accession no. 1982.5 Cast axe-head; tin bronze inlaid with silver; shows a boar attacking a tiger which is attacking an ibex. British Museum No.123268.
Hieroglyph: kola 'tiger,jackal'(Konkani.) Kol. keḍiak tiger. Nk. khaṛeyak panther. Go. (A.) khaṛyal tiger; (Haig) kariyāl panther (Voc. 999). Kui kṛāḍi, krānḍi tiger, leopard, hyena. Kuwi (F.) kṛani tiger; (S.) klā'ni tiger, leopard; (Su. P. Isr.) kṛaˀni (pl. -ŋa)tiger. / Cf. Pkt. (DNM) karaḍa- id. (DEDR 1132) kul 'tiger' (Santali)

Rebus: Working in iron: kolhe 'smelter' kol 'working in iron' kolle 'blacksmith'. Ta. kor̤u bar of metal, ploughshare. Ma. kor̤u ploughshare. Ko. kov iron point of plough. To. ku· ploughshare (< Badaga g&udieresisside;
Language 15.47; the word occurs only in one passage and the meaning is arrived at by etymology). Ka. kur̤a, kur̤u, gur̤a, gur̤u ploughshare, iron used in cauterizing. Tu. koru a bar of metal. (DEDR 2147) Ta. kol working in iron, blacksmith; kollaṉ
blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. kole·l smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwala·l Kota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulmefire-pit, furnace; (Bell.; U.P.U.) konimi blacksmith(Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollë blacksmith. Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares);(SR.) kolmi smithy (Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge.(DEDR 2133)

Male Nubian ibex (Capra ibex). Markhor (Capra falconeri) Punjabi. mẽḍhā m. 'markhor'.(CDIAL 10310) miṇḍʻramʼ, miṇḍāˊʻmarkhorʼ(Tor.) Rebus: mẽḍh 'iron' (Mu.) meḍ (Ho.); mẽṛhet
'iron' (Munda.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages) PLUS kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' PLUS See:

YajñaVarāha, Indus Script hypertexts baḍhia, barāha, rebus baḍhi, bāṛaï' worker in wood and iron’ https://tinyurl.com/y9y2ubaw Khajuraho.Eran.

Varāha pratimā itself constitutes a temple. On the snout, चषालः caṣāla Varāha's snout, is shown Devi Sarasvatī; closeby is bhūĩ 'earth' as bhudevi Rebus: bhũ 'wheat chaff' as annam in smelting to obtain अमृत, 'Soma juice', performing Vajapeya Soma Yaga. चषालः caṣāla is wheat-chaff ring atop the Yupa Skambha to infuse carbon element into the molten metal of the fire-altar, furnace, to harden the ayas, alloymetal.

Devi Sarasvatī on the snout or standing on the tongue of Varāha pratimā, Khajuraho and Eran. Vākdevi, speech divinity.

Kalyanaraman

Does New Genetic Evidence Prove Aryan Invasion Theory? Not Quite.

by Shrikant Talageri

- Mar 03, 2019, 6:38 pm

Snapshot

Who were the ‘early Indians’? The evidence is clear, and between the Aryan Invasion and the Out-of-India theories, it overwhelmingly favours the latter.

A new book, by former business journalist Tony Joseph, claims to have full and final answers to the following questions: “Who were the Harappans?” “Did the Aryans migrate to India?” and “When did the caste system begin?”

The book, titled Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where They Came From, is clearly yet another attempt to establish the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) as rock-solid, despite non-existent archaeological evidence to support the theory, this time using genetic evidence to back it.

European and American Indologists over the last two centuries have remained wedded to the AIT hypothesis, even though a rival Out-of-India Theory (OIT) spread of Indo-European languages and cultures, has emerged as a reasonably coherent challenger.

Genetics, the new super-science, is irrelevant to this argument. The problem with trying to prove the movement of Indo-Aryan language and culture through the mapping of haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA is seriously flawed for the simple reason that the two can move independently of each other.

While genetic studies of populations across geographies and time periods can be effective in mapping the different ancestral strands in the DNA of individuals and communities, it cannot show the origin and movements of cultural features like languages, belief-systems, etc.

For example, the English and Spanish spread out from Europe to the Americas: yet, can we conclusively trace this on the basis of the Indo-European haplogroups found in the DNA of exclusively English and Spanish-speaking people of Native American and African origin in the Americas? Buddhism spread from India to the whole of northern, eastern, south-eastern and (in ancient times) even to western Asia.

Can this be traced through the spread of ‘Buddhist’ haplogroups found all over Asia and particularly in the Buddhist countries? Chess (chaturang) spread out from India and became the national game of every Asian country, from Mongolia (shatara) in the north to Vietnam (chhoeu trang) in the east to Arabia (shatranj) in the west: can this be traced through the spread of ‘chess’ haplogroups?

The debate has acquired absurd proportions, reaching a stalemate with both sides sticking to their own arguments, although with the OIT side (see my books and articles) answering every AIT argument, and the AIT side declining to even try to counter the formidable OIT evidence.

Joseph tries to wade into the argument with the presumption that he has all the evidence to settle the debate in favour of AIT once and for all. But before we move to demolish his arguments, it is worth noting what is good about the book. It contains (1) an interesting account of cosmology and biology (pp 1-6); (2) an interesting account of pre-historic human anthropology and genetics (pp 13-60); and (3) an interesting account of the history of agriculture (pp 61-97).

These are good introductions to the subjects concerned. We also have an interesting and very well-written general description of the pre-Harappan and Harappan civilisations (pp 99-132). This includes interesting information about Harappan influence on the Mesopotamian civilisation as exemplified by the depiction of Indian water-buffaloes in the seals of Akkadia.

Joseph also raises a simple point about how the earliest Indian civilisation should be called. He, not unreasonably, settles for the term Harappan civilisation, naming it after the first city that was discovered by archaeologists and historians. He fairly rejects the terms Indus Valley and Indus-Saraswati Civilisation, for the geography of the early Indians went beyond these areas.

But his questionable claims begin fairly early in the book. The crux of the book is stated in the prelude, in which Joseph provides a “A Short Chronology of the Modern Human in Indian Prehistory (pp xi-xiv)”, and the relevant entry in this chronology is the period “2000-1000 BCE” where “Multiple waves of Steppe pastoralist migrants from central Asia (moved) into south Asia, bringing Indo-European languages and new religious and cultural practices” (pp xiv).

The entire story of “our ancestors and where they came from”, for which our Tony wants to provide answers, lies between these dates. The identity (identities) of these migrants between 2000-1000 BCE will give us final answers on the three posers the author provides on the book’s cover: who the Harappans were, whether the Aryans migrated to India, and when caste came to be established.

Joseph’s work can be examined by asking the following questions and examining related issues: one, were the Harappans Dravidian-language speakers?

Two, why is the period 2000-1000 BCE so significant and important?

Three, does the ‘genetic evidence’ tell us that Indo-European language speakers migrated into India from Central Asia?

Four, what secrets do the Old and New Rigveda reveal about the AIT/OIT debate?

Five, what is the real chronological evidence available to us, especially regarding the chronology and geography of the Rigveda?

Six, does the genetic evidence prove the AIT or negate the OIT?

Seven, when did the caste system begin?

Eight, what is the real story of the Saraswati river?

Nine, what does the story of the ‘horse’ in ancient India tell us? We will just touch on some of these issues in this article. A more detailed and comprehensive examination of all the points made in Joseph’s book will be separately published.

The author, after pointing out that the language of the Harappans has not yet been deciphered, still chooses to assert at various points that “historians and archaeologists have so far overwhelmingly backed the idea that the language underlying the Harappan script was Proto-Dravidian”. If a script is not deciphered, to come to this kind of conclusion is preposterous.

Any honest speculation, in the absence of concrete historical evidence indicating otherwise, would assume the language to be the same as, or some earlier form of, the languages found in the area. If strange inscriptions in a new, unknown and yet-to-be-deciphered script, scientifically dated to 1000 BCE, were to be found in some part of Canada, no-one would assume the language to be English or French because we know as a matter of recorded historical fact that English and French arrived in Canada many centuries later.

But if strange inscriptions in a new, unknown and yet-to-be-deciphered script, scientifically dated 5000 BCE, were to be found in some part of Tamil Nadu, China or Saudi Arabia, then any natural assumption, in the absence of concrete historical evidence indicating otherwise, would be that the language couched in the script would be Dravidian, Sinitic or Semitic respectively.

In the case of the area of the Harappan civilisation, there is no historical record of any language other than Indo-Iranian languages ever being spoken that were native to the entire area in the whole of traditional memory and historical record. Further, the Rigveda, the oldest Indo-Aryan text, in the same geographical area, is dated by Western academic scholarly consensus to 1200 BCE at the very latest in a pre-Iron Age era.

So, any kind of evidence for the Harappan language not being Indo-European is non-existent, and any kind of evidence for it being Dravidian is even more non-existent (if one could say such a thing). In these circumstances, only a political-agenda driven motive could produce a conclusion that the Harappans spoke a (Proto)-Dravidian language.

Next, the date 2000-1000 BCE for the ‘Aryan migrations’ into India is the heart and crux of the whole book, and of the whole debate.

It is necessary to understand exactly why this is so. The whole question of ‘Aryans’ or Indo-Europeans and their migrations arose from the discovery that the languages of northern India and Europe, and many areas in between, are related to each other as members of one ‘language-family’ — and the homeland of this common language predecessor is named as the Steppes of southern Russia.

The linguistic evidence suggests that the 12 different, early Indo-European languages (Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Albanian, Greek, Anatolian, Armenian, Iranian, Tocharian and Indo-Aryan) started separating from each other from the end of the fourth or the beginning of the third millennium (ie around 3000 BCE).

The first to separate was Anatolian (long extinct), while the last five that remained in the ‘homeland’ were Albanian, Hellenic (Greek), Armenian, Iranian and Indo-Aryan, which stayed contiguous and developed new linguistic features. Therefore, if South Russia is the homeland, the Indo-Aryan migrations from there have to have started out long after 3000 BCE.

The Indo-Aryans would have moved in small groups first to central Asia, before finally moving into north-west India to the region, where the Harappan civilisation existed. But historians now mostly agree that the Aryans did not descend on India in any sudden movement right into the heart of Harappan civilisation. Nothing cataclysmic happened in Harappan areas between 4500 BCE and 500 BCE.

On the other hand, scriptural evidence from the Rigveda displays no evidence of a people with any memories of external origins or of any knowledge of areas outside the closest border areas of south-east Afghanistan.

It does not refer to a single name, of friend or foe, in the entire text, or a single other entity of any kind, which can be classified as linguistically Dravidian. The place-names, and even more significantly, the river-names in the entire area, as given in the Rigveda, do not contain a single case, which any linguist can even speculatively classify as Dravidian, even at a point of time between 1400 BCE and 1000 BCE, even as per Joseph’s date for the Rigveda.

This is surprising, since in most civilisations, rivers tend to retain their historic names, even if their areas have been subsequently occupied by new people. In the Vedic period, all river names are derived from Sanskrit or its daughter languages, and nothing remotely pre-Vedic. In short, the entire area seems to be purely Indo-Aryan in the Rigveda itself.

Now this state of affairs would be absolutely impossible in an area of a supposedly Dravidian (or any other non-Indo-European) occupation within a very short period of time after the first Indo-Aryans started ‘trickling in’ after 2000 BCE, without very violent and cataclysmic events taking place. But archaeologists have ruled out any such cataclysmic events.

After the subject of Indo-European language origins and spread sparked a major debate somewhere after 1990, and the weight of evidence in all these three academic disciplines (linguistic, archaeological, textual) shifted completely on the side of the Indian homeland theory and OIT, the AIT lobby in the academic world has literally run away from the debate. The debate has thus been shifted to a new and totally irrelevant field: genetics. But, as we have already noted, genetics does not do anything to prove the linguistic and cultural basis for the AIT.

This brings us to the internal evidence of the Rigveda, which provides a more plausible chronology, and which is supportive of the OIT. The Rigveda is one text with 10 books, but there are really two texts. For the purpose of this article, we will describe them as the Old Rigveda and the New Rigveda. Books 2-7 can be called the ‘family’ books, while books 1, 8, 9 and 10 are ‘non-family’.

The family books are distinguished from the non-family books in two main ways: a) Each family book generally belongs to one family (out of a total of 10 families) of composers, while the non-family books are more mixed and general; and, b) The hymns in the family books are arranged in a specific order: first according to deity (first Agni, then Indra, etc), then within each deity, according to a decreasing number of verses in the hymns (eg 13, 11, 9, 8, etc), then within the same number of verses, according to the metre. The non-family books, however, do not follow this pattern.

But Book 5, though a family book, shares all its other characteristics with the later non-family books rather than with the earlier family books. So, the real old books are 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7, while No 5 can be reckoned with the New Rigveda.

Scholars have also identified some hymns in each of the old books 2-4 and 6-7, which were redacted (modified) or interpolated later, at the time of addition of the new books 1 and 8. These may be called the Redacted Hymns. These consist mainly of old hymns, which were not included in the original books, and therefore underwent changes and modifications. They were inserted into the old books at the time of addition to the Rigveda of the new books 1 and 8. These hymns were inserted in-between the earlier hymns in violation of the pattern of arrangement in the old books.

Thus, we have practically two distinct chronological parts of the Rigveda: (1) An Old Rigveda (Books 2-4, 6-7, minus the Redacted Hymns) with 280 hymns and 2,351 verses; and (2) A New Rigveda (books 1, 5, 8-10) with 686 hymns and 7,311 verses; and (3) The Redacted Hymns (with 62 hymns and 890 verses) form a late appendix to the Old Rigveda — a kind of grey area between the two (Old and New) epochs.

The Old Rigveda and the New Rigveda are very distinct from each other in their characteristics. The primary distinction for Western linguists and Indologists is linguistic: the language of the Old Rigveda is of an older era and harks back to the Proto-Indo-European stage, sharing characteristics and linguistic features (particularly the vocabulary) with the most geographically distant Indo-European (IE) branches.

The language of the New Rigveda shows new innovations (especially, but not only, in vocabulary), sometimes found inserted into the Redacted Hymns, showing the transition to the language of the post-Rigvedic period and later Sanskrit. An example is the word for ‘night’. The Vedic nakt is found in all the other IE languages — the Avestan naxt, German nacht, modern Greek nukhta, Latin nocte, Old Russian noshti, Old Irish nnocht, Albanian nate, Lithuanian naktis, Tocharian nakt, and Hittite nekuz.

A new word, ratri, not found in any other IE branch, appears only in the New Rigveda and in a late redacted hymn in Book 7. Later, this word, ratri, is found hundreds of times in the Atharvaveda (and scores of times even in the Yajurveda) and is the common word in all later Vedic texts, in classical Sanskrit, and in all later and modern Indo-Aryan languages and in other non-Indo-European languages, which have borrowed it from Sanskrit, while the original word nakt is almost unknown.

This division by Western academicians of the Rigveda into an old part and a new part is confirmed by every other criterion:

(1) The composers of the Old Rigveda are ancestral rishis, the composers of the New Rigveda are descendant rishis.

(2) The New Rigveda contains references to ancestral composer rishis of the Old Rigveda and kings contemporaneous to the Old Rigveda, but the same is not the case vice versa.

(3) In the Old Rigveda hymns are composed by descendant rishis in the name of their ancestor rishis, but in the New Rigveda, hymns are generally composed by rishis in their own names. There are other differences, but we shall not elaborate them here.

Now we come to the real chronological evidence. Indian historiography owes a very great historical debt to two entities: To Emperor Ashoka, who left us the first decipherable and datable inscriptional data in Indo-Aryan languages within India in the third century BCE: the Ashoka pillars and inscriptions. Because of this Indo-Aryan language inscriptional data, it is impossible for anyone to claim any kind of evidence to show that the Indo-Aryan languages entered India from Central Asia in 200 BCE.

A second debt is owed to the Mitanni kingdom of Syria-Iraq in West Asia, which left us the first decipherable and datable inscriptional data in Indo-Aryan languages outside India in the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries BCE.

Because of this Indo-Aryan language inscriptional data, it is impossible for anyone to claim any kind of evidence to show that Indo-Aryan languages entered India from Central Asia in 2000 BCE or indeed in any historical period before that.

Because of this Indo-Aryan language inscriptional data, the genetics-based case made out by Joseph’s “92 scientists from around the world”, which places the alleged immigration of certain people from Central Asia into South Asia during the course of “the second millennium BCE (2000 BCE to 1000 BCE)”, seems totally untenable.

What is this data? But first, who were the Mitanni? They were the ruling class or clan of the ‘Mitanni kingdom’, a kingdom which flourished in Syria-Iraq around 1500 BCE onwards for two centuries. In the early twentieth century, plenty of inscriptional material on these Mitanni kings was discovered and analysed, which showed that the Mitanni kings were of Indo-Aryan stock.

Were the inhabitants of the Mitanni kingdom Indo-Aryan-speaking people? On the contrary, they spoke a non-Indo-European language, Hurrian or Hurrite, and the Indo-Aryan data comes from the names and writings of the ruling clan, who were obviously descendants of Vedic Indo-Aryan-speaking or Vedic Aryan-influenced ancestors.

The Indo-Aryan identity of the long-known Mitanni kings was discovered only in the early twentieth century after the decipherment and detailed study of documents and inscriptions in West Asia. The discovery sent the Indological scholarly world into a tizzy: just how was one to explain the presence of Vedic Indo-Aryan speakers in the heart of West Asia at the same time as they were reportedly entering India and before the Rigveda was allegedly composed, and which dates are now sought to be confirmed by genetic evidence?

The Indologists ‘solved’ this problem by declaring that the ‘early Indo-Aryan group’ whose presence in West Asia is so scientifically recorded and dated was a pre-Rigvedic group, which split from the other Indo-Aryans in Central Asia itself, and migrated westwards, so that the Vedic Indo-Aryans, who later composed the Rigveda were entering north-western India at around the same time as the pre-Mitanni Indo-Aryan group was entering West Asia.

This is the crux of the whole debate: are the common Indo-Aryan elements found in the Mitanni data and in the Rigveda ‘pre-Rigvedic’ elements? The Indologists, and the group of “92 scientists from around the world”, conveniently refused to cross-check the data and find out the facts.

However, we will check the data. The word loans in Mitanni, assuming they are part of the pre-Rigvedic era, ought to be found in the Old Rigveda. But this isn’t the case. They are found only in the New Rigveda and are completely absent in the Old Rigveda. Thus, the link of the Mitanni and the Avestan Iranians is with the New Rigveda, and not with the Old Rigveda.

What are the inexorable implications of this evidence for the dating of the Rigveda, on which hinges the entire case built by the genetic evidence.

Here it comes. The common culture shared by the Mitanni and the Rigveda (and the Avesta) is the culture of the New Rigveda. This common culture must obviously have developed in a common territory with the composers of the New Rigveda (and Avesta) before the ‘pre-Mitanni’ ancestors of the ruling clans of the Mitanni kingdom migrated to West Asia.

These pre-Mitanni ancestors of the ruling clans of the Mitanni kingdom migrated to West Asia either: a) from Central Asia (with a parallel migration by the composers of the New Rigveda from Central Asia to the Saptasindhu region of northern Pakistan, as maintained so far by the Indologists and linguists), or b) from the territory of the New Rigveda. And this territory of the New Rigveda, and indeed of the Rigveda as a whole, stretches out from Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh in the east to south-eastern Afghanistan in the west.

The first option is ruled out because the New Rigveda is a linear successor of the culture of the Old Rigveda. The common Vedic-Mitanni-Avestan culture of the New Rigveda (which continues into the other post-Rigvedic Vedic texts, the epics and the Puranas, and later Sanskrit texts) is a new culture completely missing in the Old Rigveda. And the Old Rigveda is also composed in a part of the same territory as the New Rigveda.

This means that the second option is the only possible option: the ‘pre-Mitanni’ ancestors of the ruling clans of the Mitanni kingdom migrated to West Asia from the region stretching out from Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh in the east to southern-eastern Afghanistan in the west.

But where was the Old Rigveda composed? The geographical data shows the composers of the Old Rigveda residing deep inside the eastern part of the Rigvedic territory, in Haryana and western-most Uttar Pradesh, with no knowledge of areas further north and west, and only just commencing their westward expansion (which is actually recorded in precise detail in the form of detailed descriptions of westward expansions of historical kings with names) towards Afghanistan, to occupy the entire Rigvedic area only by the period of the New Rigveda.

The only western geographical names found in the Old Rigveda (and also, of course, in the New Rigveda) are the names of three rivers: the Sindhu and two of its western tributaries, Rasa and Sarayu. All of them are found in only one of the five books of the Old Rigveda (Book 4) and are completely absent in the other four (books 6, 3, 7, 2). These three western river names appear in Book 4 as the last stage in the east-to-west expansion of the Vedic people (the Bharata Puru).

The oldest Book 6 refers only to the Saraswati (which is deified in three whole hymns), and to the rivers east of it: the long bushes on the banks of the Ganga figure in a simile, showing long acquaintance and easy familiarity with the topography and flora of the Ganga area.

The next Book 3 refers to the banks of the Jahnvi (Ganga) as the “ancient homeland” of the gods.

The next oldest Book 4 (but not yet the other old Book 2, whose riverine references are restricted only to the Saraswati) for the first time refers to the Indus (Sindhu) and its western tributaries (Sarayu and Rasa) in clear continuation of the earlier westward movement.

Note that all this is in the Old Rigveda, which precedes the culture of the New Rigveda, which was carried by the Mitanni into West Asia (before they established their kingdom in Syria-Iraq around 1500 BCE).This is the step-by-step factual position regarding the chronology and geography of the Rigveda.

So, clearly, if the “92 scientists from around the world” and their genetic data proves that that in 2000-1000 BCE there were “multiple waves of Steppe pastoralist migrants from central Asia into south Asia” and that they got mixed into the local populations, their DNA and haplogroups forming significant components of every single community in India, whatever else this may allegedly prove, it proves nothing about them “bringing Indo-European languages” to India.

These languages were already present deep inside northern India as far back as 3000 BCE with antecedents going back into the more remote past. These migrants, like all other migrants of later days, simply merged into the local population all over India, adopting the languages and religions (with perhaps some minor contributions of their own).

If Joseph and the AIT proponents want to argue against the OIT, they must contest the data and evidence pertaining to the chronology and geography of the Rigvda. This single factor alone demolishes theeir case beyond salvation.

A much more detailed examination of Joseph’s book, and of every single aspect of the case presented by him, will be published shortly in a monograph.

https://swarajyamag.com/magazine/ait-versus-oit-the-evidence-that-isnt

↧

aṃśu = upāṃśu a Soma libation, offering = dhanamjaya 'wealth acquiring' cognate ancu 'iron' (Tocharian)

March 11, 2019, 6:21 am

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This is an addendum to

Does New Genetic Evidence Prove Aryan Invasion Theory? Not Quite. -- Shrikant Talageri. Tocharian ancu is cognate amśu (Veda) -- Kalyanaraman
https://tinyurl.com/y4l8nbzs

अंशु N. of a ऋषि RV. viii , 5 , 26 Aśvin are adored for protecting Amśu when wealth was to be bestowed.

अंशु m. a filament (especially of the सोम plant); a kind of सोम libation (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa); a ray , sunbeam.

In Khela's battle, Vispala gets a leg of iron. I suggest that this alludes to amśu cognate ancu (Tocharian) which means 'iron'.

khela m. N. of a man RV. i , 116 , 15 (Monier-Williams)

(Griffith trans.) RV 1.116.15 When in the time of night, in Khelas' battle, a leg was severed like a wild birds' pinion,

Straight ye gave Vispala a leg of iron that she might move what time the conflict opened.

(Vedic Index) Dhanamjaya lit. means 'wealth-acquiring'.

Is this अंशु a synonym of Soma, a cognate of ancu'iron' (Tocharian)? aṃśuḥ अंशुः [अंश्-मृग˚ कु.] 1 A ray, beam of light; चण्ड˚, घर्मं˚ hot-rayed the sun; सूर्यांशुभिर्भिन्नमिवारविन्दम् Ku.1.32; Iustre, brilliance चण्डांशुकिरणाभाश्च हाराः Rām.5.9.48; Śi.1.9. रत्न˚, नख˚ &c. -2 A point or end. -3 A small or minute particle. - 4 End of a thread. -5 A filament, especially of the Soma plant (Ved.) -6 Garment; decoration. -7 N. of a sage or of a prince. -8 Speed, velocity (वेग). -9 Fine thread -Comp. -उदकम् dew-water. -जालम् a collection of rays, a blaze or halo of light. -धरः -पतिः -भृत्-बाणः -भर्तृ-स्वामिन् the sun, (bearer or lord of rays). -पट्टम् a kind of silken cloth (अंशुना सूक्ष्मसूत्रेणयुक्तं पट्टम्); सश्रीफलैरंशुपट्टम् Y. 1.186; श्रीफलैरंशुपट्टानां Ms.5.12. -माला a garland of light, halo. -मालिन् m. [अंशवो मालेव, ततः अस्त्यर्थे इनि] 1 the sun (wreathed with, surrounded by, rays). -2 the number twelve. -हस्तः [अंशुः हस्त इव यस्य] the sun (who draws up water from the earth by means of his 1 hands in the form of rays). (Apte)

(Griffith trans.) RV 8.5.25 As ye protected Kanva erst, Priyamedha and
Upastuta, Atri, Sinjara, Asvins Twain

(Sayana/Wilson trans.) 8.005.25 In like manner as you protected Kan.va, Priyamedha, Upastuta, and the praise-repeating Atri.

(Griffith) trans.) RV 8.5.26 And Amśu in decisive fight, Agastya in the fray for kine.
And, in his battles, Sobhari.

(Sayana/Wilson Trans.) 8.005.26 And in like manner as (you protected) Amśu
when wealth was to be bestowed, and Agastya when his cattle (were to be recovered), and Sobhari when food (was to be supplied to him).

Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa explains Upâmsu (graha): उपांशु ind. (fr. √ अंश् , " to divide " , with उप and affix उ T. (?) g. स्वर्-ादि Pa1n2. 1-1 , 37), secretly , in secret RV. x , 83 , 7 MBh. Ragh. &c; in a low voice , in a whisper S3Br. AitBr.; m. a prayer uttered in a low voice (so as not to be overheard) Mn. ii , 85 Ma1rkP. &c; m. a particular सोम oblation = उपांशु-ग्रह below VS. TS. S3Br. Ka1tyS3r. &c (Monier-Williams)

(Griffith translation) RV 10.83.7 Approach, and on my right hand hold thy station: so shall we slay a multitude of foemen.
The best of meath I offer to support thee: may we be first to drink thereof in quiet.

upāṃśu उपांशु ind. 1 In low voice or whisper; ववर्ष पर्जन्य उपांशुगर्जितः Bhāg.1.3.5. -2 Secretly, in secret or private; परिचेतुमुपांशु धारणाम् R.8.18; cf. also तस्मात् यत् किंचित् प्राजापत्यं क्रियते उपांश्वेव तत् क्रियते इति । ŚB. on MS. 1.8.57. ˚व्रतम् a vow observed in secret; भिन्द्यामहं तस्य शिर इत्युपांशुव्रतं मम Mb.8.69.1. -शुः 1 A prayer uttered in a low voice, muttering of prayers; जिह्वोष्ठौ चालयेत् किंचिद् देवतागतमानसः । निजश्रवणयोग्यः स्यादुपांशुः स जपः स्मृतः ॥; विधियज्ञाज्जपयज्ञो विशिष्टो दशभिर्गुणैः । उपांशुः स्याच्छतगुणः साहस्रो मानसः स्मृतः ॥ Ms.2.85. -2 (Hence) silence itself. -3 N. of a Soma offering. -त्वम् Silence. उपांशुत्वं प्रजापते- धर्मः । ŚB. on MS.1.8.52. -Comp. -क्रीडित a. made the companion of; (a king's) private amusements. -ग्रहः The first ladle full of soma pressed at the sacri- fice. -दण्डः A punishment inflicted in secret; विद्विष्टानु- पांशुदण्डेन जनपदकोपेन वा साधयेत् Kau. A.1.13. -याजः a kind of sacrifice. -वधः A clandestine murder; ˚वधमाकलय्य Mu.2; Śi.13.54.(Apte)

FOURTH KÂNDA.

FIRST ADHYÂYA. FIRST BRÂHMANA.

1. The Upâmsu (graha), forsooth, is the out-breathing of the Sacrifice 1, the Upâmsu-savana (press-stone) the through-breathing, and the Antaryâma (graha) the in-breathing.2. Now as to why it is called Upâmsu. There is a graha called Amsu 2, that is Pragâpati: his out-breathing is this (graha); and because it is his out-breathing, therefore it is called Upâmsu.
3. This (graha) he draws without a strainer 3: whereby he puts the out-breathing into him as one tending away from him, and thus this forward-tending out-breathing of his streams forth from him. He purifies it with sprigs of Soma, thinking 'it shall be pure.' He purifies it with six (sprigs), for there are six seasons: it is by means of the seasons that he thus purifies it.4. As to this they say, 'When he purifies the Upâmsu by means of sprigs, and all (other) Soma-draughts

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are purified by means of a strainer, whereby, then, do its sprigs become pure?'5. He throws them down again (on the unpressed plants) with (Vâg. S. VII, 2), 'What inviolable, quickening name is thine, to that Soma of thine, O Soma, be Hail!' Thus his sprigs become purified by means of the Svâhâ ('Hail!'). But this graha means everything, for it is the type of all the pressings 1.6. Now, once on a time, the gods, while performing sacrifice, were afraid of an attack from the Asura-Rakshas. They said, 'Let us completely establish the sacrifice: if the Asura-Rakshas should then attack us, our sacrifice will at least be completely established.'7. Even at the morning Soma-feast they then completely established the entire sacrifice 2,--at this same (upâmsu) graha by means of the Yagus; at the first chant (stotra) by means of the Sâman; and at the first recitation (sastra) by means of the Rik: with that sacrifice thus completely established they subsequently worshipped. And in like manner does this sacrifice now become completely established,--by means of the Yagus at this same graha; by means of the Sâman at the first chant; and by means of the Rik at the first recitation; and with this sacrifice thus completely established he subsequently worships.
8. He presses (the Soma) eight times; for of eight

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syllables consists the Gâyatrî, and the morning Soma-feast belongs to the Gâyatrî; thus this (first turn of pressing) is made to be the morning Soma-feast.
9. He draws (the juice of the first turn of pressing into the cup) with (Vâg. S. VII, 1), 'Grow thou pure for Vâkaspati!' for Vâkaspati (lord of speech) is the out-breathing, and this (Upâmsu) graha is the out-breathing: hence he says, 'Grow thou pure for Vâkaspati!'--'purified by the hands with the sprigs of the bull;' for he purifies it with sprigs of Soma: hence he says, 'with the sprigs of the bull;' and 'purified by the hands (gabhasti-pûta 1),' he says; for--'gabhasti' being the same as 'pâni' (hand)--he indeed purifies it with his hands.10. He then presses eleven times; for of eleven syllables consists the Trishtubh, and the midday Soma-feast belongs to the Trishtubh: thus this (second turn of pressing) is made to be the midday Soma-feast.11. He draws (the juice into the cup) with, 'Grow thou pure, a god, for the gods--;' for he (Soma) is indeed a god, and for the gods he becomes pure;--'whose portion thou art;' for he indeed is their portion.12. He then presses twelve times; for of twelve syllables consists the Gagatî, and the evening Soma-feast belongs to the Gagatî: thus this (third turn of pressing) is made to be the evening Soma-feast.

p. 25114. 'For one desirous of spiritual lustre (brahmavarkasa) he should press eight times at each (turn),' so they say;--for of eight syllables consists the Gâyatrî, and the Gâyatrî is the Brahman: he indeed becomes endowed with spiritual lustre.
13. He draws (the juice) with, 'Make thou our draughts sweet!' whereby he imbues him (Soma) with sap, and renders him palatable for the gods: hence, when slain, he does not become putrid 1. And when he offers (that graha) he thereby completely establishes him.
15. Thus the pressing amounts to twenty-four times (of beating). Now there are twenty-four half-moons in the year; and Pragâpati (the lord of creatures) is the year, and the sacrifice is Pragâpati: thus as great as the sacrifice is, as great as is its measure, so great he thereby establishes it.16. 'For one desirous of cattle he should press five times at each (turn),' so they say;--the cattle (animal victims) consist of five parts: he indeed gains cattle; and there are five seasons in the year; and Pragâpati is the year, and the sacrifice is Pragâpati thus as great as the sacrifice is, as great as is its measure, so great he thereby establishes it. This, however, is mere speculation: it is the other (manner) which is practised.17. Having drawn the graha, he wipes (the vessel) all round, lest any (Soma-juice) should trickle down. He does not deposit it; for this is his out-breathing, whence this out-breathing passes unceasingly. Should he, however, desire to exorcise, he may

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deposit it 1 with, 'I put thee down, the out-breathing of N.N.!' Thus, forsooth, inasmuch as he (the Adhvaryu) does not quit his hold of it, it is not again in that (enemy); and thus both the Adhvaryu and the Sacrificer live long.18. Or he may merely cover (the vessel by his hand) with, 'I shut thee off, the out-breathing of N.N.!' Thus, forsooth, inasmuch as he does not deposit it, it is not again in that enemy; and thus he does not disorder the vital airs.
19. While he is still inside (the Havirdhâna) he utters 'Hail!' For the gods were afraid lest the Asura-Rakshas should destroy what part of this graha was previous to the offering. They offered it (symbolically) by means of the Svâhâ, while they were still inside (the cart-shed), and what was thus offered they afterwards offered up in the fire. And in like manner does he now offer it up by means of the Svâhâ, while he is still inside, and what has thus been offered he afterwards offers up in the fire.20. He then walks out (of the Havirdhâna) with, 'I walk along the wide air 2.' For along the air

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the Rakshas roams rootless and unfettered on both sides, even as man here roams along the air, rootless and unfettered on both sides 1; and, that formula being the Brahman (prayer), a slayer of the Rakshas, he, by means of that Brahman, renders the air free from danger and injury.21. Thereupon he (the Sacrificer) asks a boon. For the gods, forsooth, greatly desire to obtain the offering of that graha, and they grant to him that boon, in order that he may forthwith offer that graha to them: this is why he asks a boon.22. He (the Adhvaryu) offers with (Vâg. S. VII, 3), 'Self-made thou art,' for, this graha being his (Yagña's) out-breathing, it is indeed made by itself, born of itself 2: hence he says, 'Self-made thou art;'--'for all powers, divine and earthly,'--for it is born of itself for all creatures 3;--'May the mind obtain thee!'--the mind being Pragâpati, he thereby means to say, 'may Pragâpati obtain thee!''Hail! thee, O well-born, for Sûrya!' thus he utters the second 4

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[paragraph continues]
(or inferior) 'Hail!' with regard to a subsequent 1 (or higher; the highest) deity.23. Now it is in him that burns yonder (the sun) that he has just offered that (libation); and the latter is the All: hence he makes that (sun) the highest of the All. But were he to utter the second (or higher) 'Hail!' with regard to a preceding (or lower) deity 2, then it would be even higher than yonder sun: therefore he utters the second 'Hail!' with regard to a subsequent deity.24. And, having offered, he wipes the (vessel of the) graha upwards; whereby he puts that out-breathing into him as one tending away from him. Thereupon he rubs (the wiped-off Soma) upon the middle enclosing stick from west to east with the palm of his hand turned upwards 3--whereby he puts that out-breathing into him as one tending away from him--with, 'Thee to the gods sipping motes of light!'25. For in that orb which burns yonder he has just offered this (libation), and those rays thereof are the gods sipping motes of light: it is these he thereby gratifies; and thus gratified those gods convey him to the heavenly world.26. For this same graha there is neither an invitatory prayer nor an offering prayer 4: he offers it

p. 255
with a (Yagus) formula, and thereby it becomes for him supplied with both an invitatory and an offering prayer. And if he desire to exorcise, let him offer some spray (of Soma) which may adhere either to his arm, or to his breast, or to his garment, with, 'O divine plant, let that be true wherefore I pray thee: let N.N. be struck down by destruction falling from above, crash!' Even as one of (enemies) that are being slain might escape, so does this (sprig) fly away from those that are being pressed: thus nothing (hostile)--either running thither or running away 1--remains to him for whom he performs this. He deposits that (cup) with, 'Thee for the out-breathing!' for this (graha) indeed is his out-breathing.27. Now some deposit it on the south part (of the khara 2), for, they say, it is in that direction that

p. 256
yonder (sun) moves. Let him, however, not do this, but let him deposit it on the north (uttara) part (of the khara), because there is not any higher (uttara) graha than this. He deposits it with, 'Thee for the out-breathing!' for this (graha) is indeed his out-breathing.
28. He then takes the Upâmsu-savana (pressing-stone). He neither touches it with the fringe nor with the straining-cloth, for that would be like rinsing it in water. If there be any spray adhering to it, let him remove it with his hand, and then lay down (the stone) beside (the Upâmsu cup), with the face towards the north, with, 'Thee for the through-breathing!' for this (stone) is indeed his (Yagña's) through-breathing.

Footnotes

248:1 That is, the sacrificial man, or the sacrifice personified in Soma and the sacrificer.
248:2 Lit. 'the Soma-plant,' hence the (Soma)-sacrifice itself, or Pragâpati. See IV, 6, 1, 1 seq.
248:3 Bahishpavitrât, lit. from (a vessel, or Soma) having the strainer outside (away from) it. While no proper strainer is used for the Upâmsu-graha, the Soma-juice being poured through Soma-plants (see p. 244, note 2); at the great pressing it is passed through a fringed straining-cloth (dasâpavitra) spread over the Dronakalasa (the largest of the three Soma-troughs, the others being the Âdhavanîya and Pûtabhrit). See IV, 1, 2, 3.
249:1 Viz. inasmuch as the Upâmsu-graha is obtained by three turns of pressing, and each of the three Savanas (pressings, Soma-feasts) consists of three rounds of pressing of three turns each. See p. 256, note 1.
249:2 Cf. Taitt. S. VI, 4, 5, where this theory (divested of its legendary form) is ascribed to Aruna Aupavesi.
250:1 Sâyana, on Taitt. S. I, 4, 2, interprets it, 'Having been purified by the ray of the sun (while growing in the forest), do thou now become pure for the gods through the sprigs of the bull!' Cf., however, Taitt. S. VI, 4, 5, 'gabhastinâ hy enam pavayati,' where 'gabhasti' would seem to be taken in the sense of hand' (? the forked one). See p. 244, note 2.
251:1 The Kânva text adds, 'while whosoever else is slain becomes putrid.'
252:1 That is, he may set it down on the khara for a moment without quitting his hold of it. While the subsequent cups of Soma are deposited in their respective places after they have been drawn, the Upâmsu and Antaryâma are offered immediately.
252:2 With the Taittirîyas the order of proceeding is somewhat different: The Adhvaryu pours the Soma through the Soma-plants into the Upâmsu cup after each turn of pressing, with, 'Become pure for Vâkaspati, O courser!'--'The bull purified by the hand with the plants of the bull!'--'Thou, a god, art a purifier of the gods whose share thou art: thee, to them!' respectively. He then takes the cup from the Pratiprasthâtri with, 'Thou art self-made' eyes it with, 'Make our drinks sweet;' and wipes it clean upwards with, 'Thee for all powers, divine and earthly!' He then rises with, 'May the mind obtain thee!' steps to the Âhavanîya with, 'I move p. 253 along the wide air,' and offers, while the sacrificer holds on to him from behind, with, 'Hail! thee, O well-born, to Sûrya!'
253:1 See III, 1, 3, 13.
253:2 'For this libation is the out-breathing, and the out-breathing is he that blows yonder (the wind); and he indeed is made by himself, begotten (gâta) of himself, since there is no other maker nor begetter of him.' Kânva text.
253:3 Perhaps we ought to translate the passage, 'from all the powers, divine and earthly,' for it is born by itself from all the creatures. But cf. Taitt. S. VI, 4, 5: 'Thereby he puts out-breathing both into gods and men.'
253:4 While, in its force of 'subsequent,' avara here refers back to the first Svâhâ, pronounced by the Adhvaryu (par. 19); it also has here the meaning of 'lower,' and, developed out of this, that of 'preceding' (in which meaning it occurs in the Rikprâtisâkhya). Hence it is quite impossible adequately to render this play on the words avara, 'subsequent, lower, preceding,' and para, 'higher, subsequent.'
254:1 That is, coming after Svâhâ in the formula.
254:2 The Kânva text reads: etasmin vâ etan mandale ’haushîd ya esha tapati; sarvam u vâ esha grahah; sarvasmâd evaitad asmâd enam uttaram karoti ya esho ’smât sarvasmâd uttaro yad dhâvarâm devatâm kuryât param svâhâkâram anyad dhaitasmâd uttaram kuryât.
254:3 That is to say, he is to pass his hand, palm upwards, under the middle enclosing stick.
254:4 Such (Rik verses) as are ordinarily recited by the Hotri: When p. 255 the Upâmsu cup is drawn, the Hotri says, 'Restrain the out-breathing (prâna)! Hail! thee, O well-calling one, to Sûrya!' whereupon he breathes into (or towards) the cup with, 'O out-breathing, restrain my out-breathing!' After that he remains silent till the Antaryâma is drawn, when he addresses that graha with, 'Restrain the in-breathing (apâna)! Hail! thee, O well-calling one, to Sûrya!' whereupon he draws in his breath over the cup, and says, 'O in-breathing, restrain my in-breathing!' He then touches the pressing-stone with, 'Thee to the through-breathing!' and therewith frees his speech from restraint. Ait. Br. II, 21. On the terms out-breathing (prâna) and in-breathing (apâna, or up-breathing, udâna) see part i, p. 19, note 2; J. S. Speijer, Jâtakarma, p. 64; Sâyana on Taitt. S. I, 4, 3 (vol. i, p.603); Taitt. S. VI, 4: 6. Different Haug, Ait. Br. Transl. p. 118.
255:1 'Na dhâvan nâpadhâvat parisishyate;' perhaps we ought to read 'nâpadhâvan;' unless indeed 'tasya' refers to Soma, as Sâyana seems to take it. The Kânva text has: tathâ ha teshâmnâpadhâvañs kana mukyate yebhyas tathâ karoti.
255:2 According to the Sûtras of the Black Yagus (cf. Sâyana on Taitt. S. I, 4, 2, p. 598), the Upâmsu cup is 'deposited' on the south-east and the Antaryâma cup on the north-east corner of the p. 256 khara or mound; the Upâmsu-savana stone being placed between them. Before depositing the vessel, the Adhvaryu pours some of the residue of Soma-juice from the Upâmsu cup into the Âgrayanasthâlî, and having put a large twig of Soma into it for the evening pressing (? the Adâbhya graha, cf. Sây. on Taitt. S. I, 603), he deposits it on the mound.

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Itihāsa. varāha is yajña puruṣa is anthropomorph, Indus Script hypertext of ahan-gār अहन्-गार् 'blacksmith, thunderbolt maker', vaḍḍhaï, baḍaga 'takṣa, artificer', medhā, 'yajña, dhanam'

March 11, 2019, 5:47 pm

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http://tinyurl.com/y5phpzcb

This is an addendum to aṃśu = upāṃśu a Soma libation, offering = dhanamjaya 'wealth acquiring' cognate ancu 'iron' (Tocharian) https://tinyurl.com/y4wzx2be

The monograph posits varāha is yajña puruṣa is anthropomorph, Indus Script hypertext, ahan-gārअहन्-गार् 'blacksmith, thunderbolt maker', vaḍḍhaï, baḍaga'takṣa, artificer'. The twisted rope on Bogazkhoy seal is मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'twist' rebus: medhā, 'yajña, dhanam'

Yajña Varāha pratimā of Khajuraho and Eran are Indus Script hypertexts.

Thunderbolt, vajra

See:

Homa bird, श्येन śyena, sēṇa brings down Soma. Sellers of Mujavata Soma. Indus Script evidences बहुसुवर्णक, bahusuvarṇaka Soma Samsthā yāga. https://tinyurl.com/yb72o7za

Harappa seal h166A, h166B. Vats, 1940, Excavations in Harappa, Vol. II, Calcutta: Pl. XCI. 255

फडा (p. 313) phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága &c. Ta. patam cobra's hood. Ma. paṭam id. Ka. peḍe id. Te. paḍaga id. Go. (S.) paṛge, (Mu.) baṛak, (Ma.) baṛki, (F-H.) biṛki hood of serpent (Voc. 2154). / Turner, CDIAL, no. 9040, Skt. (s)phaṭa-, sphaṭā- a serpent's expanded hood, Pkt. phaḍā- id. For IE etymology, see Burrow, The Problem of Shwa in Sanskrit, p. 45.(DEDR 47) Rebus: phaḍa फड ‘manufactory, company, guild, public office’, keeper of all accounts, registers.

dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'

Ta. eruvai a kind of kite whose head is white and whose body is brown; eagle. Ma. eruva eagle, kite.(DEDR 818). Rebus: eruvai ‘copper’ (Tamil).

eṟaka ‘wing’ (Telugu) Rebus: erako ‘molten cast’ (Tulu) loa ‘ficus’; rebus: loh ‘copper’. Pajhar ‘eagle’; rebus: pasra ‘smithy’.

kanda.’fire-altar’.khamba ‘wing’ rebus: kammaTa ‘mint’. gaṇḍa ‘four’ Rebus: khaṇḍa ‘metal implements. Together with cognate ancu ‘iron’ the message is: native metal implements mint.

श्येन [p= 1095,2] m. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man) RV. &c; firewood laid in the shape of an eagle Śulbas. (Monier-Williams) śyēná m. ʻhawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV. Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻkite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ.(CDIAL 12674) Rebus: sena 'thunderbolt' (Sinhala):

aśáni f. ʻthunderbolt ʼ RV., °nī -- f. ŚBr. [Cf. áśan -- m. ʻ sling -- stone ʼRV.] Pa. asanī -- f. ʻthunderbolt, lightning ʼ, asana -- n. ʻstone ʼ; Pk. asaṇi -- m.f. ʻthunderbolt ʼ; Ash. ašĩˊ ʻhail ʼ, Wg. ašē˜ˊ, Pr. īšĩ, Bashg. "azhir", Dm. ašin, Paš. ášen, Shum. äˊšin, Gaw. išín, Bshk. ašun, Savi išin, Phal. ã̄šun, L. (Jukes) ahin, awāṇ. &circmacrepsilon;n (both with n, not ṇ), P. āhiṇ, f., āhaṇ, aihaṇ m.f., WPah. bhad. ã̄ṇ, hiṇi f., N. asino, pl. °nā; Si. sena, heṇa ʻthunderbolt ʼ Geiger GS 34, but the expected form would be *ā̤n; -- Sh. aĩyĕˊr f. ʻhail ʼ (X ?). -- For ʻstone ʼ> ʻ hailstone ʼ cf. upala -- and A. xil s.v.śilāˊ -- . (CDIAL 910) vajrāśani m. ʻ Indra's thunderbolt ʼ R. [vájra -- , aśáni -- ]Aw. bajāsani m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ prob. ← Sk.(CDIAL 11207) آهن āhan P آهن āhan, s.m. (9th) Iron. Sing. and Pl. آهن ګر āhan gar, s.m. (5th) A smith, a blacksmith. Pl. آهن ګران āhan-garān. آهن ربا āhan-rubā, s.f. (6th) The magnet or loadstone. (E.) Sing. and Pl.); (W.) Pl. آهن رباوي āhan-rubāwī. See اوسپنه. (Pashto) ahan-gār अहन्-गार् (= ) m. a blacksmith (H. xii, 16)(Kashmiri)

ahan-gār अहन्-गार् is maker of aśáni'thunderbolt'.

Bogazkoy Indus Script seal, sēṇa 'eagle' rebus: sena ʻvajra, thunderboltʼ PLUS dhAtu 'strands of rope' Rebus'mineral, metal, ore' (CDIAL 6773) Alternative: मेढा [ mēḍhā ] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl.(Marathi)(CDIAL 10312).L. meṛh f. ʻrope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floorʼ(CDIAL 10317) Rebus: meḍ'iron'. mẽṛhet ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) Alternative: pajhar 'eagle' rebus: pasra 'smithy, forge' dul 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'

Twisted rope: dhAtu 'strands of rope' Rebus: dhAtu 'mineral, metal, ore' Alternative: मेढा [ mēḍhā ] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl.(Marathi)(CDIAL 10312).L. meṛh f. ʻrope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floorʼ(CDIAL 10317) Rebus: meḍ'iron'. mẽṛhet ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)

Association with śyena on Bogazkhoy seal and bronze anthropomorphs link the hypertexts with wealth-accounting activities of metalwork.

Hieroglyph: mẽḍhā 'curved horn', miṇḍāl 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep; mē̃ḍh 'ram' Rebus: Медь [Med'] (Russian, Slavic) 'copper'. meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.)

मृदु, मृदा--कर 'iron, thunderbolt' मृदु mṛdu 'a kind of iron' मृदु-कार्ष्णायसम्,-कृष्णायसम् soft-iron, lead.

Santali glosses.

Sa. mE~R~hE~'d `iron'. ! mE~RhE~d(M).

Ma. mErhE'd `iron'.

Mu. mERE'd `iron'.

~ mE~R~E~'d `iron'. ! mENhEd(M).

Ho meD `iron'.

Bj. merhd(Hunter) `iron'.

KW mENhEd

@(V168,M080)

http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/AA/Munda/ETYM/Pinnow&Munda

— Slavic glosses for 'copper'

Мед [Med]Bulgarian

Bakar Bosnian

Медзь [medz']Belarusian

Měď Czech

Bakar Croatian

KòperKashubian

Бакар [Bakar]Macedonian

Miedź Polish

Медь [Med']Russian

Meď Slovak

BakerSlovenian

Бакар [Bakar]Serbian

Мідь [mid'] Ukrainian[unquote]

http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/element.php?sym=Cu

Miedź, med' (Northern Slavic, Altaic) 'copper'.

One suggestion is that corruptions from the German "Schmied", "Geschmeide" = jewelry. Schmied, a smith (of tin, gold, silver, or other metal)(German) result in med ‘copper’.

ayo meḍh 'metal merchant' ayo mēdhā 'metal expert'; medhā, 'dhanam' (Nirukta)

PLUS karṇika 'spread legs' rebus: karṇika कर्णिक 'steersman'.

barāh, baḍhi 'boar' vāḍhī, bari, barea 'merchant' bārakaśa 'seafaring vessel'.

eka-shingi 'one-masted' koḍiya ‘young bull’, koṭiya 'dhow', kũdār 'turner, brass-worker'. kundaṇa 'fine gold'. kō̃da 'young bull' rebus: kō̃da 'fire-altar' (Kashmiri) payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद।परिपाककन्दुः f. a kiln (Kashmiri).

Image result for indus script boar tiger hunter seal

Oslo Museum. Unprovenanced cylinder seal (from Afghanistan?)

baḍhoe ‘a carpenter, worker in wood, iron’; badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea 'merchant' (Santali) बारकश or बारकस [ bārakaśa or bārakasa ] n ( P) A trading vessel, a merchantman.

kamaḍha 'archer' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' kolle 'blacksmith'

baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: baḍhi 'a caste who work both in iron and wood' వడ్రంగి, వడ్లంగి, వడ్లవాడు (p. 1126) vaḍraṅgi, vaḍlaṅgi, vaḍlavāḍu or వడ్లబత్తుడు vaḍrangi. [Tel.] n. A carpenter. వడ్రంగము, వడ్లపని, వడ్రము or వడ్లంగితనము vaḍrangamu. n. The trade of a carpenter. వడ్లవానివృత్తి. వడ్రంగిపని. వడ్రంగిపిట్ట or వడ్లంగిపిట్ట vaḍrangi-piṭṭa. n. A woodpecker. దార్వాఘాటము. వడ్లకంకణము vaḍla-kankaṇamu. n. A curlew. ఉల్లంకులలో భేదము. వడ్లత or వడ్లది vaḍlata. n. A woman of the carpenter caste. vardhaki m. ʻ carpenter ʼ MBh. [√vardh] Pa. vaḍḍhaki -- m. ʻ carpenter, building mason ʼ; Pk. vaḍḍhaï -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, °aïa -- m. ʻ shoemaker ʼ; WPah. jaun. bāḍhōī ʻ carpenter ʼ, (Joshi) bāḍhi m., N. baṛhaï, baṛahi, A. bārai, B. bāṛaï, °ṛui, Or. baṛhaï, °ṛhāi, (Gaṛjād) bāṛhoi, Bi. baṛahī, Bhoj. H. baṛhaī m., M. vāḍhāyā m., Si. vaḍu -- vā.(CDIAL 11375)

baḍaga is a takṣa, divine tvaṣṭr̥ of R̥gveda, he is a yajña puruṣa as evidenced in Khajuraho monumental varāha sculpture.. He is the very embodiment of the Veda, Veda puruṣa. त्वष्टृ m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ) AV. xii , 3 , 33; " creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/इ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम् अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/अ-रूप &c RV. ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x Hariv. 12146 f. R. ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns RV. AV. &c MBh. iv , 1178 Hariv. 587 ff. Ragh. vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ , सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम् प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i Ka1tyS3r. iii ; supposed author of RV. x , 184 with the epithet गर्भ-पति RAnukr. ; father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv.; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv.545 ff. VP. ; also father of त्रि-शिरस् or विश्वरूप ib. ; overpowered by इन्द्र who recovers the सोम [ RV. iii f. ] concealed by him because इन्द्र had killed his son विश्व-रूप TS. ii S3Br. i , v , xii ; regent of the नक्षत्र चित्रा TBr. S3a1n3khGr2. S3a1ntik. VarBr2S. iic , 4 ; of the 5th cycle of Jupiter viii , 23 ; of an eclipse iii , 6 ; त्वष्टुर् आतिथ्य N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. ).

Text of inscription:

Sign 121 70 Read as a variant of Sign 112: Four count, three times: gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' khaṇḍa 'implements, metalware' PLUS

||| Number three reads: kolom 'three' rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge'. Thus,the hypertext of Sign 104 reads: kolami khaṇḍa 'smithy/forge (for) implements.'

Duplicated 'bows', Variant of Sign 307

Sign 307 69 Arrow PLUS bow: kaṇḍa ‘arrow’ (Skt.) H. kãḍerā m. ʻ a caste of bow -- and arrow -- makers (CDIAL 3024). Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrow ʼ(CDIAL 3023). ayaskāṇḍa ‘a quantity of iron, excellent iron’ (Pāṇ.gaṇ) Rebus: khaṇḍa, khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’. kanda 'fire-altar' PLUS kamaṭha m. ʻ bamboo ʼ lex. 2. *kāmaṭha -- . 3. *kāmāṭṭha -- . 4. *kammaṭha -- . 5. *kammaṭṭha -- . 6. *kambāṭha -- . 7. *kambiṭṭha -- . [Cf. kambi -- ʻ shoot of bamboo ʼ, kārmuka -- 2 n. ʻ bow ʼ Mn., ʻ bamboo ʼ lex. which may therefore belong here rather than to kr̥múka -- . Certainly ← Austro -- as. PMWS 33 with lit. -- See kāca -- 3] 1. Pk. kamaḍha -- , °aya -- m. ʻ bamboo ʼ; Bhoj. kōro ʻ bamboo poles ʼ.2. N. kāmro ʻ bamboo, lath, piece of wood ʼ, OAw. kāṁvari ʻ bamboo pole with slings at each end for carrying things ʼ, H. kã̄waṛ, °ar, kāwaṛ, °ar f., G. kāvaṛ f., M. kāvaḍ f.; -- deriv. Pk. kāvaḍia -- , kavvāḍia -- m. ʻ one who carries a yoke ʼ, H. kã̄waṛī, °ṛiyā m., G. kāvaṛiyɔ m.3. S. kāvāṭhī f. ʻ carrying pole ʼ, kāvāṭhyo m. ʻ the man who carries it ʼ.4. Or. kāmaṛā, °muṛā ʻ rafters of a thatched house ʼ;G. kāmṛũ n., °ṛī f. ʻ chip of bamboo ʼ, kāmaṛ -- koṭiyũ n. ʻ bamboo hut ʼ. 5. B. kāmṭhā ʻ bow ʼ, G. kāmṭhũ n., °ṭhī f. ʻ bow ʼ; M. kamṭhā, °ṭā m. ʻ bow of bamboo or horn ʼ; -- deriv. G. kāmṭhiyɔ m. ʻ archer ʼ. 6. A. kabāri ʻ flat piece of bamboo used in smoothing an earthen image ʼ.7. M. kã̄bīṭ, °baṭ, °bṭī, kāmīṭ, °maṭ, °mṭī, kāmṭhī, kāmāṭhī f. ʻ split piece of bamboo &c., lath ʼ.(CDIAL 2760)This evokes another word: kamaḍha 'archer' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner' . Thus, Sign 307 is read as bow and arrow rebus: khaṇḍa kammaṭa 'equipment mint' (See Sign 281)Thus, kã̄bīṭ 'bow' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting', i.e. dul kammaṭa 'metalcasting mint'

This is a hypertext composed of 'body' (of standing person)

Sign 1 hieroglyph: meḍ 'body' rebus: meḍ,med 'iron, copper'

PLUS

'lid' hieroglyph: ḍhaṁkaṇa 'lid' rebus dhakka 'excellent, bright, blazing metal article'.

PLUS

Sign 402 'flag' hieroglyph. Sign 402 'flag' hieroglyph. Ciphertext koḍi ‘flag’ (Ta.)(DEDR 2049). In the context of metalwork guilds, the flag is the compound expression: dhvajapaṭa ʻflagʼ PLUS dhvajapaṭa

m. ʻ flag ʼ Kāv. [dhvajá -- , paṭa -- ]Pk. dhayavaḍa -- m. ʻ flag ʼ, OG. dhayavaḍa m. Rebus: Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic (CDIAL 6773)

The hypertext reads: kolami khaṇḍa dhakka meḍ dhā̆vaḍ ' smithy/forge equipment, smelter producing blazing, bright iron'.

Sign 211 kaṇḍa ‘arrow’; Rebus: kaṇḍ = a furnace, altar (Santali) khaṇḍa 'implements' (Santali)

The inscription reads:

kol badhoe kammaṭa kolami khaṇḍa dhakka meḍ dhā̆vaḍ

'working in iron, wood, mint, smithy.forge equipment, smelter producing blazing iron implements.'

Image result for ; boar and bull in procession; terminal: plant; heavily pitted

Late Uruk and Jemdet Nasr seal; ca. 3200-3000 BCE; serpentine; cat.1; boar and bull in procession; terminal: plant; heavily pitted surface beyond plant. Indus Script hieroglyphs read rebus: baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: baḍhi ‘a caste who work both in iron and wood’ Hieroglyph: dhangar 'bull' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' baḍhoe ‘a carpenter, worker in wood’; badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar'Rebus: bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea 'merchant' (Santali) बारकश or बारकस [ bārakaśa or bārakasa ] n ( P) A trading vessel, a merchantman (cargo boat).

Indus Script Hieroglyph: barāh, baḍhi ‘boar’ Rebus: vāḍhī, bari, barea ‘merchant’

baḍhoe ‘a carpenter, worker in wood’; badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’ Together with an anthropomorph of copper/bronze with the curved horns of a ‘ram’, the hypertext signifies: meḍh ‘ram’ rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ PLUS baḍhi ‘boar’ rebus: baḍhoria, ‘expert in working in wood’PLUS khondar‘young bull’ rebus: konda ‘furnace’ kundaṇa ‘fine gold’ Thus, the anthropomorph is a professional calling card of a worker with furnace, worker in iron, fine gold and wood. It is not mere coincidence that Varāha signifies an ancient gold coin. Another anthropomorph rplaces the young bull frieze on the chest of the ram with a ‘fish’ hieroglyph. ayo ‘fish’ rebus: aya ‘iron’ ayas ‘alloy metal’.

See: Yajña Varāha pratimā, Indus Script Hypertext of copper anthropomorph are Wealth-accounting ledgers of History of Hindu Civilization

https://tinyurl.com/ydhdo3ba

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5000 yr-old Harappan trove found in Khatia, Kutch

March 11, 2019, 6:43 pm

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≪ Previous: Itihāsa. varāha is yajña puruṣa is anthropomorph, Indus Script hypertext of ahan-gār अहन्-गार् 'blacksmith, thunderbolt maker', vaḍḍhaï, baḍaga 'takṣa, artificer', medhā, 'yajña, dhanam'

Shrine of Two Headed Eagle, 2nd cent.BCE

Sculptural frieze. stūpa of Sanchi, second half of 2nd century BCE (Kramrisch,1954, pic13)

m0352 cdef

Marut-gaṇa including Gaṇeśa (third from left) & Varāha (fourth from left) on a sculptural panel. Kailasanatha Temple,Kanchipuram.

R̥gveda gaṇa are Marut gaṇa with two remarkable anthropomorphs: varāha, with the head of a boar and Gaṇeśa, with the head of an elepant. I suggest that varāha, with the head of a boar and Gaṇeśa, with the head of an elepant are Indus Script hypertexts. The hypertexts signify:

1.baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: बढई baḍhī m ( H) A carpenter; barea 'merchant'; and2. karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron'. Gaṇeśa is shown with a) cobrahood and b) tiger vestment to further add the semantic identifiers of:

a) फड, phaḍa, 'cobra hood' rebus: फड, phaḍa 'Bhāratīya arsenal of metal weapons' and

b) panja 'claw of beast, feline paw' rebus: panja 'kiln', i.e. boar and elephant signify wood/iron worker and smelter guild.

Nataraja with 18 arms. gaṇa play drums. Gaṇeśa in dance-step.Also in the cave are Karthikeya and GaṇeśaHarihara with dancing gaṇa.

Dance step of Gaṇeśa shown on a sculptural friezed of Candi Sukuh:

FS 72 Fig. 108 kol pasar 'tiger open mouth' rebus: kol pasar iron smelter trader's shop' PLUS battuḍu 'worshipper' rebus: pattar 'goldsmith guild' PLUS kuṭi 'tree''water-carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' PLUS dhamkara 'leafless tree' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'.

m478a FS 34 Fig. 77 Kino tree. generally within a railing or on a platform.

kuṭi 'tree'Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'

bAraNe ' an offering of food to a demon' (Tulu) Rebus: baran, bharat (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi. Bengali) The narrative of a worshipper offering to a tree is thus interpretable as a smelting of three minerals: copper, zinc and tin.

Numeral four: gaNDa 'four' Rebus: kand 'fire-altar'; Four 'ones': koḍa ‘one’ (Santali) Rebus: koḍ ‘artisan’s workshop'. Thus, the pair of 'four linear strokes PLUS rimless pot' signifies: 'fire-altar (in) artisan's wrkshop'.

Circumscript of two linear strokes for 'body' hieroglyph: dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' koḍa ‘one’(Santali) Rebus: koḍ ‘artisan’s workshop'. Thus, the circumscript signifies 'cast metal workshop'. meD 'body' Rebus: meD 'iron'.

khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ‘turner’ (Gujarati)

The hieroglyph may be a variant of a twisted rope.

dhāu 'rope' rebus: dhāu 'metal' PLUS मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'a curl or snarl; twist in thread' rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’. Thus, metallic ore.

Read on...http://tinyurl.com/y47uur9m

Darpana Sundari, 'mirror beauties' on sculpturesParvati as Lalita carrying a bronze mirror, with her sons Ganesa and Skanda, Orissa. 11th cent. Now in British Museum. 1872.0701.54

Aranmuḷa metalwork by artisans are exemplified in high tin-bronze mirrors produced by Vishwakarma

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280309195_Ancient_Metal_Mirror_Alloy_Revisited_Quasicrystalline_Nanoparticles_Observed

Ancient Metal Mirror Alloy Revisited: Quasicrystalline Nanoparticles Observed

Subhash Kak: ‘It is wrong to assume that consciousness is just a computation’

Isn't Sarasvati a navigable waterway of the civilization?

sarasvatI the devI and the sarasvatI the nadI -- Manasa Taramgini

Below the rim of the Susa storage pot, the contents are described in Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts: 1. Flowing water; 2. fish with fin; 3. aquatic + black drongo bird tied to a rope Rebus readings of these hieroglyphs/hypertexts signify metal implements from the Meluhha mint.

1. karaṇḍa‘duck’ (Samskrtam) rebus: karaḍā 'hard alloy'

2. pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu) पोळ pōḷa 'zebu'& pōlaḍu 'black drongo' signify polad 'steel'.3. kanku 'crane, egret, heron' rebus: kangar 'portable furnace'

Indus script hypertext of four-hooded cobra arching over membrum virile of Daimabad charioteer of Daimabad bronze chariot ca. 2000 BCE.

Koḍ. kundï mountain Rebus: खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.

koṭi banner, flag, streamer rebus: koD 'workshop'

1.baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: बढई baḍhī m ( H) A carpenter; barea 'merchant'; and

2. karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron'. Gaṇeśa is shown with a) cobrahood and b) tiger vestment to further add the semantic identifiers of:

Nataraja with 18 arms. gaṇa play drums. Gaṇeśa in dance-step.
Also in the cave are Karthikeya and Gaṇeśa

Harihara with dancing gaṇa.

Darpana Sundari, 'mirror beauties' on sculptures
Parvati as Lalita carrying a bronze mirror, with her sons Ganesa and Skanda, Orissa. 11th cent. Now in British Museum. 1872.0701.54

2. pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu) पोळ pōḷa 'zebu'& pōlaḍu 'black drongo' signify polad 'steel'.

3. kanku 'crane, egret, heron' rebus: kangar 'portable furnace'