Orthography of a strand on Indus Script Sign 397 and orthographic variants of twisted rope ANE artifacts signify dhā̆vaḍ 'iron smelter’

May 19, 2018, 8:32 pm

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ANE – Ancient Near East

dhāī˜ 'wisp of fibre in a twisted rope' (Lahnda); rebus: 'one in role of dice'.The circumference of a circle is slightly more than three times as long as its diameter. 

Sign 397 dhāī 'strand' PLUS vata, 'string'; together, the expression is:

a dotted circle + string which signifies dhā̆vaḍ ''iron-smelter' who performs the act of purification to win the wealth, the metal from mere earth and stone -- replicating the immeasurability of cosmic phenomena. This symbol is worn on the fillets of the Mohenjo-daro priest (on his forehead and on his right shoulder).

These signs (ASI 1977 Mahadevan corpus) may be semantic variants of the ‘dotted circle+ string’ orthography of Sign 397.

Field Symbol 118 is ‘dotted circle’.Field Symbol figure 123 These hypertexts are also likely to be related to the orthography (and semantics) of ‘dotted circle + string’. Field Symbol figure 123 is associated with a ‘portable furnace’ indicating the possibility of production of ‘crucible steel’..

 Cross-section view of a strand (say, through a bead), ‘dotted circle’: धातु ‘strand, element’ rebus: ‘primary element of the earth, mineral, metal’  dhātu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ(whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773)

dula‘duplicated’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’PLUS kolmo‘rice plant’ rebus: kolilmi ‘smithy, forge’. Thus, metal casting forge. 

kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' कर्णिक 'steersman, helmsman'

m2089A m2089BC

dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bell-metal'PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus bronze/bell-metal workshop.

meḍ ‘body’ rebus: mẽṛhẽt ‘metal’,meḍ ‘iron, copper (red ores)’ (Mu. Ho. Slavic) < mr̥du‘iron’ mr̥id‘earth, clay, loam’ (Samskrtam)

(Deśīnāmamālā)

m2090dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bell-metal' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus bronze/bell-metal workshop.

meḍ ‘body’ rebus: mẽṛhẽt ‘metal’,meḍ ‘iron, copper (red ores)’ (Mu. Ho. Slavic) < mr̥du‘iron’ mr̥id‘earth, clay, loam’ (Samskrtam)
(Deśīnāmamālā)

m2091m2092मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) Rebus: meḍ 'iron'

(lozenge) Split parenthesis: mũh, muhã 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.' PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'.

meḍ ‘body’ rebus: mẽṛhẽt ‘metal’,meḍ ‘iron, copper (red ores)’ (Mu. Ho. Slavic) < mr̥du‘iron’ mr̥id‘earth, clay, loam’ (Samskrtam)

(Deśīnāmamālā)

kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bell-metal'

kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' कर्णिक 'steersman, helmsman'

PLUS mũh, muhã 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.'

khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati) PLUS kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus: kaṁsa'bronze' (Telugu) kharaḍa ‘account day-book’

dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu = mineral (Santali) Hindi. dhāṭnā 'to send out, pour out, cast (metal)' (CDIAL 6771). 

m2093kolmo‘rice plant’ rebus: kolilmi ‘smithy, forge’. Thus, metal casting forge. 

dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

धातु ‘strand, element’ rebus: ‘primary element of the earth, mineral, metal’  dhātu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ(whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773)

 

m2094m2094A See m2093

m0352Am0352Cm0352Dm0352Em0352F dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' 

 

m2112adula‘duplicated’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’ PLUS muh’ingot’ PLUS धातु ‘strand, element’ rebus: ‘primary element of the earth, mineral, metal’  dhātu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ(whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773)

koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop' PLUS meḍ ‘body’ rebus: mẽṛhẽt ‘metal’,meḍ ‘iron, copper (red ores)’ (Mu. Ho. Slavic) < mr̥du‘iron’ mr̥id‘earth, clay, loam’ (Samskrtam)
(Deśīnāmamālā)

kāru pincers, tongs. Rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith'

kolom‘three’ rebus: kolimi‘smithy, forge’

kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bell-metal' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus bronze/bell-metal workshop.

m2113ABDधातु ‘strand, element’ rebus: ‘primary element of the earth, mineral, metal’  dhātu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ(whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773)

dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu = mineral (Santali) Hindi. dhāṭnā 'to send out, pour out, cast (metal)' (CDIAL 6771). 

dula ‘duplicated’ rebus; dul ‘metal casting’ PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'.

kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' कर्णिक 'steersman, helmsman'

m1653 ivory plaque1905

bhaṭā 'warrior' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'

kuṭila ‘bent’ CDIAL 3230 kuṭi— in cmpd. ‘curve’, kuṭika— ‘bent’ MBh. Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass'  Old English ār 'brass, copper, bronze' Old Norse eir 'brass, copper', German ehern 'brassy, bronzen'. kastīra n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. 2. *kastilla -- .1. H. kathīr m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; G. kathīr n. ʻ pewter ʼ.2. H. (Bhoj.?) kathīl, °lā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; M. kathīl n. ʻ tin ʼ, kathlẽ n. ʻ large tin vessel ʼ(CDIAL 2984) कौटिलिकः kauṭilikḥकौटिलिकः 1 A hunter.-2 A blacksmith  PLUS dula ‘duplicated’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’. Thus, bronze castings.

 m1654A ivory cubem1654B ivory cube m1654D ivory cube dhāˊtu'strand' Rebus: mineral: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773).

Ivory counters. Mohenjo-daro. The hypertexts signify creation of hard alloys from mineral ores. Hieroglyphs: karaṇḍa'duck' (Sanskrit) karaṛa'a very large aquatic bird' (Sindhi) Rebus: करडा[karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi)  

dhāˊtu'strand' Rebus: mineral: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773).

 Ivory rod, ivory plaque with dotted circles. Mohenjodaro. [Musee National De Arts Asiatiques Guimet, 1988-1989, Les cites oubliees de l’Indus Archeologie du Pakistan.]

 m1951a Hieroglyph: dhāˊtu'strand' Rebus: mineral: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā] Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. (CDIAL 6773).

 m1272

Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrowʼ(CDIAL 3023) rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'.

a

aren,'lid' Rebus: aduru 'native unsmelted metal’ PLUS ko

a 'one' rebus: ko

 'workshop'

kuṭila ‘bent’ CDIAL 3230 kuṭi— in cmpd. ‘curve’, kuṭika— ‘bent’ MBh. Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass'  Old English ār 'brass, copper, bronze' Old Norse eir 'brass, copper', German ehern 'brassy, bronzen'. kastīra n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. 2. *kastilla -- .1. H. kathīr m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; G. kathīr n. ʻ pewter ʼ.2. H. (Bhoj.?) kathīl, °lā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; M. kathīl n. ʻ tin ʼ, kathlẽ n. ʻ large tin vessel ʼ(CDIAL 2984) कौटिलिकः kauṭilikḥ

कौटिलिकः 1 A hunter.-2 A blacksmith  PLUS dula ‘duplicated’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’. Thus, bronze castings.

kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' कर्णिक 'steersman, helmsman' PLUS sal‘splinter’ rebus: sal‘workshop’

khaṇḍa 'division'. rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'

dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

m1350 2599ranku antelope’ rebus: ranku‘tin’

kuṭila ‘bent’ CDIAL 3230 kuṭi— in cmpd. ‘curve’, kuṭika— ‘bent’ MBh. Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass'  Old English ār 'brass, copper, bronze' Old Norse eir 'brass, copper', German ehern 'brassy, bronzen'. kastīra n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. 2. *kastilla -- .1. H. kathīr m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; G. kathīr n. ʻ pewter ʼ.2. H. (Bhoj.?) kathīl, °lā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; M. kathīl n. ʻ tin ʼ, kathlẽ n. ʻ large tin vessel ʼ(CDIAL 2984) कौटिलिकः kauṭilikḥ

कौटिलिकः 1 A hunter.-2 A blacksmith  PLUS dula ‘duplicated’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’. Thus, bronze castings.

kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' कर्णिक 'steersman, helmsman' PLUS खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon) rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'.

(lozenge) Split parenthesis: mũh, muhã 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.' PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus, ingot forge. 

adar‘harrow’ rebus: aduru‘native metal’

ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' (R̥gveda)

dhāi 'strand' (R̥gveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a guild of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

kolmo‘rice plant’ rebus: kolilmi ‘smithy, forge’

m1381A1m1381A2 1559 Seal Impression on a pot

dhāi 'strand' (R̥gveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

sal ‘splinter’ rebus: sal ‘workshop’

kāru pincers, tongs. Rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' 

dula ‘duplicated’ rebus: dul‘metal casting’ PLUS dhāḷ 'slanted stroke' rebus: dhāḷako 'ingot' PLUS kolom ‘three’ rebus: kolimi‘smithy, forge’

 m1648shell dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

m1684a Field symbol:  kõda ‘young bull-calf’. Rebus: kũdār ‘turner’. sangaḍa ‘lathe, furnace’. Rebus: samgara ‘living in the same house, guild’. sãgaḍa (double-canoe, catamaran) Hence, smith guild.

Meaning, artha of inscription: Trade (and metalwork wealth production) of kōnda sangara 'metalwork engraver'... PLUS (wealth categories cited.)

koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop'

dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'; dhāvḍā 'smelter'

kolmo‘rice plant’ rebus: kolilmi ‘smithy, forge’.

m1744 Field symbol:  kõda ‘young bull-calf’. Rebus: kũdār ‘turner’. sangaḍa ‘lathe, furnace’. Rebus: samgara ‘living in the same house, guild’. sãgaḍa (double-canoe, catamaran) Hence, smith guild.

Meaning, artha of inscription: Trade (and metalwork wealth production) of kōnda sangara 'metalwork engraver'... PLUS (wealth categories cited.)

aya, ayo'fish' rebus: aya'iron'ayas'metal' PLUS adaren 'lid' rebus: aduru'unsmelted metal'

मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’

aDaren,'lid' Rebus: aduru 'native unsmelted metal'.PLUS dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'; dhāvḍā 'smelter'

dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu = mineral (Santali) Hindi. dhāṭnā 'to send out, pour out, cast (metal)' (CDIAL 6771) PLUS खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon) rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'.

kamaḍha 'archer, bow' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati) PLUS kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus: kaṁsa 'bronze' (Telugu) kharaḍa ‘account day-book’

m1744 Field symbol:  kõda ‘young bull-calf’. Rebus: kũdār ‘turner’. sangaḍa ‘lathe, furnace’. Rebus: samgara ‘living in the same house, guild’. sãgaḍa (double-canoe, catamaran) Hence, smith guild.

Meaning, artha of inscription: Trade (and metalwork wealth production) of kōnda sangara 'metalwork engraver'... PLUS (wealth categories cited.)

aya, ayo'fish' rebus: aya'iron'ayas'metal' PLUS adaren 'lid' rebus: aduru'unsmelted metal'

मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’

a

aren,'lid' Rebus: aduru 'native unsmelted metal'.PLUS dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'; dhāvḍā 'smelter'

dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu = mineral (Santali) Hindi. dhāṭnā 'to send out, pour out, cast (metal)' (CDIAL 6771) PLUS खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon) rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'.

kamaḍha 'archer, bow' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati) PLUS kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus: kaṁsa 'bronze' (Telugu) kharaḍa ‘account day-book’

m1916a Field symbol: kul ‘tiger’ (Santali); kōlu id. (Telugu) kōlupuli = Bengal tiger (Telugu) कोल्हा[ kōlhā ] कोल्हें [kōlhēṃ] A jackal (Marathi) Rebus: kol, kolhe, ‘the koles, iron smelters speaking a language akin to that of Santals’ (Santali) kol ‘working in iron’ (Tamil)

adaren 'lid' rebus: aduru'unsmelted metal' PLUS dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'; dhāvḍā 'smelter' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus sal 'workshop' 

मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ PLUS meḍ ‘body’ rebus: mẽṛhẽt ‘metal’,meḍ ‘iron, copper (red ores)’ (Mu. Ho. Slavic) < mr̥du‘iron’ mr̥id‘earth, clay, loam’ (Samskrtam)
(Deśīnāmamālā)

śrētrī ʻladderʼ rebus: seṭṭha 'guild-master'

kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' कर्णिक 'steersman, helmsman'

m1120 2362  Field symbol: पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large. पोळी [ pōḷī ] dewlap. पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu, bos indicus taurus' rebus: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, ferrite ore: Fe3O4' 

aren,'lid' Rebus: aduru 'native unsmelted metal' PLUS dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a guild of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

kāru pincers, tongs. Rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' PLUS dula ‘duplicated’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’

kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' कर्णिक 'steersman, helmsman' 

m1688a Field symbol:  kõda ‘young bull-calf’. Rebus: kũdār ‘turner’. sangaḍa ‘lathe, furnace’. Rebus: samgara ‘living in the same house, guild’. sãgaḍa (double-canoe, catamaran) Hence, smith guild.

Meaning, artha of inscription: Trade (and metalwork wealth production) of kōnda sangara 'metalwork engraver'... PLUS (wealth categories cited.)

ranku‘liquid measure’ rebus: ranku‘tin’

kolom'three' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge'.

mēṭu 'height, eminence, hillock' rebus:  meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) PLUS kolom ‘thricee’ rebus: kolimi‘smithy, forge’

Circumscript dula‘two’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’ PLUS खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon) rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'

ayo, aya'fish' rebus: aya'iron'ayas'metal alloy' (R̥gveda)

dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773) PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'

bicha 'scorpion' Rebus: bica 'hematite, sandstone ferrite ore' PLUS PLUS मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Semantic determinant)

kamaḍha 'archer, bow' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage’

m1688a Field symbol:  kõda ‘young bull-calf’. Rebus: kũdār ‘turner’. sangaḍa ‘lathe, furnace’. Rebus: samgara ‘living in the same house, guild’. sãgaḍa (double-canoe, catamaran) Hence, smith guild.

Meaning, artha of inscription: Trade (and metalwork wealth production) of kōnda sangara 'metalwork engraver'... PLUS (wealth categories cited.)

ranku‘liquid measure’ rebus: ranku‘tin’

kolom'three' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge'.

mēṭu 'height, eminence, hillock' rebus:  meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) PLUS kolom ‘thricee’ rebus: kolimi‘smithy, forge’

Circumscript dula‘two’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’ PLUS खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon) rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'

ayo, aya'fish' rebus: aya'iron'ayas'metal alloy' (R̥gveda)

dhāi 'strand' (Rigveda) tri- dhāu 'three strands' rebus: dhāu 'red ore'. त्रिधातुः (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- ferrite ores PLUS copper ore M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773) PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'

bicha 'scorpion' Rebus: bica 'hematite, sandstone ferrite ore' PLUS PLUS मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Semantic determinant)

kamaḍha 'archer, bow' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage’

Read on...https://tinyurl.com/y8se5as6

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Bring back Durga pratimā for worship in Bharat

May 19, 2018, 10:05 pm

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LOT 317

A BLACK STONE STELE OF DURGA MAHISHASURAMARDINI

NORTHEAST INDIA, PALA PERIOD, LATE 10TH/EARLY 11TH CENTURY

Price realised

USD 912,500

Estimate

USD 800,000 - USD 1,200,000

A BLACK STONE STELE OF DURGA MAHISHASURAMARDINI
NORTHEAST INDIA, PALA PERIOD, LATE 10TH/EARLY 11TH CENTURY
51 ½ in. (131 cm.) high

Provenance

Private collection, Germany, since 1970, by repute.
Consigned to Spink & Son, London, in July 1986.
New York art market. 
Acquired by the present owner from the above on 2 January 2007.

https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Lot/a-black-stone-stele-of-durga-mahishasuramardini-6129307-details.aspx

Archaeology of Kharoṣṭī proves the script to be a legacy of Indus Script wealth accounting ledgers rendered in Meluhha Indian sprachbund

May 20, 2018, 9:46 am

≫ Next: Harosheth-hagoyim, 'Smithy of nations', Kharoṣṭī syllabary on gold ingots of Dalverzin-tepe & Gold pendant with melā 'Ink-writing' of Indus Script explains milakkhu 'copper', meluhha 'speech'

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https://tinyurl.com/ydhggrfr

This monograph posits and validates hypotheses that 

1. Kharoṣṭī writing system is a continuum, a legacy of Indus Script wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork rendered in Meluhha (Indian sprachbund, speech  union); 

2. the compound word Kharoṣṭī  (khār + ओष्ठी oṣṭhī) itself  signifies 'blacksmith lip (expression)'; and 

3. kharoṣṭī syllabic system is closely aligned to Aramaic syllabary. 

The most significant evidence is provided by gold ingots discovered in Dal'verzin-Tepe (Uzbekistan, northern Bactria) engraved with their weights in Kharoṣṭī script. This is remarkable evidence of continuum of the raison d'etre of Indus Script which is principally a wealth accounting system of ledgers detailing metalwork catalogues. 

खरोष्टी f. a kind of written character or alphabet Lalit. x , 29; ; °रोट्ठि Jain.

" First of all, the historical circumstances of the development of Kharosthl from Aramaic are easily explained by reference to the Achaemenian conquests in the western borderlands of India; as noted by Biihler, "[T]he territory of the Kharosthl corresponds very closely with the extent of the portion of India, presumably held by the Persians" (OKA 47 = OIBA 95). Since Aramaic served as the lingua franca of the Persian empire, it is easy to imagine how the Aramaic alphabet could have been adapted to the local Indian language, namely, Gandhari, as "the result of the intercourse between the offices of the Satraps and of the native authorities" (OKA 49 = OIBA 97).(In this connection Biihler also referred to the use of the Iranian word dipi 'writing' and various derivatives thereof in the KharosthT versions of the Asokan edicts (OKA 46-7 = OIBA 95)... the three main criteria—historical, paleographic, and systemic—for establishing genetic connections between scripts are satisfied in the derivation of KharosthI from Aramaic. The theory has accordingly been accepted by nearly all authorities on the subject, including many of those (e.g., Ojha, BPLM 31-7) who do not accept a Semitic origin for Brahmi."There are indications that the Kharoṣṭī syllabic writing system (with 252 signs for consonant and vowel combinations) is concordant with the Aramaic alphabetic writing system. More than 150 inscriptions in Indian scripts, such as Kharoṣṭī, Brāhmī and other languages (Prākrit and Sanskrit or hybrid Sanskrit), were found at Kara Tepe, as well as 35 at Faiaz Tepe.

(Source: (Salomon, Richard. 1999. Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Langua. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 58).

The use of a unique symbol for the numeral '20' is significant. This numeral 20, and the numeral 4 are definitive landing points in Kharoṣṭhī numeration because the signifiers for 30 are the combination of symbols for 20 and 10; similarly, the signifiers for 40 are the duplication of the symbol for 20, the signifiers for 80 are the quadruplication of the symbol for 20. Similarly, the symbols for numbers between 4 and 9 are formed by combinations of the symbol for 4; thus, symbol for 5 is symbol 4 PLUS symbol for 1; symbol for 9 is 4+4+1 which is duplication of symbol 4 (to arrive at 8) PLUS symbol for 1.

These two landing points in numeration have unique Meluhha (Indian sprachbund) words:

I suggest that this numeral 20 in Kharoṣṭhī is a Meluhha (Indian sprachbund) word: 

*kōḍi ʻa score, twentyʼ. [J. Przyluski RoczOrj iv 231 ← Austro -- as. (Mahle kuri, Birhar kuṛi, Kharia kori, Juang koḍi: prob. same as word for ʻ man ʼ, i.e. ʻ 20 fingers ʼ) whence → Drav. (Kurukh kūrī, Malto koṛi, Kui kōḍe)] K. kuri f. ʻ a score ʼ, S. P. koṛī f. (PhonPj 118 < kṓṭi -- 1), N. kori, A. kuri, B. kuṛi, Or. koṛi, H. koṛī f., G. kũḍī f., M. koḍ, °ḍī f. S.kcch. koḍī ʻ 20 ʼ(CDIAL 3503).

This suggests that Kharoṣṭhī is a script which is derived from the Indus Script which is principally premised on Meluhha (Indian sprachbund) words and expressions such as kuṭhi 'smelter', kanka, karṇika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī 'supercargo', karnīka 'accountant'.

gaṇḍaka m. ʻ a coin worth four cowries ʼ lex., ʻ method of counting by fours ʼ W. [← Mu. Przyluski RoczOrj iv 234] S. g̠aṇḍho m. ʻ four in counting ʼ; P. gaṇḍā m. ʻ four cowries ʼ; B. Or. H. gaṇḍā m. ʻ a group of four, four cowries ʼ; M. gaṇḍā m. ʻ aggregate of four cowries or pice ʼ.Addenda: gaṇḍaka -- . -- With *du -- 2: OP. dugāṇā m. ʻ coin worth eight cowries ʼ.(CDIAL 4001)

The landing point in numeration is suggested by the following etymon in Santali: Four one-s constitute :gaṇḍa, numeral 4 or group 4.

A second argument for suggesting that the inventors of Kharoṣṭhī syllabic script are inventors of Indus Script is the fact that almost all the Indus Script inscriptions are wealth accounting ledgers or metalwor catalogues. The word Kharoṣṭhī is an expression composed of two words: khar + ṓṣṭha.  These are signified in Indu Script with rebus readings follows: khār 'blacksmith' PLUS ṓṣṭha m. ʻlipʼ (R̥gveda).. Thus, together, the combined expression Kharoṣṭhī can be semantically interpreted as 'blacksmith lip (expression)', to explain that the script is intended to signify the spoken forms of words of blacksmiths (metalwork artisans).

khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü -ब&above;ठू&below; । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy -बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru -द्वकुरु‍&below; । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji -ग&above;जि&below; or -güjü -ग&above;जू&below; । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü -हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü -कूरू‍&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu -क&above;टु&below; । लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü -क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 -म्य&above;च&dotbelow;ू&below; । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3] ), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu -न्यचिवु&below; । लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun] ), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -च्&dotbelow;ञ । लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil.(Kashmiri)

ṓṣṭha m. ʻ lip ʼ RV. Pa. oṭṭha -- m., Pk. oṭṭha -- , uṭ°, hoṭṭha -- , huṭ° m., Gy. pal. ōšt, eur. vušt m.; Ash. ọ̈̄ṣṭ, Wg. ṳ̄ṣṭ, wūṣṭ, Kt. yūṣṭ (prob. ← Ind. NTS xiii 232); Paš. lauṛ. ūṭh f. ← Ind. (?), gul. ūṣṭ ʻ lip ʼ, dar. weg. uṣṭ ʻ bank of a river ʼ (IIFL iii 3, 22); Kal. rumb. ūṣṭ, uṣṭ ʻ lip ʼ; Sh. ō̃ṭṷ m. ʻ upper lip ʼ, ō̃ṭi̯ f. ʻ lower lip ʼ (→ Ḍ ōṭe pl.); K. wuṭh, dat. °ṭhas m. ʻ lip ʼ; L. hoṭh m., P. hoṭh, hõṭh m., WPah. bhal. oṭh m., jaun. hōṭh, Ku. ū̃ṭh, gng. ōṭh, N. oṭh, A. ō̃ṭh, MB. Or. oṭha, Mth. Bhoj. oṭh, Aw. lakh. ō̃ṭh, hō̃ṭh, H. oṭh, õṭh, hoṭh, hõṭh m., G. oṭh, hoṭh m., M. oṭh, õṭh, hoṭ m., Si. oṭa. ōṣṭhī -- .Addenda: ṓṣṭha -- : WPah.poet. oṭhḷu m. ʻ lip ʼ, hoṭṛu, kṭg. hóṭṭh, kc. ōṭh, Garh. hoṭh, hō̃ṭ.(CDIAL 2563) †*adhaōṣṭha -- ʻ lower lip ʼ (cf. adharauṣṭha -- m. n. ʻ upper and lower lip, the lips ʼ Kālid.) suggested by K. R. Norman (quoted by J. D. Smith Vīsaḷa 335). [adháḥ, ṓṣṭha -- ]Pk. hōṭṭha -- , huṭṭha -- ʻ lip ʼ, P. H. G. hoṭh, M. hoṭ m.(CDIAL 245a) †*adhamauṣṭha -- ʻ lower lip ʼ. [Cf. adharauṣṭha -- s.v. †*adhaōṣṭha -- : adhamá -- , ṓṣṭha -- ] P. WPah.jaun. H. Aw.lakh. hõṭh m.; rather < or X ṓṣṭha -- : Ku. ū̃ṭh, gng. ō̃ṭh, A. M. õṭh. (CDIAL 247a).

The expression Kharoṣṭhī is found in Judges (Old Bible) included in the expression harosheth-hagoyim which is pronounced as: Khar-o'-sheth hagoyim. Hence, I suggest that the expression harosheth-hagoyim is derived from the Meluhha expression Kharoṣṭhī goya. Thus, Harosheth hagoyim < kharoṣṭhī goya = khār 'blacksmith' PLUS ओष्ठी f. (in a compound the ओ of ओष्ठ forms with a preceding अ either वृद्धि औ , or गुण ओ Ka1ty. on Pa1n2. 6-1 , 94) ; ([cf. Zd. aoshtra ; O. Pruss. austa , " mouth " ; O. Slav. usta , " mouth. "])PLUS goya 'gotra, kinsman, guild', thus, 'blacksmith speech guild'. This blacksmith speech guild are Meluhha speakers as demonstrated in the decipherment of 8000 Indus Script inscriptions.

"Harosheth-hagoyim was the home of general Sisera, who was killed by Jael during the war off Naphtali and Zebulunagainst Jabin, king of Hazor in Canaan (Judges 4:2). The lead players of this war on the side of Israel were the general Barak and the judge Deborah. The name Harosheth-hagoyim occurs three times in the fourth chapter of Judges (Judges 4:2, 4:13 and 4:16)." http://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Harosheth.html#.WrR6FYhubIU The expression harosheth hagoyim is interpreted as 'smithy of nations'.

For a discussion on the work done by this 'smithy of nations' see: 

Harosheth Hagoyim: Lady on the chariot lynchpin is Meluhha, Indus Script hypertext kharoṣṭhī goya, 'blacksmith speech community'  https://tinyurl.com/yc3zndc6 This monogrpah provides the following picture of a bronze lynch-pin of a chariot: "A 3,200-year-old round bronze tablet with a carved face of a woman, found at the El-ahwat excavation site near Katzir in central Israel, is part of a linchpin that held the wheel of a battle chariot in place. This was revealed by scientist Oren Cohen of the Zinman Institute of Archaeology at the University of Haifa. “Such an identification reinforces the claim that a high-ranking Egyptian or local ruler was based at this location, and is likely to support the theory that the site is Harosheth Haggoyim, the home town of Sisera, as mentioned in Judges 4-5,” says Prof. Zertal."

https://web.archive.org/web/20100705114906/http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/?p=3309

Woman on the chariot lynchpin is Meluhha lady, the bronze act is the work of Meluhha smiths of Harosheth Hagoyim. See S.Kalyanaraman's book published on Amazon for detailed arguments and evidences of comparable images.

The woman on the lynchpin is an Indus Script hypertext: kola 'woman' rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolle 'blacksmith' kolhe 'smelter'.  Thus, the product from a smelter by a Meluhha blacksmith, ironsmith.

*skabha ʻ post, peg ʼ. [√skambh]Kal. Kho. iskow ʻ peg ʼ BelvalkarVol 86 with (?)(CDIAL 13638) Rebus: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner. Thus, the pin signifies: kolhe kammaṭa 'smelter mint' (product)

See: 

Archaeological mystery solved: Site of Harosheth Haggoyim. Mystery of Sea-Peoples identity yet to be solved. http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2011/11/archaeological-mystery-solved-site-of.html

gōtrá n. ʻ cowpen, enclosure ʼ RV., ʻ family, clan ʼ ChUp., gōtrā -- f. ʻ herd of cows ʼ Pāṇ. 2. gōtraka -- n. ʻ family ʼ Yājñ. [gṓ -- ]1. Pa. gotta -- n. ʻ clan ʼ, Pk. gotta -- , gutta -- , amg. gōya -- n.; Gau. gū ʻ house ʼ (in Kaf. and Dard. several other words for ʻ cowpen ʼ > ʻ house ʼ: *gōśrayaṇa -- , gōṣṭhá -- , *gōstha -- (?), ghōṣa -- ); Pr. gūˊṭu ʻ cow ʼ; S. g̠oṭru m. ʻ parentage ʼ, L. got f. ʻ clan ʼ, P. gotar, got f.; Ku. N. got ʻ family ʼ; A. got -- nāti ʻ relatives ʼ; B. got ʻ clan ʼ; Or. gota ʻ family, relative ʼ; Bhoj. H. got m. ʻ family, clan ʼ, G. got n.; M. got ʻ clan, relatives ʼ; -- Si. gota ʻ clan, family ʼ ← Pa.2. B. H. gotā m. ʻ relative ʼ.Garh. got ʻ clan ʼ; -- A. goṭāiba ʻ to collect ʼ(CDIAL 4279). (Z) [kORa] {N} ``^sun ^clan''. #17410.(Z) {N} ``^girl of the ^sun ^clan''. | `child', cf. `daughter'. #17420. (Munda etyma) gōtrin m. ʻ relative ʼ Vet., gōtrika -- ʻ relating to a family ʼ Jain. [gōtrá -- ]Pk. gotti -- , °ia -- , guttiya -- m. ʻ kinsman ʼ; S. g̠oṭrī ʻ related ʼ, P. gotī; N. goti, gotiyā bhai ʻ kinsman ʼ, Or. goti; H. gotī ʻ belonging to the same clan ʼ, G. gotrī, M. gotī; -- N. goyā, guĩyā bhai ʻ very close friend ʼ, H. goiyã̄, guiyā m.f. ʻ companion ʼ (cf. Pk. amg. gōya -- < gōtrá -- )?(CDIAL 4281) Goy (Hebrew: גוי‎, regular plural goyim גוים or גויים) is a Hebrew biblical term for "nation". .. In the Torah/Hebrew Bible, goy and its variants appear over 550 times in reference to Israelites and to Gentile nations. The first recorded usage of goy occurs in Genesis10:5 and applies innocuously to non-Israelite nations. The first mention in relation to the Israelites comes in Genesis 12:2, when God promises Abraham that his descendants will form a goy gadol ("great nation"). On one occasion, the Jewish people are referred to as a goy kadosh, a "holy nation." While the earlier books of the Hebrew Bible often use goy to describe the Israelites, the later ones tend to apply the term to other nations…The Rabbinic literature conceives of the nations (goyim) of the world as numbering seventy, each with a distinct language. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goy

Aramaic-kharoṣṭī interactions was noticed and recorded precisely by Monier-Williams: "Perhaps a more likely conjecture is that Hindu traders, passing up the Persian Gulf, had commercial dealings with Aramaean traders in Mesopotamia, and, becoming acquainted with their graphic methods, imported the knowledge and use of some of their phonetic signs into India. This view was first propounded in the writings of the learned Professor A. Weber of Berlin, and has recently been ably argued in a work on 'Indische Palaeographie', by the late Professor Buhler of Vienna (published in 1896). If Indian Pandits will consult that most interesting standard work, they will there find a table exhibiting the most ancient of known Phoenician letters side by side with the kindred symbols used in the Moabite inscriptions of King Mesha -- which, as before intimated, is known to be as old as about 850 B.C. -- while in parallel columns, and in a series of other excellent tables, are given the corresponding phonographic symbols from the numerous inscriptions of King Asoka scattered everywhere throughout Central and Northern India." (Monier-Williams, Introduction, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.xxv) http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/MWScanpdf/mw010029.pdf

Vima Kadphises (Kushan language: Οοημο Καδφισης, Early Middle Chinese: 阎膏珍 pron. jiam-kaw-trin) was a Kushan emperor from "approximately 90–100 CE. According to the Rabatak inscription, he was the son of Vima Takto and the father "of Kanishka. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vima_Kadphises

'smelter'

The hypertext ligatured to dotted circle (referred to as śrīvatsa or tri-ratna) on tens of thousands of Ujjain and other coins from Ancient Indian mints, is explained as: dul aya kammaṭa ’metal casting, alloy metal mint’.

The gold coin of Vima Kadphises contains an Indus Script Hypertext: dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS aya khambhaṛā (Lahnda) rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS kammaṭa 'mint' (Kannada)== 'fish PLUS fin' rebus: ayas kammaṭa 'metal mint'  PLUS dotted circle: I have suggested that a dotted circle hieroglyph is a cross-section of a strand of rope: S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f. Rebus: dhāˊtu n. ʻsubstance ʼ (R̥gveda), m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour)ʼ; dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ(Marathi) धवड [ dhavaḍa ] m (Or धावड) A class or an individual of it. They are smelters of iron (Marathi).  Thus, the hypertextsignifies: kammaṭa 'mint' PLUS dhāvaḍa, धावड 'iron smelter'.

Obverse	King standing facing, sacrificing at altar left, tamgha and club in right field, Greek legend around: BACIΛEVC BACIΛEWN CWTHP MEΓAC OOhMO KAΔΦICHC
Reverse	Oesho (Siva) standing facing, Bull Nandi behind, nandipada at left, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa rajadirajasa sarvaloga isvarasa mahisvarasa vima kathphishasa tratara
Date	c. 112-127 CE
Weight	8.89 gm.
Diameter	21 mm.
Die axis	12 o'clock
Reference	Göbl 763, MAC 3048

"Kharoshti (Bactrian) was the ancient north Afghan language which is a derivative of Aramaic, which in turn is a derivative of Hebrew. It was unique among the Iranian language in the sense it is written using Greek scripts, a legacy which Alexander the Great had left behind after his victory over Bactrian in the fourth century BC. Soon after the conquest of Bactria by the nomadic people, Greek was the official language and script for administrative purposes. It's new rulers (Kushanas) Kujula Kadphises, Vima Takto (Kujula's son), Vima Kadphises continued the usage of Greek script to write the local language. It is Kanishka who adopted Bactrian as the language on his coins, thus became a cause for Greek language to disappear slowly. Kanishka introduced the Iranian title, Shaonanoshao - "King of Kings" in place of Greek form Basileos Basileon. Bactrian emerged as the most important language throughout the Kushana empire at least for six centuries even after the fall of Kushanas. Certain Brahmi letters seems to have distinguished in the coins of successive rulers." Govindraya Prabhu in: http://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/kushana/kus_language.html

"Archaeological excavations in recent decades in southern Uzbekistan (formerly USSR) have yielded several dozen specimens of Indie inscriptions from various sites in the region of ancient Bactria, mainly Kara Tepe and Faiaz Tepe near Termez in Uzbekistan. (A few have also been found at Pendzhikent, Adzhina Tepe, and other sites in neighboring Tajikistan.)...The newest discoveries in this region have included dedicatory KharosthI inscriptions on stone and clay from Termez (Vestnik Drevnei Istorii 1974.1, 116-26) and on gold ingots from Dal'verzin-Tepe (Vestnik Drevnei Istorii 1976.1, 72-9)... "Old Saka" era (epoch uncertain) It is generally agreed that the dates in an unspecified era of several early Kharosthi (and perhaps a few Brahml) inscriptions of the Scythian period cannot, on geographical and historical grounds, be attributed to known historical reckonings such as the Vikrama and Saka eras. Such inscriptions are ascribed to a hypothetical reckoning generally referred to as the "Old Saka" era, to distinguish it from the Saka era of A.D. 78 (5.5.1.4). Among the earlier inscriptions usually attributed to this Old Saka era are the Taxila copper plate of the year 78 (CII 2.1, 23-9) and the Taxila silver vase of 191 (CII 2.1, 81-2). Several later Kharosthi inscriptions with dates in the three hundreds of an unspecified era, for example, Skarah DherT (399;CII2.1,124-7) are also usually attributed to this era, as is a Brahml Jaina inscription from Mathura dated 299 (IA 37, 33-4).M(Salomon, Richard. 1999. Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Langua. New York: Oxford University Press, p.153-154, 181).

Vertogradova, V. V. Indiiskaia Epigrafika iz Kara-tepe v Starom Termeze: Problemy Deshifrovki i Interpretatsii [Indian Epigraphy from Kara-tepe in Old Termez: Problems of Decipherment and Interpretation]. Moscow: Vostochnaia Literatura, 1995.

Dalverzin Tepe (Uzbekistan) KharosthI gold ingot inss.: M. I. Vorob'eva-Desiatovskaia, Vestnik Drevnei Istorii 1976.1, 72-9; B. N. Mukherjee, JAS 23, 1981, 163-4. 130, 154 

Kara Tepe (Termez [q.v.], Uzbekistan) bowl ins.: O. von Hiniiber, Studies in Indo-Asian Art and Culture 6, 1980, 123-5. 154

Kara Tepe Brahml and KharosthI inss.: M. I. Vorob'eva-Desiatovskaia, "Pamiatniki pis'mom kxaroshtxi i braxmi iz sovetskoi Srednei Azii" [see bibliography]. 154  

Termez (KaraTepe and Faiz Tepe) Kharosthi inss.: M. I. Vorob'eva-Desiatovskaia, Vestnik Drevnei htorii 1974.1, 116-26; V. V. Vertogradova, Indiiskaia Epigrafika iz Karatepe v Starom Termeze. 153-54

"DAL’VERZIN TEPE, a large site in southern Uzbekistan located not far from the bank of the Surkhan­darya river near Denau, a small city approximately 60 km northeast of Termez; it has yielded valuable data on the civilization and arts of northern Bactria and Tokharistan...Historical and archeological data suggest that this town was the original capital of the people designated in the Chinese chronicle Zan Han-shu as Yue-zhi (Yueh-chih), who founded it “on the northern side of the river Gui-Shui (Amu Darya)” (Bichurin, pp. 183-84). It was in the Kushan period (1st-3rd centuries C.E.) that the town experienced its most active period of urban and defensive construction; the Greco-Bac­trian nucleus was rebuilt as a citadel, and the fortifica­tion walls became almost twice as thick...In one house a treasure of gold objects was discovered; it included necklaces, torques, bracelets, earrings, and gold in­gots, some of them engraved with their weights in Kharoṣṭhī script. Both local and imported gems were found, as well as whole sets of beautifully executed Kushan ceramics.":(G. A. Pugachenkova, “DAL’VERZIN TEPE,” Encyclopædia Iranica, VI/6, pp. 614-615, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dalverzin-tepe) 

"Dalverzin Tepe is an ancient archaeological site located in the northern part of the region of Bactria, southern modern Uzbekistan, about 120 km north-east of Termez.It is the location of Hellenistic constructions made during the time of the Greco-Bactrians, perhaps a small fortress. In the first century BC it grew to a substantial city. The place flourished especially under the Kushan Empire. The city was well organised with quarters for the administration, for religious buildings, living quarters and industrial areas. In one of the houses was found a treasure hoard of many golden objects. After the 3rd century the city declined." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalverzin_Tepe

Harosheth-hagoyim, 'Smithy of nations', Kharoṣṭī syllabary on gold ingots of Dalverzin-tepe & Gold pendant with melā 'Ink-writing' of Indus Script explains milakkhu 'copper', meluhha 'speech'

May 21, 2018, 5:39 am

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https://tinyurl.com/yat83f5t

Kharoṣṭī syllabary on gold ingots of Dalverzin-tepe and gold pendant with Indus Script inscription attest to the function served by the two writing systems (of ca. 3rd cent. & 3rd millennium BCE) to create trade data archives, wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork artisans & seafaring merchants of Sarasvati Civilization.

The functions of these artisans from Meluhha get recorded in Judges (Old Bible 4:2) included in the expression harosheth-hagoyim which is pronounced as: Khar-o'-sheth hagoyim. The expression harosheth-hagoyim signifies 'smithy of nations'; the cognate Meluhha expression Kharoṣṭī goya signifies khār 'blacksmith' + oṣṭī ओष्ठी 'lip' + goya'gotra, guild' = 'blacksmith speech guild'. The semantics of Kharoṣṭī (writing system) are also relatable to Epigraphist R. Salomon's discussions on an inscribed silver Buddhist reliquary of the time (5-6 CE) of king Kharaosta and prince Indravarman. 

Coin of Kharahostes (or possibly his son Mujatria),^[1] in the name of Azes.
Obv. Azes riding, with corrupted Greek legend (WEIΛON WEOΛΛWN IOCAAC) for ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΑΖΟΥ "King of Kings Azes", and Buddhist Triratna symbol behind the head of the king.
Rev. City goddess Tyche standing left holding cornucopia and raised right hand. Kharoshthi legendMaharajasa mahatasa Dhramakisa Rajatirajasa Ayasa "The Great king followower of the Dharma, King of Kings Azes"Kharahostes or Kharaostasa was an Indo-Scythian ruler (probably a satrap) in the northern Indian subcontinent around 10 BCE – 10 CE. He is known from his coins, often in the name of Azes II, and possibly from an inscription on the Mathura lion capital, although another satrap Kharaostes has been discovered in Mathura. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharahostes

Gold pendant with Indus Script inscription is a professional calling card -- describing professional competence and ownership of specified items of property -- of the wearer of the pendant.

The writing in free-hand is done with a needle-like instrument of the pendant and using melā 'ink'. I suggest that this competence of writing gave the name, 'Meluhha' in cuneiform records, to identify the artisans of Sarasvati Civilization.

melā any black substance used for writing , ink L. ; antimony , eye-salve L. ; the indigo plant L.

	melāmandā	f. an ink-bottle L.
	melāmaṇi	mf. ink L.
	melāmbu	(%{melā7mbu}) n. ink L.
	melānanda	m. (and %{ā} f.) an inkbottle L. (cf. %{-mandA}) ; %{-dAya} Nom. A1. %{-yatc} , to become an ink-bottle Va1s.
	melāndhu	or (%{mi4ā7ndh-}) , an ink-bottle L.
	melāndhuka	(%{mi4ā7ndh-}) , an ink-bottle L. http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche

Three gold writing needles with nibs of Mohenjo-daro to engrave or paint Indus Script hieroglyphs are presented. 

Inscription painted on one of the needles is a gold pendant of Mohenjo-daro deciphered is a professional calling card of a metalworker.

The decipherment of the inscription on one of these three gold pendants points to the function of the writing system as a catalogue proclaiming the profession and metalwork competence of the pendant wearer.

I would, therefore, suggest that the three gold pendants with needle-like endings were 'writing' instruments to engrave or paint Indus Script hieroglyphs.

Ivory rod, Needle-endings of Gold pendants as writing instruments of Indus Script scribes

3 Gold pendants: Jewelry Marshall 1931: 521, pl. CLI, B3

The comments made by John Marshall on three curious objects at bottom right-hand corner of Pl. CLI, B3: “Personal ornaments…Jewellery and Necklaces…Netting needles (?) Three very curious objects found with the studs and the necklace appear to be netting needles of gold. They are shown just above the ear-studs and also in the lower right-hand corner of Pl. CLI, B, 3-5 and 12-14. The largest of these needles (E 2044a) is 2.5 inches long. The handle is hollow and cylindrical and tapers slightly, being 0.2 inch in diameter at the needle-end. The needle point is 0.5 inch long and has a roughly shaped oval eye at its base. The medium sized needle (E 2044b) is 2.5 inches long and of the same pattern: but the cap that closed the end of the handle is now missing. The point which has an oval eye at its base is 0.3 inch long. The third needle (E 2044c) is only 1.7 inches long with the point 0.3 inch in length. Its handle, which is otherwise similar to those of the other two needles, is badly dented. The exact use of these three objects is open to question, for they could have been used for either sewing or netting. The handles seem to have been drawn, as there is no sign of a soldered line, but the caps at either end were soldered on with an alloy that is very little lighter in colour than the gold itself. The two smaller needles have evidently been held between the teeth on more than one occasion.” (p.521)

Evidently, Marshall has missed out on the incription written in paint, as a free-hand writing, over one of the objects: Pl. CLI, B3.

This is an extraordinary evidence of the Indus writing system written down, with hieroglyphs inscribed using a coloured paint, on an object.

What could these three objects be? Sewing needles? Netting needles?

I surmise that all the three gold objects could be pendants tagged to other jewellery such as necklaces. The pendants were perhaps worn with a thread of fibre passing through the eye of the needle-like ending of the pendants.

Why needle-like endings? Maybe, the pendants were used as 'writing' devices 1) either to engrave hieroglyphs into objects; 2)or to use the needle-ending like a metal nib to dip into a colored ink or liquid or zinc-oxide paste or cinnabar-paste. This possibility is suggested by the use of cinnabar in ancient China to paint into lacquer plates or bowls. Cinnabar or powdered mercury sulphide was the primary colorant lof lacquer vessels. "Known in China during the late Neolithic period (ca. 5000–ca. 2000 B.C.), lacquer was an important artistic medium from the sixth century B.C. to the second century A.D. and was often colored with minerals such as carbon (black), orpiment (yellow), and cinnabar (red) and used to paint the surfaces of sculptures and vessels...a red lacquer background is carved with thin lines that are filled with gold, gold powder, or lacquer that has been tinted black, green, or yellow." http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2009/cinnabar

Red paint on the tip of an ivory rod discovered in Lothal in a toilet set of combs, suggests that women of the civilization could have used the ivory rods to inscribe Indus Script hieroglyphs.

This 2.5 inch long gold pendant has a 0.3 inch nib; its ending is shaped like a sewing or netting needle. It bears an inscription painted in Indus Script. This inscription is deciphered as a proclamation of metalwork competence.
Gold pendant with Indus script inscription. The pendant is needle-like with cylindrical body. It is made from a hollow cylinder with soldered ends and perforated joint. Museum No. MM 1374.50.271; Marshall 1931: 521, pl. CLI, B3 (After Fig. 4.17 a,b in: JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 196). 

Writtein in 'ink' is the Indus Script inscription.

kanac'corner' Rebus: kancu'bronze'; sal'splinter' Rebus: sal'workshop'; dhatu'cross road' Rebus: dhatu'mineral'; gaṇḍa'four' Rebus: khaṇḍa'implements'; kolmo'three' Rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge'; Vikalpa: ?ea ‘seven’ (Santali); rebus: ?eh-ku ‘steel’ (Te.)aya 'fish' Rebus: aya'iron'(Gujarati) ayas'metal' (Rigveda) PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Thus, the inscription is: kancu sal (bronze workshop), dhatu aya kaṇḍ kolami mineral, metal, furnace/fire-altar smithy.

The inscription is a professional calling card -- describing professional competence and ownership of specified items of property -- of the wearer of the pendant.

Kharoṣṭī syllabary on gold ingots of Dalverzin-tepe (Southern Uzbekistan)

Addendum to 

Archaeology of Kharoṣṭī proves the script to be a legacy of Indus Script wealth accounting ledgers rendered in Meluhha Indian sprachbund https://tinyurl.com/ydhggrfr

In 1976, Vorob’eva-Desyatovskaya firmly identified three abbreviations sa, dra and dha on gold bars – each weighing about 17.53 grams --discovered in Dalverzin-tepe (Southern Uzbekistan) excavations. (M.I. Vorob’eva-Desyatovskaya, nadpisi pis’mom kcharostchi na olotych predmetach iz dal’verzin-tepe (Inscriptions in the Kharoshthi alphabet on gold objects from Dalverzin-Tepe), Vestnik drevnej istorii, 1976, 72-79.) 

These abbreviations are in Kharoṣṭhī syllabary. Vorob’eva-Desyatovskaya also posited the ratios within this set of three weight measures signified on the gold bars (ingots).

The weights are:

Sa -sadera (Attic stater)

Dra -drakhma (trakhma)

Dha -dhanea, dhanaia ordhane. (On some gold-bars of Dalverzin-tepe dhanaia occurs twice in the fraction aḍha dhanaiasa, ‘half of a dhanaia’.

On the reliquary of Kharaosta-Indravarman, the weight unit māṣa is recognized by Salomon:‘śa (for sadera) 20 44 ana (for dhana) 4 ma 11’ (R. Salomon, An inscribed silverBuddhist reliquary of the time of king Kharaosta and prince Indravarman, in: Journal of the American Oriental Society, 116, 1996, pp. 418-452, p.432). See: Henry Falk, 2001, Names and weights inscribed on some vessels from the silver hoard in:Journal des Savants  Année 2001  2  pp. 308-319 https://www.persee.fr/doc/jds_0021-8103_2001_num_2_1_1646

The weight ratios seen from the Dalverzin-tepe gold bars are:

4 aṇḍika = 1 dhanea

6 dhanea = 1 drakhma

4 drakhma = 1 sadera

"The stater (/ˈsteɪtər/ or /stɑːˈtɛər/;Ancient Greek: στατήρ IPA: [statɛ̌ːr], literally "weight") was an ancient coin used in various regions of Greece. The term is also used for similar coins, imitating Greek staters, minted elsewhere in ancient Europe...The stater, as a Greek silver currency, first as ingots, and later as coins, circulated from the 8th century BC to AD 50. The earliest known stamped stater (having the mark of some authority in the form of a picture or words) is an electrum turtle coin, struck at Aegina that dates to about 700 BC.It is on display at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. According to Robin Lane Fox, the stater as a weight unit was borrowed by the Euboean stater weighing 16.8 grams (0.59 oz) from the Phoenician shekel, which had about the same weight as a stater (7.0 g, 0.25 oz) and was also one fiftieth of a mina." 

Early 6th-century BC Lydian electrum coin denominated as ​¹⁄₃stater

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stater

"Greek drachma...Initially a drachma was a fistful (a "grasp") of six oboloí or obeloí(metal sticks, literally "spits") used as a form of currency as early as 1100 BC and being a form of "bullion": bronze, copper, or iron ingots denominated by weight...The Athenian tetradrachm was called owl...The 5th century BC Athenian tetradrachm ("four drachmae") coin was perhaps the most widely used coin in the Greek world prior to the time of Alexander the Great (along with the Corinthian stater)." 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_drachma

Ancient India had specific terms to signify weight measures of ancient coins.

Karsha = ¼ Pala

Pala = 320 krishnala or Rati. Thus, Karsha or Pana or Suvarna - 80 Rati

Average weight of Rati = 1.83 grains. Thus, Karshapana = 146.4 grains in weight.

Mashaka and Kakini are sub-divisions of Karsha.

5 Krishnala or gunja = 1 masha

16 masha = 1 Karsha = 1 Suvarna or 80 Ratis or Gunjas.

pala1 n. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ Mn., ʻ a fluid measure ʼ Nir., ʻ a measure of time ʼ Gaṇit. Pa. pala -- (in cmpds.) ʻ a partic. weight ʼ, Pk. pala -- n.; K. pal m. ʻ a weight (= 4 toals) ʼ; P. pal m. ʻ a second of time ʼ, palā m. ʻ a ladle holding 1/4 seer of oil ʼ; Ku. pal ʻ a measure of capacity, a second ʼ, palī ʻ spoon to take oil out of a jar, spoonful ʼ; N. pal, palo ʻ a moment ʼ, A. B. pal; Or. paḷa ʻ a weight (= 4 tolas), a second ʼ; H. pal, palā m. ʻ a moment ʼ, G. paḷ n. f.; M. paḷ n. ʻ a weight, a second ʼ, paḷī f. ʻ ladle ʼ, °ḷā m. ʻ large do. ʼ; Si. pala ʻ a weight of gold or silver (= 4 karṣas), asecond ʼ; -- H. palā m., °lī f. ʻ ladle ʼ (see s.v. parighá -- ).(CDIAL 7952)

kārṣāpaṇá m.n. ʻ a partic. coin or weight equivalent to one karṣa ʼ. [karṣa -- m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ Suśr. (cf. OPers. karša -- ) and paṇa -- 2 or āpana -- EWA i 176 and 202 with lit. But from early MIA. kā̆hā°]Pa. kahāpaṇa -- m.n. ʻ a partic. weight and coin ʼ, KharI. kahapana -- , Pk. karisāvaṇa -- m.n., kāhāvaṇa -- , kah° m.; A. kaoṇ ʻ a coin equivalent to 1 rupee or 16 paṇas or 1280 cowries ʼ; B. kāhan ʻ 16 paṇas ʼ; Or. kāhā̆ṇaʻ 16 annas or 1280 cowries ʼ, H. kahāwan, kāhan, kahān m.; OSi. (brāhmī) kahavaṇa, Si. kahavuṇa, °vaṇuva ʻ a partic. weight ʼ.(CDIAL 3080) 

ṭaṅka1 m.n. ʻ weight of 4 māṣas ʼ ŚārṅgS., ʻ a stamped coin ʼ Hit., °aka -- m. ʻ a silver coin ʼ lex. 2. ṭaṅga -- 1 m.n. ʻ weight of 4 māṣas ʼ lex. 3. *ṭakka -- 1. [Bloch IA 59 ←Tatar tanka (Khot. tanka = kārṣāpaṇa S. Konow Saka Studies 184)]1. Pk. ṭaṁka -- m. ʻ a stamped coin ʼ; N. ṭã̄k ʻ button ʼ (lw. with k); Or. ṭaṅkā ʻ rupee ʼ; H. ṭã̄k m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ; G. ṭã̄k f. ʻ a partic. weight equivalent to 1/72 ser ʼ; M. ṭã̄k m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ.2. H. ṭaṅgā m. ʻ a coin worth 2 paisā ʼ.3. Sh. ṭăk m. ʻ button ʼ; S. ṭako m. ʻ two paisā ʼ, pl. ʻ money in general ʼ, ṭrakaku ʻ worth two paisā ʼ, m. ʻ coin of that value ʼ; P. ṭakā m. ʻ a copper coin ʼ; Ku. ṭākā ʻ two paisā ʼ; N. ṭako ʻ money ʼ; A. ṭakā ʻ rupee ʼ, B. ṭākā; Mth. ṭakā, ṭakkā, ṭakwā ʻ money ʼ, Bhoj. ṭākā; H. ṭakā m. ʻ two paisā coin ʼ, G. ṭakɔ m., M. ṭakā m.*uṭṭaṅka -- , *ṣaṭṭaṅka -- , ṭaṅkaśālā -- .Addenda: ṭaṅka -- 1 [H. W. Bailey in letter of 6.11.66: Khot. tanka is not = kārṣāpaṇa -- but is older Khot. ttandäka ʻ so much ʼ < *tantika -- ](CDIAL 5426)

*ardhamāṣaka ʻ half the weight māṣaka ʼ. [ardhá -- 2, māṣaka -- ]Pa. aḍḍhamāsaka -- m. ʻ half a bean as a measure of value or weight ʼ; Si. aḍumahu, °massa ʻ a coin worth half a massa ʼ.(CDIAL 669)*ardhamaṇa ʻ half a maṇa ʼ. [ardhá -- 2, maṇa -- ]P. addhaṇ, dhauṇ m. ʻ half a maund ʼ; H. adhwan, adhaun, dhaun m. ʻ half a maund, half of anything ʼ.(CDIAL 667)

*ardhamāna ʻ a half measure ʼ. [ardhá -- 2, māˊna -- 2]Pa. addhamāna -- n. ʻ a partic. measure equivalent to half a māna ʼ; OSi. aḍmanā, Si. aḍamanāva ʻ a partic. measure of liquids or grain (CDIAL 668)ʼ.

Trade with Melu-h-ha in cuneiform records, milakkhu (Pali) signify Indus Script scribes using mēlā 'ink, antimony, indigo dye'

May 21, 2018, 8:27 pm

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≪ Previous: Harosheth-hagoyim, 'Smithy of nations', Kharoṣṭī syllabary on gold ingots of Dalverzin-tepe & Gold pendant with melā 'Ink-writing' of Indus Script explains milakkhu 'copper', meluhha 'speech'

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https://tinyurl.com/ycjfprkd

The ancient fame of Indian Ink as a writing medium, provides leads to unravel the semantics of mel-uh-ha. Languages retain ancient memories with extraordinary fidelity and help us retrace wading through the mists of time, the extraordinary enterprise and endeavours of early explorers, early metalworkers and seafaring maritime traders.

Maritime activity of Sarasvati Civilization is evidenced by cuneiform records. Three regions associated with boats during the reign of Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334 = 2279 BCE) are: Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha. Dilmun is Bahrain, Magan is Oman/United Arab Emirates. Meluhha is Sarasvati Civilzation. That ships from Sarasvati Civilization reached Agade is seen from the boast of Sargon in an inscription: "He moored the ships of Meluhha, the ships of Magan and the ships of Dilmun at the quay of Akkad." Gregory Possehl refers to 76 cuneiform documents which mention the word 'meluhha' in the context of catalogues of products of trade: stones and pearls, carnelian; lapis lazuli, pearls; wood and plants, fresh dates (gis-ab-ba-me-luh-ha; mesu wood; animals, birds (as figurines dar me-luh-ha, dar me-luh-ha mushen the black bird which could be pōlaḍu, 'black drango' rebus: pōlaḍu 'steel' shown perched on zebu which is pōla 'zebu' rebus: pōla 'magnetite, ferrite ore'), dog, cat; metals -- copper, gold;Meluhhan-style objects: ships, furniture, bird figurines (Possehl, Gregory L., 1996. Meluhha. pp. 133–208 in: Reade, Julian (ed.), The Indian Ocean in antiquity. London: Kegan Paul International in association with the British Museum). The fame of Sarasvati Civiliation for carnelian is well-known. Agate (chalcedony) is associated with the Deccan trap of Gujarat and South India (Narmada river, riverbeds of Saurashtra). Lapis lazuli is a product of Meluhha, Badakshan, Sar-i-Sangh mines of northeast Afghanistan. Lazurite is a member of the sodalite group of minerals, notes Daniel Potts. (Daniel T. Potts, ed., 2012, A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Volume 1, p.763)

The word melaka मेलक, mēlā signifies an association of people. The melaka are also scribes who use mēlā मेला 'ink' and produce mēlā मेला 'indigo plant dye'. మేలిమి mēlimi. n. Fineness, excellence. Pure gold. తప్త కాంచనము, అపరంజి. మేలిమి or మేలి adj. Fine, excellent. B. X. 207. The word mēlā मेला also signifies antimony, a metal which is commonly used to create alloys with lead. 

Association with navigation is also seen in expressions: மாலுமி mālumi , n. cf. U. muallin. [T. mālimi.] Captain of a vessel; pilot, navigator; கப்பலோட்டி. (பிங்.)మాలిమి mālimi mālimi. [Tel.] n. Familiarity, love, attachment, affection. వాత్సల్యము. చిన్నవారితో చేయు స్నేహము, ముచ్చిక. The science of navigation, ఓడనడుపు శాస్త్రము. మాలిమి or మాలిమికాడు a navigator, ఓడ నడపు శాస్త్ర మెరిగినవాడు. Ta. maḷḷu rafter. Ma. mallu rafters, side-posts, sloping beams. (DEDR 4759)

Thus, I suggest that the word mēlā मेला which signifies ink (writing medium), indigo dye, antimony and gold (mēlimi) signifies Indian sprachbund (speech union) speakers as melu-h-ha. This word has cognates milakkhu (Pali) and mleccha (Samskrtam) as speakers who tend to mispronounce words (as viewed by literati who comment on grammatical errors and mispronunciations which mar the sacredness of yajña processes which enjoin purity of expression in chantings with error-free utterances of mantras). It is significant that milakkhu (Pali) and mleccha (Samskrtam) signify 'copper (workers)', relating the expression to artisans engaged in metalwork. In Pali, milakkhu relates to use of dye in the expression, milakkhu rajana: milakkhu [the Prk. form (A -- Māgadhī, cp. Pischel, Prk. Gr. 105, 233) for P. milakkha] a non -- Aryan D iii.264; Th 1, 965 (˚rajana "of foreign dye" trsl.; Kern, Toev. s. v. translates "vermiljoen kleurig"). As milakkhuka at Vin iii.28, where Bdhgh expls by "Andha -- Damil'ādi." 

The मेलक, mēlā association of people working with metals and dyes and engaged in 'writing with mēlā मेला 'ink' are identified as speakers of melu-h-ha (cuneiform records) and mleccha (ancient Indian texts) -- both melu-h-ha and mleccha refer to speech forms (language). This is the reason why almost all 8000+ Indus Script inscriptions have been successfully deciphered as wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork catalogues to support maritime trade and further the Tin-Bronze Revolution characterised by extensive trade transactions in an extensive area spread from Hanoi (Vietnam) to Haifa (Israel), along the Ancient Maritime Tin Route of the Indian Ocean Rim and waterways of Himalayan Rivers, Mekong, Irrawaddy, Salween, Brahmaputra, Ganga, Sarasvati, Sindhu, wateways of Persian Gulf. Tigris-Euphrates rivers, Meditarranean Sea. This riverine, maritime trade is the most significant aspect of the Tin-Bronze Industrial Revolution which started ca. 5th millennium BCE, at least 2 millennia earlier than the Silk Route interactions among people (Tocharian Indo-European speakers attested by the word ancu'iron' cognate amśu 'Soma') and trade transactions.

The most significant feature inferred from hundreds of archaeological sites of Sarasvati Civilization is that the artisans/merchants worked together to engage in industrial-level production of metals/minerals and maritime trade. The formation of artisan/merchant guilds attested in early guilds called śreṇi in ancient Indian tradition point to the commonwealth form of corporations which produced the wealth of the civilization and documented the wealth in over 8000 inscriptions which are wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork. The key word for such association of people is melaka मेलक, mēlā and this is the word which finds mention in the expression melu-h-ha in cuneiform records of Ancient Near East.


The word mēlā मेला signifies ink, indigo plant and the wordமேலார் mēlār signifies 'warriors'. Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Chinese Turkestan. (Sircar, D.C. (1996).Indian epigraphy. Motilal Banarsidass, p.206) "About 1,600 years ago, a popular ink recipe was created. The recipe was used for centuries. Iron salts, such as ferrous sulfate (made by treating iron with sulfuric acid), were mixed with tannin from gallnuts (they grow on trees) and a thickener. When first put to paper, this ink is bluish-black. Over time it fades to a dull brown.Scribes in medieval Europe (about AD 800 to 1500) wrote principally on parchment or vellum. One 12th century ink recipe called for hawthorn branches to be cut in the spring and left to dry. Then the bark was pounded from the branches and soaked in water for eight days. The water was boiled until it thickened and turned black. Wine was added during boiling. The ink was poured into special bags and hung in the sun. Once dried, the mixture was mixed with wine and iron salt over a fire to make the final ink." (Sharon J.Huntington, "Think Ink! Christian Science Monitor, September 21, 2004.")

mēlā मेला signifies "Antimony which is a chemical element with symbol Sb (from Latin: stibium) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb₂S₃). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name, kohl....Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead, increasing its hardness and mechanical strength. For most applications involving lead, varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal." 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony "Kohl (Arabic: كُحْل‎) is an ancient eye cosmetic, traditionally made by grinding stibnite (Sb₂S₃) for similar purposes to charcoal used in mascara. It is widely used in the Middle East, North Africa, the Mediterranean, Eastern Europe, Latin America, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Horn of Africa, and parts of West Africa as eyeliner to contour and/or darken the eyelids and as mascara for the eyelashes. It is worn mostly by women, but also by some men and children. Kohl has also been used in India as a cosmetic for a long time. In addition, mothers would apply kohl to their infants' eyes soon after birth. Some did this to "strengthen the child's eyes", and others believed it could prevent the child from being cursed by the evil eye." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohl_(cosmetics)

"The color indigo is named after the indigo dye derived from the plant Indigofera tinctoria and related species...Species of Indigofera were cultivated in East Asia, Egypt, India, and Peru in antiquity. The earliest direct evidence for the use of indigo dates to around 4000 BC and comes from Huaca Prieta, in contemporary Peru.^[4] Pliny the Elder mentions the Indus Valley Civilization as the source of the dye after which it was named. It was imported from there in small quantities via the Silk Road.^[5] The Ancient Greek term for the dye was Ἰνδικὸν φάρμακον ("Sindhi dye"), which, adopted to Latin as indicum and via Portuguese gave rise to the modern word indigo." 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo
Extract of natural indigo applied to paper नील mf(आ or ई ; cf. Pa1n2. 4-1 , 42 Va1rtt. Va1m. v , 2 , 48)n. of a dark colour , (esp.) dark-blue or dark-green or black RV. &c; dyed with indigo Pa1n2. 4-2 , 2 Va1rtt. 2 Pat.; n. indigo Ya1jn5. iii. 38; antimony; नीला f. the indigo plant (Indigofera Tinctoria) L. (cf. नीली)(Monier-Williams)

"Ink pigments are both inorganic and organic. Most red writing inks are a dilute solution of the red dye eosin. Blue colour can be obtained with substituted triphenylmethane dyes. Many permanent writing inks contain iron sulfate and gallic and tannic acids as well as dyes."
https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/ink-chemistry/3002158.article (Joy Kunjappu, Ink Chemistry)

I suggest that the word 'melu-h-ha' used in cuneiform records signifies artisans who had engaged in metals/minerals trade in Ancient Near East and had the competence to produce written documents using black Indian ink and other dye-based writing media. Such a writing ink was called  mēlā मेला which also signifies 'indigo dye'. The suffix -ha in ancient Persian signifies a plural and hence a group of people.Thus, the expression melu-h-ha in cuneiform records is semantically explained as 'speakers of milakkhu (with mis-pronunciations)'spoken form of மிழலை¹ miḻalai, n. < மிழற்று-. cf. mlīṣṭa. Prattle, lisp; மழலைச்சொல். (சூடா.), traders of milakkhu 'copper', writers in ink'. మేలుబంతి mēlu-banti. n. The top line, the copy set to a schoolboy learning to write. A pattern, கீழ்மேலா-தல் kīḻ-mēl-ā-, v. intr. < id. +. [M. Tu. kīḻmēl.] To be turned upside down, topsy-turvy; தலைகீழாதல். பள்ளந்தா ழுறுபுனலிற் கீழ்மேலாக (திருவாச. 5, 21).

The hypertext on Shu-ilishu cylinder seal to signify a meluhha (copper merchant, meluhha speaker) is composed with a goat held by the merchant: mr̤eka, melh 'goat' (Telugu, Brahui) rebus: milakkhu, mleccha-mukha'copper' (Pali.Samskrtam). It is significant that the meluhha merchant is accompanied by a woman carrying a liquid measure: kola'woman' rebus:kol'working in iron', kolhe 'smelter' PLUS ranku'liquid measure' rebus: ranku'tin'.

I also suggest that in Sarasvati Civilization from 4th millennium BCE, indigo-dye based ink was used to write on birchbark. Trade in indigo and source of materials to make the carbon pigment in India ink are possibly the inventions of Meluhha speakers who used the word mēlā मेला to signify both indigo dye used to dye cotton fabrics and ink used as a writing medium using a stylus. See the monograph which presents a gold pendant with a nib with a 'written, painted' Indus Script inscription: 

Harosheth-hagoyim, 'Smithy of nations', Kharoṣṭī syllabary on gold ingots of Dalverzin-tepe & Gold pendant with melā 'Ink-writing' of Indus Script explains milakkhu 'copper', meluhha 'speech' 

https://tinyurl.com/yat83f5t 

Gold pendant with Indus script inscription. The pendant is needle-like with cylindrical body. It is made from a hollow cylinder with soldered ends and perforated joint. Museum No. MM 1374.50.271; Marshall 1931: 521, pl. CLI, B3 (After Fig. 4.17 a,b in: JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 196). 

Writtein in 'ink' is the Indus Script inscription.

kanac 'corner' Rebus: kancu 'bronze'; sal 'splinter' Rebus: sal 'workshop'; dhatu 'cross road' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral'; gaṇḍa 'four' Rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'; kolmo 'three' Rebus:kolami 'smithy, forge'; Vikalpa: ?ea ‘seven’ (Santali); rebus: ?eh-ku ‘steel’ (Te.)aya 'fish' Rebus:aya 'iron'(Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Rigveda) PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Thus, the inscription is: kancu sal (bronze workshop), dhatu aya kaṇḍ kolami mineral, metal, furnace/fire-altar smithy.

The inscription is a professional calling card -- describing professional competence and ownership of specified items of property -- of the wearer of the pendant.

Ink drawing of Ganesha under an umbrella (early 19th century). Ink, called masi, an admixture of several chemical components, has been used in India since at least the 4th century BC.^[2] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early South India.^[3] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink. (Sircar, D.C. (1996).Indian epigraphy. Motilal Banarsidass, p.67)

"Ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments or dyes and is used to color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, or quill. Thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing.
Ink can be a complex medium, composed of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate matter, fluorescents, and other materials. The components of inks serve many purposes; the ink's carrier, colorants, and other additives affect the flow and thickness of the ink and its dry appearance...Many ancient cultures around the world have independently discovered and formulated inks for the purposes of writing and drawing. The knowledge of the inks, their recipes and the techniques for their production comes from archaeological analysis or from written text itself. Ink was used in Ancient Egypt for writing and drawing on papyrus from at least the 26th century BC. The history of Chinese inks can be traced to the 23rd century BC, with the utilization of natural plant (plant dyes), animal, and mineral inks based on such materials as graphite that were ground with water and applied with ink brushes...The process of making India ink was known in China as early as the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, during Neolithic China." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink



மெல்லம்புலம்பன் mellampulampaṉ , n. < மெல்லம்புலம்பு. Chief of a maritime tract; நெய்தனிலத்தலைவன். மெல்லம்புலம்பன் பிரிந் தென (குறுந். 5). (பிங்.) மெல்லம்புலம்பு mellam-pulampu , n. < மெல் + புலம்பு. Maritime tract; நெய்தனிலம். (திருக்கோ. 379, உரை.)

மெல்லெழுத்து mel-l-eḻuttu, n. < id. +. (Gram.) The six consonants, ṅ, ñ, ṇ, n, m, ṉ, classified as soft or nasal consonants, dist. fr. val-l-eḻuttuiṭai-y-eḻuttu; மெல்லோசை யுடைய ங், ஞ், ண், ந், ம், ன், என்ற எழுத்துக்கள். (தொல். எழுத். 20.)

mēlḥ मेलः [मिल्-घञ्] 1 Meeting, union, intercourse. -2 A fair. -3 A company, an assembly. -4 Conjunction (of planets). (Also मेलक). mēlanam मेलनम् [मिल्-ल्युट्] 1 Union, junction. -2 Associa- tion. -3 Mixture. -4 An encounter; a fight. mēlā मेला [मिल्-णिच् अच् टाप्] 1 Union, intercourse. -2 A company, assembly, a society.  mēla m. ʻ meeting ʼ Kathās., °aka -- m. Pañcat. 2. *mēḍa -- . [√mil]1. Pa. mēlā -- f. ʻ meeting ʼ, Pk. mēla -- , °aa -- m., K. myūlu m.; L. mēlā m. ʻ assembly ʼ, awāṇ. mēl ʻ union ʼ; P. mel m. ʻ friendship ʼ, melā, mellā m. ʻ crowd, fair ʼ, melī m. ʻ wedding guest ʼ; Ku. mel m. ʻ meeting ʼ, melo m. ʻ task ʼ, pl. myālā ʻ fair ʼ; N. mel ʻ agreement ʼ, melo ʻ allotted task ʼ; A. B. mel ʻ meeting, fair ʼ; Or. meḷa ʻ meeting ʼ, meḷā ʻ assembly ʼ; H. melā m. ʻ fair ʼ; Marw. meḷo m. ʻ embrace ʼ; G. M. meḷ m. ʻ agreement ʼ; G. meḷɔ m. ʻ assembly, fair ʼ, M. meḷā m.2. S. meṛu m. ʻ crowd ʼ, meṛo m. ʻ assembly, fair, agreement ʼ, meṛī f. ʻ deputation ʼ; Si. meḷa, mela ʻ meeting, collection ʼ.Addenda: mēla -- : WPah.kṭg. (kc.) meḷɔ m. ʻ market, fair ʼ; Garh. meḷāk ʻ collection ʼ, meḷu ʻ congregation, fair ʼ.(CDIAL 10331) mēlayati, mēlāpayati ʻ brings together ʼ Kāv. 2. *mēḍayati, [√mil] 1. Pk. mēlaï, melā̆vaï ʻ collects ʼ; K. mēlun ʻ to be joined with, be met with, be found, enjoy (a woman) ʼ; L. mēlaṇ, pres. part. milēnda tr. ʻ to unite ʼ, P. meḷnā; B. melā ʻ to close ʼ; OAw. meraï ʻ mixes, fixes, puts ʼ; H. melnā ʻ to convene ʼ; OMarw. melaï ʻ places, puts ʼ. -- X lábhatē: WPah.bhal. m&tildemacrepsilon;haṇū ʻ to get, obtain ʼ, pāḍ. mēaṇ.2. S. meṛaṇu ʻ to cause to meet, collect, sweep, cause to copulate ʼ; N. meṛyāunu ʻ to compare ʼ (lw. with ṛ).Addenda: mēlayati. 2. *mēḍayati: WPah.kṭg. méṛhnõ intr. ʻ to gather ʼ, lōg meṛia ʻ people gather ʼ.(CDIAL 10332) mēl मेल् । संयोगः m. meeting, coming together, assemblage (Gr.Gr. 124); union, intercourse; mixture, mixing together (Śiv. 12); agreement, reconciliation; concord, intimacy, friendship, acquaintance (Gr.M.); .M.). ; an interview; metting (Gr.M.). -gēl -गेल् । मैत्रीप्रीत्याद्याचरणम्m. close intimacy, close alliance; familiarity. -- gaʦhun -- गछ&dotbelow;ुन् । योगापत्तिः m.inf. friendship, intimacy to occur; a meeting (of two persons) to occur; mixing together, trituration together to occur; and so on through the various meanings of mēl. -- thawun -- थवुन् । संयोगपरि<-> पालनम् m.inf. to have or keep up an intimate friendship, to associate (with) (Gr.M.).(Kashmiri)

मषि mf. (or f(°षी). ; cf. below) powder , (esp.) a black powder used to paint the eyes , soot , lampblack , ink Ka1v. Var. Sus3r. &c (Monier-Williams) The अम्बु  suffix in mēlā अम्बु 'ink' is related to: अंबवारंग ambavāraṅga m (अंबा Mango, रंग Color.) A color or dye prepared with indigo and turmeric-colored zedoary. (Marathi) mēlā मेला [मिल्-णिच् अच् टाप्] Antimony. -The indigo plant. - Ink. -A musical scale. -Comp. -अन्धुकः, -नन्दः, -नन्दा, -मन्दा an ink-stand, ink- bottle. -अम्बु ink. மேலை² mēlai, n. (யாழ். அக.) 1. Black bismuth. See கருநிமிளை. 2. Ink; மை. மையூட்டு-தல் mai-y-ūṭṭu-, v. intr. < id. +. 1. See மையிடு-, 1. (W.) 2. To ink a written ōla; ஓலைக்கு மைதடவுதல். மையெழுத்து mai-y-eḻuttu , n. < id. +. Writing, in ink; மையால் எழுதும் எழுத்து. மை யெழுத்தூசியின் மாண்டதோர் தோட்டிடை . . . கரந் தெழுத்திட்டாள் (சீவக. 1767).மையெழுது-தல் mai-y-eḻutu-, v. intr. < id. +. See மையிடு-, 1. மையெழுதிப் பொட் டெழுதி (கூளப்ப. 132). máṣi m.f. (MW.), °ṣī -- f. (VarBr̥S.), masi -- m.f. (Lalit.), °sī -- f. (Suśr.), maśĭ̄ -- (BHSk.) ʻ black powder, lampblack, ink ʼ Suśr. [← Drav., Tam. mai &c.]Pa. masi -- ʻ soot ʼ; Pk. masi -- f. ʻ soot, ink ʼ; Ku. masī ʻ ink ʼ, moso ʻ soot ʼ, gng. mwaś; N. masi ʻ ink ʼ, moso ʻ soot ʼ; A. mahi ʻ ink ʼ, B. Or. masi; Mth. masī, mosi ʻ ink ʼ, misi ʻ black dye ʼ; OAw. masi f. ʻ ink ʼ, H. mas, masī f. (→ P. L. mass f., S. masu m.); G. meś, me_ś, masī f. ʻ soot ʼ, M. mas m.f., maśīf.; Ko. maśi ʻ lampblack ʼ; Si. mäsi -- dā̤ ʻ a black mineral substance used in medicine ʼ. -- Deriv. Or. masiā ʻ dirty ʼ. -- See miśrita -- s.v. miśrayati. maṣidhāna (masi°) n., masidhānī -- , f. ʻ inkstand ʼ lex. [máṣi -- , dhāˊna -- ]N. masyāni, °sini ʻ inkpot ʼ, Mth. masihānī, H. masīhān f.(CDIAL 9920, 9921) bōla-mīl बोल-मील् । मषीविशेषः f. a kind of ink, usually employed for writing in the Persian character. It is made up with burnt rice, beeswax, and other ingredients.mīl मील् । मषी f. (sg. dat. mīli मीलि), ink (Gr.M., W. 8, L. 461). -- karüñü -- कर&above;ञू‍&below; । राश्यादेः अङ्कनम् f.inf. to mark a heap (of grain or the like to prevent theft). mīli-onduru

mīli-onduru मीलि-अं&above;दुरु&below; । मषीपात्रम् m. an ink-pot, an ink-bottle; cf. andar. -bônu -बोनु‍&below; । मषीपात्रम् m. an ink-vessel, an ink-bottle; cf. bāna 1. -ḍṻs -डू&above;स् । मषीलगुडः m. an ink-stick, a stick used for mixing ink. -dawāth -दवाथ् f. an inkstand, a pencase and ink-bottle combined (W. 33). -goru -ग&above;रु‍&below; । मषीसंपादकः m. an ink-maker, an ink-seller. -kalam -कलम् । मषीलेखनी m. an ink-pen, a pen suitable for writing with ink; a pen full of ink. -ʦrüṭü -च&dotbelow;्र&above;टू‍&below; । मषीगुलिकाविशेषःf. a pill of dry ink, from which ink is made by mixture with water. -wôñu -वोञु‍‍&below; । मषीजलम् m. ink-water, the water with which an inkbottle is washed, inky water. -wörü -वा&above;रू&below;‍ । मषीधानिका f. an ink-vessel, a jar in which ink is stored (not an ink-bottle for writing).(Kashmiri)

Ta. mai collyrium for the eye, ink, ink-paste, black pigment, black, blackness, darkness, spot as of moon, blemish, dark cloud; fault, sin; dirt; (-pp-, -tt-) to become black, be dim; maippu black, blackness. Ma. mai blackness, antimony. To. moy- (moc-) to become dark, become evening; moy ashes (in songs); moQp darkness before dawn or after sunset. Ka. masi dirt, impurity, the black of culinary vessels, soot, lamp-black, black colour, blackness, ink, antimony. Koḍ. masi charcoal. Tu. maji coal, black powder, ink; maiyi a kind of collyrium; maivaripuni to paint the eyes with antimony or collyrium; maipè, maippè a black or dark-coloured fowl. Kor. (O.) majji soot. Te. masi blackness, sootishness, soot, charcoal, ink. Nk. (Ch.) mas soot. Go. (G.) masi id. (Voc. 2760). Kur. maī˜s ink. Cf. 4627 Ta. macaṅku, 4781 Ta. mā, and 4792 Ta. mācu. / Cf. Skt. maṣi- ink, lamp-black; Turner, CDIAL, no. 9920; ? cf. Skt. mecaka- black, dark blue(DEDR 5101)

mēlāpakḥ मेलापकः 1 Uniting, bringing together, collecting. -2 Conjunction of planets. -3 A crowd, assembly.
mēlāyanam मेलायनम् Combination, junction.மேளனம் mēḷaṉam , n. < mēlana. 1. Mixing; கலக்கை. 2. (Mus.) Attunement; concord, harmony; இசைக்கருவிகளின் கருதியியைபு. 3. Crowd, assembly; கூட்டம்.மேளி-த்தல் mēḷi- , 11 v. tr. < id. [K. meḷisu.] To assemble, collect; கூட்டுதல். (இலக். அக.)

மேலா¹ mēlā , n. perh. மேல். Superior or higher authorities; மேற்பட்ட அதிகாரஸ்தானம். மேலாவிலிருந்து உத்தரவு வந்தது. Loc.மேலாயினார் mēl-āyiṉār , n. < மேல் + ஆ&sup6;-. [K. mēlādavaru.] Elders; உயர்ந்தோர். இது மேலாயினாரிடங்களிற் பூப்புணர்த்துமாறு (இறை. 43, பக். 175).மேலார் mēlār
, n. < id. 1. See மேலாயினார். 2. Warriors; வீரர். மேலாரிறையமருள் (பு. வெ. 9, 8).மேலோர் mēlōr

, n. < id. 1. Those who are seated high, as on horses; மேலிடத்தோர். காழோர் கையற மேலோ ரின்றி (மணி. 4, 35). 2. The great, those of superior rank or caste; உயர்ந்தோர். மேலோர் மூவர்க்கும் புணர்த்த கரணம் (தொல். பொ. 144). 3. Poets; men of learning; புலவர். (பிங்.) 4. Ancestors, ancients; முன்னோர். 5. Celestials; வானோர். (சூடா.)

மேலகம் mēl-akam , n. < id. +. See மேல் வீடு, 2. (W.)மேல்வீடு mēl-vīṭu , n. < id. +. 1. Storeyed house; மெத்தைவீடு. (W.) 2. Upper storey; மாடி. Loc. 3. Heaven; மோட்சம். (ஈடு.)

மேல்வாசகம் mēl-vācakam , n. < id. +. [M. mēlvācakam.] See மேல்விலாசம். Loc.மேல்விலாசம் mēl-vilācam , n. < id. +. Superscription, address, as of a letter; கடிதப் புறத்தே கடிதத்தைப்பெறுவோரின் ஊர் பெயர் முதலி யன குறிக்கும் வாசகம்.
மேல்வாரம் mēl-vāram

, n. < மேல் +. [K. mēlvāra, M. mēlvāram.] The proportion of the crop or produce claimed by the landholder, dist. fr. kuṭi-vāram; விளைவிலிருந்து சுவான்தாருக்குக் கொடுத்தற்குரிய தானியம். (C. G.)

மேல்வாயிலக்கம் mēlvāy-ilakkam

, n. < id. +. 1. Enumeration of whole numbers, as from one upwards, dist. fr. kīḻvāy-ilakkam; ஒன்றிலிருந்து மேலெண்ணப்படும் எண்முறை. 2. (Arith.) Numerator of a fraction; பின்னத்தில் மேலெழுதப்படும் எண். (W.)

மேல்சாந்தி mēl-cānti

, n. < id. +. Chief priest, in a temple; கோயிலின் தலைமைப்பூச கன். (T. A. S. ii. 48, 49.)

மேல் mēl
, [T. K. mēlu, M. mēl.] n. 1. That which is above or over; upper side; surface; மேலிடம். ஒலை . . . தொட்டு மேற்பொறியை நீக்கி (சீவக. 2143). 2. Extra; அதிகப்படி. 3. Sky; வானம். (சூடா.) மேலுயர் கைலையை (கம்பரா. யுத்த. மந்திரப். 80). 4. West; மேற்கு. (பிங்.) 5. Head; தலை. மேவா ருயிருணங்க மேன்முடித்த பிள்ளையன் (பு. வெ. 2, 8). 6. Leadership; superiority; தலைமை. மேலதிகாரி. 7. Excellence; மேன்மை. (பிங்.) 8. The great; உயர்ந் தோர். இன்னாமை நோக்கிப் பசைதல் பரியாதா மேல் (நாலடி, 60). 9. Body; உடம்பு. மேலுக்குச் சுகமில்லை. 10. Knowledge; science; வித்தை. (தக்கயாகப். 545, உரை.) 11. Place; இடம். (பிங்.) 

మేళనము mēḷanamu mēḷanamu. [Skt.] n. Mecting, union, coming together. Connection, affinity, as of two languages. కలియడము, కూడిక. మేళము mēḷamu. n. Union, కూడిక. A set of musical instruments, వాద్యముల౛త. A band of musicians, a set of dancers or singers. The music used by them. వేషగాండ్రయొక్కయు నటుల యొక్క యుగుంపు, పాటగాండ్రగుంపు. ఆ పెండ్లికి నాలుగుమేళములను పిలిపించినారు they sent for four bands to come to the wedding. అది యిప్పుడు మేళానికి పోవడములేదు she does not now dance. పోకిరిమేళము a pack of rascals. మేళతాళములు instrumental music. మేళవించు or మేళగించు mēḷa-vinṭsu. v. n. To unite, be joined, ౛తగూడు, కలియు. v. a. To mix, unite in harmony, as the sound of various instruments. కలుపు, ౛తకుర్చు, శ్రుతికూర్చు. "అతడు నపుడు పాటకాయి తముగ, వీణెమేళవించి వెలుపలి మొసలనునిచిలోనికరగి." KP. ii. 98. "వీరశృంగారములు మేళవించునట్టి, చెలువమునవిందు ముఖులు." Jaimini. v. 125. 

Indus Script cipher continuum, inscriptions in Kharoṣṭhī Alphabet on Gold Objects from Dalverzin-tepe -- Vorobyeva-Desyatovskaya Margarita I

May 21, 2018, 10:25 pm

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https://tinyurl.com/ybckcjwp

This is an addendum to: 

Trade with Melu-h-ha in cuneiform records, milakkhu (Pali) signify Indus Script scribes using mēlā 'ink, antimony, indigo dye' https://tinyurl.com/ycjfprkd

I am grateful to  Eugenia Andreeva, Head of the VDI editorial office who sent me an ecopy of the entire issue in which the monograph by Vorobyeva-Desyatovskaya Margarita I is included. The e-copy of pages 70 to 79 reproduced below include two pages showing images of the gold ingots with Kharoṣṭhī inscriptions. It is to the credit of  Vorobyeva-Desyatovskaya Margarita I that she clearly identified three Kharoṣṭhī syllables used in the inscriptions to signify the weight measures. 

Kharoṣṭhī syllables identified:

Sa -sadera (Attic stater)

Dra -drakhma (trakhma)

Dha -dhanea, dhanaia or dhane. (On some gold-bars of Dalverzin-tepe dhanaia occurs twice in the fraction aḍha dhanaiasa, ‘half of a dhanaia’.

Two insights of significance emerge from this brilliant insight provided by Vorobyeva-Desyatovskaya Margarita I:

1. That the goldsmith had the competence to write on gold bars (using Kharoṣṭhī to signify gold weight measures which had been standardised ca. 2nd cent.BCE) .

2.That the measure of wealth is recorded on the inscriptions on gold bars by signifying gold weight measures.

I suggest that both these signifiers are a continuum of Indus Script Cipher. As noted in the following example of a gold pendant with Indus Script from Mohenjo-daro,  that 1. the goldsmith artisan had the competence to write on the gold pendant; and 2. recorded the artisanal competence signified by Indus Script Hypertexts working with a variety of metals and a variety of metallurgical processes.

This 2.5 inch long gold pendant has a 0.3 inch nib; its ending is shaped like a sewing or netting needle. It bears an inscription painted in Indus Script. This inscription is deciphered as a proclamation of metalwork competence.
Gold pendant with Indus script inscription. The pendant is needle-like with cylindrical body. It is made from a hollow cylinder with soldered ends and perforated joint. Museum No. MM 1374.50.271; Marshall 1931: 521, pl. CLI, B3 (After Fig. 4.17 a,b in: JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 196). 

Writtein in 'ink' is the Indus Script inscription.

kanac 'corner' Rebus: kancu 'bronze'; sal 'splinter' Rebus: sal 'workshop'; dhatu 'cross road' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral'; gaṇḍa 'four' Rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'; kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge'; Vikalpa: ?ea ‘seven’ (Santali); rebus: ?eh-ku ‘steel’ (Te.)aya 'fish' Rebus: aya 'iron'(Gujarati) ayas'metal' (Rigveda) PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Thus, the inscription is: kancu sal (bronze workshop), dhatu aya kaṇḍ kolami mineral, metal, furnace/fire-altar smithy.

The inscription is a professional calling card -- describing professional competence and ownership of specified items of property -- of the wearer of the pendant.

Inscriptions in the Kharoshthi Alphabet on Gold Objects from Dalverzin-tepe

Vorobyeva-Desyatovskaya Margarita I.

1. Вестник древней истории 1 (135)

Journal of Ancient History, Pages 70-79 http://vdi.igh.ru/issues/269?locale=en

Indus Script did NOT record weights; but the wealth accounting ledgers signified metals,minerals, alloys, mints, phaḍa, pattaḍa 'manufactories'

May 22, 2018, 7:44 am

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https://tinyurl.com/y7nutkk2

Do Indus Script inscriptions contain recorded weights of metal equipment, ingots produced? The answer is NO.

While balances & weights were found in Mohenjo-daro, there is no indication that the Indus Script recorded weights; as a wealth accounting system, script hieroglyphs/hypertexts signify metals,minerals, alloys, mints, ingots, equipment, phaḍa, pattaḍa 'manufactories'.

The earliest evidence for inscriptions certifying weights of objects is found in Persepolis, ca. 6th cent. BCE.

“A weight made of diorite weighing 120 karsha (9.950 kg) with a trilingual cuneiform inscription certifying its weight, has also been found in Persepolis…One diorite weighs 60 karsha…One of these weights (weighing 2,222.425 grams) is preserved in the Oriental Institute in Leningrad. It is inscribed with a cuneiform text, as is the case on other weights, certifying its weight.” (Muhammad A. Dandamaev, Vladimir G. Lukonin, 2004, The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran, Cambridge Univ. Press, pp. 202=203).

"In considering the variations of weights which is found, the view I take is that, whilst cases of deliberate fraud are rare, the balances used in those days were of primitive construction and only capable of rough weighing. Consequently, though the standards kept might be artistically and carefully finished, they would not be consistent amongst themselves according to our modern scientific ideas of accuracy.” ("A. S. Hemmy, Systems of Weights at Mohenjo-Daro, in: J. Marshall, ed.' Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization. Vol. 2 London: A. Probsthain, 1931, p.672).

"Weight(s) and Measurements

C, 2500 B.C.

Place of Origin: Mohenjo-Daro

Materials: Weight: Chert

Balance: Copper

Dimensions: Balance Stick : 12 x 0.3 cm

Balance Plate: 15.7 x 5.7 cm

Weight: Biggest: 2.4 x 2.4 x 1.8 cm

Smallest: 0.7 x 0.7 x 0.6 cm

Acc. No. DK-80/2604 and DK I-355/2605 (Balance)

An index to an advanced stage of trade, and its essential element, the recovery of this balance and weights from Mohenjo-Daro suggests that Harappan settlers not only pursued systematic trade activities but also had in prevalence weights and measures ensuring accuracy, consistency, transparency and fairness of trade-system and commercial behaviour. Far ahead of the primitive measuring vessels of bartering goods Harappan settlers maintained consistent standards of weights and regularized weights' based pricing system. Though re-fabricated, this balance is estimated to be about four and a half millenniums old. These finds attest with great certainty the advanced stage of trade amongst Harappan settlers. The recovered weights range from the heavier ones with lifting rings attached to those of micro-miniaturised sizes used probably by jewelers for weighing precious metals, jewellery items and perhaps some rare and scarce spices. Harappan settlers seem to have decimal system in use for defining higher weights as also for measuring lengths. It seems some central authority controlled and ensured adherence to strict standards and fairness in trade and commercial activities. A large number of small rectangular blocks - both cubical and cylindrical made of tawny chert and marked with light grey bands, have been excavated from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The archaeologists have identified these blocks as weights. Interestingly, all these finds are well finished and have polished faces. Occasionally they also have beveled edges, though none of them bears an inscription or mark indicating a weight and value. Along such weights Mohenjo-Daro excavations have also revealed a copper balance."

http://www.nationalmuseumindia.gov.in/prodCollections.asp?pid=41&id=1&lk=dp1

:Cubical weights in graduated sizes.These weights conform to the standard Harappan binary weight system that was used in all of the settlements. The smallest weight in this series is 0.856 grams and the most common weight is approximately 13.7 grams, which is in the 16th ratio. In the large weights the system become a decimal increase where the largest weight is 100 times the weight of the 16th ratio in the binary system. These weights were found in recent excavations at Harappa and may have been used for controlling trade and possibly for collecting taxes. (Harappa Archaeological Research Project.7)

https://www.harappa.com/slide/weights-harappa

"The weights are precisely made, well polished and systematic (though unfortunately not inscribed with any Indus characters, which would have helped scholars to decipher the script's numerical system). Unique in the ancient world, the Indus weight system does not correspond to any of the weight systems used in Mesopotamia or Egypt. It has left a remarkable legacy in India. It provided the weight standards for the earliest Indian coins, issued in the seventh century BC. It was identical with the system used by the first Gangetic kingdoms around 300 BC (just prior to the reign of Asoka). And it still functions, in the third millennium AD, for weighing small quantities in traditional markets in both Pakistan and India." (Andrew Robinson, The Indus, p. 64). https://www.harappa.com/blog/ancient-indus-weights

See: 

Contribution of Indus Script tradition 1. to 'cash' economy of the ancient world (World Monetary history) & 2. as a writing system to signify metalwork 

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/zd4aatp

The note discusses the possibility that Indus Script cipher tradition evidenced in Sanchi/Bharhut sculptural friezes also provides for signifying kārṣāpaṇá, 'Eng.cash, Kannada kāsu, copper pice'. The copper pice is so-called because it is derived in a smelting process from a fire-pit, straits: kārṣū, kāci. Such a smelting process is, perhaps, signified on a Harappa tablet h386 by a unique hieroglyph of two horizontal lines which occupies the entire field of one side of a tablet.

In the expression,kārṣāpaṇá, paṇá, 'equivalent of 80 cowries'(Sinhalese) is a semantic determinant of thekarsha as a 'coin, a unit of exchange value'.

It is a debatable argument in linguistics if the Old Persian word karsha is cognate with and derived from the Samskrtam word, karsha, 'unit of weight, coin unit of money'. Since the rebus reading of 'khambhaṛā' (Lahnda) rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coinage' (Kannada) is attested in some Indus Script orthography of focus on 'fish-fins', it is likely that the word karsha meaning 'coin' was also a gloss in the metalwork lexis of Prakrtam, the spoken forms of the word. Some indications are provided by the phonetic forms in languages of the Indian sprachbund, such as: Ko. ka·c rupee. To. ko·s id. Ka. 
kāsu the smallest copper coin, a cash, coin or money in general. Tu. kāsů an old copper coin worth half a pie, a cash. Te. kāsu a cash, a coin in general, a gold coin, money. Go. (Ko.) kāsu pice -- all traceable to the word karsha 'a weight of silver or gold equal to ¹⁄₄₀₀ of a tulā' (Samskrtam).

There is a possibility that the hieroglyph which could read rebus as kāci was an orthograph signifying 'furrow, ploughing'. Such a signifier is present in an Indus Script inscription: Harappa tablet h386.

The hieroglyphs 'fish', 'water-carrier PLUS rim of jar', three linear strokes are read rebus:

aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS  'khambhaṛā' (Lahnda) rebus: kammaTa 'mint' (Kannada)
kuTi 'water-carrier' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' PLUS karNika 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo', karNIKa 'writer, engraver, account-keeper.
On side h386E, two horizontal lines signify a furrow which can be read rebus: karṣūˊ -- f. ʻ furrow, trench ʼ (Vedic) rebus: karsha 'a unit of weight, a coin'.

HARP team has discovered a potsherd at Harappa with Indus Script dated to ca. 3300 BCE making this perhaps one of the earliest writing systems of the world. Contemporary to this discovery is Proto-Elamite script which was used in southwestern Iran between c. 3400-2800 BCE,  (See discussion at http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/07/ancient-near-east-transition-fro-bullae.html) Bronze Age revolution in metal crafts was complemented by a writing system to create document innovative processes in such metal crafts. (This five-petal flower may signify tabernae montana as a hieroglyph read rebus: tagaraka 'fragrant flower' (Samskrtam) rebus: tagara 'tin' (a mineral which alloys with copper to produce a hard alloy of bronze for castings, tools, weapons).

The Bronze Age metallurgical discoveries of alloying and cire perdue (lost-wax) created an industrial revolution. The production of metal implements, weapons, pots and pans. The production of metal coins (copper, silver, gold) also rtransformed an exchange economy based on barter transactions into a market economy based on the use of 'money or cash'.

There is considerable force in the argument that signs incised on pottery in the Pre-Harappan period did develop as glyphs used on Indus writing. Lal has shown that the signs continued in use after the Indus writing ceased to be used. It is not unreasonable to build on the assumption that the potter's marks provided sign-substratum  for Indus writing and also for Proto-Elamite writing. Thus, Potts makes a reasoned statement: "If there is any connection between the corpus of Proto-Elamite signs used at the beginning of the third millennium and the later Harappan signary, I suggest it is via the medium of the potter's marks in use throughout the Indo-Iranian borderlands which absorbed certain signs of ultimate Proto-Elamite origin, some of which were in time incorporated into the Harappan script." (Potts, D.T., 1981, The Potter's Marks of Tepe Yahya, in: Paleorient, Vol. 7, Issue 7-1, p.116)..

Thus, not only World Monetary History is born but a writing system evolved to describe the metallurgical techniques and mineral resources used to create metal products of exchange value.

The roots of the word 'cash' in English are traced to Indus Script hieroglyph writing tradition.

See: Indus Script hieroglyphs on early Magadha pre-karshapana 5 punch-marked coins 6th centBCE deciphered http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/03/indus-script-hieroglyphs-on-early.html The decipherment based on Indus Script cipher establishes the continuum of a writing system into the historical periods and use in ancient mints starting with pre-Mauryan janapadas.

Such karshapana, ancient coins of ca. 7th cent. BCE are identified by the punch-marks which are Indus Script hieroglyphs.

The English word 'cash' is derived from  karsha. (C.A.S.Williams. Chinese Symbolism and Art Motifs. Tuttle Publishing. p. 76).So is, kAsu of Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada. D.R.Bhandarkar.indicates that nishka, krishnala (Vedic terms) as karshapana were stored in treasuries and the possibility that such coins were in vogue ca. 10th cent. BCE. (Bhandarkar, DR, Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics. Asian Educational Services. pp. 55, 62, 79).

(Arabo-Pers. sekka), standardized units of metal used as a medium of exchange, first introduced into Persia by the Achaemenid Darius I (521-486 B.C.E.)"... a papyrus document from Egypt dating from the 5th century B.C.E. confirms that merchants paid “according to the stone (weight) of the king”: 1 kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels, 1 shekel = 4 quarters, 1 quarter = 2 dānaka (O.Pers. *dānaka; attested in El. da-na-kaš; Cameron, p. 132; > Gk. dana′kē “obol,” i.e., one-sixth drachmḗ “drachma” > Mid.Pers. dāng, Pers. dāng“one-sixth”; Horn, Etymologie, no. 536; Bivar, p. 622)..." http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-

Thus, it is seen that shekel which became a currency unit was preceded by  kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels. This  kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels, is related to the Samskrtam word karsha which meant 'a weight of silver or gold equal to ¹⁄₄₀₀ of a tulā' (Samskrtam).

I suggest that the Latin and French cognate words together with Old Persian karša are derived from the Samskrtam gloss. Latin: capsa 'money box', French caisse, English cash, Portuguese caixa are thus derivatives from Samskrtam and OPersian karsha, 'a particular weight, money unit'.

kārṣāpaṇá m.n. ʻ a partic. coin or weight equivalent to one karṣa ʼ. [karṣa -- m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ Suśr. (cf. OPers. karša -- ) and paṇa -- 2 orāpana -- EWA i 176 and 202 with lit. But from early MIA. kā̆hā°]Pa. kahāpaṇa -- m.n. ʻ a partic. weight and coin ʼ, KharI. kahapana -- , Pk. karisāvaṇa -- m.n., kāhāvaṇa -- , kah° m.; A. kaoṇ ʻ a coin equivalent to 1 rupee or 16 paṇas or 1280 cowries ʼ; B. kāhan ʻ 16 paṇas ʼ; Or. kāhā̆ṇa ʻ 16 annas or 1280 cowries ʼ, H. kahāwan, kāhan, kahān m.; OSi. (brāhmī) kahavaṇa, Si. kahavuṇa, °vaṇuva ʻ a partic. weight ʼ.kāˊrṣāpaṇika ʻ worth or bought for a kārṣāpaṇa ʼ Pāṇ. [kārṣāpaṇá -- ]Pa. kāhāpaṇika -- , Or. kāhāṇiã̄.(CDIAL 3080, 3081) Ta. kācu gold, gold coin, money, a small copper coin. Ma. kāśu gold, money, the smallest copper coin. Ko. ka·c rupee. To. ko·s id. Ka. kāsu the smallest copper coin, a cash, coin or money in general. Tu. kāsů an old copper coin worth half a pie, a cash. Te. kāsu a cash, a coin in general, a gold coin, money. Go. (Ko.) kāsu pice (< Te.; Voc. 663). / ? Cf. Skt. karṣa-. (DEDR 1431) kāsi 'coin' (Sinhalese).

The early Portuguese writers represented the native word by cas, casse, caxa, the Fr. by cas, the Eng. by cass: the existing Pg. caixa and Eng. cash are due to a natural confusion withCASH n.1. From an early date the Portuguese applied caixa (probably on the same analogy) to the small money of other foreign nations, such as that of the Malay Islands, and especially the Chinese, which was also naturally made into cash in English. (Yule)" ("Cash, n.²". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.)The English word "cash," meaning "tangible currency," is an older word from Middle French caisse.(Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary"). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_(currency) In Latin, capsa means a “money box” (cf. OPers. Kshatrapavan = Satrap “an ancient Persian commercial and state confinement”) and a cognate word is: case which refers to a box. French word caisse means “money in hand, coin.” Old Persian karsha means  “a unit of value equivalent to one cash coin” and "was first employed during the reign of Cyrus II followed by the establishment of the “formal” banking system and around the same time of the establishment of the credit and checking unions during the reign of Darius I who also minted the first face-coins."  (Jean-Luc Dumont. "The Establishment of the Banking “Industry” – a 2500 Year Old Aryan ICH and Commercial Industry" |https://docs.google.com/document/d/1USeT6-9KtdA0zdQ73GGh-N_k9JYvUW7y-8zDnPdIhcM/edit?usp=sharing,  ACHF, 2016.)

Kārshāpaṇa (Sanskrit: कार्षापण) is attested by Panini ca. 6th cent. BCE and in Samvidhān Brāhmana, S'atapatha Brāhmana, Dhammapada verse 186. They are generally silver pieces with 5 or 6 punch-marks (Indus Script hieroglyphs) and attested in mints of many early janapadas of Bharatam. Patanjali refers to it as a coin: कार्षापणशो ददाति "he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or कार्षापणम् ददाति "he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",  The suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43 indicates that a coin is referred to. "During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇa or Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana While  Kārshāpaṇa were of copper, Dharana or Purana were of silver and Suvarna were of gold. PaNa were punch-marked coins. The Vedic weight of karsha was equal to 16 mAshas. Lakshanadhyaksha of Arthas'astra could identify the symbols (hieroglyphs); he was a Rupadarshaka, 'examiner of coins'. 

Thanks to Indus Script cipher, it is now possible to pin-down the meanings of the punch-marks which are a continuum of Indus Script hieroglyph tradition.

कार्षा* पण[p= 276,3]mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि ; cf. कर्ष्) " weighing a कर्ष " , a coin or weight of different values (if of gold , = 16 माषs » कर्ष ; if of silver , = 16 पणs or 1280 Kowries , commonly termed a Kahan ; if of copper , = 80 रक्तिकाs or about 176 grains ; but accord. to some = only 1 पण of Kowries or 80 Kowries) Mn. viii , 136 ; 336 ; ix , 282(ifc.) worth so many कार्षापणs Pa1n2. 5-1 , 29n. money , gold and silver L. कर्ष [p=260,1]mn. a weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy ; in common use 8 Rettis are given to the माष , and the कर्ष is then about 280 grains troy) Sus3r. VarBr2S. &c

कर्ष mn. Terminalia Bellerica (also called अक्ष q.v.) L.
"The nuts of the tree are rounded but with five flatter sides. It seems to be these nuts that are used as dice in the epic poem Mahabharata. A handful of nuts would be cast on a gaming board and the players would have to call whether an odd or even number of nuts had been thrown." ( Bennett, Deborah (1999). Randomness. Boston: Harvard University Press. p. 24.). A synonym for कर्ष mn. Terminalia Bellerica in Samskrtam is अक्ष

Terminalia bellirica hanging fruit at 23 Mile near Jayanti in Buxa Tiger Reserve in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, India. 

The seed of this nut is used as a die in the game of dice. akSa also means a sensual perception, a law-suit, hence अक्ष--पटल [p= 3,2] n. court of law depository of legal document Ra1jat.

Hieroglyphy: furrow, trench: कर्ष [p=259,3] m. ( √कृष्) , the act of drawing , dragging Pa1n2.(with and without हलस्य) ploughing , agriculture A1p. Ya1jn5. ii , 217 karṣí ʻ furrowing ʼ Kapiṣṭh. [Cf. kāˊrṣi -- ʻ ploughing ʼ VS., karṣūˊ -- f. ʻ furrow, trench ʼ ŚBr.: √kr̥ṣ] Pr. kṣe_ ʻ plough -- iron ʼ, Paš. kaṣí ʻ mattock, hoe ʼ; Shum. káṣi ʻ spade, pickaxe ʼ; S. kasī f. ʻ trench, watercourse ʼ; L. kass m. ʻ catch drain, ravine ʼ, kassī f. ʻsmall distributing channel from a canalʼ; G. kã̄s m. ʻartificial canal for irrigationʼ -- Dm. Phal. khaṣīˊ ʻ small hoe ʼ perh. X khánati. Addenda: karṣí -- (kaṣĭ̄ -- f. ʻ spade ʼ lex.). [Like Av. karšivant<-> ʻ cultivator ʼ < IE. *kworsi -- with alternative development of IE. o ~ kāˊrṣi -- , kārṣīvaṇa -- ʻ cultivator ʼ T. Burrow, BSOAS xxxviii 63, 70; cf. karṣūˊ -- ~ †*kārṣū -- Turner BSOAS xxxvi 425](CDIAL 2909) *kārṣū -- f. ʻ furrow, trench ʼ ~ karṣūˊ -- with dial. IA. a for ā < IE. o as in Av. karšū ʻ ploughed land ʼ and in karṣí -- ~ kāˊrṣi -- T. Burrow BSOAS xxxviii 70, Turner BSOAS xxxvi 429. Pa. kāsū -- in aṅgāra -- kāsū -- f. ʻ fire -- pit ʼ.(CDIAL 3081a).Ta. kāci difficulty, straits (< Te.). Ka. gāsi, ghāsi trouble, fatigue, pain. Tu. gāsi id. Te. gāsi id.; gāsincu to harass, vex, fatigue, exhaust; gāsil(l)u to labour, be wearied, be harassed. (DEDR 1430)

Kasi and Kasī (f.) [fr. kasāti] tilling, ploughing; agricul- ture, cultivation M ii.198; S i.172, 173=Sn 76 sq.; Vin iv.6; Pv i.56 (k˚, gorakkha, vaṇijjā); PvA 7; Sdhp 390 (k˚, vaṇijjā); VvA 63. -- ˚ŋ kasati to plough, to till the land J i.277; Vism 284.

   -- kamma the act or occupation of ploughing, agriculture J ii.165, 300; iii.270. -- karaṇa ploughing, tilling of the field PvA 66; -- khetta a place for cultivation, a field PvA 8 (kasī˚); -- gorakkha agriculture and cattle breeding D i.135; -- bhaṇḍa ploughing implements DhA i.307. Kasati [kṛṣ or karṣ] to till, to plough S i.172, 173=Sn 80; Th i.531; J i.57; ii.165; vi.365. -- kassate (3rd sing. med.) Th 1, 530. -- pp. kattha (q. v.) Caus. II. kasāpeti Miln 66, 82; DhA i.224.Kasana (nt.) ploughing, tilling J iv.167; vi.328, 364; Vism 384 (+vapana sowing). Kasita (pp. of kasati) ploughed, tilled Anvs 44; -- a˚ un- tilled ibid. 27, 44. -- Cp. vi˚. Kassaka [fr. kasati] a husbandman, cultivator, peasant, farmer, ploughman D i.61 (k˚ gahapatiko kārakārako rāsi -- vaḍḍhako); A i.241; A. i.229, 239 (the three duties of a farmer); S i.172=Sn 76; iii.155 (v. l. for T. kasaka); iv. 314; Vin iv.108; Bdhd 96; DA i.170; often in similes, e. g. Pv i.11; ii.968 (likeness to the doer of good works); Vism 152, 284, 320. -- vaṇṇa (under) the disguise of a peasant S i.115 (of Māra). (Pali)

Square coins are carried as a banner by the elephant rider in the middle. These are kahapana (Pali). This is a proclamation of the coinage work carried out by the artisans of Bharhut..

Square coins are spread out in the Jetavana narrative at Bharhut. Anathapindika covers Jetavana with coins (Bharhut, Brahmi text: jetavana ananthapindiko deti kotisanthatena keta. Also called Sudatta, he was a banker (setthi) of Sāvatthi who became famous because of his unparalleled generosity to the Buddha. His first meeting with the Buddha was during the first year after the Enlightenment, in Rājagaha (the story is given in Vin.ii.154ff; SA.i.240ff, etc.), whither Anāthapindika had come on business.These square coins shown on Bharhut sculpturl frieze are: Kahāpaṇa [doubtful as regards etym.; the (later) Sk. kārṣāpaṇa looks like an adaptation of a dial. form] 1. A square copper coin M ii.163; A i.250; v.83 sq.; Vin ii.294; iii.238; DhsA 280 (at this passage included under rajataŋ, silver, together with loha -- māsaka, dārumāsaka and jatu -- māsaka); S i.82; A i.250; Vin ii.294; iv.249; J i.478, 483; ii.388; Mhvs 3014. The extant specimens in our museums weigh about 5/6 of a penny, and the purchasing power of a k. in our earliest records seems to have been about a florin. -- Frequent numbers as denoting a gift, a remuneration or alms, are 100,000 (J ii.96); 18 koṭis (J i.92); 1,000 (J ii.277, 431; v.128, 217; PvA 153, 161); 700 (J iii.343); 100 (DhA iii.239); 80 (PvA 102); 10 or 20 (DhA iv.226); 8 (which is considered, socially, almost the lowest sum J iv.138; i.483). A nominal fine of 1 k. (=a farthing) Miln 193. -- ekaŋ k˚ pi not a single farthing J i.2; similarly eka -- kahāpaṇen' eva Vism 312. -- Various qualities of a kahāpaṇa are referred to by Bdhgh in similes at Vism 437 and 515. Black kahāpaṇas are mentioned at DhA iii.254. -- See Rh. Davids, Ancient Measures of Ceylon; Buddh. India, pp. 100 -- 102, fig. 24; Miln trsl. i.239 -- gabbha a closet for storing money, a safe DhA iv.104; -- vassa a shower of money Dh 186 (=DhA iii.240).(Pali)

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/03/indus-script-hieroglyphs-on-early.html 

Indus Script hieroglyphs on early Magadha pre-karshapana 5 punch-marked coins ca. 6th cent BCE deciphered as metalwork catalogues

paṇa1 m. ʻ wager ʼ Yājñ., ʻ stake, wages ʼ MBh. [Cf. páṇatē ʻ barters ʼ ŚBr. (EWA ii 194 < *pr̥ṇāti?), Pa. paṇati ʻ bargains, bets ʼ. -- √paṇ]Pk. paṇa -- ʻ wealth, bet, promise ʼ; A. pan ʻ wager, vow ʼ; B. pan ʻ oath, promise, dowry ʼ; Or. paṇa ʻ vow ʼ; OMth. pana ʻ stipulation, bargain ʼ; H. pan m. ʻ promise ʼ; OG. paṇa m. ʻ stake ʼ; G. paṇ n. ʻ promise ʼ; M. paṇ m. ʻ bet, promise ʼ; Si. paṇa ʻ bet, wages ʼ.*agryapaṇa -- , *gharapaṇa -- .paṇa2 m. ʻ a coin (= 80 cowries) ʼ Mn. [← Austro -- as. EWA ii 196 with lit.]S. paṇu m. ʻ a dry measure ʼ; Si. paṇa ʻ a measure of account in cowries (= 80) ʼ.(CDIAL 7714, 7715).

Hieroglyph: drum: paṇava m. ʻ drum ʼ MBh. (hypersanskritism in pra- ṇava -- m. lex.). [← Drav. T. Burrow TPS 1946, 10]Pa. Pk. paṇava -- m. ʻ small drum ʼ, Si. paṇā.(CDIAL 7716) Ta. paṇai drum, large drum. Ka. paṇe, paṇa small drum or tabor. / Cf. Skt. paṇava- id.; Turner, CDIAL, no. 7716.(DEDR 3893)

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Explore a specially-curated collection of articles on Ancient Economy from Antiquity . Free to access for the duration of 19th International Congress of Classical Archaeology Cologne/Bonn, 22 – 26 May 2018.

MONDAY, JANUARY 1, 2018

Alphabetical List of Open Access Journals in Ancient Studies

[The version history of this list is at: Updates on the list of Open Access Journals in Ancient Studies]

http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.in/2015/12/alphabetical-list-of-open-access.html

WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 1, 2017

The Priesthood of Uruk in Late First Millennium BCE Babylonia

The Priesthood of Uruk in Late First Millennium BCE Babylonia

YBC 16216
Sealed house sale - the Eanna temple purchases two built houses from the  Šigûa family
© 2017, Yale Babylonian Collection, New Haven 

Our research project revolves around the southern Mesopotamian urban centre of Uruk (Biblical Erech, modern Warka). It is known as one of the earliest cities in history, also believed in ancient mythology to have been ruled over by the legendary hero Gilgameš. In the ‘long sixth century’ (ca. 620 - 484 BCE) between the ascent of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom after the fall of Assyria and a major disruption of social and economic life in Babylonia after the Babylonian rebellion against the Persian king Xerxes, this city and its main temple the Eanna, sanctuary of the goddess Ištar, were key players in the regional and inter-regional network of people and goods that flowed south from Babylon along the Euphrates. The project aims to reconstruct an important facet of the religious and social landscape of Babylonia through a study of the Urukean clergy as attested in the Eanna archive and in the private archives from Uruk...

Click here for the current selection of texts from Uruk in the NaBuCCo catalogue

• The Uruk Clergy and its Archives (620–484 BC)
  • Eanna Temple Archive
  • Bēl-aplu-uṣur
    • Bēl-aplu-uṣur: Archive and Family Profile
  • Damiqu Archive
  • Atû
  • Gimil-Nanaya A
  • Gimil-Nanaya B
  • Kurī A
  • Kurī B
  • Kurī C
  • Nūr-Sîn Archive
  • Rīm-Anu Archive
    • Rīm-Anu: Archive and Family Profile
  • Egibi Archive
  • Ekur-Zakir Archive
    • Ekur-zakir: Archive and Family Profile
  • Sîn-leqe-uninnī Archive
• Project Staff 

 http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.in/2017/11/the-priesthood-of-uruk-in-late-first.html

AIAC 2018 - Ancient Economy

Select Agents and commodities: a response to Brughmans and Poblome (2016) on modelling the Roman economy

• Agents and commodities: a response to Brughmans and Poblome (2016) on modelling the Roman economy
• Astrid Van Oyen
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 91 / Issue 359 / October 2017
• https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.138
• Published online: 20 September 2017, pp. 1356-1363
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Research

Select Bayesian analysis and free market trade within the Roman Empire

• Bayesian analysis and free market trade within the Roman Empire
• Xavier Rubio-Campillo, María Coto-Sarmiento, Jordi Pérez-Gonzalez, José Remesal Rodríguez
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 91 / Issue 359 / October 2017
• https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.131
• Published online: 20 September 2017, pp. 1241-1252
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Debate

Select The case for computational modelling of the Roman economy: a reply to Van Oyen

• The case for computational modelling of the Roman economy: a reply to Van Oyen
• Tom Brughmans, Jeroen Poblome
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 91 / Issue 359 / October 2017
• https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.166
• Published online: 20 September 2017, pp. 1364-1366
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Select Archaeometric analysis of ceramic production and exchange from the Neolithic to the Gallo-Roman period in Brittany, France

• Archaeometric analysis of ceramic production and exchange from the Neolithic to the Gallo-Roman period in Brittany, France
• Benjamin Gehres
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 91 / Issue 356 / April 2017
• https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.3
• Published online: 04 April 2017, e4
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Select Roman bazaar or market economy? Explaining tableware distributions through computational modelling

• Roman bazaar or market economy? Explaining tableware distributions through computational modelling
• Tom Brughmans, Jeroen Poblome
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 90 / Issue 350 / April 2016
• https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2016.35
• Published online: 06 April 2016, pp. 393-408
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Select Unveiling the hinterland: a new type of Hellenistic rural settlement in Crimea

• Unveiling the hinterland: a new type of Hellenistic rural settlement in Crimea
• Vladimir F. Stolba, Jens Andresen
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 89 / Issue 344 / April 2015
• https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2014.10
• Published online: 08 April 2015, pp. 345-360
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Select Pitch production during the Roman period: an intensive mountain industry for a globalised economy?

• Pitch production during the Roman period: an intensive mountain industry for a globalised economy?
• Hector A. Orengo, Josep M. Palet, Ana Ejarque, Yannick Miras, Santiago Riera
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 87 / Issue 337 / September 2013
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00049474
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 802-814
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Select Modelling maritime interaction in the Aegean Bronze Age

• Modelling maritime interaction in the Aegean Bronze Age
• Carl Knappett, Tim Evans, Ray Rivers
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 82 / Issue 318 / December 2008
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X0009774X
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 1009-1024
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Papers

Select Indo-Roman trade: the ceramic evidence from Egypt

• Indo-Roman trade: the ceramic evidence from Egypt
• Roberta Tomber
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 74 / Issue 285 / September 2000
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00059986
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 624-631
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Select Campanaio—an agricultural settlement in Roman Sicily

• Campanaio—an agricultural settlement in Roman Sicily
• R. J. A. Wilson
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 74 / Issue 284 / June 2000
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00059299
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 289-290
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Select Pots, trade and the archaic Greek economy

• Pots, trade and the archaic Greek economy
• Robin Osborne
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 70 / Issue 267 / March 1996
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00082867
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 31-44
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Select The impoverishment of the past: the case of classical Greece

• The impoverishment of the past: the case of classical Greece
• Michael Vickers
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 64 / Issue 244 / September 1990
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00078364
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 455-463
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Select Expressions of wealth: Greek art and society

• Expressions of wealth: Greek art and society
• David W.J. Gill
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 62 / Issue 237 / December 1988
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00075189
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 735-743
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Research Article

Select Carausius: his Mints and his Money System

• Carausius: his Mints and his Money System
• Harold Mattingly
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 19 / Issue 75 / September 1945
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00022651
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 122-124
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Select Ancient Agriculture

• Ancient Agriculture
• G. W. B. Huntingford
• Journal: Antiquity / Volume 6 / Issue 23 / September 1932
• https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00007031
• Published online: 02 January 2015, pp. 327-337
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  In the first volume of ANTIQUITaYp pear two papers, one by Dr R. C. C. Clay, dealing with the formation of lynchetsl ; the other, by Dr E. Cecil Curwen, containing a survey of prehistoric agriculture in Britain.2 These papers, which are of considerable interest to the farmer as well as to the archaeologist, have suggested the following remarks, which I was unable to put on paper before as some of my books were in England.

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/online-collections-from-antiquity/aiac-2018-ancient-economy

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Kalibangan terracotta cake hypertext of a dragged tiger signifies karṣa, 'gold'? Ancient mints, Indus Script continuum of wealth accounting, evolution of monetary system in ANE and ancient India.

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Coins current during the 7th and the 6th century BCE onwards, unstamped and stamped (āhata).

All the symbols used on early coins of Ancient Near East and Ancient India are Indus Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts which signify wealth accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues.

कर्ष  is expanded semantically with the expression कार्षापणः kārṣāpaṇḥ when the nugget of gold/silver of a specified weight is used in trade transactions, i.e.after the monetary system replaces the barter systems of trade. Indications are that the use of 'money'  कार्षापणः kārṣāpaṇḥ started ca. 6th century BCE with the introduction of the Lydia electrum coin.

The nuggets pour out of the mouth of the lion which faces a one-horned young bull on Lydia electrum coin. The hypertext readings in Indus Script are: arya 'lion' rebus: ara 'brass'  गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'  panja 'claw of feline' rebus: panja 'kiln' konda 'young bull' rebus: kō̃da -कोँद ।'kiln'; kundana 'fine gold' khoṇḍ, kõda 'young bull-calf' Rebus 1: kũdār 'turner'.PLUS koḍ 'horn' rebus: koḍ 'workshop'.

Hieroglyph: कर्ष m. ( √कृष्) , the act of drawing , dragging Pa1n2.; (with and without हलस्य) ploughing , agriculture A1p. Ya1jn5. ii , 217; mn. a weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy ; in common use 8 Rettis are given to the माष , and the कर्ष is then about 280 grains troy) Sus3r. VarBr2S. &c; mn. a boat L. माष a partic. weight of gold (= 5 कृष्णलs = 1÷10 सुवर्ण ; the weight in common use is said to be about 17 grains troy) Mn. Ya1jn5.; N. of a ऋषि-गण (the children of सु-रभि , to whom RV. ix , 86 , 1-10 is ascribed) RAnukr. R. Hariv.(Monier-Williams) अक्षः akṣḥ  weight equal to 16 māṣas and called कर्ष.कार्षापणः kārṣāpaṇḥ णम् ṇam कार्षापणः णम् (or पणकः) A coin or weight of different values; पुराकल्प एतदासीत् षोडश माषाः कार्षापणं Mbh. on P.I.2.64. कार्षापणं तु विज्ञेयस्ताम्रिकः कार्षिकः पणः Ms.9.136,336;9.282. (= कर्ष). न हि काकिन्यां नष्टायां तदन्वेषणं कार्षापणेन क्रियते ŚB. on MS.4.3.39. -णम् Money, gold and silver (Apte).  पणm. (ifc. f(आ).) play , gaming , playing for a stake , a bet or a wager (with gen. ; loc. or ifc. ; पणं- √कृ , to make a bet ; पणे नि- √अस् , to stake at play) Ya1jn5. MBh. R. &c; a weight of copper used as a coin (= 20 माषs = 4 काकिनीs) Mn. Ya1jn5.; a partic. measure Pa1n2. 3-3 , 66 (" a handful " Sch.); a commodity for sale L.; price; wealth , property L.;business पणि m. a bargainer , miser , niggard (esp. one who is sparing of sacrificial oblations) RV. AV.; N. of a class of envious demons watching over treasures RV. (esp. x , 108) AV. S3Br.; market (Monier-Williams)

Kārshāpaṇa कार्षापण,śatamāna शत--मान are a development of the narrative of कर्ष 'money, gold and silver' relatable to a period 2 millennia later, i.e. to the 6th century BCE when gold, silver, copper coins of particular weight were brought into vogue in janapada-s to leap into a monetary system to replace barter trade transactions (which are referredto as पण ,'wealth,business'; cf.  the derivative: paṇi, 'merchant,market').

I suggest that the rebus reading of कर्ष 'act of drawing, dragging' signifies कर्ष with the semantics 'gold'. Thus, the Kalibangan terracotta cake signifies smelting processes (cf.kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working with iron' kolhe 'wmelter') to produce gold. There are no indications that the word कर्ष was used ca. 2500 BCE to signify 'gold or silver coin of a particular weight'.

The earliest imagery of 'drawing, dragging in Sarasvati Civilization occurs on the terracotta cake of Kalibangan with an Indus Script hypertext (possibly discovered in a fire-altar). The terracotta cakesignifies a horned hunter and a tigerbeing dragged, drawn by a chord. 

Pl. XXII B. Terracotta cake with incised figures on obverse and reverse, Harappan. On one side is a human figure wearing a head-dress having two horns and a plant in the centre; on the other side is an animal-headed human figure with another animal figure, the latter being dragged by the former. If the act of 'drawing, dragging' is so vividly signified on the Kalibangan terracottacake, was it the intention of the artisan who made the orthographs to signify, कर्ष m. ( √कृष्) , the act of drawing , dragging to be interpreted rebus: कर्ष 'weight of metal object (coin); weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy'? Does the pictorial narrative signify a goldsmith working to produce gold objects of the desired weight of karṣa?

These hypertexts signify: 

A terracotta type found in Kalibangan has the hieroglyph of a warrior: bhaTa 'warrior' Rebus: bhaTa 'furnace', thus reinforcing the smelting process in the fire-altars. Smelters might have used bhaThi 'bellows'. bhástrā f. ʻ leathern bag ʼ ŚBr., ʻ bellows ʼ Kāv., bhastrikā -- f. ʻ little bag ʼ Daś. [Despite EWA ii 489, not from a √bhas ʻ blow ʼ (existence of which is very doubtful). -- Basic meaning is ʻ skin bag ʼ (cf. bakura<-> ʻ bellows ʼ ~ bākurá -- dŕ̊ti -- ʻ goat's skin ʼ), der. from bastá -- m. ʻ goat ʼ RV. (cf.bastājina -- n. ʻ goat's skin ʼ MaitrS. = bāstaṁ carma Mn.); with bh -- (and unexpl. -- st -- ) in Pa. bhasta -- m. ʻ goat ʼ, bhastacamma -- n. ʻ goat's skin ʼ. Phonet. Pa. and all NIA. (except S. with a) may be < *bhāsta -- , cf. bāsta -- above (J. C. W.)]With unexpl. retention of -- st -- : Pa. bhastā -- f. ʻ bellows ʼ (cf. vāta -- puṇṇa -- bhasta -- camma -- n. ʻ goat's skin full ofwind ʼ), biḷāra -- bhastā -- f. ʻ catskin bag ʼ, bhasta -- n. ʻ leather sack (for flour) ʼ; K. khāra -- basta f. ʻ blacksmith's skin bellows ʼ; -- S. bathī f. ʻ quiver ʼ (< *bhathī); A. Or. bhāti ʻ bellows ʼ, Bi. bhāthī, (S of Ganges) bhã̄thī; OAw. bhāthā̆ ʻ quiver ʼ; H. bhāthā m. ʻ quiver ʼ, bhāthī f. ʻ bellows ʼ; G. bhāthɔ,bhātɔ, bhāthṛɔ m. ʻ quiver ʼ (whence bhāthī m. ʻ warrior ʼ); M. bhātā m. ʻ leathern bag, bellows, quiver ʼ, bhātaḍ n. ʻ bellows, quiver ʼ; <-> (X bhráṣṭra -- ?) N. bhã̄ṭi ʻ bellows ʼ, H. bhāṭhī f.

*khallabhastrā -- .Addenda: bhástrā -- : OA. bhāthi ʻ bellows ʼ .(CDIAL 9424) bhráṣṭra n. ʻ frying pan, gridiron ʼ MaitrS. [√bhrajj] Pk. bhaṭṭha -- m.n. ʻ gridiron ʼ; K. büṭhü f. ʻ level surface by kitchen fireplace on which vessels are put when taken off fire ʼ; S. baṭhu m. ʻ large pot in which grain is parched, large cooking fire ʼ, baṭhī f. ʻ distilling furnace ʼ; L. bhaṭṭh m. ʻ grain -- parcher's oven ʼ, bhaṭṭhī f. ʻ kiln, distillery ʼ, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭhm., °ṭhī f. ʻ furnace ʼ, bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ; N. bhāṭi ʻ oven or vessel in which clothes are steamed for washing ʼ; A. bhaṭā ʻ brick -- or lime -- kiln ʼ; B. bhāṭi ʻ kiln ʼ; Or. bhāṭi ʻ brick -- kiln, distilling pot ʼ; Mth. bhaṭhī, bhaṭṭī ʻ brick -- kiln, furnace, still ʼ; Aw.lakh. bhāṭhā ʻ kiln ʼ; H. bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ, bhaṭ f. ʻ kiln, oven, fireplace ʼ; M. bhaṭṭā m. ʻ pot of fire ʼ, bhaṭṭī f. ʻ forge ʼ. -- X bhástrā -- q.v.bhrāṣṭra -- ; *bhraṣṭrapūra -- , *bhraṣṭrāgāra -- .Addenda: bhráṣṭra -- : S.kcch. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ʻ distil (spirits) ʼ.*bhraṣṭrāgāra ʻ grain parching house ʼ. [bhráṣṭra -- , agāra -- ]P. bhaṭhiār, °ālā m. ʻ grainparcher's shop ʼ.(CDIAL 9656, 9658) 

Decipherment of hieroglyphs on the Kalibangan terracotta cake:

bhaTa 'warrior' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace'

kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'

koD 'horn' rebus: koD 'workshop'

kola 'tiger' rebus: kolle 'blacksmith', kolhe 'smelter' kol 'working in iron'

The tiger is being pulled to be tied to a post, pillar.

Hieroglyph: Ka. kunda a pillar of bricks, etc. Tu. kunda pillar, post. Te. kunda id. Malt. kunda block, log. ? Cf. Ta. kantu pillar, post. (DEDR 1723) Rebus: (agni)kuNDA 'fire-altar, vedi'.

Hieriglyph: meṛh rope tying to post, pillar: mēthí m. ʻ pillar in threshing floor to which oxen are fastened, prop for supporting carriage shafts ʼ AV., °thī -- f. KātyŚr.com., mēdhī -- f. Divyāv. 2. mēṭhī -- f. PañcavBr.com., mēḍhī -- , mēṭī -- f. BhP.1. Pa. mēdhi -- f. ʻ post to tie cattle to, pillar, part of a stūpa ʼ; Pk. mēhi -- m. ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ, N. meh(e), miho, miyo, B. mei, Or. maï -- dāṇḍi, Bi. mẽh, mẽhā ʻ the post ʼ, (SMunger) mehā ʻ the bullock next the post ʼ, Mth. meh, mehā ʻ the post ʼ, (SBhagalpur)mīhã̄ ʻ the bullock next the post ʼ, (SETirhut) mẽhi bāṭi ʻ vessel with a projecting base ʼ.2. Pk. mēḍhi -- m. ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ, mēḍhaka<-> ʻ small stick ʼ; K. mīr, mīrü f. ʻ larger hole in ground which serves as a mark in pitching walnuts ʼ (for semantic relation of ʻ post -- hole ʼ see kūpa -- 2); L. meṛh f. ʻ rope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floor ʼ; P. mehṛ f., mehaṛ m. ʻ oxen on threshing floor, crowd ʼ; OA meṛha, mehra ʻ a circular construction, mound ʼ; Or. meṛhī,meri ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ; Bi. mẽṛ ʻ raised bank between irrigated beds ʼ, (Camparam) mẽṛhā ʻ bullock next the post ʼ, Mth. (SETirhut) mẽṛhā ʻ id. ʼ; M. meḍ(h), meḍhī f., meḍhā m. ʻ post, forked stake ʼ.mēthika -- ; mēthiṣṭhá -- . mēthika m. ʻ 17th or lowest cubit from top of sacrificial post ʼ lex. [mēthí -- ]Bi. mẽhiyā ʻ the bullock next the post on threshing floor ʼ.mēthiṣṭhá ʻ standing at the post ʼ TS. [mēthí -- , stha -- ] Bi. (Patna) mĕhṭhā ʻ post on threshing floor ʼ, (Gaya) mehṭā, mẽhṭā ʻ the bullock next the post ʼ.(CDIAL 10317 to, 10319) Rebus: meD 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' (Slavic)

Weight (coin): कार्षा* पण mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि ; cf. कर्ष्) " weighing a कर्ष " , a coin or weight of different values (if of gold , = 16 माषs » कर्ष ; if of silver , = 16 पणs or 1280 Kowries , commonly termed a Kahan ; if of copper , = 80 रक्तिकाs or about 176 grains ; but accord. to some = only 1 पण of Kowries or 80 Kowries)Mn. viii , 136 ; 336 ; ix , 282(ifc.) worth so many कार्षापणs Pa1n2. 5-1 , 29; n. money , gold and silver L. ; m. pl. N. of a warrior-tribe g. पर्श्व्-ादि; m. the chief of this tribe ib. and 4-1 , 177 Va1rtt. 2. (Monier-Williams)

शत--मान mfn. (शत्/अ-.) hundred-fold VS.; weighing a hundred (रक्तिकाs Sch.) TS. Ka1t2h. S3Br. &c; m. any object made of gold which weighs a hundred मानs S3Br. Ka1tyS3r.; m. n. a weight (or gift) of a hundred मानs in gold or silver ( -दक्षिण mfn. Ka1tyS3r. ) ib. Mn. Ya1jn5. &c; m. a पल of silver W.; m. an आढक (q.v.) W.  

आढक mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि q.v. ; ifc. f(ई). Pa1n2. 4-1 , 22 and v , 1 , 54 Comm.) a measure of grain (= 1÷4 द्रोण = 4 प्रस्थs = 16 kudavas = 64 पलs = 256 कर्षs = 4096 माषs ; = nearly 7 lbs. 11 ozs. avoirdupois ; in Bengal = two mans or 164 lbs. avds.)

Coins bearing this name were in circulation during the Sutraand the Brāhmana period and also find a mention in the early Buddhist (Dhammapada verse 186) and Persian texts of that period. Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin – कार्षापणशो ददाति "he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or कार्षापणम् ददाति "he gives a Kārshāpaṇa", while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin". (The Ashtadhyayi of Panini Vol.2. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 998.) "During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇa or Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part).The early indigenous Indian coins were called Suvarṇa(made of gold), Purāṇa or Dhārana (made of silver) and Kārshāpaṇa (made of copper). The Golakpur (Patna) find is mainly pre-Maurya, possibly of the Nanda era, and appear to have been re-validated to make them kośa- praveśya (legal tender); the coins bearing larger number of marks are thought to be older in origin. The Maurya Empire was definitely based upon money-economy.The punch-marked copper coins were called paṇa...The term Kārshāpaṇa referred to gold, silver and copper coins weighing 80 ratis or 146.5 grains; these coins, the earliest square in shape, followed the ancient Indian system of weights described in Manu Smriti.Use of money was known to Vedic people much before 700 BCE. The words, Nishka and Krishnala, denoted money, and Kārshāpaṇas, as standard coins, were regularly stored in the royal treasuries.The Local silver punch-marked coins, included in the Bhabhuā and Golakpur finds, were issued by the Janapadas and were in circulation during the rule of the Brihadratha Dynasty which was succeeded by the Magadha empire founded by the Haryanka dynasty in 684 BCE; these coins show four punch-marks - the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, arrows (three) and taurine (three) which were current even during the rule of Bimbisara (604-552 BCE). Ajatashatru (552-520 BCE) issued the first Imperial coins of six punch-marks with the addition of the bull and the lion. The successors of Ajatashatru who ruled between 520 and 440 BCE and the later Shishunaga dynasty and the nanda dynasty issued coins of five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol and any three of the 450 symbols. The Maurya coins also have five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, three-arched hill with crescent at top, a branch of a tree at the corner of a four-squared railing and a bull with a taurine in front. Punch-marked copper coins were first issued during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya or Bindusara. The Bhīr find includes Maurya coins and a coin of Diodotus I (255-239 BCE) issued in 248 BCE." (D.R.Bhandarkar. Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics. Asian Educational Services. pp. 55, 62, 79.; Parmeshwari Lal Gupta. Coins. National Book Trust. pp. 17–20, 239–240.)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana "Even during the Harappan Period (ca 2300 BCE) silver was extracted from argentiferous galena. Silver Kārshāpaṇas show lead impurity but no association with gold. The internal chronology of Kārshāpaṇa and the marks of distinction between the coins issued by the Janapadas and the Magadhan issues is not known, the Arthashastra of Kautilya speaks about the role of the Lakshanadhyaksha ('the Superintendent of Mint') who knew about the symbols and the Rupadarshaka 

('Examiner of Coins'), but has remained silent with regard to the construction, order, meaning and background of the punched symbols on these coins hence their exact identification and dating has not been possible.(C. Bhardwaj. Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 140, 142.)"

[quote]

Coinage of India, issued by imperial dynasties and middle kingdoms, began anywhere between 6th century BCE to 1st millennium BCE and consisted mainly of copper and silver coins in its initial stage. (Allan, J. & Stern, S. M. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.)Scholars remain divided over the origins of Indian coinage.(Dhavalikar, M. K. (1975), "The beginning of coinage in India", World Archaeology, 6 (3): 330-338, Taylor & Francis, Ltd.)

Cowry shells was first used in India as commodity money.The Indus Valley Civilization dates back between 2500 BCE and 1750 BCE.What is known, however, is that metal currency was minted in India well before the Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE),and as radio carbon dating indicates, before the 5th century BCE. (Kramer, History Begins at Sumer, pp. 52–55.  https://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-ancient.html Sellwood, D. G. J. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.)

The practice of minted coins spread to the Indo-Gangetic Plain from West Asia. The coins of this period were called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana.(See P.L. Gupta: Coins, New Delhi, National Book Trust, 1996, Chapter II.)These earliest Indian coins, however, are unlike those circulated in West Asia, were not disk-shaped but rather stamped bars of metal, suggesting that the innovation of stamped currency was added to a pre-existing form of token currency which had already been present in the Mahajanapada kingdoms of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.

 "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Gandhara Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Kuntala Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Kuru Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Panchala Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Shakya Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Shurasena Janapada". Coinindia.com. Archived from the original on 2012-06-05. Retrieved 2012-05-22. "The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Surashtra Janapada". Coinindia.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22.

The tradition of Indian coinage was further influenced by the coming of Turkic and Mughal invaders in India.(Allan, J. & Stern, S. M. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.)The East India Company introduced uniform coinage in the 19th century CE, and these coins were later imitated by the modern nation states of Republic of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh.^[9] Numismatics plays a valuable role in determining certain period of Indian history.(Sutherland, C. H. V. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica)

Post Maha Janapadas period (600 BCE – 200 BCE)

Punch-marked coins are a type of early Coinage of India, dating to between about the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE.

The first coins in India were minted around the 6th century BCE by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and certainly before the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. The coins of this period were punch-marked coins called Puranas, 

Karshapanas or Pana. Several of these coins had a single symbol, for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, and Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika, others, like Magadha, had several symbols. These coins were made of silver of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. This was gained by cutting up silver bars and then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin.(Śrīrāma Goyala (1994). The Coinage of Ancient India. Kusumanjali Prakashan.)

They are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, and Buddhist Jataka stories and lasted three centuries longer in the south than the north (600 BCE – 300 CE).("Puranas or Punch-Marked Coins (circa 600 BC – circa 300 AD)". Government Museum Chhennai.)

• Shurasena
• Surashtra

Early coins of India (400 BCE – 100 CE) were made of silver and copper, and bore animal and plant symbols on them.Magadha Kingdom coin, circa 350 BCE, Karshapana.

Magadha kingdom, circa 430–320 BCE, Karshapana.

Magadha kingdom, circa 430–320 BCE, Karshapana.

Classical period (300 BCE – 1100 CE)

Coins of the Mauryas

The Mauryan Empire coins were punch marked with the royal standard to ascertain their authenticity. (Prasad, P.C. (2003), Foreign trade and commerce in ancient India, Abhinav Publications, p.168). The Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, mentions minting of coins but also indicates that the violation of the Imperial Maurya standards by private enterprises may have been an offence.(ibid.). Kautilya also seemed to advocate a theory of bimetallism for coinage, which involved the use of two metals, copper and silver, under one government.(ibid., p.166)

Maurya Empire coinage

Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins.   Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.[citation needed]   Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse.[citation needed]   Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th-2nd century BCE.[citation needed]   Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207-194 BCE.[15]

Introduction of cast die-struck technique (end of 3rd century BCE)

Ancient Indian Coin from Taxila, India, dating back to the 304-232 BC. One of the earliest style coins from ancient India. On the obverse, it has an Elephant advancing right, and on the reverse, a Lion standing left, with hill to left and swastika above.

Punch marked coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die-struck coins.(Recent Perspectives of Early Indian History Book Review Trust, New Delhi, Popular Prakashan, 1995, p.151)Each individual coins was first cast by pouring a molten metal, usually copper or silver, into a cavity formed by two molds. These were then usually die-struck while still hot, first on just one side, and then later on the two sides. The coin devices are Indian, but it is thought that this coin technology was introduced from the West, either from the Achaemenid Empire or from the neighboring Greco-Bactrian kingdom.(The Coins Of India, by Brown, C.J. p.13-20 )

Coins of the Indo-Greeks Further information: Post-Mauryan coinage of Gandhara

Silver tetradrachm of Indo-Greek king Philoxenus.
Obv: Helmetted, diademed and draped bust of Philoxenus. Greek legend BASILEOS ANIKETOU PHILOXENOU "Of the Invincible King Philoxenus"
Rev: King on prancing horse in military dress. Kharoshtilegend MAHARAJASA APADIHATASA PHILASINASA "Undefeatable King Philoxenus".

Coin of Apollodotus I, with a nandipada taurinesymbol on the hump of the zebu bull.

The Indo-Greek kings introduced Greek types, and among them the portrait head, into the Indian coinage, and their example was followed for eight centuries.(Brown C.J (1992)) Every coin has some mark of authority in it, this is what known as "types". It appears on every Greek and Roman coin.Demetrios was the first Bactrian king to strike square copper coins of the Indian type, with a legend in Greek on the obverse, and in Kharoshthi on the reverse.Copper coins, square for the most part, are very numerous. The devices are almost entirely Greek, and must have been engraved by Greeks, or Indians trained in the Greek traditions. The rare gold staters and the splendid tetradrachms of Bactria disappear. The silver coins of the Indo-Greeks, as these later princes may conveniently be called, are the didrachm and the hemidrachm. With the exception of certain square hemidrachms of Apollodotos and Philoxenos, they are all round, are struck to the Persian (or Indian) standard, and all have inscriptions in both Greek and Kharoshthi characters.(Brown C.J (1992))

Coinage of Indo-Greek kingdom began to increasingly influence coins from other regions of India by the 1st century BCE. By this time a large number of tribes, dynasties and kingdoms began issuing their coins; Prākrit legends began to appear.The extensive coinage of the Kushan empire (1st–3rd centuries CE) continued to influence the coinage of the Guptas (320 to 550 CE) and the later rulers of Kashmir.

During the early rise of Roman trade with India up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India.("The Geography of Strabo published in Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917")Gold coins, used for this trade, was apparently being recycled by the Kushan empire for their own coinage. In the 1st century CE, the Roman writer Pliny the Eldercomplained about the vast sums of money leaving the Roman empire for India:

“

India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead? - Pliny, Historia Naturalis 12.41.84.

”

The trade was particularly focused around the regions of Gujarat, ruled by the Western Satraps, and the tip of the Indian peninsular in Southern India. Large hoards of Roman coins have been found and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of South India.(Curtin, Philip DeArmond etc. (1984), Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, Cambridge University Press. p.100). The South Indian kings reissued Roman-like coinage in their own name, either producing their own copies or defacing real ones in order to signify their sovereignty. (Kulke, Hermann & Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), A History of India, Routledge, p.108).

Coins of the Sakas and the Pahlavas (200 BCE – 400 CE)

Coin of Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap Rajuvula. Obv.Bust of king and Greek legend. Rev. Athena Alkidemos andKharoshthi legend chatrapasa apratihatachakrasa rajuvulasa"the Satrap Rajuvula whose discus [cakra] is irresistible".The coins are derived from the Indo-Greek types of Strato II.(The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, by John M. Rosenfield, University of California Press, 1967 p.135 [)

During the Indo-Scythians period whose era begins from 200 BCE to 400 CE, a new kind of the coins of two dynasties were very popular in circulation in various parts of the then India and parts of central and northern South Asia (Sogdiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Sindh, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar). These dynasties were Saka and The Pahlavas.After the conquest of Bactria by the Sakas in 135 BCE there must have been considerable intercourse sometimes of a friendly, sometimes of a hostile character, between them and the Parthians, who occupied the neighboring territory.

Maues, whose coins are found only in the Punjab, was the first king of what may be called the Azes group of princes. His silver is not plentiful; the finest type is that with a "biga" (two-horsed chariot) on the obverse, and this type belongs to a square Hemi drachm, the only square aka silver coin known. His most common copper coins, with an elephant's head on the obverse and a "Caduceus" (staff of the god Hermes) on the reverse are imitated from a round copper coin of Demetrius. On another copper square coin of Maues the king is represented on horseback. This striking device is characteristic both of the Saka and Pahlava coinage; it first appears in a slightly different form on coins of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos; the Gupta kings adopted it for their "horseman" type, and it reappears in Medieval India on the coins of numerous Hindu kingdoms until the 14th century CE

Coins of Kanishka and Huvishka (100 CE – 200 CE)

Coin of Kanishka in Greek script, with illustration of the Buddha on the reverse.

Kanishka's copper coinage which came into the scene during 100–200 CE was of two types: one had the usual "standing king" obverse, and on the rarer second type the king is sitting on a throne. At about the same time there was Huvishka's copper coinage which was more varied; on the reverse, as on Kanishka's copper, there was always one of the numerous deities; on the obverse the king was portrayed (1) riding on an elephant, or (2) reclining on a couch, or (3) seated cross-legged, or (4) seated with arms raised.

Coinage of the Guptas Empire (320 CE – 480 CE)

Silver coin of Chandragupta II of Gupta Empire, in the style of the Western Satrap, with pseudo-Greek script on the obverse, 400 CE.

Gold coins of Chandragupta II of Gupta Empire, 400 CE.

• Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I on a coin of their son Samudragupta 380 CE.
 
• Gold coin of Gupta era, depicting a Gupta king holding a bow, 300 CE.

The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.

The splendid gold coinage of Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest examples of the purely Indian art that we possess.Their era starts from around 320 with Chandragupta I's accession to the throne.^[18]Son of Chandragupta I-Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta Empire had coinage made of gold only.There were seven different varieties of coins that appeared during his reign.Out of them the archer type is the most common and characteristic type of the Gupta dynasty coins, which were struck by at least eight succeeding kings and was a standard type in the kingdom.

The silver coinage of Guptas starts with the overthrow of the Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also introduced some other new types.^[18] The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the nine types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuda and the name of the King on it. The gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gold coins and the disappearance of silver money, bear ample evidence to their curtailed territory.^[18] The percentage of gold in Indian coins under the reign of Gupta rulers showed a steady financial decline over the centuries as it decreases from 90% pure gold under Chandragupta I (319-335) to a mere 75-80% under Skandagupta (467).

Coinage of the Rajputs (900 CE – 1400 CE)

The coins of various Rajput princes's ruling in Hindustan and Central India were usually of gold, copper or billon, very rarely silver. These coins had the familiar goddess of wealth, Lakshmi on the obverse. In these coins, the Goddess was shown with four arms than the usual two arms of the Gupta coins; the reverse carried the Nagari legend. The seated bull and horseman were almost invariable devices on Rajput copper and bullion coins.

Gold coin of Raja Raja Chola I, 985–1014 CE.

[unquote]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinage_of_India

Very probably the earliest Indian coin: a large silver śatamāna (double siglos or bent bar) issue, Gandhara, c.600-500 BCE (43mm long, 10mm wide); *another example, showing the bend*

Another example of these very early Gandharan silver bar coins

Source: http://www.vcoins.com/ancient/jencek/store/viewitem.asp?idProduct=5504
(downloaded July 2007)
"Gandhara, Circa 600-300 B.C.E AR śatamāna (43 mm, 11.26 g). Gandhara symbol on each end."

One more of these very early Taxila "śatamāna bent bar" coins, seen from all angles (length 11.3mm / 0.44 inches; weight 11.25 gm (100 ratti)
A "bent bar"śatamāna from the Kuru and Panchala janapada, c.500-350 BCE

Source: http://www.vcoins.com/ancient/saylesandlavender/store/viewitem.asp?idProduct=5939
A silver 1/8 Kārshāpaṇa coin from Taxila, in the Gandhara janapada, 400's BCE

Taxila single-die local coinage. Pile of stones, hill, river and Svastika(220-185 BCE).

Taxila local single-die coinage (220-185 BCE).[

https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Post-Mauryan+coinage

5.70 gms. Taxila (local coinage) Circa 180-160 BC Half Kārshāpaṇa
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taxila_(local_coinage)_Circa_180-160_BC_Half_Karshapana.jpg

Silver Kārshāpaṇa c. 5th-4th century BCE Weight: 3.39 gm., Dim: 20 x 27 mm. Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others / Blank Ref: GH 222. http://coinindia.com/galleries-magadha.html
6.82 gms. Silver double karshapana from Shakya Janapada (the homeland and times of Buddha), before 600-500 BCE, Ancient India - Rajgor #539 var. "

Uniface cut ingot with a round punchmark, numerous different small bankers' marks around / Blank. 31x17mm, 6.82 grams. Rajgor - (variation on #539). Beautiful high grade, very rare as such. The coin is differently described as a double karshapana of 5 shanas or half a shatamana. Shakya was an ancient janapada of India in the 1st millennium BCE, it was located on the modern India-Nepal border. In Buddhist texts, the Sakyas are mentioned as a Kshatriya clan of Gotama gotra. The Sakyas formed an independent kingdom at the foothills of the Himalayas. The Sakya capital was Kapilavastu, currently situated in Nepal. The most famous Sakya was Gautama Buddha, a member of the ruling Gautama clan of Lumbini, who is also known as Shakyamuni Buddha was born and grew up." https://www.numismall.com/acc/Silver-double-karshapana-from-Shakya-Janapada-the-homeland-and-times-of-Buddha-before-600-500-BC-Ancient-India-Rajgor-539-var.html 3.35 gms. Punch Marked Silver Karshapana Coin of Maghada Janapada. "Punch Marked Coins, Maghada Janapada, Silver Karshapana, Obv: sun, armed wheel, elephant, cow, three arched hill tree railing of different style, Rev: several punch marks, 3.35g, 19.51x15.96mm" http://www.icollector.com/Punch-Marked-Silver-Karshapana-Coin-of-Maghada-Janapada_i24133953

A silver karshapana from Magadha, c.300's BCE
Source: http://www.vcoins.com/ancient/coinindia/store/viewitem.asp?idProduct=113
(downloaded May 2007)
"Magadha: Series IVd Silver punchmarked karshapana, GH 425. Obverse  Five official punches. Reverse  One (or two?) unofficial banker's marks. Date  c. 4th century BCE. Weight  3.46 gm. Dimensions  20 x 13 mm."
 Vidarbha Janapada, 400-350 BCE, Half Kārshāpaṇa, 1.60g, ABCC type Obv: Four punchmarks of the ABCC type - an elephant facing left with two opposite facing crescents over back, two geometric whorls and an interesting large symbol consisting of a triangular dotted border within which are three tourines placed around a circle with a dot in between.

Rev: Blank

The ABCC type refers to the punches on the coin where there are 2 different symbols (A,B) and a pair (C,C) comprising a third separate symbol on the coin.

This coin type is very rare, not previousely published, and comes from the Chhindawara hoard in Madhya Pradesh. The coins from the Chhindawara hoard were recently published by Sharad Sharma in JNSI (Journal of Numismatic Society of India). The attribution is based on the find spot to either Chetiya (or Chedi) Janapada or Vidarbha Janapada that broke away from the Chedi Janapada and became independent in 400 BC. I've gone by the Vidarbha Janapada classification.

This is one of the most beautiful specimen of abstract symbolism on an ancient Indian punch mark coin I have ever seen with full broad flan and near complete punches on the flan. The prominent dotted triangular symbol is especially interesting and unique having never been encountered in such an arrangement before.

Pl see attached the 4 punches on the coin.

http://www.worldofcoins.eu/forum/index.php?topic=27470.0
Vidarbha Janapada, ca 500-400 BC, Half Kārshāpaṇa, Silver, 1.74g, Wainganga/Painganga River Valley/Basin ABCC type, Elephant facing left, Taurine within square border, 2 Treskelis with dotted bordershttp://www.worldofcoins.eu/forum/index.php?topic=23948.0
15.52 gms. 1/2 Kārshāpaṇa Panchala Kingdom, Bhumimitra, Copper double karshapana, c. 1st century BCE Brahmi:Bhumimitrasa http://indiancoinsh.blogspot.in/2017/03/panchala-kingdom-bhumimitra-copper.html
3.41 gms.Silver Kārshāpaṇa, Annuruddha, Munda and Nagadasaka period (ca.445-413 BCE), Magadha Janapada 

"Five various punchmarks, one flower-shaped banker's mark / Numerous banker's marks. Oval planchet, measuring 23mmx19mm, 3.41 grams. Probably overstruck on a type II issue, though the undertype is not clear enough to idenitify. Gupta and Hadraker series III X A 1a (#320).Magadha was an ancient kingdom in India, mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It was also one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of Buddha, having risen to power during the reigns of Bimbisara (c. 544-491 BCE)and his son Ajatashatru (c. 491-460 BCE). The core of the kingdom was that portion of Bihar lying south of the Ganges, with its capital atRajagriha (modern Rajgir). Magadha expanded to include most of Biharand parts of Bengal with the conquest of Anga, and then expanded up the Ganges valley annexing Kosala and Kashi."  https://www.numismall.com/acc/Silver-karshapana-Annuruddha-Munda-and-Nagadasaka-period-ca.445-413-BC-Magadha-v69621.html

A very early silver Kārshāpaṇa coin, with many punchmarks, from the Magadha janapada (c.500's-400's BCE)
Source: http://www.vcoins.com/ancient/coinindia/store/viewitem.asp?idProduct=99#null
(downloaded May 2007)

"MAGADHA: Series I AR punchmarked karshapana. Obverse  Five official punches, along with several banker's marks. Reverse  Banker's marks. Date  c. 6th-5th century BCE. Weight  3.34 gm. Dimensions  24 x 23 mm."http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/janapadacoins/janapadacoins.html

Magadha. Kārshāpaṇa. ca. 350 BCE. 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Magadha_kingdom_coin_Circa_350_BC_AR_Karshapana.jpg

1/2 Kārshāpaṇa from Cheitya Janapada, ca.400-300 BCE  

https://picclick.com/Rare-silver-1-2-karshapana-from-Cheitya-Janapada-ca400-300-311986688153.html

2.83 gms.https://en.numista.com/catalogue/pieces53068.html

Taxila. 2nd cent.BCE. 2.08 gms. MAC ---, MIG 583 1/4 Kārshāpaṇa

8.9 gms. Kārshāpaṇa "A bronze coin from Pushkalavati, a trading city in Pakistan's Peshawar Valley on the banks of the Swat River near the confluence with the Kabul River. The city was part of the Gandhara kingdom. It was issued around 185-160 BC (BC). A / Elephant to the right; above 3 hills topped with a crescent. R / Lion to the left; above swastika, in front of 3 hills surmounted by a crescent. Dimensions: 18.94 x 17.79 mm Weight: 8.9 g. The weight indicates that it is a karshapana but this currency is not referenced in the Mitchiner ACW. It corresponds to Mi ACW 4401."

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A95_Pushkalavati_karshapana_185_160BC_1ar_(8455508385).jpg

Pushkalvati, 1 1/2 Kārshāpaṇa c 185 - 160 BCE 11.5 gms.Mitch. 4401. Elephant, hill; lion, svastika

http://rarecoinsandtokens.co.uk/index.php?main_page=product_info&products_id=319

1/2 Kārshāpaṇa. Maurya Dynasty, 325-185 BCE

https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/321514860890531029/

Taxila. ca. 185 to 168 BCE

1/2 Kārshāpaṇa. Surasena Janapada.

1/4 Kārshāpaṇa

Kosala karshapanas. Circa 525-465 BC. Average diameter 25mm, average weight 2.70 gm. Each piece with a variety of separate punch-marks applied to both sides.

A silver coin of 1 karshapana of King Pushyamitra Sunga (185-149 BC) of the Sunga dynasty (185-73 BC), workshop of Vidisa (?). Obv: 5 symbols including a sun Rev: 2 symbols Dimensions: 19.7 x 13.87 mm Weight: 3.5 g.

A silver coin of 1 karshapana of the Maurya empire, period of Bindusara c. 297-272 BC, workshop of Pataliputra. Obv: Symbols with a Sun Rev: Symbol Dimensions: 14 x 11 mm Weight: 3.4 g.

Karshapana. Magadha. Silver. 2.9 to 3.5 gms. GH Series II Punch-marked

https://www.mintageworld.com/coin/detail/10992/

Kuras of Belgaum/Kohlapur 30BC - Part 2

Lead Half Karshapana of Kuras of Belgaum/Kohlapur 30BC - 65AD RARE

Ruler : King Vasithiputra 
Year : 30 BCE - 65 CE 
Units : Pb (lead) Karshapana, 20mm 3.4gm 
Obverse : Bow & Arrow, legend in Brahmi: Siri Vasisthiputrasa 
Reverse : Tree in railing on right; Multi arched hill on left

The south west region was ruled by the Kuras during the 1st century AD and they were the major power. Brahmapuri and Madhavapur (Kolhapur and Belgaum) were the two major seats. Some of the military achievements over Chutus show the influence of Chutus in their coinage. They mainly ruled between 30 BC and 65 AD as could be understood by the victory of Nahapana over Kuras. The King Vilivayukura is even quoted in Ptolemy's work and seems to be the last king who was defeated by the Satavahanas giving way for Chutus to circulate their coins in this area. All the coins minted by the Kuras were in lead. The bow and arrow decorated the coin obverse and the reverse of their coinage usually carried Chaitya, railed tree and river symbols along with the Brahmi legend along the periphery.

Lead Half Karshapana of Kuras of Belgaum/Kohlapur 30BC - 65AD, Overstruck, Lion facing right RARE

Year : 30 BC - 65 AD 
Unit : Pb (lead) Karshapana, 20mm 5.3gm 
Obverse : Overstruck, Lion facing right, legend in Brahmi 
Reverse : Tree in railing on right;

Reference: Unpublished

The south west region was ruled by the Kuras during the 1st century AD and they were the major power. Brahmapuri and Madhavapur (Kolhapur and Belgaum) were the two major seats. Some of the military achievements over Chutus shows the influence of Chutus in their coinage. They mainly ruled between 30 BC and 65 AD as could be understood by the victory of Nahapana over Kuras. The King Vilivayukura is even quoted in Ptolemy's work and seems to be the last king who was defeated by the Satavahanas giving way for Chutus to circulate their coins in this area. All the coins minted by the Kuras were in lead. The bow and arrow decorated the coin obverse and the reverse of their coinage usually carried Chaitya, railed tree and river symbols along with the Brahmi legend along the periphery.

Lead Karshapana of Kuras of Belgaum/Kohlapur 30BC - 65AD RARE
Ruler : King Vasithiputra 
Year : 30 BC - 65 AD 
Unit : Pb (lead) Karshapana,30mm 18.4gm 
Obverse : Bow & Arrow, legend in Brahmi:Siri Vasisthiputrasa 
Reverse : Tree in railing on right; Multi arched hill on left
Reference : TA#014, RRR

The south west region was ruled by the Kuras during the 1st century AD and they were the major power. Brahmapuri and Madhavapur (Kolhapur and Belgaum) were the two major seats. Some of the military achievements over Chutus shows the influence of Chutus in their coinage. They mainly ruled between 30 BC and 65 AD as could be understood by the victory of Nahapana over Kuras. The King Vilivayukura is even quoted in Ptolemy's work and seems to be the last king who was defeated by the Satavahanas giving way for Chutus to circulate their coins in this area. All the coins minted by the Kuras were in lead. The bow and arrow decorated the coin obverse and the reverse of their coinage usually carried Chaitya, railed tree and river symbols along with the Brahmi legend along the periphery.

http://kamalbasti.blogspot.in/2010/02/kuras-of-belgaumkohlapur-30bc-part-2.html

[quote]

Post-Mauryan coinage refers to the period of coinage production in India, following the breakup of the Maurya Empire (321-185 BCE), until the rise of the Gupta Empire in 320 CE. When Mauryan central power disappeared circa 185 BCE, the vast Maurya Empire was broken into numerous new polities. It rather unified coinage, made of punch-marked coins, also broke up. In the northwest, several small independent entities were formed, which started to strike their own coins, and the Indo-Greeks invaded, bringing together with them new coinage practices and techniques, particularly in the area of Gandhara.^[1] In the east, the new Sunga Empire was formed, and in the south the Satavahana Empire appeared, all with their specific coinage.

Cast die-struck silver coin of the Kunindas, derived from the coinage of the Indo-Greeks, 1st century BCE.

Technology

Punch-marked coinage

Coins of Early Gandhara Janapada: AR Shatamana and one-eighth Shatamana (round), Taxila-Gandhara region, c. 600–300 BCE These political changes were accompanied by technological changes in coin production techniques. Before the collapse of the Maurya Empire, the main type of coinage was punch-marked coins. After manufacturing a sheet of silver or silver alloys, coins were cut out to the proper weight, and then impressed by small punch-dies. Typically from 5 to 10 punch dies could be impressed on one coin.^[1] Punch-marked coins continued to be used for about three more centuries in the south, but in the north they disappeared in favour of the production of cast-die coinage.

Cast die-struck coinage

The types of coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die-struck coins.^[3] Each individual coins was first cast by pouring a molten metal, usually copper or silver, into a cavity formed by two molds. These were then usually die-struck while still hot, first on just one side, and then on the two sides at a later period. The coin devices are Indian, but it is thought that this coin technology was introduced from the West, possibly from the neighboring Greco-Bactrian kingdom.

Single-die coins

The most ancient of the coins are those that were die-cast on one side only, the other side remaining blank.^[1] They seem to start as early 220 BCE, that is, already in the last decades of the Maurya Empire.^[4] Some of these coins were created before the Indo-Greek invasions (dated to circa 185 BCE, start of the Yavana era), while most of the others were created later. These coins incorporate a number of symbols, in a way which is very reminiscent of the previous punch-marked coins, except that this time the technology used was cast single die-struck coinage.^[5]

Single-die coins (220-185 BCE)

Single-die coins before Indo-Greek invasions (220-185 BCE)

Taxila single-die local coinage. Column and arched-hill symbol(220-185 BCE).   Taxila single-die local coinage. Pile of stones, hill, river and Swastika (220-185 BCE).   Taxila single-dye coin. Pile of stones, hill, river and unknown symbols (220-185 BCE).   Taxila local single-die coinage (220-185 BCE).[6]

Single-die coins after the Greco-Bactrian invasions (185 BCE)

The year 185 BCE is the approximate date the Greco-Bactrians invaded India. This date marks an evolution in the design of single-die cast coins, as deities and realistic animals were introduced.^[5]At the same time coinage technology also evolved, as double-die coins (engraved on both sides, obverse and reverse) started to appear.^[5] The archaeological excavations of coins have shown that these coins, as well as the new double die coins, were contemporary with those of the Indo-Greeks. (Ancient Indian Coinage, Rekha Jain, D.K.Printworld Ltd, p.114)

Single-die coinage after the Indo-Greek invasions (185 BCE)

Taxila coin with hill and tree-in-railing (185-168 BCE).   Taxila single-die coin with Lakshmiand arched-hill symbol (185-160 BCE).   Taxila single die coin with bull and arched-hill symbol (185-168 BCE).   Taxila coin (185-168 BCE).   Taxila coin.   Taxila coin.

Double-die coins (185 BCE onward)

Progressively, after 185 BCE and the Greek invasion, coins were cast on both sides.^[1] These coins are generally anonymous, and can carry Brahmi or Kharoshthi legends. These coins have quite specific types, depending mainly on the region where they were struck. Coins with a lion device are mainly known from Taxila, while coins with other symbols such as the Swastika or the Bodhi tree are attributed to the region of Gandhara.^[1] These coins were cast during the rule of Indo-Greek kings Pantaleon and Agathocles in the area of Gandhara, and they are generally contemporary with those of Indo-Greek rulers.

Triratna symbol on a Taxila coin, 185-168 BCE (detail).

Main designs

Taxila coin with wheel and Buddhist symbols. (185-160 BCE).   Taxila coin with elephant and lion (185-168 BCE)   Taxila coin, elephant with arched-hill symbol (185-168 BCE).   Taxila coin (circa 180 BCE).   Taxila coin, with hill, empty cross and palmette (180-160 BCE).

Later, humped or elephant images are known from Ayodhya, Kausambi, Panchala and Mathura. The coins of Ayodhia generally have a humped bull on the reverse, while the coins of Kausambidisplay a tree with railing. (The Coins Of India, by Brown, C.J. p.13-20)

Indian-standard coinage of the Greeks (185 BCE onward)

Illustration of the possible territories and forays into India of the Indo-Greeks.

The Indo-Greeks, following their invasion of the Indian subcontinent circa 185 BCE, in turn started to mint their own coins in the Indian standard (Indian weight, square shape, and less often round shape) with bilingual inscriptions, from the reign of Agathocles (190-180 BCE).

Symbolism

In addition to their own Attic coins, Greek kings thus started to issue bilingual Greek-Prakrit coins in the Indian standard, often taking over numerous symbols of the Post-Mauryan Gandhara coins, such as the arched-hill symbol and the tree-in-railing or Goddess Lakshmi at the beginning, and depictions of the bull and elephant later.

Legends

Several coins of king Agathocles use the Kharoshthi legend Akathukreyasa "Agathocles" on the obverse, and Hirañasame on the reverse (as one of the known coins of Taxila above). Hirañasame would mean "The Golden Hermitage", an area of Taxila (preferred interpretation), or if read 'Hitajasame would mean "Good-fame possessing", a direct translation of "Agathokles"

Taxila, Amanda Gosh, p.835, Nos. 46-48

Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Bopearachchi, p.176

Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals, Parmanand Gupta, Concept Publishing Company, 1989, p.126 

• Coinage of Pantaleon with dancing woman (Lakshmi?) and lion.
 
• Coin of Agathocles. Obv Six-arched hill symbol with star on top, Kharoshthi legend Akathukreyasa "Agathocles". Rev Tree-in-railing and legend Hirañasame.^[8][9]
 
• Coin of Agathocles. Obv Stupa surmounted by a star, Kharoshthilegend Akathukreyasa"Agathocles". Rev vegetal symbol and hirañasame (185-168 BCE).^[8]
 
• Indian coinage of Agathocles, with Buddhist lion and Lakshmi.
 
• Coin of Agathocles with Hindudeities: Vasudeva-Krishna and Balarama-Samkarshana (found at Ai-Khanoum).

Normalization

Bronze coin of Heliokles II (95-80 BCE)

Obv: Bust of diademed king. Greek legend: BASILEOS DIKAIOU HELIOKLEOUS "Of King Heliocles the Just"
Rev: Kharoshti (Indian) translation, elephant holding victory wreath.

Later on, from the second half of the reign of Apollodotus I (ruled 180-160 BCE), legends would become standardized, with simply the King's name and attribute in Greek on the obverse and Kharoshthi Prakrit on the reverse. The usage of Indian symbols would become much more restrained, generally limited to the illustration of the elephant and the zebu bull. There are two major exceptions however: Menander I and Menander II used the Indian Wheel of the Law on some of their coins, suggesting an affiliation with Buddhism, which is also described in literary sources.

However the usage of bilingualism would endure, at first coexisting with Attic-standard coins, and later becoming exclusive. The last Indo-Greek kings even went as far as issuing some Prakrit-only coinage. The period of Indo-Greek coinage in northwestern India would last until the beginning of our era.

• Coin of Apollodotus I (180-160 BCE).
 
• Menander I (155-130 BCE) coin with elephant.
 
• Silver Drachm of Menander II(95-80 BCE) with Zeus and Nikehanding a victory wreath to a Wheel of the Law^[11]
 
• A coin of Artemidoros (85-80 BCE)
 
• Coin of the last Indo-Greek king Strato II (25 BCE-10 CE)

Coinage of the Northwestern Bharat

Location of the Vemakas relative to other groups: the Audumbaras, the Kunindas, the Vrishnis, the Yaudheyas, the Pauravas and the Arjunayanas.

With the influence of the Indo-Greeks in the northwest, local India tribes started to mint their own coins, often in a style reminiscent of the Indo-Greeks.The silver coins of these tribes especially followed the Indo-Greek hemidrachm as well as the general design disposition of the coins (round legends surrounding central figures). (Ancient India, from the earliest times to the first century, A.D by Rapson, E. J. p.154) Coinage started in the 2nd century BCE, and increased in the 1st century with the waning of Indo-Greek power in the area. The most significant tribes in this respect were, in the 2nd century, the Agreyas, the Rajenyas, the Sibis, the Yaudheyas and the Ksudrakas. In the 1st century BCE, they are the Audumbaras, the Kunindas, the Vrishni, the Rajanyas and the Vemakas. In the 1st century CE, the Malavasand the Kalutas.

The rulers of Mathura in the 1st century BCE, known as the Mitra dynasty, also issued some important coins.

Coinage of the Kunindas (1st century BCE)

Silver coin of the KunindaKingdom, c. 1st century BCE.

 

Another Kuninda coin.

 

Coin of the Kunindas.

Coinage of the Audumbaras (1st century BCE)

• Coin of Dharaghosha, king of the Audumbaras, in the Indo-Greekstyle, circa 100 BCE.^[13]
 
• Silver coin of a "King Vrishni" of the Audumbaras.^[14]
 
• Shiva temple with trident standard, Audumbara State, Punjab, 1st century BCE.

Coinage of the Yaudheyas (1st century BCE - 2nd century CE)

• Kumāra Karttikeya with vel and rooster, coin of the Yaudheyas (1st c. BCE)
 
• Six-headed Karttikeya on a Yaudheya coin. British Museum.
 
• Coin of the Yaudheyas with depiction of Kumāra Karttikeya(1st c. BCE)
 
• Karttikeya shrine with antelope. Yaudheya, Punjab, 2nd century CE
• 
  

Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians, and Kushans

See also: Kushan coinage

Indo-Greek coinage in Gandhara would continue for nearly two centuries, until replaced by Indo-Scythians coinage after their conquest of the Indo-Greek Kingdoms. New coinage would also be introduced with the arrival of Indo-Parthians to the subcontinent. The Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians were conquered by theYuezhi (future Kushans), who adopted the coinage of their subjects.

• Coin of Indo-Scythian ruler Azes II.
 
• Coin of Indo-Parthian ruler Gondophares.
 
• Yuezhi copy of a coin of Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles.
 
• Coin of Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises with Greek legend.

Eastern India: coinage of the Sungas

The Shunga Empire was a new Indian dynasty that toppled the Maurya Empire and replaced it in the east of the Indian subcontinent from around 185 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, who usurped the throne of the Mauryas. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar (modern Vidisha) in eastern Malwa.(Stadtner, Donald (1975). "A Śuṅga Capital from Vidiśā". Artibus Asiae. 37 (1/2): 101–104. )

The script used by the Shunga was a variant of Brahmi, and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The script is thought to be an intermediary between the Maurya and the Kalinga Brahmi scripts.

• Bronze coin of the Sunga period, Eastern India. 2nd–1st century BCE.
 
• Another Sunga coin
 
• Sunga coin circa 150 BCE-100 CE.

Central India: coinage of the Satavahanas

Satakarni issue, Maharashtra – Vidarbha type (1st century BCE).

The Satavahanas at first issued relatively simple designs. Their coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four circles at the end.

Later, in the 1st or 2nd century CE, the Satavahanas became the first rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Satraps he defeated, itself originating with the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest.

Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi: "(Sataka)Nisa". British Museum.

• Coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni (r. 167 – 196 CE).
 
• Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.

Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were often struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings.

The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without exception. Some reverse coin legends are in Tamil, (Keith E. Yandell Keith E. Yandell; John J. Paul (2013). Religion and Public Culture: Encounters and Identities in Modern South India. Taylor & Francis. p. 253.)and Telugu language, (Pollock, Sheldon (2003). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. p. 290.)which seems to have been in use in their heartland abutting the Godavari, Kotilingala, Karimnagar in Telangana, Krishna, Amaravati, Guntur in Andhra Pradesh

[unquote]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Mauryan_coinage

Seafaring merchants of Meluhha Indian sprachbund terms constitute the roots of ancient coinage terms in ANE

May 23, 2018, 4:40 am

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https://tinyurl.com/yafzproc

I suggest the choice of turtle on early coin of Aegina, ca.550 BCE is related to 1. seapower of Meluhha seafaring merchants who were described in the Judges (4:2) as harosheth hagoyim, 'smithy of nations'; and 2. the Indus Script rebus renderings of 'turtle' as a hieroglyph signifier of coinage/metal alloying work in a mint: kassa 'turtle' rebus: kãsā 'bell-metal' (Oriya), kamaṭha 'turtle' rebus: kãsā kammaṭa 'bell-metal coiner, mint, portable furnace'.

ISLANDS off ATTICA, Aegina. Circa 550-530/25 BC. AR Stater (20mm, 12.31 g). Sea turtle, head in profile, with thick collar and row of dots down its back / Deep incuse square of proto-“Union Jack” pattern with eight incuse segments. Meadows, Aegina, Group Ib; Milbank Period I; HGC 6, 425; SNG Copenhagen –; Dewing 1654; Gillet –; Jameson 1198; Pozzi 1618. Near EF, lightly toned. Well centered and struck on a broad flan. Exceptional for issue.

From the JP Collectionhttps://coinweek.com/ancient-coins/first-ancient-coins-aeginas-sea-turtle/

Ancient ANE terms for weights of metal objects and coinage

"(Arabo-Pers. sekka, سکّه), standardized units of metal used as a medium of exchange, first introduced into Persia by the Achaemenid Darius I (521-486 B.C.E.) Stephen Album, Michael L. Bates, Willem Floor, /..a papyrus document from Egypt dating from the 5th century B.C.E. confirms that merchants paid “according to the stone (weight) of the king”: 1 kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels, 1 shekel = 4 quarters, 1 quarter = 2 dānaka (O.Pers. *dānaka; attested in El. da-na-kaš; Cameron, p. 132; > Gk. dana′kē “obol,” i.e., one-sixth drachmḗ “drachma” > Mid.Pers. dāng, Pers. dāng “one-sixth”; Horn, Etymologie, no. 536; Bivar, p. 622), and 1 dānaka = 5 ḥalluru (Olmstead, p. 186; Hill, p. 4; Bivar, p. 636 Table II). The daric weighed 8.4 g (= 1 shekel) and was 98 percent pure gold. The siglos weighed 11.2 g, and the silver content was more than 90 percent. Twenty sigloi were equivalent to 1 daric; the ratio of value between silver and gold was thus theoretically 13.3:1. The siglos was also struck in thirds, fourths, sixths, and twelfths (Hill, p. 397; Olmstead, p. 188; Head, p. 25; Dandamayev and Lukonin, p. 197)...The weight system was based on the še(“measure” of barley): 160 še = 1 šiqlu (> Hebrew šeqel > Eng. “shekel”; cf. Gk. síglos), 60 šiqlu = 1 manū (> Hebrew māneh > Eng. mina; cf. Gk. mna), and 60 manū = 1 biltu (> Gk. tálanton > Eng. “talent”) = ca. 66 pounds. The manū thus weighed about a pound. In western Asia the earliest coinage is believed to have been issued at Sardis in Lydia in the 6th century B.C.E.; the first examples were of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver. The first coins of pure gold and pure silver are believed to have been produced at the same mint. They carry the confronted foreparts of a lion (left) and a bull on the obverse and two square incuse punches on the reverse, a symbolism generally associated with Persia. "  “COINS AND COINAGE,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, VI/1, pp. 14-41, available online at 

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-

In this list of ancient terms related to 'weights', the words O.Pers. karša and Pers. dānaka, dāng “one-sixth” have cognates in Indian sprachbund (speech union): 

1. karṣa -- m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ Suśr. (CDIAL 3080) कर्ष mn. a weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy ; in common use 8 Rettis are given to the माष , and the कर्ष is then about 280 grains troy) (सुश्रुत ; वराह-मिहिर's बृहत्-संहिता). 

2. ṭaṅka टङ्क m. a weight of 4 माषs (शार्ङ्गधर-संहिता i , 19; वेताल-पञ्चविंशतिका iv , 2-3);  ṭaṅka a stamped, silver coinl ṭaṅgā m. ʻ a coin worth 2 paisā (Hindi)

4 Dhan = 1 Ratti 

1 rattī = 1.75 grains (= 0.11339825 gram) (1 grain = 0.064799 gram) Ratti is the seed of the 'Abrus precatorius'

8 rattīs = 1 māshā (= 0.9071856 gram)

12 māshās = 1 tolā (= 10.886227 gram) The word tolā signifies 'weighing'

24 Ratti (96 Dhan) = 1 Tak

Old Persian word še(“measure” of barley) is relatable to the suffix – शस् mentioned by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43 a a signifier of a 'coin': Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī 

uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin – कार्षापणशो ददाति "he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or कार्षापणम् ददाति "he gives a Kārshāpaṇa", while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin". (The Ashtadhyayi of Panini Vol.2. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 998.) It is clear that Indian merchants, mintworkers and  metalwork artisans were in contact with their counterparts in Ancient Near East resulting in the use of common words from Meluhha speech forms while designing the monetary system based on metal weights of coins.

tōlaka m.n. ʻ a weight of gold or silver ʼ Rājat., tōla -- m. lex. [√tul]Pk. tōla -- m.n. ʻ a weight ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) tolo m. ʻ unit of value = 12 rupees ʼ; S. toro m. ʻ weight (for weighing) ʼ, L. tolā m. ʻ a partic. weight = one rupee ʼ (→ S. tolo m. ʻ a partic. weight = 90 ratīs ʼ); P. tolā m. ʻ a weight = 12 māṣas ʼ; Ku. tol m. ʻ weight, prestige ʼ, twālā ʻ weight of one rupee ʼ, gng. tōl ʻ weight ʼ; A. B. tolā ʻ weight of one rupee ʼ, Or. toḷā, OAw. H. tolā m. (→ N. tolā ʻ 1/80 of a seer ʼ, G. tolo m.), M. toḷā m.tōláyati ʻ lifts, weights, considers ʼ MBh. [√tul] Pk. tōlēi, °laï ʻ weights ʼ; Kt. tuŕe/tum ʻ I weigh ʼ; Dm. Paš. Gaw. Kal. Phal. tōl -- ʻ to weigh, measure ʼ; Bshk. tol -- ʻ to weigh, think ʼ; Sh.gil. tolóĭki̯, koh. tolōnṷ, gur. tolyōmṷ ʻ to weigh, measure ʼ; K. tōlun ʻ to weigh ʼ, S. toraṇu, L. tolaṇ, P. toḷnā Ku. tolṇo; A. toliba ʻ to lift, bring up ( a child) ʼ; B. tolā ʻ to weigh ʼ; Or. toḷibā ʻ to raise, build, collect, pluck (fruit or flowers) ʼ; H. tolnā ʻ to weigh ʼ (taulnā over -- sanskritized with au for o→ N. taulanu ʻ to weigh ʼ), G. toḷvũ.tōlikā -- f. ʻ wall round a watch tower ʼ BhP.pratōlī -- ; *bhagnatōlī --Addenda: tōláyati: Garh. tolṇu (ḷn?) ʻ to weigh ʼ rather < tōlya -- .tōlya ʻ to be weighed ʼ, taulya -- n. ʻ weight ʼ Hcat. [√tul]Pk. tolla -- n. ʻ weight ʼ; K. tōl m. ʻ weight ʼ, L. tōl m., P. tol m.; H. tol m. ʻ a standard weight ʼ; M. tol n. ʻ weight for weighing ʼ.Addenda: tōlya -- : WPah.kṭg. tōl m. ʻ weight, unit of weight ʼ, kṭg. (kc.) tolṇõ ʻ to weigh ʼ (rather than < tōláyati); J. tōl m. ʻ weight ʼ, tolṇu ʻ to weigh ʼ; Garh. tol ʻ weight ʼ.(CDIAL 5978 to 5980)

I suggest that the choice of Old Persian terms to signify 'metal weights' is significantly influenced by the wordsin vogue in Indian sprachbund, since Meluhha artisans/seafaring merchants had frequent interactions with the regions of Ancient Near East earning the title Harosheth Hagoyim, 'smithy of nations' (cognate Kharoṣṭhī goya'blacksmith speech guild' of Meluhha artisans/merchants. These mint workers of harosheth hagoyim perhaps influenced the choice of terms in Old Persian to signify metal weights.

It is significant that tens of thousands of ancient Indian coins signify 'hill range' as a symbol, together with a 'tree' as a symbol. The hiieroglyphs read rebus: ṭaṅga, ḍaṅga'hill' rebus: ṭaṅgā m. ʻa stamped silver coin'; dhangar blacksmith'; kuṭi'tree' rebus: kuṭhi'smelter'. Both expressions relate to wealth accounting ledgers,metalwork catalogues of Indus Script Corpora.

Hieroglyph: *ṭakka3 ʻ hill ʼ. 2. *ṭaṅga -- 4. 3. *ṭikka -- 2. 4. *ṭiṅga -- . 5. *ṭēkka -- . 6. *ṭēṅga -- . 7. *ṭuṅka -- . 8. *ṭuṅga -- 1. 9. *ḍakka -- 3. 10. *ḍagga -- 1. 11. *ḍaṅga -- 3. 12. *ḍuṅga -- . 13. *ḍōṅga -- 2. 14. tuṅga -- . 15. *thuṅga -- . 16. *daṅga -- . [Cf. ṭaṅka -- 4 m. ʻ peak, crag ʼ MBh., tuṅga -- (see below) ʻ lofty ʼ, m. ʻ mountain ʼ MBh., and *ṭappa -- 3 with further list. Variety of form indicates non -- Aryan and perh. (with PMWS 149) Mu. origin. <-> Further poss. connexion with *ḍhōkka -- 2 ʻ rock ʼ and large group of words for ʻ lump ʼ s.v. *ḍhikka -- 1] 1. Ext. -- r -- : S. ṭakuru m. ʻ mountain ʼ, ṭakirī f. ʻ hillock ʼ, ṭākara f. ʻ low hill ʼ, ṭākirū m. ʻ mountaineer ʼ; N. ṭākuro, °ri ʻ hill top ʼ.2. Or. ṭāṅgī ʻ hill, stony country ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Or. ṭāṅgara ʻ rocky hilly land ʼ.3. Ext. -- r -- : Or. ṭikara ʻ high land, sandbank ʼ, ṭikarā, ṭīkirā ʻ anthill ʼ.4. A. ṭiṅ ʻ mountain peak ʼ, ṭiṅnā ʻ elevated piece of land ʼ, ṭiṅāli ʻ very high ʼ. -- Ext. -- l -- in *uṭṭiṅgala -- .5. M. ṭek m.n., ṭekā̆ḍ n., ṭekḍī, ṭẽk° f. ʻ hillock ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : P. ṭekrā m., °rī f. ʻ rock, hill ʼ; H. ṭekar, °krā m. ʻ heap, hillock ʼ; G. ṭekrɔ m., °rī f. ʻ mountain, hillock ʼ.6. K. ṭē̃g m. ʻ hillock, mound ʼ.7. G. ṭũk ʻ peak ʼ.8. M. ṭũg n. ʻ mound, lump ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Or. ṭuṅguri ʻ hillock ʼ; M. ṭũgar n. ʻ bump, mound ʼ (see *uṭṭungara -- ); -- -- l -- : M. ṭũgaḷ, °gūḷ n. 9. K. ḍȧki f. ʻ hill, rising ground ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : K. ḍakürü f. ʻ hill on a road ʼ.10. Ext. -- r -- : Pk. ḍaggara -- m. ʻ upper terrace of a house ʼ; M. ḍagar f. ʻ little hill, slope ʼ.11. Ku. ḍã̄g, ḍã̄k ʻ stony land ʼ; B. ḍāṅ ʻ heap ʼ, ḍāṅgā ʻ hill, dry upland ʼ; H. ḍã̄g f. ʻ mountain -- ridge ʼ; M. ḍã̄g m.n., ḍã̄gaṇ, °gāṇ, ḍãgāṇ n. ʻ hill -- tract ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : N. ḍaṅgur ʻ heap ʼ. 12. M. ḍũg m. ʻ hill, pile ʼ, °gā m. ʻ eminence ʼ, °gī f. ʻ heap ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Pk. ḍuṁgara -- m. ʻ mountain ʼ; Ku. ḍũgar, ḍũgrī; N. ḍuṅgar ʻ heap ʼ; Or. ḍuṅguri ʻ hillock ʼ, H. ḍū̃gar m., G. ḍũgar m., ḍũgrī f. 13. S. ḍ̠ū̃garu m. ʻ hill ʼ, H. M. ḍõgar m. 14. Pa. tuṅga -- ʻ high ʼ; Pk. tuṁga -- ʻ high ʼ, tuṁgĭ̄ya -- m. ʻ mountain ʼ; K. tŏng, tọ̆ngu m. ʻ peak ʼ, P. tuṅg f.; A. tuṅg ʻ importance ʼ; Si. tun̆gu ʻ lofty, mountain ʼ. -- Cf. uttuṅga -- ʻ lofty ʼ MBh. 15. K. thọ̆ngu m. ʻ peak ʼ. 16. H. dã̄g f. ʻ hill, precipice ʼ, dã̄gī ʻ belonging to hill country ʼ. Addenda: *ṭakka -- 3. 12. *ḍuṅga -- : S.kcch. ḍūṅghar m. ʻ hillock ʼ.(CDIAL 5423)

ṭaṅkaśālā -- , ṭaṅkakaś° f. ʻ mint ʼ lex. [ṭaṅka -- 1, śāˊlā -- ] N. ṭaksāl, °ār, B. ṭāksāl, ṭã̄k°, ṭek°, Bhoj. ṭaksār, H. ṭaksāl, °ār f., G. ṭãksāḷ f., M. ṭã̄ksāl, ṭāk°, ṭãk°, ṭak°. -- Deriv. G. ṭaksāḷī m. ʻ mint -- master ʼ, M. ṭāksāḷyā m. Addenda: ṭaṅkaśālā -- : Brj. ṭaksāḷī, °sārī m. ʻ mint -- master ʼ.(CDIAL 5434)

ṭaṅka1 m.n. ʻ weight of 4 māṣas ʼ ŚārṅgS., ʻ a stamped coin ʼ Hit., °aka -- m. ʻ a silver coin ʼ lex. 2. ṭaṅga -- 1 m.n. ʻ weight of 4 māṣas ʼ lex. 3. *ṭakka -- 1. [Bloch IA 59 ← Tatar tanka (Khot. tanka = kārṣāpaṇa S. Konow Saka Studies 184)] 1. Pk. ṭaṁka -- m. ʻ a stamped coin ʼ; N. ṭã̄k ʻ button ʼ (lw. with k); Or. ṭaṅkā ʻ rupee ʼ; H. ṭã̄k m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ; G. ṭã̄k f. ʻ a partic. weight equivalent to 1/72 ser ʼ; M. ṭã̄k m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ. 2. H. ṭaṅgā m. ʻ a coin worth 2 paisā ʼ.3. Sh. ṭăk m. ʻ button ʼ; S. ṭako m. ʻ two paisā ʼ, pl. ʻ money in general ʼ, ṭrakaku ʻ worth two paisā ʼ, m. ʻ coin of that value ʼ; P. ṭakā m. ʻ a copper coin ʼ; Ku. ṭākā ʻ two paisā ʼ; N. ṭako ʻ money ʼ; A. ṭakā ʻ rupee ʼ, B. ṭākā; Mth. ṭakā, ṭakkā, ṭakwā ʻ money ʼ, Bhoj. ṭākā; H. ṭakā m. ʻ two paisā coin ʼ, G. ṭakɔ m., M. ṭakā m.*uṭṭaṅka -- , *ṣaṭṭaṅka -- , ṭaṅkaśālā -- . Addenda: ṭaṅka -- 1 [H. W. Bailey in letter of 6.11.66: Khot. tanka is not = kārṣāpaṇa -- but is older Khot. ttandäka ʻ so much ʼ < *tantika -- ](CDIAL 5426)

Early 6th-century BCE Lydian electrum coin denominated as ​¹⁄₃stater.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stater#/media/File:BMC_06.jpg

Silver stater of Mithrapata of Lycia, c. 390–370 BCE 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stater#/media/File:Silver_stater_of_Mithrapata_of_Lycia_(c._390%E2%80%93370_BC).jpg

Silver staters of Aegina

Silver stater of Aegina, 550–530 BC. Obv. Sea turtle with large pellets down center. Rev. incuse square with eight sections. After the end of the Peloponnesian War, 404 BC, Sea turtle was replaced by the land tortoise.

Silver drachma of Aegina, 404–340 BC. Obverse: Land tortoise. Reverse: inscription ΑΙΓ[ΙΝΑΤΟΝ]

 

"The silver stater with a turtle is a coin from the 6th century BC Greece. The front has a sea turtle design, while the back has a punch mark, found on most coins at that time. The earliest coins were made of electrum, a mix of gold and silver. The coins were first made in the island of Aegina off the southeast side of Greece. Some historical sources say the first coins were made by the king of Argos, Pheidon. The coins with 'turtle' design are considered "an important early trading currency" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_stater_with_a_turtle  

See: 

Turtle hypertexts of Indus Script copper plate inscriptions, metalcasting mints https://tinyurl.com/y9z8mcuc

Field Symbol 39 Inscribed object in the shape of a tortoise (Fig. 70) (ASI 1977 Concodance)

Fild Symbol 38 Tortoise (Fugure 69) (ASI 1977 Concordance)

Turtle hypertexts of Indus Script copper plate inscriptions, signify account ledgers of wealth-creating metalcasting mints. Samudra manthanam 'ocean churn' is a metaphor for artisans at work creating weealth from the resources of the earth and the oceans.

There are 13 copper plates with inscriptions of Indus Script Corpora which show the turtle hieroglyph back-to-back, i.e.Two horned heads one at either end of the body.

Map of Giant Tortoises: light blue on South Asia for Colossochelys

Gold staters have been found from the ancient region of Gandhara from the time of Kanishka.(Prabha Ray Himanshu (2006-06-01). Coins in India. Marg Publications.) 

Text Line 1 B17b

kolmo ‘rice plant’ rebus: kolimi ‘smithy, forge’

gaNDA ‘four’ rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’

sal ‘splinter’ rebus: sal ‘workshop’

koDi ‘flag’ rebus: koD ‘workshop’ (Phonetic determinative)

Three mountain peaks (range): danga ‘mountain range’ rebus: dhangar ‘blacksmith’

koD ‘horn’ rebus: koD ‘workshop’

Text Line 2 B17b, B17a

khaNDa ‘division’ rebus: khaNDa ‘implements’ PLUS dula ‘pair’ rebus: dul ‘cast metal’

meD ‘body’ PLUS meDa ‘staff’ rebus: meD ‘iron’

ranku ‘liquid measure’ rebus: ranku ‘tin’

dula ‘two’ rebus: dul ‘cast metal’

kuTila ‘curve’ rebus: kuTila ‘bronze’ PLUS koD ‘horn’ rebus: koD ‘workshop’ Thus, bronze workshop.

B18 text

kaṇḍa kanka ‘rim of jar’ Rebus: karṇīka ‘account (scribe)’karṇī‘supercargo’.
kaṇḍa ‘fire-altar’. Alternative: kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: kanga 'brazier'.

loa ‘ficus’ rebus: loh ‘copper’

koḍa 'sluice'; Rebus: koḍ 'artisan's workshop (Kuwi)

gaNDa ‘four’ rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’ PLUS kolom ‘three’ rebus: kolimi ‘smithy, forge’ 

Thus, signifying metal casting using cire perdue (lost-wax) technique of creting mirror image metal castings from wax casts.

m1529m1534m1534

Hieroglyph: karṣá m. ʻ dragging ʼ Pāṇ., ʻ agriculture ʼ Āp. [Cf. kāˊrṣi -- ʻ ploughing ʼ TS., karṣí -- Kapiṣṭh.: √kr̥ṣ] Pk. karisa -- m. ʻ dragging ʼ, kassa -- m. ʻ mud ʼ; Paš. kaṣ ʻ pulling ʼ; Or. kāsa ʻ time or turn of ploughing a field ʼ. <-> Poss. Wg. koṣ ʻ snake ʼ, Ash. kəreš ʻ snake ʼ, Wg. koṣ (< ʻ dragging or trailing on the ground ʼ) or < kr̥śá -- . karṣaka ʻ cultivating ʼ, m. ʻ husbandman ʼ Yājñ. [karṣá -- : √kr̥ṣ]
Pa. kassaka -- m. ʻ ploughman ʼ, Pk. karisaya -- , kāsaya -- , °sava -- m.; Si. kasayā ʻ peasant ʼ, kasu -- kama ʻ ploughing, agriculture ʼ; -- H. kassā m. ʻ mattock ʼ, °sī ʻ small do. ʼ, kussī f. (X kus < kuśīˊ -- ).  karṣaṇa n. ʻ tugging, ploughing, hurting ʼ Mn., ʻ cultivated land ʼ MBh. [kárṣati, √kr̥ṣ] Pk. karisaṇa -- n. ʻ pulling, ploughing ʼ; G. karsaṇ n. ʻ cultivation, ploughing ʼ; OG. karasaṇī m. ʻ cultivator ʼ, G. karasṇī m. -- See *kr̥ṣaṇa -- . kárṣati ʻ draws, pulls ʼ RV. [√kr̥ṣ] Pa. kassatē ʻ ploughs ʼ; Pk. karisaï, kāsaï ʻ pulls ʼ; Gy. pal. kšal -- ʻ to drag, pull, lead ʼ, arm. kaš -- ʻ to pull ʼ; Ash. keṣawā -- ʻ to draw out ʼ; Wg. kaṣ -- ʻ to pull ʼ, kaṣā -- ʻ to take away by force ʼ; Kt. kṣō -- ʻ to creep ʼ; Pr. -- kṣə -- ʻ to pull ʼ, Dm. kaṣāy -- ; Kal. kaṣalém ʻ I creep ʼ; S. kasaṇu ʻ to tighten ʼ, L. kassaṇ, awāṇ. kassuṇ, WPah. bhad. kaśṇū, P. kassṇā (→ Ku. kasṇo, N. kasnu, B. kasā; Or. kasā ʻ close -- fisted ʼ; Mth. kasab ʻ to tighten ʼ, OAw. kasaï, H. kasnā; OMarw. kasaï ʻ harnesses, binds ʼ; G. kasvũ ʻ to tighten ʼ, M. kasṇẽ); OM. kāsaṇeṁ ʻ to tie fast ʼ. -See kr̥ṣáti. 

Addenda: kárṣati [Cf. Ir. in Shgh. kirā̤x̌t ʻ to drag, remove ʼ, Rosh. kirēx̌t EVSh 41 < *krāršaya -- < *kāršaya -- ] WPah.kṭg. (kc.) kɔ́śṇõ ʻ to tighten, tie ʼ, J. kaśṇu. (CDIAL 2905 to 2908) †*kārṣū -- f. ʻ furrow, trench ʼ ~ karṣūˊ -- with dial. IA. a for ā < IE. o as in Av. karšū ʻ ploughed land ʼ and in karṣí -- ~ kāˊrṣi -- T. Burrow BSOAS xxxviii 70, Turner BSOAS xxxvi 429.Pa. kāsū -- in aṅgāra -- kāsū -- f. ʻ fire -- pit ʼ. (CDIAL 3081) karṣí ʻ furrowing ʼ Kapiṣṭh. [Cf. kāˊrṣi -- ʻ ploughing ʼ VS., karṣūˊ -- f. ʻ furrow, trench ʼ ŚBr.: √kr̥ṣ]Pr. kṣe_ ʻ plough -- iron ʼ, Paš. kaṣí ʻ mattock, hoe ʼ; Shum. káṣi ʻ spade, pickaxe ʼ; S. kasī f. ʻ trench, watercourse ʼ; L. kass m. ʻ catch drain, ravine ʼ, kassī f. ʻ small distributing channel from a canal ʼ; G. kã̄s m. ʻ artificial canal for irrigation ʼ -- Dm. Phal. khaṣīˊ ʻ small hoe ʼ perh. X khánati.Addenda: karṣí -- (kaṣĭ̄ -- f. ʻ spade ʼ lex.). [Like Av. karšivant<-> ʻ cultivator ʼ < IE. *kworsi -- with alternative development of IE. o ~ kāˊrṣi -- , kārṣīvaṇa -- ʻ cultivator ʼ T. Burrow, BSOAS xxxviii 63, 70; cf. karṣūˊ -- ~ †*kārṣū -- Turner BSOAS xxxvi 425](CDIAL 2909)

కర్షము karṣamu karshamu. [Skt.] n. A weight of about half an ounce or 16 palams. ఇరువది చిన్నములయెత్తు.(Telugu) கசு kacu, n. < கஃசு. Measure of weight, = ¼ பலம்; காற்பலம். அமிதுசெய்யச் சர்க்கரை

 முக்க சும் (S.I.I. ii, 127). காசு³ kācu , n. prob. kāš. cf. kāca. [M. kāšu.] 1. Gold; பொன். (ஆ. நி.) 2. Necklace of gold coins; அச்சுத்தாலி. காசும் பிறப்புங் கலகலப்ப (திவ். திருப்பா. 7). 3. An ancient gold coin = 28 gr. troy; ஒரு பழைய பொன்னாணயம். (Insc.) 4. A small copper coin; சிறுசெப்புக்காசு. நெஞ்சே யுனையோர் காசா மதியேன் (தாயு. உடல்பொய். 72). 5. Coin, cash, money; ரொக்கம். எப்பேர்ப்பட்ட பல காசா யங்களும் (S.I.I. i, 89). 6. Gem, crystal bead; மணி. நாண்வழிக் காசுபோலவும் (இறை. 2, உரை, பக். 29). 

kārṣāpaṇá m.n. ʻ a partic. coin or weight equivalent to one karṣa ʼ. [karṣa -- m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ Suśr. (cf. OPers. karša -- ) and paṇa -- 2 or āpana -- EWA i 176 and 202 with lit. But from early MIA. kā̆hā°]
Pa. kahāpaṇa -- m.n. ʻ a partic. weight and coin ʼ, KharI. kahapana -- , Pk. karisāvaṇa -- m.n., kāhāvaṇa -- , kah° m.; A. kaoṇ ʻ a coin equivalent to 1 rupee or 16 paṇas or 1280 cowries ʼ; B. kāhan ʻ 16 paṇas ʼ; Or. kāhā̆ṇaʻ 16 annas or 1280 cowries ʼ, H. kahāwan, kāhan, kahān m.; OSi. (brāhmī) kahavaṇa, Si. kahavuṇa, °vaṇuva ʻ a partic. weight ʼ.kāˊrṣāpaṇika ʻ worth or bought for a kārṣāpaṇa ʼ Pāṇ. [kārṣāpaṇá -- ]Pa. kāhāpaṇika -- , Or. kāhāṇiã̄.(CDIAL 3080, 3081)

Kho. krəm ʻ back ʼ kūrmá1 m. ʻ tortoise ʼ VS., °mī -- , °mā -- f. MBh. [Cf. *kūrma -- 2?]Pa. kumma -- m. (usu. with kacchapa -- ) ʻ tortoise ʼ, Pk. kumma -- m., °mī -- f., K. krum, krümü, kṳ̄rm m., krumiñü f.; S. kumī f. ʻ tortoise, turtle ʼ; L. kummã̄ m., °mī f., kaṛ -- kummā m. ʻ tortoise ʼ, (Shahpur) kar -- kummām. ʻ turtle ʼ (kaṛ -- , kar -- ?); P. kummã̄, °mī˜ f. ʻ tortoise, turtle ʼ; Si. kumu ʻ tortoise ʼ.(CDIAL 3414)

*kacch ʻ measure ʼ.S. kachaṇu ʻ to measure ʼ, kāchu m. ʻ land -- measurer ʼ, °cho m. ʻ measure, size ʼ; L. kacchaṇ ʻ to measure by length ʼ; P. kacchṇā ʻ to measure (esp. land) ʼ, kacch, kācch f. ʻ measurement of a field ʼ.(CDIAL 2617)

कांसा kāṃsā m C (कांसव A tortoise.) A rock in the water of a level surface; lying, or appearing occasionally, above the water. kacchapa m. ʻ turtle, tortoise ʼ MBh. 2. *kacchabha -- . [By pop. etym. through kaccha -- for kaśyápa -- VS. J. Charpentier MO xxvi 110 suggested equivalence in MIA. of kassa -- = kaccha -- to explain creation of kacchapa -- ~ kassapa -- . But K. kochuwu, unless a loan from Ind., points to *kakṣapa -- , which would make the formation earlier.]

1. Pa. kacchapa -- m. ʻ tortoise, turtle, °pinī -- f., Pk. kacchava -- m., °vī -- f., K. kochuwu m. (see above), S. kachãũ, °chū̃ m., L. kachū̃ m., P. kacchū, kacchūkummã̄ m. (< kūrmá -- 1), N. kachuwā, A. kācha, B. kāchim, Or. kechu, °cho, kẽchu, kaï˜cha, °ca, kachima, °cima, Mth. kāchu, Bhoj. Aw. lakh. kachuā; H. kachuā, °chwā m., °uī, °wī f. ʻ tortoise, turtle ʼ, kach -- mach m. ʻ dwellers in the water ʼ (< mátsya -- ) whence kacch, kach m. ʻ turtle, tortoise ʼ, M. kāsav, kã̄s° m., Ko. kāsavu. 2. Pk. amg. kacchabha -- , °aha -- m., °bhī -- f.; Si. käsum̆bu, °ubu H. Smith JA 1950, 188; -- G. kācbɔ m., °bī f. with unexpl. retention of -- b -- and loss of aspiration in c. Addenda: kacchapa -- . 1. A. kācha (phonet. -- s -- ) ʻ tortoise ʼ AFD 217.2. *kacchabha -- (with -- pa -- replaced by animal suffix -- bha -- ): Md. kahan̆bu ʻ tortoise -- shell ʼ.(CDIAL 2619)

The hypertext on m1534b read rebus as: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' PLUS  kassa 'turtle' rebus: kãsā 'bell-metal' kamaṭha 'turtle' rebus: kãsā kammaṭa 'bell-metal coiner, mint, portable furnace'. 

கஞ்சம்² kañcam 

, n. < kaṃsa. 1. Bell-metal; வெண்கலம். (திவா.) 

कासांडी kāsāṇḍī f A metal vessel of a particular description. कांसाळ (p. 93) kāṃsāḷa f (कांसें) A large sort of cymbals. (Marathi) कांसें (p. 93) kāṃsēṃ n (कांस्य S) Bell metal: also queen's metal, or any amalgam of zinc and copper. कासार or कांसार  kāsāra or kāṃsāra m (कांस्यकार S) A caste or an individual of it. They are braziers or workers in white or bell metal. 2 (By mispronunciation of or mistake for कांचार) A maker of or stringer of glass bangles; कांसारथळ (p. 93) kāṃsārathaḷa n A tax upon braziers and banglemakers or bead-stringers; कांसारभट्टी (p. 93) kāṃsārabhaṭṭī f A tax on each furnace used in making बांगडी &c.  कांसारभात (p. 93) kāṃsārabhāta m R (कांसार Brazier, here implying common or coarse  कांस्य  kāṃsya & कांस्यकार S See कांसें & कांसार. (Marathi). . కాంస్యము (p. 265) kāṃsyamu kāmsyamu. [Skt.] n. Bell metal. కంచు.  కంసర (p. 227) kaṃsara or కంసలల kamsara. [Tel.] n. Smithery; working in gold: adj. Of the goldsmith caste. కంసలది a woman of that caste. కంసలపని the business of a gold-smith.  కంసము (p. 227) kaṃsamu kamsamu. [Skt.] n. Bell metal.కంచు. కంచరవాడు kañcaravāḍu or కంచరి kanṭsara-vaḍu. [Tel.] n. A brazier, a coppersmith. కంచుపని చేయువాడు. కంచరది a woman of that caste. కంచరిపురుగు kanṭsari-purugu. n. A kind of beetle called the death watch. కంచు kanṭsu. n. Bell metal. కంచుకుండ a bowl or vessel or bell metal. కంచువాద్యము a cymbal made of bell metal. కంచుతీసినట్లు as bright or dazzling as the glitter of polished metal. Sunbright. ఆమె కంచుగీచినట్లు పలికె she spoke shrilly or with a voice as clear as a bell. (Telugu)

kamaṭha crab, tortoise (Gujarati); ‘frog’ (Skt.); rebus:  kammaṭa ‘mint’ (Kannada) kampaṭṭam ‘coiner, mint’ (Tamil).கமடம், [ *kamaṭam, ] s. A turtle, a tortoise, ஆமை (Winslow Tamil lexicon) కమఠము [ kamaṭhamu ] kamaṭhamu. [Skt.] n. A tortoise. कमठ [ kamaṭha ] m S A tortoise or turtle.(Marathi) kamaṭha crab, tortoise (Gujarati); ‘frog’ (Skt.); rebus:  kammaṭa ‘mint’ (Kannada) kampaṭṭam ‘coiner, mint’ (Tamil) Rebus: కమటము [ kamaṭamu ] kamaṭamu. [Tel.] n. A portable furnace for melting the precious metals. అగసాలెవాని కుంపటి. Allograph: कमटा or ठा [ kamaṭā or ṭhā ] m (कमठ S) A bow (esp. of bamboo or horn) (Marathi). Allograph 2: kamaḍha ‘penance’ (Pkt.) Ta. kācu (< Te.; Voc. 663). / ? Cf. Skt. karṣa-. (DEDR 1431) kaṁsá1 m. ʻ metal cup ʼ AV., m.n. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ Pat. as in S., but would in Pa. Pk. and most NIA. lggs. collide with kāˊṁsya -- to which L. P. testify and under which the remaining forms for the metal are listed. 2. *kaṁsikā -- .1. Pa. kaṁsa -- m. ʻ bronze dish ʼ; S. kañjho m. ʻ bellmetal ʼ; A. kã̄h ʻ gong ʼ; Or. kãsā ʻ big pot of bell -- metal ʼ; OMarw. kāso (= kã̄ -- ?) m. ʻ bell -- metal tray for food, food ʼ; G. kã̄sā m. pl. ʻ cymbals ʼ; -- perh. Woṭ. kasṓṭ m. ʻ metal pot ʼ Buddruss Woṭ 109.2. Pk. kaṁsiā -- f. ʻ a kind of musical instrument ʼ; K. k&ebrevdotdot;nzü f. ʻ clay or copper pot ʼ; A. kã̄hi ʻ bell -- metal dish ʼ; G. kã̄śī f. ʻ bell -- metal cymbal ʼ, kã̄śiyɔ m. ʻ open bellmetal pan ʼ. kāˊṁsya -- ; -- *kaṁsāvatī -- ? Addenda: kaṁsá -- 1: A. kã̄h also ʻ gong ʼ or < kāˊṁsya -- . (CDIAL 2576) kāˊṁsya ʻ made of bell -- metal ʼ KātyŚr., n. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ Yājñ., ʻ cup of bell -- metal ʼ MBh., °aka -- n. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ. 2. *kāṁsiya -- . [kaṁsá -- 1]1. Pa. kaṁsa -- m. (?) ʻ bronze ʼ, Pk. kaṁsa -- , kāsa -- n. ʻ bell -- metal, drinking vessel, cymbal ʼ; L. (Jukes) kã̄jā adj. ʻ of metal ʼ, awāṇ. kāsā ʻ jar ʼ (← E with -- s -- , not ñj); N. kã̄so ʻ bronze, pewter, white metal ʼ, kas -- kuṭ ʻ metal alloy ʼ; A. kã̄h ʻ bell -- metal ʼ, B. kã̄sā, Or. kãsā, Bi. kã̄sā; Bhoj. kã̄s ʻ bell -- metal ʼ, kã̄sā ʻ base metal ʼ; H. kās, kã̄sā m. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ, G. kã̄sũ n., M. kã̄sẽ n.; Ko. kã̄śẽ n. ʻ bronze ʼ; Si. kasa ʻ bell -- metal ʼ.

2. L. kã̄ihã̄ m. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ, P. kã̄ssī, kã̄sī f., H. kã̄sī f.*kāṁsyakara -- , kāṁsyakāra -- , *kāṁsyakuṇḍikā -- , kāṁsyatāla -- , *kāṁsyabhāṇḍa -- .Addenda: kāˊṁsya -- : A. kã̄h also ʻ gong ʼ, or < kaṁsá -- .*kāṁsyakara ʻ worker in bell -- metal ʼ. [See next: kāˊṁsya -- , kará -- 1]L. awāṇ. kasērā ʻ metal worker ʼ, P. kaserā m. ʻ worker in pewter ʼ (both ← E with -- s -- ); N. kasero ʻ maker of brass pots ʼ; Bi. H. kaserā m. ʻ worker in pewter ʼ. kāṁsyakāra m. ʻ worker in bell -- metal or brass ʼ Yājñ. com., kaṁsakāra -- m. BrahmavP. [kāˊṁsya -- , kāra -- 1]N. kasār ʻ maker of brass pots ʼ; A. kãhār ʻ worker in bell -- metal ʼ; B. kã̄sāri ʻ pewterer, brazier, coppersmith ʼ, Or. kãsārī; H. kasārī m. ʻ maker of brass pots ʼ; G. kãsārɔ, kas° m. ʻ coppersmith ʼ; M. kã̄sār, kās° m. ʻ worker in white metal ʼ, kāsārḍā m. ʻ contemptuous term for the same ʼ.*kāṁsyakuṇḍikā ʻ bell -- metal pot ʼ. [kāˊṁsya -- , kuṇḍa -- 1]
N. kasaũṛi ʻ cooking pot ʼ.kāṁsyatāla m. ʻ cymbal ʼ Rājat. [kāˊṁsya -- , tāla -- 1]Pa. kaṁsatāla -- m. ʻ gong ʼ; Pk. kaṁsālā -- , °liyā -- f. ʻ cymbal ʼ, OB. kaśālā, Or. kãsāḷa; G. kã̄sāḷũ n. ʻ large bell -- metal cymbals ʼ with ã̄ after kã̄sũ ʻ bell -- metal ʼ; M. kã̄sāḷ f. ʻ large cymbal ʼ; -- Si. kastalaya ʻ metal gong ʼ (EGS 40) is Si. cmpd. or more prob. ← Pa.*kāṁsyabhāṇḍa ʻ bell -- metal pot ʼ. [kāˊṁsya -- , bhāṇḍa -- 1]Pa. kaṁsabhaṇḍa -- n. ʻ brass ware ʼ; M. kāsã̄ḍī, °sãḍī f. ʻ metal vessel of a partic. kind ʼ.(CDIAL 2987 to 2992)

m1534b On this copper tablet, the correct identification of the animal heads will be turtle species comparable to Meiolania, a horned large turtle of New Guinea.

m1532b On another copper tablet, the emphasis is clearly on the turtle's shell like that of Meiolania's shell.

kassa 'turtle' rebus: kãsā 'bell-metal' (Oriya), kamaṭha 'turtle' rebus: kãsā kammaṭa 'bell-metal coiner, mint, portable furnace'.

A synonym is kachchhapa (tortoise or turtle shell) which is one of the nine treasures of Kubera.

Galapagos giant tortoise on Pinzon Island/ "The Galapagos Islands are world-famous as a laboratory of biological evolution. Some 30 percent of the plants, 80 percent of the land birds and 97 percent of the reptiles on this remote archipelago are found nowhere else on Earth. Perhaps the most striking example is the islands’ iconic giant tortoises, which often live to ages over 100 years in the wild. " https://theconversation.com/galapagos-giant-tortoises-make-a-comeback-thanks-to-innovative-conservation-strategies-67591

The meaning of the expression colossochelys atlas is: Giant Turtle That Holds Up The Earth(or The Sky). "Colossochelys atlas, formerly known as Testudo atlas, and originally described as Geochelone atlas, is an extinct species ofcryptodire turtle from the Pleistocene period, [as far back as] 2 million years ago. During the dry glacial periods [ie, after 2 million years ago-DD] it ranged from western India and Pakistan (possibly even as far west as southern and eastern Europe) to as far east as Sulawesi and Timor in Indonesia."

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossochelys

In ancient Mesopotamia, the turtle was associated with the god Ea and was used on kudurrus as a symbol of Ea(Green, Anthony and Black, Jeremy, 1992, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: an illustrated dictionary, University of Texas Press.)

Samudra Manthan:  Lord Vishnu directing the Churning of the Milk Ocean.

The Puranic story of the Churning of the Primeval milk ocean (kshirasagara) by the gods and the demons, using the primeval serpent, Vasuki, as a rope and Mount Meru as a churning stick with Kurma, the tortoise as the base.

A bas-relief from Angkor Wat, Cambodia, shows Samudra manthan-Vishnu in the center and his turtle AvatarKurma below

Fluid Elegance of Samudra Manthan: The Churning of the Milk Ocean.

Lord Vishnu at the center directing the Churning of the Milk Ocean.

Samudra Manthanam. Khmer sculpture.

Kailasa temple walls. Ellora caves. Samudra Manthanam.

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/12/assur-daiva-samudra-manthan-meluhha.html  

Assur, Daiva, Samudra Manthan. Meluhha hieroglyphs resolve the dialectic: Tin Road. 

Samudra manthan or 'Churning of Ocean of Milk' Deva and Da_nava churn the ocean, using Va_suki, the serpent as the rope and Mandara, the mountain as the churning rod. Ganesh Lena, Ellora, ca. 11th cent. CE.

Samudra Manthan 

The upper panel of the sculpture depicts Samudramathana. Circa 10th century, Alampur sculpture

The panel at the top shows the Devas and Asuras churning the ocean. In the panel below, framed by makara-toranas are the ratnas yielded by the manthan, including Lakshmi (centre), Uchhaishravas (right), and Apsaras (left). http://www.kaladarshana.com/sites/papanasanam/P1010197.html

Site Name: Udaipur

Monument: an illustrated manuscript of the Bhagavata Purana text

Artist: Sahibdin

Subject of Photo: leaf with illustration of Visnu's Kurma Avatara and the Churning of the Ocean of Milk: First yields of the ocean

Photo Orientation: overview of leaf

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Iconography: Bhagavata Purana

Dynasty/Period: Rajput Dynasties: Mewar

Date: colophon dated 1648 CE, 1648 CE

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Material: paper / pigment

Dimensions: H - ca. 8.00 in W - ca. 14.25 in

Current Location: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India

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Scan Number: 0059934 http://huntington.wmc.ohio-state.edu

https://twitter.com/Bharathgyan/status/999154420762988544  

Arthaśāstra wealth categories & Money economy of kārṣāpaṇa (Pāṇini, ANE and Indian standard), are a continuum of Indus Script Cipher tradition

May 24, 2018, 3:04 am

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Indus Script hyperttests/hieroglyphs constitute legends on ancient coins to signify Arthaśāstra wealth categories. For e.g., elephant signifies karibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron'; kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'; kola 'tiger' rebus:kolhe 'smelter', kol 'working in iron'; dang 'hill-range' rebus: dhangar blacksmith', tanka 'mint'; ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron'; dha + vaṭa 'dotted rircle' rebus: dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter'

Karṣa or kārṣa is the Meluhha standard term for the dawn of money economy in 1st millennium BCE in Ancient India and in Ancient Near East. This standard measure of money is adapted in the units of weight measures of metal used in Ancient Near East to signify coinage.  The suggestion made by MK Dhavalikar that Achaemenid standard was borrowed into Ancient India is refuted, while tracing the roots of money economy from the monetary practices of R̥gveda days, from ca. 7th millennium BCE which also gave raise to Indus Script Inscriptions as wealth accouning ledgers (the incipient forms of wealth records anticipating the money economy based on metal coinage with legends, which blossomed in the 1st millennium BCE, pace the Punch-marked coins in almost all the 16 Mahājanapada-s).

The word karṣa is rendered in Persian as kereš and is retained as karša in Old Persian. 10 units of karša constitute 10 shekels in the Ancient Near East standard units used to name coinage. In the Indian standard karṣa is subdivided into smaller units: 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल. I suggest that the direction of borrowing of the term karṣa is from India into Ancient Near East, as firmly attested by the following etyma related to 'cash'.

I suggest that the Latin and French cognate words together with Old Persian karša are derived from the Samskrtam gloss. Latin: capsa 'money box', French caisse, English cash, Portuguese caixa are thus derivatives from Samskrtam and OPersian karsha, 'a particular weight, money unit'.

kārṣāpaṇá m.n. ʻ a partic. coin or weight equivalent to one karṣa ʼ. [karṣa -- m. ʻ a partic. weight ʼ Suśr. (cf. OPers. karša -- ) and paṇa -- 2 or āpana -- EWA i 176 and 202 with lit. But from early MIA. kā̆hā°]Pa. kahāpaṇa -- m.n. ʻ a partic. weight and coin ʼ, KharI. kahapana -- , Pk. karisāvaṇa -- m.n., kāhāvaṇa -- , kah° m.; A. kaoṇ ʻ a coin equivalent to 1 rupee or 16 paṇas or 1280 cowries ʼ; B. kāhan ʻ 16 paṇas ʼ; Or. kāhā̆ṇa ʻ 16 annas or 1280 cowries ʼ, H. kahāwan, kāhan, kahān m.; OSi. (brāhmī) kahavaṇa, Si. kahavuṇa, °vaṇuva ʻ a partic. weight ʼ.kāˊrṣāpaṇika ʻ worth or bought for a kārṣāpaṇa ʼ Pāṇ. [kārṣāpaṇá -- ]Pa. kāhāpaṇika -- , Or. kāhāṇiã̄.(CDIAL 3080, 3081) Ta. kācu gold, gold coin, money, a small copper coin. Ma. kāśu gold, money, the smallest copper coin. Ko. ka·c rupee. To. ko·s id. Ka. kāsu the smallest copper coin, a cash, coin or money in general. Tu. kāsů an old copper coin worth half a pie, a cash. Te. kāsu a cash, a coin in general, a gold coin, money. Go. (Ko.) kāsu pice (< Te.; Voc. 663). / ? Cf. Skt. karṣa-. (DEDR 1431) kāsi 'coin' (Sinhalese). கசு kacu , n. < கஃசு. Measure of weight, = ¼ பலம்; காற்பலம். அமிதுசெய்யச் சர்க்கரை முக்க சும் (S.I.I. ii, 127).

The early Portuguese writers represented the native word by cas, casse, caxa, the Fr. by cas, the Eng. by cass: the existing Pg. caixa and Eng. cash are due to a natural confusion withCASH n.1. From an early date the Portuguese applied caixa (probably on the same analogy) to the small money of other foreign nations, such as that of the Malay Islands, and especially the Chinese, which was also naturally made into cash in English. (Yule)" ("Cash, n.²". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.)The English word "cash," meaning "tangible currency," is an older word from Middle French caisse.(Douglas Harper (2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary"). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_(currency) In Latin, capsa means a “money box” (cf. OPers. Kshatrapavan = Satrap “an ancient Persian commercial and state confinement”) and a cognate word is: case which refers to a box. French word caisse means “money in hand, coin.” Old Persian karsha means  “a unit of value equivalent to one cash coin” and "was first employed during the reign of Cyrus II followed by the establishment of the “formal” banking system and around the same time of the establishment of the credit and checking unions during the reign of Darius I who also minted the first face-coins."  (Jean-Luc Dumont. "The Establishment of the Banking “Industry” – a 2500 Year Old Aryan ICH and Commercial Industry" |https://docs.google.com/document/d/1USeT6-9KtdA0zdQ73GGh-N_k9JYvUW7y-8zDnPdIhcM/edit?usp=sharing,  ACHF, 2016.)

The roots of shekel in Old Persian system of coinage are traced to:  kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels. The word kereš as a unit of weight for a coin is cognate of Samskrtam word: कर्ष mn. a weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy ; in common use 8 Rettis are given to the माष , and the कर्ष is then about 280 grains troy) Sus3r. VarBr2S. &c (Monier-Williams)

पण a weight of copper used as a coin (= 20 माषs = 4 काकिनीs) Mn. Ya1jn5.; price; commodity for sale; a partic. measure Pa1n2. 3-3 , 66 (" a handful " Sch.); business; wealth, property (Monie-Williams)

paṇa1 m. ʻ wager ʼ Yājñ., ʻ stake, wages ʼ MBh. [Cf. páṇatē ʻ barters ʼ ŚBr. (EWA ii 194 < *pr̥ṇāti?), Pa. paṇati ʻ bargains, bets ʼ. -- √paṇ]Pk. paṇa -- ʻ wealth, bet, promise ʼ; A. pan ʻ wager, vow ʼ; B. pan ʻ oath, promise, dowry ʼ; Or. paṇa ʻ vow ʼ; OMth. pana ʻ stipulation, bargain ʼ; H. pan m. ʻ promise ʼ; OG. paṇa m. ʻ stake ʼ; G. paṇ n. ʻ promise ʼ; M. paṇ m. ʻ bet, promise ʼ; Si. paṇa ʻ bet, wages ʼ.*agryapaṇa -- , *gharapaṇa -- .paṇa2 m. ʻ a coin (= 80 cowries) ʼ Mn. [← Austro -- as. EWA ii 196 with lit.]S. paṇu m. ʻ a dry measure ʼ; Si. paṇa ʻ a measure of account in cowries (= 80) ʼ.(CDIAL 7714, 7715).Nush-i Jan discoveries of silver
bars. (After Fig. 10 in: David Stronach, Director of The British Institute of Persian Studies, Teheran Tepe Nush-i Jan, A Mound in Media, Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New York)
https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258384.pdf.bannered.pdf These bars arecomparable to the Punch-marked bent silver bars of Gandhara. David Stronach notes:"Silver bars or ingots from the hoard. That at the top has been cut; that at the bottom* appears to be marked for possible division. The latter is I00.8 grams in weight and measures 3 5/8 inches in length."Refuting MK Dhavalikar's suggestion of Achaemenid influence on Punch-marked coinage of Ancient India

MK Dhavalikar has suggested that the bent bar coins were derived from the Iranian monetary practice seen in Nush-I Jan finds. (MK Dhavalikar, The beginning of coinage in India, World Archaeology, London, 1975, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 330-38). 

Nush-I Jan silver ingots are dated to ca. 7^th century BCE. The Gandhara bent bar silver unch-marked coins of Chaman Huzuri (Kabul) hoard in Afghanistan are dated to ca. 380 BCE.

I submit that the Nush-i Jan silver bars are ingots and NOT coins. The bars were struck with punch-marks unique to Sarasvati Civiliization and in the Indus Script Cipher tradition, in Gandhara to create coinage. Such stamped coins of Gandhara constitute coinage while the Iranian silver bars are only ingots which do not even bear info. on the weights of the bars (ingots).

While it is clear that silver was imported from Ancient Near East, the preparation of silver ingots into coins was practised early in Gandhara, es evidenced by bent bar silver punch-marked coins found in Bhir Mound. Such coinage is NOT found in Persia.

So, it is a hasty conecture of MK Dhavalikar that Ancient Indian practice of coins followed the Nush-i Jan silver ingot practices. Converting the imorted silver bars into coins is a unique invention of Ancient Indian janapadas which introduced the early coinage of Punch-marked coins with Indus Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts as symbols (all of which are meaningful wealth accounting ledgers and metalwork catalogues of mints and metalworker guilds).

The Iranian bent bars follow the Ancient Indian standard of karṣa and double the weight of silver coins struck in the Persian Empire (as seen in the example of Alexander coin which is di-shekel weighs 10.85 grams). It is notable that the Nush-I Jan silver bars DO NOT have any symbols while the early Gandhara bent bar silver Punch-marked coins have vivid punch-mark symbols which are meaningful metalwork catalogues in Indus Script Cipher tradition.

Punch-marked coin, Gandhara janapada, 600 to 500 BCE. Silver bentbar (śatamāna). Obv. & Rev. six armed symbnol at each end of the bar 11.27 g. 38.27 x 1001 mm https://tinyurl.com/y73rm7kd

The average weight of a Gandhara bent bar Punch-marked coin about 1" to 1.75" in length and 0.4" in width had a weight of approx. 11 to 11.5 grams. Each punch-marked can be called a paṇa or śatamāna. Old Persian standard of sigloi or shekel  was half the weight of a paṇa.  Thus 2 shekel equalled 1 paṇa.

The system of punch-marked coins has been followed in all Janapada-s and not restricted to Gandhara. Punching of Indus script hieroglyphs/hypertexts transform the inscribed metal objects (bent bars, square coins of metal) into coinage.

Six arms of the hypertext of beng bar Punch marked silver coins constitute  षट्--कोण n. a six-angled figure Ra1matUp. Pan5car.; rebus: षट्--कोण 'thunderbolt of Indra' (synonym: vajra). vajra वज्र a. [वज्-रन् Uṇ.2.28] 1 Hard, adamantine. -2 Severe. -3 Forked, zigzag. -4 Cross. -ज्रः, -ज्रम् 1 A thunderbolt, the weapon of Indra (said to have been formed out of the bones of the sage Dadhīchi q. v.); आशंसन्ते समितिषु सुराः सक्तवैरा हि दैत्यैरस्याधिज्ये धनुषि विजयं पौरुहूते च वज्रे Ś.2.16. -2 Any destructive weapon like the thunderbolt. -3 A diamond-pin, an instru- ment for perforating jewels; मणौ वज्रसमुत्कीर्णे सूत्रस्येवास्ति मे गतिः R.1.4. -4 A diamond in general, an adamant; वज्रादपि कठोराणि मृदूनि कुसुमादपि U.2.7; R.6.19; मुक्तां मरकतं पद्मरागं वज्रं च विद्रुमम् Śiva B.3.12. -5 Sour gruel. -ज्रः 1 A form of military arrray. -2 A kind of Kuśa grass. -3 N. of various plants. -4 A kind of pillar. -ज्रम् 1 Steel. -2 A kind of talc. (Apte)

The dotted circle in the centre is read rebus as hypertext of Indus Script to signify wealth accounting ledger of metalwork: dāya'dotted circle' PLUS vaṭa 'round' rebus:dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter'. Ara 'spoke' rebus: ara 'brass'; eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'molten cast'.

Source: http://www.ancientcoins.ca/gandhara/gandhara.htm

Greek drachm weighed 67.2 grains, while Indian paṇa weighed 56 grains.

A common estimate makes the shekel equal in weight to about 130 grains for gold, 224 grains for silver, and 450 grains for copper.

This explains why there is equivalence in weight standard of Punch-Marked Coins of Ancient India and shekel coins of Ancient Near East. 

Bactria: pre-Seleucid Alexander the Great ? Silver Tetradrachm or Di-shekel, c. 328 BCE Weight:10.85 gm., Diam:22-25 mm. I suggest that the bird seen on the obv. is a black drongo (often shown in association with zebu on Indus Script Corpora) read rebus in Meluhha: 

Hieroglyph: pōlaḍu, 'black drongo' rebus pōlaḍ  'steel'పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu perched on pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus' Rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite ore'.

Thus, it is seen that shekel which became a currency unit was preceded by  kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels. This  kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels, is related to the Samskrtam word karsha which meant 'a weight of silver or gold equal to ¹⁄₄₀₀ of a tulā' (Samskrtam).
Kārshāpaṇa (Sanskrit: कार्षापण) is attested by Panini ca. 6th cent. BCE and in Samvidhān Brāhmana, S'atapatha Brāhmana, Dhammapada verse 186. They are generally silver pieces with 5 or 6 punch-marks (Indus Script hieroglyphs) and attested in mints of many early janapadas of Bharatam. Patanjali refers to it as a coin: कार्षापणशो ददाति "he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or कार्षापणम् ददाति "he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",  The suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43 indicates that a coin is referred to. "During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇa or Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana While  Kārshāpaṇa were of copper, Dharana or Purana were of silver and Suvarna were of gold. PaNa were punch-marked coins. The Vedic weight of karsha was equal to 16 mAshas. Lakshanadhyaksha of Arthas'astra could identify the symbols (hieroglyphs); he was a Rupadarshaka, 'examiner of coins'. 

Thanks to Indus Script cipher, it is now possible to pin-down the meanings of the punch-marks which are a continuum of Indus Script hieroglyph tradition.

कार्षा* पण[p= 276,3]mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि ; cf. कर्ष्) " weighing a कर्ष " , a coin or weight of different values (if of gold , = 16 माषs » कर्ष ; if of silver , = 16 पणs or 1280 Kowries , commonly termed a Kahan ; if of copper , = 80 रक्तिकाs or about 176 grains ; but accord. to some = only 1 पण of Kowries or 80 Kowries) Mn. viii , 136 ; 336 ; ix , 282(ifc.) worth so many कार्षापणs Pa1n2. 5-1 , 29n. money , gold and silver L. कर्ष [p=260,1]mn. a weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy ; in common use 8 Rettis are given to the माष , and the कर्ष is then about 280 grains troy) Sus3r. VarBr2S. &c

कर्ष mn. Terminalia Bellerica (also called अक्ष q.v.) L.
"The nuts of the tree are rounded but with five flatter sides. It seems to be these nuts that are used as dice in the epic poem Mahabharata. A handful of nuts would be cast on a gaming board and the players would have to call whether an odd or even number of nuts had been thrown." ( Bennett, Deborah (1999). Randomness. Boston: Harvard University Press. p. 24.). A synonym for कर्ष mn. Terminalia Bellerica in Samskrtam is अक्ष

Terminalia bellirica hanging fruit at 23 Mile near Jayanti in Buxa Tiger Reserve in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, India. 

The seed of this nut is used as a die in the game of dice. akSa also means a sensual perception, a law-suit, hence अक्ष--पटल [p= 3,2] n. court of law depository of legal document Ra1jat.

Hieroglyphy: furrow, trench: कर्ष [p=259,3] m. ( √कृष्) , the act of drawing , dragging Pa1n2.(with and without हलस्य) ploughing , agriculture A1p. Ya1jn5. ii , 217 karṣí ʻ furrowing ʼ Kapiṣṭh. [Cf. kāˊrṣi -- ʻ ploughing ʼ VS., karṣūˊ -- f. ʻ furrow, trench ʼ ŚBr.: √kr̥ṣ] Pr. kṣe_ ʻ plough -- iron ʼ, Paš. kaṣí ʻ mattock, hoe ʼ; Shum. káṣi ʻ spade, pickaxe ʼ; S. kasī f. ʻ trench, watercourse ʼ; L. kass m. ʻ catch drain, ravine ʼ, kassī f. ʻsmall distributing channel from a canalʼ; G. kã̄s m. ʻartificial canal for irrigationʼ -- Dm. Phal. khaṣīˊ ʻ small hoe ʼ perh. X khánati. Addenda: karṣí -- (kaṣĭ̄ -- f. ʻ spade ʼ lex.). [Like Av. karšivant<-> ʻ cultivator ʼ < IE. *kworsi -- with alternative development of IE. o ~ kāˊrṣi -- , kārṣīvaṇa -- ʻ cultivator ʼ T. Burrow, BSOAS xxxviii 63, 70; cf. karṣūˊ -- ~ †*kārṣū -- Turner BSOAS xxxvi 425](CDIAL 2909) *kārṣū -- f. ʻ furrow, trench ʼ ~ karṣūˊ -- with dial. IA. a for ā < IE. o as in Av. karšū ʻ ploughed land ʼ and in karṣí -- ~ kāˊrṣi -- T. Burrow BSOAS xxxviii 70, Turner BSOAS xxxvi 429. Pa. kāsū -- in aṅgāra -- kāsū -- f. ʻ fire -- pit ʼ.(CDIAL 3081a).Ta. kāci difficulty, straits (< Te.). Ka. gāsi, ghāsi trouble, fatigue, pain. Tu. gāsi id. Te. gāsi id.; gāsincu to harass, vex, fatigue, exhaust; gāsil(l)u to labour, be wearied, be harassed. (DEDR 1430)

Kasi and Kasī (f.) [fr. kasāti] tilling, ploughing; agricul- ture, cultivation M ii.198; S i.172, 173=Sn 76 sq.; Vin iv.6; Pv i.56 (k˚, gorakkha, vaṇijjā); PvA 7; Sdhp 390 (k˚, vaṇijjā); VvA 63. -- ˚ŋ kasati to plough, to till the land J i.277; Vism 284.

   -- kamma the act or occupation of ploughing, agriculture J ii.165, 300; iii.270. -- karaṇa ploughing, tilling of the field PvA 66; -- khetta a place for cultivation, a field PvA 8 (kasī˚); -- gorakkha agriculture and cattle breeding D i.135; -- bhaṇḍa ploughing implements DhA i.307. Kasati [kṛṣ or karṣ] to till, to plough S i.172, 173=Sn 80; Th i.531; J i.57; ii.165; vi.365. -- kassate (3rd sing. med.) Th 1, 530. -- pp. kattha (q. v.) Caus. II. kasāpeti Miln 66, 82; DhA i.224.Kasana (nt.) ploughing, tilling J iv.167; vi.328, 364; Vism 384 (+vapana sowing). Kasita (pp. of kasati) ploughed, tilled Anvs 44; -- a˚ un- tilled ibid. 27, 44. -- Cp. vi˚. Kassaka [fr. kasati] a husbandman, cultivator, peasant, farmer, ploughman D i.61 (k˚ gahapatiko kārakārako rāsi -- vaḍḍhako); A i.241; A. i.229, 239 (the three duties of a farmer); S i.172=Sn 76; iii.155 (v. l. for T. kasaka); iv. 314; Vin iv.108; Bdhd 96; DA i.170; often in similes, e. g. Pv i.11; ii.968 (likeness to the doer of good works); Vism 152, 284, 320. -- vaṇṇa (under) the disguise of a peasant S i.115 (of Māra). (Pali)

Square coins are carried as a banner by the elephant rider in the middle. These are kahapana (Pali). This is a proclamation of the coinage work carried out by the artisans of Bharhut..

Square coins are spread out in the Jetavana narrative at Bharhut. Anathapindika covers Jetavana with coins (Bharhut, Brahmi text: jetavana ananthapindiko deti kotisanthatena keta. Also called Sudatta, he was a banker (setthi) of Sāvatthi who became famous because of his unparalleled generosity to the Buddha. His first meeting with the Buddha was during the first year after the Enlightenment, in Rājagaha (the story is given in Vin.ii.154ff; SA.i.240ff, etc.), whither Anāthapindika had come on business.These square coins shown on Bharhut sculpturl frieze are: Kahāpaṇa [doubtful as regards etym.; the (later) Sk. kārṣāpaṇa looks like an adaptation of a dial. form] 1. A square copper coin M ii.163; A i.250; v.83 sq.; Vin ii.294; iii.238; DhsA 280 (at this passage included under rajataŋ, silver, together with loha -- māsaka, dārumāsaka and jatu -- māsaka); S i.82; A i.250; Vin ii.294; iv.249; J i.478, 483; ii.388; Mhvs 3014. The extant specimens in our museums weigh about 5/6 of a penny, and the purchasing power of a k. in our earliest records seems to have been about a florin. -- Frequent numbers as denoting a gift, a remuneration or alms, are 100,000 (J ii.96); 18 koṭis (J i.92); 1,000 (J ii.277, 431; v.128, 217; PvA 153, 161); 700 (J iii.343); 100 (DhA iii.239); 80 (PvA 102); 10 or 20 (DhA iv.226); 8 (which is considered, socially, almost the lowest sum J iv.138; i.483). A nominal fine of 1 k. (=a farthing) Miln 193. -- ekaŋ k˚ pi not a single farthing J i.2; similarly eka -- kahāpaṇen' eva Vism 312. -- Various qualities of a kahāpaṇa are referred to by Bdhgh in similes at Vism 437 and 515. Black kahāpaṇas are mentioned at DhA iii.254. -- See Rh. Davids, Ancient Measures of Ceylon; Buddh. India, pp. 100 -- 102, fig. 24; Miln trsl. i.239 -- gabbha a closet for storing money, a safe DhA iv.104; -- vassa a shower of money Dh 186 (=DhA iii.240).(Pali)

 This may be a currency of a specified weight of gold issued by an unknown ruler. It is significant that the 'srivatsa' hypertext is shown in front of the striding lion. arye 'lion' rebus: ara 'brass' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS dha 'roll of dice, one in roll of dice' PLUS vaTa 'round'; thus, together dhavad 'iron smelter'..Whe wheel: ara 'spoke' rebus: ara 'brass'eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'molten cast'.
Tillya Tepe gold coin, with naked deity wearing chlamys cape and petasus hat pushing the Wheel of the Law. Kabul Museum.
Obverse: Kharoshthi legend Dharmacakrapravata[ko] "The one who turned the Wheel of the Law".
Reverse: Kharoshthi legend Sih[o] vigatabhay[o] "The lion who dispelled fear".(Gérard Fussman et Anna Maria Quagliotti, The early iconography of Avalokitesvara L'iconographie ancienne d'Avalokitesvara, Collège de France, Publications de l'Institut de Civilisation indienne. Paris, Diffusion De Boccard, 2012. ISBN 978-2-86803-080-1. Quotation / Gérard Fussman, p.28)

"The earliest shekels were a unit of weight, used as other units such as grams and troy ounces for trading before the advent of coins. The shekel was common among western Semitic peoples. Moabites, Edomites, and Phoenicians used the shekel, although proper coinage developed very late. Carthaginian coinage was based on the shekel and may have preceded its home town of Tyre in issuing proper coins.(Bronson, Bennet (November 1976), "Cash, Cannon, and Cowrie Shells: The Nonmodern Moneys of the World", Bulletin, Vol. 47, No. 10, Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, pp. 3–15.) Coins were used and may have been invented by the early Anatolian traders who stamped their marks to avoid weighing each time used. Herodotus states that the first coinage was issued by Croesus, King of Lydia, spreading to the golden Daric (worth 20 sigloi or shekel),("Siglos", Encyclopædia Britannica.) issued by the Persian Empire and the silver Athenian obol and drachma...As with many ancient units, the shekel had a variety of values depending on era, government and region; weights between 7(Crawford, Michael Hewson (1985), Coinage and Money under the Roman Republic: Italy and the Mediterranean Economy, The Library of Numismatics, Berkeley: University of California Press,)and 17 grams and values of 11,(Tenney, Merril ed., The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, vol. 5, "Weights and Measures," Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1976.)14, and 17 grams are common. When used to pay laborers, recorded wages in the ancient world range widely. The Code of Hammurabi (circa 1800 BC) sets the value of unskilled labor at approximately ten shekels per year of work.(G. Johannes Botterweck; Helmer Ringgren; Heinz-Josef Fabry (21 June 2004). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 132)Later, records within the Persian Empire (539-333 BC) give ranges from a minimum of two shekels per month for unskilled labor, to as high as seven to ten shekels per month in some records.(Peter Altmann (26 October 2016). Economics in Persian-Period Biblical Texts: Their Interactions with Economic Developments in the Persian Period and Earlier Biblical Traditions. Mohr Siebeck. p. 62)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shekel

With the successful decipherment of Indus Script Cipher, a contentious issue among historians, numismatists, archaeologists, related to the roots of money economy of ancient India gets resolved. 

This monograph posits that money Economy of Kārshāpaṇa in Ancient India is a continuum of Indus Script Cipher tradition. The expression is a semantic duplication of 'money' in the words: Kārsha and paṇa, both of which mean 'money' in Meluhha Indian sprachbund (speech union). The Meluhha word Kārsha is adopted in Ancient Near East (sometimes referred to as Babylonian money standard).

"Shekel (Akkadian: šiqlu or siqlu; Hebrew: שקל‎, pl. shekels or sheqalim) is any of several ancient units of weight or of currency. Since it was a coin that represented a claim on a weight of barley held in the city warehouse, the term "shekel" was likely used in both contexts: 1) As the name of the coin, and; 2) To describe the measure of barley. This coin weighed about 180 grains (11 grams or .35 troy ounces)...The Sumerian word shekel derives from “She” which meant wheat, and, “Kel” was a measurement similar to a bushel, hence this coin was a symbol of a value of one bushel of wheat. The Hebrew word shekel is based on the this Sumerian verbal root for "weighing" (šql), cognate to the Akkadian šiqlu or siqlu, a unit of weight equivalent to the Sumerian gin2.(Dilke, Oswald Ashton Wentworth (1987). Mathematics and measurement. University of California Press. p. 46. ) Use of the word was first attested in c. 2150 BC during the Akkadian Empire under the reign of Naram-Sin, and later in c. 1700 BC in the Code of Hammurabi. The šql root is found in the Hebrew words for "to weigh" (shaqal), "weight" (mishqal) and "consideration" (shiqqul), and is related to the tql root in Aramaic and the θql root in Arabic, such as the words thiqal (the weight) or Mithqal (unit of weight). The famous writing on the wall in the Biblical Book of Daniel includes a cryptic use of the word in Aramaic: "Mene, mene, teqel, u-farsin". The word "shekel" came into the English language via the Hebrew Bible, where it is first used in the Book of Genesis.(Genesis 23:15-16)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shekel

Meluhha words tūṅkal'to weigh' and šilīˊ'millet' are cognate with the Akkadian expression: siqlu and Aramaic TQL 'to weigh'.

tql root in Aramaic and the θql root in Arabic, (with semantics 'to weigh') have cognate words in Meluhha: tūṅkal pendant, anything suspended,balance, scales,  tūkku (tūkki-) to lift up, raise, hoist, weigh, balance; Ka. tūgu, tūṅku to weigh, swing or rock as a cradle, wag or move the head from side to side, hold or lift up and wave, swing, (DEDR 3376)

Sumerian she which meant 'wheat' is indicated, acording to Pāṇini,  by a cognate suffix -शस् in Samskrtam, to mean 'coin': Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin –कार्षापणशो ददाति"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa coin to each" orकार्षापणम् ददाति"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin".

A Meluhha cognate of Akkadian siqlu is Kal. šilīˊ ʻ millet ʼ: *sītiya -- , sīˊtya -- ʻ ploughed ʼ Pāṇ., n. ʻ corn ʼ lex. [sīˊtā -- ]Kal. šilīˊ ʻ millet ʼ (early loan from a dialect in which sī -- > šī -- , e.g. Ash. and Kt.); Kho. siri ʻ barley ʼ.(CDIAL 13431) granthana--: Sh. g*lnóni → or poss. ← Bur. ginani ʻ harvest festival, small sheaf of barley ʼ.(CDIAL 14459)

That the money Economy of Kārshāpaṇa (semantic reduplication Kārsha, 'money' paṇa 'money' to signify 'money') in Ancient India gets adopted in Ancient Near East is evidenced by the use of the cognate kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels. This shekel standard is the same as the unit of weight of Kārshāpaṇa which refers to gold, silver and copper coins weighing 80 ratis or 146.5 grains.

"(Arabo-Pers. sekka, سکّه), standardized units of metal used as a medium of exchange, first introduced into Persia by the Achaemenid Darius I (521-486 B.C.E.) Stephen Album, Michael L. Bates, Willem Floor, /..a papyrus document from Egypt dating from the 5th century B.C.E. confirms that merchants paid “according to the stone (weight) of the king”: 1 kereš (O.Pers. karša) = 10 shekels, 1 shekel = 4 quarters, 1 quarter = 2 dānaka (O.Pers. *dānaka; attested in El. da-na-kaš; Cameron, p. 132; > Gk. dana′kē “obol,” i.e., one-sixth drachmḗ “drachma” > Mid.Pers. dāng, Pers. dāng “one-sixth”; Horn, Etymologie, no. 536; Bivar, p. 622), and 1 dānaka = 5 ḥalluru (Olmstead, p. 186; Hill, p. 4; Bivar, p. 636 Table II). The daric weighed 8.4 g (= 1 shekel) and was 98 percent pure gold. The siglos weighed 11.2 g, and the silver content was more than 90 percent. Twenty sigloi were equivalent to 1 daric; the ratio of value between silver and gold was thus theoretically 13.3:1. The siglos was also struck in thirds, fourths, sixths, and twelfths (Hill, p. 397; Olmstead, p. 188; Head, p. 25; Dandamayev and Lukonin, p. 197)...The weight system was based on the še(“measure” of barley): 160 še = 1 šiqlu (> Hebrew šeqel > Eng. “shekel”; cf. Gk. síglos), 60 šiqlu = 1 manū (> Hebrew māneh > Eng. mina; cf. Gk. mna), and 60 manū = 1 biltu (> Gk. tálanton > Eng. “talent”) = ca. 66 pounds. The manū thus weighed about a pound. In western Asia the earliest coinage is believed to have been issued at Sardis in Lydia in the 6th century B.C.E.; the first examples were of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver. The first coins of pure gold and pure silver are believed to have been produced at the same mint. They carry the confronted foreparts of a lion (left) and a bull on the obverse and two square incuse punches on the reverse, a symbolism generally associated with Persia. "  “COINS AND COINAGE,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, VI/1, pp. 14-41, available online at 

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-

"Among the earliest of all known weights is the Babylonian mina, which in one surviving form weighed about 640 grams (about 23 ounces) and in another about 978 grams (about 34 ounces). Archaeologists have also found weights of 5 minas, in the shape of a duck, and a 30-mina weight in the form of a swan. The shekel, familiar from the Bible as a standard Hebrew coin and weight, was originally Babylonian. Most of the Babylonian weights and measures, carried in commerce throughout the Middle East, were gradually adopted by other countries...A basic Greek unit of weight was the talent (equal to 25.8 kg, or 56.9 pounds), obviously borrowed from Eastern neighbours. " 

https://www.britannica.com/science/measurement-system#ref360969

The roots of coinage (and weight systems) in ancient India has been a hotly contested issue among historians. A comprehensive review of these contests is provided in a monography by Shankar Goyal in Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 1999, 

http://www.jstor.org/stable/41694581 embedded for ready reference). 

The issues of contention -- Greek origin theory, Babylonian origin theory, Achaemenian origin theory -- are also well-documented in "Early Theories on the origin of Indian Coinage" http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/136161/7/07_chapter%20i.pdf 

A monograph of Elizabeth Errington is a comprehensive survey of 854 early silver punch-marked coins of ancient India collected from 36 hoards is an effective answer to these arguments among historians. (Elizabeth Errington, 2003, A Survey of Late Hoards of Indian Punch-marked Coins, Numismatic Chronicle 2003, pp. 60-121, plates 18-23, London, The Royal Numismatic Society)

https://www.academia.edu/35840829/A_Survey_of_Late_Hoards_of_Indian_Punch-marked_Coins_Numismatic_Chronicle_2003_pp._60-121_plates_18-23

Based on these observations, I suggest an indigenous origin of coinage in ancient India. 

Most of the varying arguments among historians have been caused by inadequate attention paid to the 'symbols or devices' signified on early Punch-Marked Coins of Ancient India. I suggest that these 'symbols or devices' are a continuum of Indus Script Hypertext Cipher tradition to document wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork catalogues on the Indus Script Inscriptions. Almost every single symbol on the Punch-Marked Coins is an Indus Script Hieroglyph or Hypertext, and all these symbols constitute metalwork catalogues of mints which issued the coins ca. 6th cent. BCE. I further suggest that the silver Punch-marked coins found in Bhir Mount of Taxila are such coins with Indus Script Hieroglyphs/Hypertexts. These are emphatic evidences of indigenous evolution of coinage. 

Money Economy of Kārshāpaṇa in Magadha Janapada and Mauryan Empire

The weight standard adopted for the Punch Marked Coins called 

A silver coin of 1 Kārshāpaṇa of King Pushyamitra Sunga (185-149 BC) of the Sunga dynasty (185-73 BC), workshop of Vidisa (?). Obv: 5 symbols including a sun Rev: 2 symbols Dimensions: 19.7 x 13.87 mm Weight: 3.5 g.

A silver coin of 1 Kārshāpaṇa of the Maurya empire, period of Bindusara c. 297-272 BC, workshop of Pataliputra. Obv: Symbols with a Sun Rev: Symbol Dimensions: 14 x 11 mm Weight: 3.4 g.

kārshāpaṇa कार्षापण is the same standard which was indigenously evolded with unique Indus Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts and this coinage standard was adopted in Ancient Near East in view of the fact that there were intense trade transactions between Meluhha (Sarasvati Civilization) and Mesopotamia. 

"The period of the origin of the punch-marked coins is not yet known, but their origin was indigenous. The word, Kārshāpaṇa, first appears in the Sutra literature, in the Samvidhān Brāhmana. Coins bearing this name were in circulation during the Sutra and the Brāhmana period and also find a mention in the early Buddhist (Dhammapada verse 186) and Persian texts of that period. Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin –

कार्षापणशो ददाति

"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa coin to each" or

कार्षापणम् ददाति

"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",

while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin". (The Ashtadhyayi of Panini Vol.2. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 998.)The Shatapatha Brahmana speaks about Kārshāpaṇas weighing 100 ratis which kind were found buried at Taxila by John Marshall in 1912. The Golakpur (Patna) find pertains to the periodof Ajātaśatru. (Anand Singh. Bhārat kī prāchīn mudrāyen (Ancient coins of India) 1998 Edition. Sharda Pustak Bhavan, Allahabad. pp. 41–42. )The Chaman – I – Hazuri (Kabul) find includes two varieties of punch-marked Indian coins along with numerous Greek coins of 600–500 BCE, thereby indicating that those kind of Kārshāpaṇas were contemporaneous to the Greek coins and in circulation as legal tender...During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇaor Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part).The early indigenous Indian coins were called Suvarṇa (made of gold), Purāṇa or Dhārana (made of silver) and Kārshāpaṇa (made of copper). The Golakpur (Patna) find is mainly pre-Maurya, possibly of the Nanda era, and appear to have been re-validated to make them kośa- praveśya (legal tender); the coins bearing larger number of marks are thought to be older in origin. The Maurya Empire was definitely based upon money-economy.(Radhakumud Mookerji. Chandragupta Maurya and his times. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 106, 107, 215, 212.)...The punch-marked copper coins were called paṇa.This type of coins were in circulation much before the occupation of Punjab by the Greeks (Alexander Cunnigham. Coins of Ancient India. Asian Educational Services. p. 47.)...Originally, they were issued by traders as blank silver bent-bars or pieces; the Magadha silver punch-marked Kārshāpaṇa of Ajatashatru of Haryanka dynasty was a royal issue bearing five marks and weighing fifty-four grains, the Vedic weight called kārsha equal to sixteen māshas.(D.D.Kosambi. The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline.p. 124,129)... Kautilya speaks about the role of the Lakshanadhyaksha ('the Superintendent of Mint') who knew about the symbols and the Rupadarshaka ('Examiner of Coins'), but has remained silent with regard to the construction, order, meaning and background of the punched symbols on these coins hence their exact identification and dating has not been possible.(H.C. Bhardwaj. Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 140, 142.)...Indian merchants, through land and sea routes, have traded with the east African, Arab and middle-east people from 12th century BCE onwards. The term Kārshāpaṇa referred to gold, silver and copper coins weighing 80 ratis or 146.5 grains; these coins, the earliest square in shape, followed the ancient Indian system of weights described in Manu Smriti.(S.N.Naskar. Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture. Abhinav Publications. p. 186.)...The Local silver punch-marked coins, included in the Bhabhuā and Golakpur finds, were issued by the Janapadas and were in circulation during the rule of the Brihadratha Dynasty which was succeeded by the Magadha empire founded by the Haryanka dynasty in 684 BCE; these coins show four punch-marks - the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, arrows (three) and taurine (three) which were current even during the rule of Bimbisara (604-552 BCE). Ajatashatru (552-520 BCE) issued the first Imperial coins of six punch-marks with the addition of the bull and the lion. The successors of Ajatashatru who ruled between 520 and 440 BCE and the later Shishunaga dynasty and the nanda dynasty issued coins of five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol and any three of the 450 symbols. The Maurya coins also have five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, three-arched hill with crescent at top, a branch of a tree at the corner of a four-squared railing and a bull with a taurine in front. Punch-marked copper coins were first issued during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya or Bindusara. The Bhīr find includes Maurya coins and a coin of Diodotus I (255-239 BCE) issued in 248 BCE.(Parmeshwari Lal Gupta. Coins. National Book Trust. pp. 17–20, 239–240.)." 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana 

The claims made in lectures of DR Bhandarkar (1921) which suggested the roots of coinage in Vedic culture with terms in ancient literature such as purāṇa, paṇa, śāṇa, śatamāna, hiraṇyapiṇḍa, suvarṇa,  कार्षापण, माष, कृष्णलs -- have been refuted. cf. Semantics recorded in Monier-Williams: माष a partic. weight of gold (= 5 कृष्णलs = 1÷10 सुवर्ण ; the weight in common use is said to be about 17 grains troy) Mn. Ya1jn5.; कार्षा* पण mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि ; cf. कर्ष्) " weighing a कर्ष " , a coin or weight of different values (if of gold , = 16 माषs » कर्ष ; if of silver , = 16 पणs or 1280 Kowries , commonly termed a Kahan ; if of copper , = 80 रक्तिकाs or about 176 grains ; but accord. to some = only 1 पण of Kowries or 80 Kowries) Mn. viii , 136 ; 336 ; ix , 282; (ifc.) worth so many कार्षापणs Pa1n2. 5-1 , 29; n. money , gold and silver L ; m. pl. N. of a warrior-tribe g. पर्श्व्-ादि; m. the chief of this tribe ib. and 4-1 , 177 Va1rtt. 2.; रक्तिका f. Abrus Precatorius (its seed or grain is used as a weight = 1÷6 , 1÷7 , or 2÷15 माषक) S3a1rn3gS. Ka1tyS3r. Sch.(Monier-Williams) 

Refutation of the suggestions of Bhandarkar are premised on archaeological evidence for ancient coins in India which points to a date of ca. 5th-6th century BCE, just before the arrival of Alexander. Quintus Curtius- Rufus, Omphis, notes that the king ofTaxila presented 80 talents of marked silver (signati argenti,'coined silver money') to Alexander.' (KiranKumar Thaplyal & Prashant Srivastava,1998, Coins of Ancient India, Lucknow, Bharat Books Centre, p. 16). This is clear evidence of stamped silver coins in vogue in Ancient India, when Alexander battled on the banks of River Jhelum (Greek Hydapses, वितस्ता Vitasatā, Kashmiri Vyeth). 

Magadha Janapada & Maurya Empire

Magadha, Circa 430-320 BCE, Karshapana. Punch-marked coin of the Nanda dynasty of Magadha. The five symbols on this coin are: Sun symbol, six-armed (Magadha) symbol, bull on hilltop, Indradhvaja flanked by four taurines, elephant. There's also an unofficial countermark on the reverse. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch-marked_coins

"The first coins in India were minted circa the 6th century BCE by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and certainly before the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. The coins of this period were punch-marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana. Some of these coins were struck by a single punch, thus carrying only one symbol. For example, Saurashtrahad a humped bull, and Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika. Others, like the coins of Magadha, were struck by several punches (often five) and thus carried several symbols. These coins were made of silver of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. The blanks (un-struck coins) were made by cutting up silver plates into pieces of appropriate size and then cutting each piece down to a desired precise weight, typically by cutting off one of the corners...During the Mauryan period, punch-marked coins continued to be issued in large quantities. Similarly, the coinage of the Mauryan Empire was a of the punch-marked coinage of Magadha. Each coin contained on average 50–54 grains of silver depending on wear and 32 rattis in weight Manusmriti,..Punches on these coins count to 450 different types with the most common the sun and six-armed symbols, and various forms of geometrical patterns, circles, wheels, human figures, various animals, bows and arrows, hills and trees etc." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch-marked_coins

It is possible that the signati argenti given to Alexander were the bent Punch-marked Coins of Ancient India. That such coins were in circulation when Alexander has his battle on Vitasta is attested by the archaeological finds of 1055 Punch Marked coins from second stratum of Bhir Mound Hoard of Taxila (dated to ca. 3rd or 4th cent. BCE).(Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No.59, pp.1-2. )

Koshala Janapada
600-470 BC
Silver, One and Half Karshapana ?
Weight: 4.68 gm ( 48 ratti)
Reference:Series III, Group A of Hardaker
Rare

Ancient Indian coinage was based on `Karshapana' unit that consists of 32 rattis (3.3 grams of silver). A `Ratti' is equivalent to 0.11 gms which is the average weight of a Gunja seed (a bright scarlet colored seed). Subsidiary denominations of Karshapana like half Karshapana (16 ratti), quarter Karshapana (8 ratti) and 1/8 of Karshapana (4 ratti) were also minted. Shown below is a fine example of 1/8th of Karshapana which is as usual uniface. On obverse is septa-radiate single punch (identical to what is seen on two ends of Satamana bar).

Taxila Janapada
5th Century BC
silver, 1/8th Karshapana
Septa-radiate single punch Mark, Uniface
Weight: 1.4 gm (4 ratti)
MAC#4079

The Pradyota kings of Avanti had a large kingdom covering central and western India. It was prosperous nation due to the commerce with Mesopotamia through a sea port at Bharoch (modern Gujrath). Shown below is a beautiful example of one of the earliest coins of India minted by Ashmaka kingdom in southern India or Deccan. This coin which is considered as double Karshapana, is from a hoard that surfaced in village of Ashmaka in Maharashtra in 90s. Although this type was first published by Elliot in the 1870s, very few specimens have been around until the recent hoard.

Kalinga Janapada
500-350 BC
Silver, half Karshapana
Uniface
Weight: 1.6 gm
Very Rare

Ajatshatru was followed by many kings who eventually lost this kingdom to the family of Nandas who began line of Shudra or semi-Shudra kings. To maintain the huge army of 200,000 infantry and 3000 elephants (supported by Greek evidence), Nandas had to resort to heavy taxation which was detested by people. They found a new leader in Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BC) who eventually with the help of Taxilian bramhin Kautilya or Chankya overthrew the Nanda and laid the foundation of illustrious dynasty of Maurya.

Mauryan Empire
310-181 BC
SIlver, Punch-marked coin
Weight: 2.3 gm

During Ashoka's reign, the Mauryan empire reached zenith covering an area from modern Afganistan in west to Assam in east and in north from Himalayas to modern Andhra Pradesh in southern India. These imperial punch marked coins have been discovered in all the regions which cover modern India, Pakistan and Afganistan, truly representing the glory of the mighty Mauryan empire. Although, Kalinga war proved to be turning point and produced far reaching consequence in the history of India and whole eastern world. Ashoka came under influence of Buddhist philosophy and later sent his son (or brother?) Mahendra to Sri Lanka who converted king Devanampiya Tissa and eventually the entire island country to Buddhism.

Emperor Ashoka drew up a code of laws noted for their humanity and erected hundreds of stone pillars and magnificent Buddhist Stupas (dome shaped monuments). It is believed that Ashoka erected almost 85,000 stupas and pillars all carved in stone with teachings of Buddhism engraved on them. After two thousand years, we can still see ruins of them in most states of india including Gujrat, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Tamilnadu. Some of Asoka's edicts , carved on pillars and rocks, form the earliest known epigraphs in the subcontinent. These pillars are made out of shafts of sandstone and display Buddhist symbols such as the wheel and the lion. These pillars are some of India's earliest major stone sculptures.

The great Stupa at Sanchi is perhaps the finest surviving relic of the Mauryan empire. This great stupa is 54 feet in height and surrounded by exquisitely carved stone railings and four gateways. These elaboratley carved gateways depicts events in life of Buddha and also lifestyle of people of that era. A famous Lion-Capital (four-lion pillar which is shown above) gleams in polished white sandstone realistically represents the artistic achievements of Indian artists and patronage of their masters. This Lion-Capital that Ashoka erected at Sarnath (in modern madhya Pradesh) has become the national emblem of modern republic of India. All the coins and currency notes of modern India have this four-lion symbol on it. The Mauryan Empire is famous for its great achievements in art, culture architecture and literature. The classics of Indian literature, such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya (a treatise for kings about ruling a state) and the famous Kama Sutra by Vatsayan (unfortunately, today it is considered as just the book for art of Love-Making) were written during Mauryan reign.

Mauryan Empire (Ashoka the great?)
310-181 BC
Silver Karshapana
Obverse: 3 deities and peacock
Reverse: Peacock on hill
Weight: 3.35 gm (32 rattis)
Reference: GH, Series VII
Scarce

Most likely, emperors of Maurya dynasty ruled the largest empire that ever existed in the Indian subcontinent. Soon after the death of Alexander, his empire was divided among his generals. One of his general Seleucus assumed the title of King in 312 BC. He invaded India but was repelled by Chandragupta Maurya. Seleucus surrendered a large part of Gandhara (modern Afganistan and Pakistan). Chandragupta later married to beautiful daughter of Seleucus. Seleucus sent an ambassador named Magasthenes to Chandragupta's court, who has written detail accounts of might and pomp of Mauryan empire. Chandragupta (according to Jain scripture converted to Jainism and spent his last days at Shravan Belgola in southern India) was followed by his son Bindusara who increased his empire by annexing Deccan. His son Ashoka seized Pataliputra after his father's death and enthroned himself as emperor. Ashoka is the greatest emperor of Muaryan dynasty and most certainly the greatest figure in the Indian history. He was an ambitious ruler who annexed a large part of southern and eastern India, including the kingdom of Kalinga (modern Orissa).

Shown above is a an interesting silver Karshapana (mentioned in Manu smruti being 32 rattis in weight) minted by Mauryan authorities. The most striking feature of this punch-marked coins is presence of 3 deities, struck from single punch. It is very rare to see any human figure or deities on punch-marked coins. Shown below is another coin minted by Mauryan emperor which shows sun, the symbol of Mauryan.

POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

Ashoka was the last emperor of Mauryan empire which started it's decline soon after his death. Many kingdom arose out of ruins of this great empire. Northern India was divided into many republics (?) which were controlled by various ganas (tribes) like Achuyta, Ahicchatra, Arjunayana, Ayodhya, Eran, Kaushambi, Kuninda etc.. The coins issued by these republics/Kingdoms are very interesting both historically and numismatically.

Kuninda

Amoghbhuti
Late 2nd Century BC
Silver Drachm, Bilingual
Obverse: Deer and Deity, Brahmi Legends
Reverse: 6 symbols, Kharoshti legends
Weight: 2.4 gm
MAC#4443
Rare

Kuninda, which referred as Kulinda in ancient literature, issued very attractive silver coinage in late 2nd century BC. These coins were issued by king Amoghbhuti who ruled in the fertile valley of Jamuna, Beas and Sutlaj rivers (modern Punjab in northern India). The obverse of the coins shows a deer and Laxmi (goddess of wealth) is holding lotus in her uplifted hand. Between horns of deer, a cobra symbol is depicted. The reverse shows 6 symbols. Hill and river below, Nandipada (hoof of bull), tree in railing, Swastik and Y shaped symbol. Interestingly, the coins were bilingual. On obverse, legends were in Prakrit (closely related to Sanskrit), written in Brahmi script while on reverse were in Kharoshti. The legends on obverse reads Rajnah Kunindasya Amoghabhutisya maharajasya. The reverse bears Maharajasa in Kharoshti script at the same place where Indo-Greek and Saka coins depicted their ruler's names.

These coins represent the first ever effort of an Indian ruler to issue silver coinage which could compete in market with that of Indo-Greek coinage. Indo-Greek kings who ruled in neighboring areas (Bactria and Punjab) issued breathtaking examples of silver coins which, were highly sought after. This made Amoghbhuti to issue coins of purely Indian design but of exceptional beauty to ensure economic superiority over his neighbors. Shown above is this very attractive silver coin of ancient India.

Kuninda kingdom was eventually invaded by Kushan and Shakas in middle of first century BC. Both, Indo-Greek and Kuninda kingdoms were annexed to make next great empire of India, Kushan empire .

Taxila Janapada
600-303 BCE
Silver, Satamana Bent bar
Two septa-radiate marks at ends, Uniface
Weight: 11.3 gm (100 ratti)
MAC#4071

About 600 BC, in north western part of India, Takshashila or Taxila and Pushkalavati, became an important commercial centers for the trade with Mesopotamia. These wealthy satrapies (provinces) introduced a unique coinage to facilitate the trade. These were silver concave bars of 11 gms which are popularly called as `Taxila bent bars' or `Satamana bent bars'. Satmana or Shatamana represented 100 rattis of silver in weight (Shata means 100 while mana means unit). These silver bars were punched with two septa-radiate (seven arms) symbols, one at each end. These bent bars represents one of the earliest coins of India. Shown above is a fine example of Shatamana bent bar.

http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/ancient1.html

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 12mm, 0.7 grams. Rare. Rajgor 579var.

Silver 1/16th shatamana (1/2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BCE

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two different symbols. 

Long concave silver bar, 33mm long, 12mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each end. 11.5 grams. Rajgor unlisted. This particular piece has two DIFFERENT punches - something that seems to be unpublished for these shatamanas (the published examples always depict an identical symbol struck on both ends of the piece). This coin is of numismatic significance, suggesting that different punches were employed in Gandhara at the same time.(Image courtesy ACC)

"Shatamanas ("double-sigloi" or bent bars) These fascinating large coins, equal to about 3 karshapanas, are the most likely candidates to be the very first Indian coins ever struck. During the 6th century BC Gandhara was a subject of the Persian Empire (as known from an inscription dating to the times of Darius, ca.520-518 BC). The Persians are likely to have introduced the native Gandharans to the idea of a struck coinage. The earliest Gandharan coins - shatamanas (=100 manas, the meaning is unknown, also known as "bent bars") , were probably based on a Persian siglos standard, since the average weight of these shatamanas  equals to the weight of 2 Persian sigloi. From Gandhara, the idea of struck, or punchmarked, coinage spread south and soon the punchmarked coins were produced in many other regions of northern and central Indai. This theory concerning the first coins in India is quite widespread, though it is not accepted by everyone (some people prefer an idea of independent invention of coinage, and are against the idea of the foreign introduction).  These shatamanas were issued over a long period of time, though it is uncertain when their production ended (Chandragupta Maurya conquered Gandhara around 300 BC, and the production of the independent Gandharana coinage did not continue pass that point). The good silver shatamanas were replaced by the short debased issues and then by silver plated and copper bars (which are much more common and retail for about 100$ each). The early good silver shatamans are very rare - although a few hoards of these coins were unearthed in the last century, very few coins reached the numismatic market."

http://www.ancientcoins.ca/gandhara/gandhara.htm Variants of the hypertext symbol are:

Shankar GoyalTHE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF COINAGE IN INDIA

Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

Vol. 80, No. 1/4 (1999), pp. 125-154

Published by: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41694581

Page Count: 30

Topics: Coinage, Silver, Excavations, Numismatics,Brahmanas, Archaeology, Hindus, Indian literature,Silver bullion, Merchants

Millions of coins of ancient mints are Rosetta Stones of Indus Script Cipher -- paharaṇa mudra (punches) from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura 

https://tinyurl.com/y8cgtm84

"(Mauryan) economy must have been very prosperous, as the coins seem to have been minted in the millions. Large hoards of Mauryan coins are found to this day..." http://coinindia.com/galleries-maurya.html

Millions of  Rosetta Stones deploy Indus Script Cipher -- paharaṇa mudra (punches) on coins of ancient mints from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura are emphatic evidence for the continued use of Meluhha metalwork catalogues -- aka Indus Script Inscriptions -- to proclaim metallurgical repertoire of ancient mints. 

Millions of ancient coins exemplify the major contribution made by technologies of metalwork wealth to the cumulative wealth of the nation. This is evidenced by the fact that Ancient India contributed to 33% of World GDP in 1 CE (pace Angus Maddison).

In my view, the Indus Script Hypertexts/Hieroglyphs proclaimed on millions of ancient coins of India are conclusive validation of the Indus Script Inscriptions as Meluhha metalwork wealth accounting ledger catalogues.

This monograph presents only a few snippets (brief extracts) of evidences from Ancient coins of historical periods (Before Common Era) from mints. 

These coins constitute Rosetta Stones for Indus Script. 

Why were particular 'symbols' chosen to be impressed on ancient coins of mints in an extensive area ranging from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura? The answer lies in the continuum of Meluhha (spoken form of Bharatiya sprachbund), Indus Script Cipher tradition to create accounting ledgers of wealth created by metalwork. The mints were the manufactories of metalwork of ancient times during the Metals Age.

 

Indus Script Hieroglyphs/Hypertexts -- all of which constitute metalwork repertoire of mints to create the wealth of nations. The period relates to the Metals Age which constituted the World's First Industrial Revolution. 

 

All the coins punching Indus Script Hieroglyphs/Hypertexts recorded metalwork catalogues, and proclaimed them as wealth accounting ledgers of the mint which issued the coins. "Metals were well suited to represent wealth, owing to their great commodity value per unit weight or volume, and their durability, divisibility and rarity. The best metals for coinage are gold, silver, platinum, copper, tin, nickel, aluminum, zinc, iron, and their alloys; certain alloys of gold, silver, copper and nickel have the best combination of the required qualities. The first mint was likely established in Lydia in the 7th century BC, for coining gold, silver and electrum. The Lydian innovation of manufacturing coins under the authority of the state spread to neighboring Greece, where a number of city-states operated their own mints. Some of the earliest Greek mints were within city-states on Greek islands such as Crete; a mint existed at the ancient city of Cydonia on Crete at least as early as the fifth century BCE." 

At about the same time, mints also appeared in Ancient India from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura

(UKBullion, Cydonia – The Ancient City of Crete, UKBullion Blog, 23 March 2016) 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mint_(facility) 

GK Chesterton's Invisible Man is an extraordinary detective story. Here is an excerpt with the famous statement of the famous detective Father Brown, 'nobody ever notices postmen somehow'.

Many decipherment claims on Indus Script have somehow missed the postmen of the Script.

There are literally millions of ancient coins from mints of an extensive area from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura which continued to use Indus Script Hieroglyphs and Hypertexts with an astonishing regularity proclaiming the repertoire of the mints -- metalworkshops of the Metals Age Revolution Before Common Era.


[quote]

“You are not mad,” said Brown, “only a little unobservant. You have not noticed such a man as this, for example.”

He took three quick strides forward, and put his hand on the shoulder of an ordinary passing postman who had bustled by them unnoticed under the shade of the trees.

“Nobody ever notices postmen somehow,” he said thoughtfully; “yet they have passions like other men, and even carry large bags where a small corpse can be stowed quite easily.”

The postman, instead of turning naturally, had ducked and tumbled against the garden fence. He was a lean fair-bearded man of very ordinary appearance, but as he turned an alarmed face over his shoulder, all three men were fixed with an almost fiendish squint.

[unquote]

See:

Harappa Script continuum on punch-marked coin symbols.Insights of Fabri et al validated by Meluhha Script cipher http://tinyurl.com/gu24z4h

This is a tribute to Pran Nath, KN Dikshit and CL Fabri who had provided insights citing parallels between Harappa (Indus Script) and symbols on Punch-marked coins.

See: 

Ancient Indian paharaṇa mudra 'struck' coins signify metalwork wealth of Bronze Age Bhāratam, as Indus script hieroglyphs & hypertext expressions https://tinyurl.com/y7gqnuqv

What do the symbols on ancient Indian coins (e.g. punch-marked coins or cast coins with embossed/inscribed symbols) signify? 

This monograph posits Indus Script continuum and hyertexts on ancient Indian coins as signifiers of metalwork wealth-creation activities in ancient mints -- which are a legacy of the Bronze Age Tin-Bronze revolution mediated by seafaring merchants and artisans of ancient Bhāratam.

This is in continuation of http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2017/07/ujjain-nandipada-srivatsa-ancient-coin.html Mirror: https://tinyurl.com/yaljqnhb  

'Ujjain', 'nandipāda', 'śrīvatsa' ancient coin symbols are Indus Script metalwork hypertexts 

Punch-marked coins are referred to as paharaṇa mudra in Indian sprachbund (language union). The symbols on such ancient coins signify wealth of metalwork, a continuum of Indus Script tradition of rebus rendering in Meluhha of metalwork wealth account ledger entries (kharaḍā).  This kharaḍā, wealth account ledger entries is signified by the Indus Script Hieroglyph Sign 176 khareḍo 'a currycomb (Gujarati) Rebus: karaḍā खरडें 'daybook, wealth-accounting ledger'. Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati)

The symbols on ancient coins signify metalwork wealth produced in ancient mints.

With the decipherment of Meluhha script & langauge of the Corpora of Inscriptions dated from ca. 3300 BCE (which is the date of the Harappa potsherd with three inscribed hieroglyphs signifying tagara 'tabernae montana' rebus: tagara 'tin'), it is now possible to delineate a glossary of hieroglyphs and readings in Meluhha for the parallels identified in a brilliant and lucid article of 1834 in JRAS. 

Find spots of ancient coins of India

Find spots of late hoards of India Punch-marked coins

JOURNAL ARTICLE

A Survey of Late Hoards of Indian Punch-marked Coins

ELIZABETH ERRINGTON The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-) Vol. 163 (2003), pp. 69-121 

http://www.jstor.org/stable/42667165

http://coinindia.com/Fifty%20Coins%20map.jpg

The Emergence and Spread of Coins in Ancient India -- Deme Raja Reddy (2014)

Abstract

This communication describes the emergence and spread of coins in ancient India. The barter system of exchange of goods was prevalent in ancient India from the Vedic period. The Indus valley people may have used precious metals of fixed weights such as silver for buying goods which is evident from excavations in the DK area at Mohenjo-Daro. But eventually barter method gave way slowly to the money economy through the medium of coins for their obvious advantages. The origin of coins, also known as metallic money in India dates back to the sixth–seventh centuries BC and it is probable that Lydia, India and China invented coinage around the same time and also independent of each other. The emergence of coinage was one of the important monetary innovations in ancient India. The formation of ‘janapadas’ and the evolution of the second urbanization were the catalysts for the invention of coinage. The money economy originated in India during the ‘janapada’ period and it grew markedly during the Magadha, Nanda and Mauryan rule which needed the maintenance of a huge army as well as official machinery to run the big empire. Coinage and urbanization which are linked also facilitated the growth of trade in the country internally as well as with other countries. Maritime trade prospered especially with Rome during the Satavahana rule in the Deccan. The lack of trade barriers between ‘janapadas’ and the presence of local rulers even during the rule of major dynasties might have contributed to the growth of trade.

References

1. Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini. Lucknow: University of Lucknow.
2. Ali, S. M. (1966). The geography of the Puranas. New Delhi: People’s Publishing House.
3. Aravamuthan, T.G. (1936). A new type of punch marked coin. In Transactions of the International Numismatic Congress, London (pp. 393–400), June 30–July 6.
4. Ball, V. (1989). Travels in India by Jean Baptiste Tavernier. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (French original 1676 and English original 1889).
5. Berghaus, P. (1996). Roman coins from South India. The Studies in South Indian Coins, 6, 7–13.
6. Chatterji, B. (1991). Barter system in early Indian economy. Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, 53, 150–153.Cribb, J. (1983). Investigating the introduction of coinage in India: A review of recent research. Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, 45, 80–101.
7. Cunningham, A. (1963). Coins of ancient India: From the earliest times down to the seventh century AD (p. 43). Varanasi: Indological Book House.
8. Das Gupta, J. N. (1913). Megasthenes and Arrian. A bird’s eye view of their accounts of ancient India, (pp. 56–62) Calcutta.
9. Deloche, J. (2010). Roman trade routes in South India: Geographical and technical considerations (1st century BC–5th century AD). Indian Journal of History of Science, 45(1), 33–46.
10. Deo, S. B. (1962). Another ship type of coin of Yajna Satakarni. Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, 24, 174.
11. Gardner, P. (1918). A history of ancient coinage 700–300 BC (pp. 56–59). New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.
12. Goyal, S. (2009). A history of the emergence of the Indian coinage. In Studies in Indian Coinage (special centenary volume), The Numismatic Society of India (pp. 58–59). Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University.
13. Gupta, P. L. (1963). The amaravati hoard of silver punch-marked coins. In Andhra Pradesh Government museum series, The Government of Andhra Pradesh (p. 1). Hyderabad.
14. Gupta, P. L. (1994). Silver punch marked coins of Magadha. Numismatic Digest, 43, 1–18.
15. Gupta, P. L., & Hardaker, T. R. (1985). Ancient Indian silver punch marked coins of the Maghada-Maurya karsapana series(pp. 1–2). Anjaneri: Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic Studies.
16. Hourani, G. F., & Carswel, J. (1995). Arab seafaring in the Indian ocean in ancient and early medieval times (p. 90). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
17. Jain, R. (1962). Ancient Indian coinage (pp. 9–19). New Delhi: D. K. Print World Ltd.
18. Jha, S. K. (1998). Beginning of urbanization in early historic India: A study of the gangetic plains. Patna: Novelty & Co.
19. Kamalakar, G., & Veerender, M. (1991). Coins from Veerapuram excavations. In Numismatic bulletin, (Vol. 3, p. 43). Hyderabad: Birla Archaeological and Cultural Research Institute.
    
20. Kosambi, D. D. (1966). Punch marked coins of the Amaravati hoard: Chronology of punch marked coins. India: Numismatic Society of India.
    
21. Kosambi, D. D. (1981). Indian numismatics (p. 36). New Delhi: Orient Longman., M. S. (1992). Roman coins from South India: A study based on distribution and typology. Studies in South Indian Coins, 2, 61–67.
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    Puljal, A., & Reddy, D. R. (2005). Andhra Janapada coins from Singavaram. Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society,185, 8–18.
24. Radhakrishnan, P. V. (1999). Roman gold and silver coins from India (pp. 13–42). Anjaneri, Nasik: Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic Studies.
25. Rajgor, D. (2001). Punch marked coins of early historic India (pp. 1–10). California: Reesha Book International.
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https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-06109-2_4

Rev. G.P. Taylor library, BHU, Varanasi : 

Numismatic Notes and Monographs

1.     The Coin Types of Indo-Greek Kings : by A.K. Narain

2.     A Bibliography of the Hoards of Punch-Marked Coins of Ancient India : by Parameshwari Lal Gupta

3.     The Bactrian Treasure of Qunduz :  by A.D.H. Bivar

4.     The Coin-Types of Saka-Pahlava Kings of India : by G.K. Jenkins and A.K. Narain

5.     Inventory of the Hoards and Finds of Coins and Seals From Madhya Pradesh : by Bal Chandra Jain

6.     List of Published Satavahana Coins : by M. Rama Rao

7.     The Coin types of Kings with Mitra-Ending Names : by Bela Lahiri

8.     The Stratigraphic Evidence of Coins in Indian Excavations and Some allied Issues : By S.C. Ray

9.     The Gold Coin-Types of the Great Kushanas : by Major Allen H. Wood III

10.   A survey of Indian Numismatography :  by J.N. Tiwari and P.L. Gupta

11.   Coins of the Pandyas : by C.H. Biddulph

12.   Early Medieval Coin-Types of Northern India : by Lallanji Gopal

13.   Coins of the Cholas : by C.H. Biddulph

14.   Coinage of South India : by Vidya prakash

15.   Coin Hoards from Gujarat : by P.L. Gupta

16.   Coin Hoards from Maharastra : by P.L. Gupta

17.   Coinage of Tripura : by Ramani Mohan sharma

18.   Coinage of Bengal and its Neighbourhood : Ed. By Jai Prakash Singh

19.   A Schema of Indo-Bactrian Coinage : by K. Walton Dobbins

20.   A plea for Study of Art in Coinage : by B.N. Mukharjee

21.   Coins of Republic of India : by Dolly Mukherjee

22.   Coins and currency System in Vijiayanagar Empire : by A.V. Narasimhamurthy

23.   Joint Coin-types of Ancient India : by P. Srivastava

Memoirs

1.     The Coins of Tipu Sultan of Mysore : by Rev. G.P. Taylor

2.     Historical Studies in Mughal Numismatics : by S.H. Hodiwala

3.     Techinque of Casting Coins in Ancient India : by Birbal Sahni

4.     Mint Towns of the Mughal Emperors of India : by C.R. Singhal

5.     Saka-Pahlava Coinage : by K. Walton Dobbins

6.     Coins and Early Indian Economy Ed. By A.M. Shastri

7.     Coinage and Economy of North Eastern States of India Ed. By Jai Prakash Singh and Nisar Ahmad

8.     Foreign Elements in Indian Indigenous Coins : Ed. By Ajay Mitra Shastr

Bibliography

1.     Bibliography of Indian Coins : by C.R. Singhal

  Vol. I, Non-Muhammadan Series

  Vol. II, Muhammadan and later Series

2.     Bibliography of Indian Coins Part I (Ancient period) First Suppement (Upto 1960) by P.L. Gupta

3.     Bibliography of Indian Coins : Pt. II (Medieval and Modern) First Supploement (1952-60) by : C.R. Singhal

        and P.L.Gupta

4.     Bibliography of Indian Numismatics Pt. I (Ancient India, 1961-1970) by P.L. Gupta

 Bibliography of Indian Numismatics Part II (Medieval and Modern, 1961-1970) by P.L. Gupta

5.     Bibliography of Indian Numismatics, Part I (Ancient India, 1971-1980) by : S.J. Mangalam

6.     Bibliography of Indian Numismatics, Pt. II (Medieval and Modern) by P. Kulkarni

Others

Sixty years of the Numismatic Society of India (1910-1971) History and Presidential Addresses.

Index

Index To Vols. :-

                             I-X              by Sudha Narain

                             XI-XX           by P.L. Gupta

                             XXI-XXX        by D.B. Pandey

                             XXXI-XL        by P.N. Singh

                             XLI-L            by Mohd. Nasem

Journal

The society has been publishing its own journal - the Journal of the Numismatic Society of India since 1939 regularly. In 2007 the Society issued volume LXIX

       So far we have published sixty nine volumes from 1939 to 2007. The volume for 2008 is going to the press. (Scan copy of 2007 Cover Page & Contents

Numismatic Supplement

 Volumes :-  1 - 47              

          Prior to 1939 the society was publishing numismatic supplement in arrangement with the Asiatic Society of Bengal. The articles for the supplement were written by members of the Society and edited by a person appointed as editor by the Society. The publication aspect of the Supplement was looked after by the Asiatic Society of the Bengal.

http://www.bhu.ac.in/aihc/library.htm

Examples of ancient coins with Indus Scrit Hieroglyphs/Hypertexts

Sunga Empire, AE 1/2 Karshapana, c.187 BC-78 BCE
(No legend)
Elephant standing left facing tree, swastika above
(No legend)
Mountain, anchor, altar and voided cross
12mm x 14mm, 1.80g (across the flats)
Mitchener ACW 4378

kammaṭamu 'portable goldsmith's furnace' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

karibha ‘elephant trunk’ ibha ‘elephant’ rebus: karb ‘iron’ ib ‘iron’.

sattuvu (Kannada), svastika: sāthiyo (G.); satthia, sotthia (Pkt.) rebus: sattuvu pewter (Kannada), jasta 'zinc' (Hindi)

kaṇḍ 'fire-altar' (Santali)

kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'

OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse' PLUS ḍāng 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'.

Sunga Empire, AE 1/8 Karshapana, c.187 BC-78 BCE, Taxila Mint
(No legend)
Voided cross
(No legend)
Tree
11mm x 12mm, 1.36g
Mitchener ?
kaṇḍ 'fire-altar' (Santali)kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'https://www.beastcoins.com/India/India.htm

Northern India-Pushkalavati, AE Unit, Uncertain Period (No legend)Elephant advancing right
(No legend)
Lunar hill13mm x 14mm, 2.46gkaribha ‘elephant trunk’ ibha ‘elephant’ rebus: karb ‘iron’ ib ‘iron’.
OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse' PLUS ḍāng 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'.

ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal (tin+ copper alloy)' (Rigveda) PLUS  karavu'crocoile' (Telugu) rebus: khār 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) Together, ayakara 'metalsmith' (Pali)

barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c.(Marathi) PLUS pattar 'trough'; rebus pattar, vartaka 'merchant, goldsmith' (Tamil) பத்தர்² pattar , n. < T.battuḍu. A caste title of goldsmiths; தட்டார்.

 पोळ pōḷa 'zebu, a bull set at liberty'  पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)' 

 rango 'buffalo' rebus: rango 'pewter' PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge'

karabha 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron'

kola 'tiger' Rebus:kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' kol 'blacksmith' PLUSkrammara 'look back' rebus: kamar 'smith, artisan' PLUS  kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'

1. koDiya ‘rings on neck’, ‘young bull’ koD ‘horn’ rebus 1: koṭiya 'dhow, seafaring vessel' khōṇḍī 'pannier sack' खोंडी (p. 216) [ khōṇḍī ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a कांबळा, to hold or fend off grain, chaff &c.) 

 khOnda ‘young bull’ rebus 2: kOnda ‘lapidary, engraver’ rebus 3: kundAr ‘turner’ कोंड [kōṇḍa] A circular hamlet; a division of a मौजा or village, composed generally of the huts of one caste. खोट [khōṭa] Alloyed--a metal 

2. sangaḍa ‘lathe’ sanghaṭṭana ‘bracelet’ rebus 1: .sanghāṭa ‘raft’ sAngaḍa ‘catamaran, double-canoe’rebus čaṇṇāḍam (Tu. ജംഗാല, Port. Jangada). Ferryboat, junction of 2 boats, also rafts. 2  jangaḍia 'military guard accompanying treasure into the treasury' ചങ്ങാതം čaṇṇāδam (Tdbh.; സംഘാതം) 1. Convoy, guard; responsible Nāyar guide through foreign territories. rebus 3: जाकड़ ja:kaṛ जांगड़ jāngāḍ‘entrustment note’ जखडणें tying up (as a beast to a stake) rebus 4: sanghāṭa ‘accumulation, collection’ rebus 5. sangaDa ‘portable furnace, brazier’ rebus 6: sanghAta ‘adamantine glue‘ rebus 7: sangara ‘fortification’ rebus 8: sangara ‘proclamation’ 9: samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'.

kkharā 'hare' (Oriya): *kharabhaka ʻ hare ʼ. [ʻ longeared like a donkey ʼ: khara -- 1?]N. kharāyo ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) ``^rabbit'' Sa. kulai `rabbit'.Mu. kulai`rabbit'. KW kulai @(M063)  खरगोस (p. 113) kharagōsa m ( P) A hare.  (Marathi) Rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri)

So. ayo `fish'. Go. ayu `fish'. Go <ayu> (Z), <ayu?u> (Z),, <ayu?> (A) {N} ``^fish''. Kh. kaDOG `fish'. Sa. Hako `fish'. Mu. hai (H) ~ haku(N) ~ haikO(M) `fish'. Ho haku `fish'. Bj. hai `fish'. Bh.haku `fish'. KW haiku ~ hakO |Analyzed hai-kO, ha-kO (RDM). Ku. Kaku`fish'.@(V064,M106) Mu. ha-i, haku `fish' (HJP). @(V341) ayu>(Z), <ayu?u> (Z)  <ayu?>(A) {N} ``^fish''. #1370. <yO>\\<AyO>(L) {N} ``^fish''. #3612. <kukkulEyO>,,<kukkuli-yO>(LMD) {N} ``prawn''. !Serango dialect. #32612. <sArjAjyO>,,<sArjAj>(D) {N} ``prawn''. #32622. <magur-yO>(ZL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. *Or.<>. #32632. <ur+GOl-Da-yO>(LL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. #32642.<bal.bal-yO>(DL) {N} ``smoked fish''. #15163. (Munda Etyma) Rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' (Rigveda)

कर्णक karṇaka m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 rebus: कर्णक karṇaka 'helmsman' PLUS meḍ 'body' (Santali.Ho. Mu.) rebus:mẽṛhẽt, meḍ iron (Santali.Ho.Mu.) 

PLUS  eraka 'upraised hand' (Tamil) Rebus: eraka 'moltencast, metal infusion', eraka, arka 'copper, gold' 

PLUS 

H. dãtāwlī f. ʻ rake, harrow ʼ. (CDIAL 6162). Ku. danīṛo m. ʻ harrow ʼ; N. dãde ʻ toothed ʼ sb. ʻ harrow ʼ; A. dãtīyā ʻ having new teeth in place of the first ʼ, dãtinī ʻ woman with projecting teeth ʼ; Or. dāntiā ʻ toothed ʼ; H. dãtī f. ʻ harrow ʼ; G. dã̄tiyɔ m. ʻ semicircular comb ʼ, dãtiyɔ m. ʻ harrow ʼ. (CDIAL 6163). G. dã̄tɔ m. ʻ a kind of rake or harrow ʼ(CDIAL 6153). Pk. daṁtāla -- m., °lī -- f. ʻ grass -- cutting instrument ʼ; S. ḍ̠andārī f. ʻ rake ʼ, L. (Ju.) ḍ̠ãdāl m., °lī f.; Ku. danyālo m. ʻharrowʼ danyāw   (y from danīṛo < dantín  -- ); N.dãtār ʻ tusked ʼ (← a Bi. form); A. dãtāl adj. ʻ tusked ʼ, sb. ʻ spade ʼ; B. dãtāl ʻ toothed ʼ; G. dãtāḷ n., °ḷī f. ʻ harrow ʼ; M. dã̄tāḷ ʻ having projecting teeth ʼ, dã̄tāḷ, °ḷē, dãtāḷ n. ʻ harrow, rake ʼ.Garh. dãdāḷu ʻ forked implement ʼ, Brj. dãtāl, dãtāro ʻ toothed ʼ, m. ʻ elephant ʼ. (CDIAL 6160).Rebus: dhatu 'mineral (ore)(Samskritam)

PLUS
dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'.

kamaḍha 'archer, bow' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner'.

ḍhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: ḍhangar 'blacksmith'

kāṅga 'comb' Rebus: kanga 'brazier, fireplace' (See also semantics of 'harrow' above). khareḍo = a currycomb (Gujarati) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati)

tabar 'axe' rebus: tam(b)ra 'copper'.

Signs 288, 296, 301खांडा [khāṇḍā] A division of a field. (Marathi) खंडणें (p. 192) [ khaṇḍaṇēṃ ] v c ( खंडन S) To break; to reduce into parts (Marathi) Rebus: khāṇḍā '(metal) implements'

 kana, kanac = corner (Santali); kañcu = bronze (Te.) kan- copper work (Ta.).

Oval shape:  mũhe 'ingot'
Dotted circle:   dhātu.dhāū, dhāv 'a strand' rebus: dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻa partic. soft red ore' (Rigveda) dhātu 'mineral ore'

arā 'spokes' rebus: āra 'brass' eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast' arka 'copper, gold'. kunda 'lathe' rebus: 

kō̃da 'fire-altar' (Kashmiri) payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद । परिपाककन्दुः f. a kiln (a potter's fireplace)(Kashmiri)

kāca m. ʻ loop, string fastened to both ends of a pole, carrying yoke ʼ lex. [← Drav. Kui kāsa(CDIAL 3009) rebus:  kāsa 'bronze'.

ḍato 'claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs' rebu: dhatu 'mineral' kāru 'pincers' rebus: khār'blacksmith'  'claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs

dhatu 'crossroad' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral';

karaṇḍa 'duck' rebus: karaḍa 'hard alloy' 

 koṭṭu cock's comb, peacock's tuft. rebus: खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down).ḍhāḷā 'sprig'  ḍhāḷāko 'large ingot'

मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi) rebus: meḍ'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages) medhā 'yajna, dhanam'

kaṇḍa 'water' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'

dhatu 'crossroad' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral' PLUS kaṇḍō 'a stool' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'.

kamaṭha 'turtle' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

kāca m. ʻ loop, string fastened to both ends of a pole, carrying yoke ʼ lex. [← Drav. Kui kāsa (CDIAL 3009) rebus:  kāsa 'bronze'. 

 kole.l 'temple' rebus: kole.l 'smithy, forge'  maṇḍā 'raised platform, stool' Rebus: maṇḍā'warehouse'.

mr̤eka, melh 'goat' rebus:milakkhu 'copper' (Pali),mleccha-mukha 'copper' (Samskrtam)

Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrowʼ(CDIAL 3023). ayaskāṇḍa 'a quantity of iron, excellent (Panini) kāṇḍa 'implements' PLUS maṇḍā 'raised platform, stool' Rebus: maṇḍā 'warehouse' PLUS kāca m. ʻ loop, string fastened to both ends of a pole, carrying yoke ʼ lex. [← Drav. Kui kāsa (CDIAL 3009) rebus:  kāsa 'bronze'. Thus, bronze andmetal implements warehouse.

Jayaswal, KP, 1834, Comment on: The punch-marked coins, a survival of the Indus Civilization, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society, 1834, pp. 72-721 

Fabri, CL, 1834, The punch-marked coins, a survival of the Indus Civilization, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society, 1834, pp.307-318 

https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3MIsAAAAIAAJ&dq=india+punch+marked+coin+symbols&source=gbs_navlinks_s

Punch-marked coins are considered the earliest documented coins in India.

Shakya punch-marked coin

Shakya Vajji or Lichchavi janapada. 600 to 450 BCE. A dot within a pentagonal circumscript. The Meluhha gloss for 'five' is: taṭṭal Homonym is: ṭhaṭṭha brass (i.e. alloy of copper + zinc). Thus the hieroglyph of a pentagon circumscribing a dot may read 'brass ingot': thattha 'brass' PLUS खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.Silver 5-shana c. 600-450 BCE Weight:7.04 gm., 20 x 20 mm. Central pentagonal symbolwith additional symbol to left/ blank Ref: See Rajgor, 522-531.

This hieroglyph-multiplex may also read pañcantaṭṭāṉ, 'goldsmith (who works with five metals)' in:பஞ்சகம்மாளர் pañca-kammāḷar , n. < pañcantaṭṭāṉ, kaṉṉāṉ, ciṟpaṉ, taccaṉ, kollaṉ; தட்டான், கன்னான், சிற்பன், தச்சன் கொல்லன் என்ற ஐவகைப் பட்ட கம்மாளர். (சங். அக.)

Why is a pentagon shape chosen as circumscript to a dot (blob)?

Consistent with Indus Script Cipher, this signifies pancaloha coin, an ingot made of a 5-metal alloy.  The dot of blob is goTa 'round, pebble' rebus: khoTa 'ingot, wedge'. Ancient smiths, Bharatam Janam (an expression used by Rishi Visvamitra in Rigveda) were experimenting with many alloys and many methods of casting metal objects (implements, tools, weapons, even sculptures) using hard alloys and techniques such as cire perdue (lost-wax) casting. This metallurgical heritage should be documented using Indus Script hieroglyhs and disseminated in all schools, the world over.

There are many speculations. See for e.g., figures presented below, from D.D. Kosambi, 1981, Indian Numismatics, Indian Council for Historical Research. 

http://www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/ddknumismatics.pdf 

All the hieroglyphs on Taxila Punch-marked coins are a continuum from Harappa Script cipher of Meluhha rebus readings to signify metalwork catalogues. This tradition of Harappa Script Corpora as proclamations of metalwork continues on the early kārshāpaṇa issued from Taxila mint by Gandhara janapada.

Harappa Script hieroglyph: arka ‘sun’; agasāle ‘goldsmithy’ (Ka.) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. ofarka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.); erako molten cast (Tulu) Rebus: eraka = copper (Ka.) eruvai = copper (Ta.); ere - a dark-red colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). eraka, era, er-a = syn. erka, copper, weapons (Ka.)

M428 Mohenjo-daro. Sun's rays

m1491A copper tablet Harappa Script Corpora

Mohenjo-daro Seals m1118 and Kalibangan 032 (with fish and arrow hieroglyph)

 Nausharo: céramique de la période I (c. 2500 BCE) cf. Catherine Jarrigeपोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu' as hieroglyph is read rebus: pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide';poliya 'citizen, gatekeeper of town quarter'.

Rhd1A (Scorpions, frog, stool/platform)

Brief memoranda:

Kur. mūxā frog. Malt. múqe id. / Cf. Skt. mūkaka- id. (DEDR 5023) Rebus: mū̃h ‘ingot’ PLUS dula ‘pair’ Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’. Thus ingot casting.

bicha ‘scorpion’ (Assamese) Rebus: bica ‘stone ore’ (Santali)

kaṇḍo ‘stool, seat’ Rebus: kāṇḍa  ‘metalware’ kaṇḍa  ‘fire-altar’

m1406 Mohenjo-daro seal. Hieroglyphs: thread of three stands + drummer + tumblers

dhollu ‘drummer’ (Western Pahari) dolutsu 'tumble' Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’

karaḍa 'double-drum' Rebus: karaḍa 'hard alloy'.  med 'drummer, boatman, basketmaker'; meD 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic languages)].mēda m. ʻ a mixed caste, any one living by a degrading occupation ʼ Mn. [→ Bal. mēd ʻ boatman, fisher- man ʼ. -- Cf. Tam. metavar ʻ basket -- maker ʼ &c. DED 4178]

dhAtu 'strands of rope' Rebus: dhAtu 'mineral, metal, ore'

dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAtu 'ineral ore' PLUS Hieroglyph: vaṭa A loop of coir rope, used for climbing palm-trees Rebus: dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter. Hieroglyph: kāca 'loop' rebus:kāsa 'bronze'.

m1521A copper tablet. Harappa Script Corpora

Sun hieroglyph: arka 'sun' rebus: erako 'moltencast' arka 'copper, gold'                                                                                                         

Six spokes emanating from 'dotted circle' are topped with multiple counts (2 or 3 each) of ligatured hieroglyphs: arrow, loop (with variants of ovals, buds, fish, hour-glass, one-horned young bull). dula 'two' rebus; dul'metal casting' kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' kāca 'loop' rebus:kāsa 'bronze' mũh 'oval shape' rebus: mũh 'ingot' ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'metal alloy' aya 'iron' vajra (octagonal)samghāta 'adamantine glue', samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'

kharā 'hare' (Oriya): *kharabhaka ʻ hare ʼ. ... N. kharāyo ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) .rebus: khār'blacksmith' PLUS meṭṭu 'mound,height' Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Santali.Mu.Ho.) 

gaṇḍa 'four' rebus:  kaṇḍa 'fire-atar''implements' ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.Thus, alloy metals mint, smithy/forge, fire-altarr. 

Kur. mūxā frog. Malt. múqe id. / Cf. Skt. mūkaka- id. (DEDR 5023) Rebus: mū̃h 'ingot' muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.' 

dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAu, dhAtu 'mineral ore' PLUS meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ ‘iron’. मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper' (Munda. Slavic) mẽṛhẽt, meD 'iron' (Mu.Ho.Santali)

meď 'copper' (Slovak)

Santali glosses:

kolmo 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'

 पोळ pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus taurus, bull set at liberty' rebus: पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)' 

karba 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' ibbo 'merchant'

"Kārshāpaṇas were basically silver pieces stamped with one to five or six rūpas ('symbols') originally only on the obverse side of the coins initially issued by the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas, and generally carried minute mark or marks to testify their legitimacy. Silver punch-marked coins ceased to be minted sometime in the second century BCE but exerted a wide influence for next five centuries." (Parmeshwari Lal Gupta. Coins, National Book Trust. pp. 7–11.) 

Punch-Marked Coin from the Early Third Century B.C. (Image courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Errington, British Museum)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana

కాసు (p. 280) kāsu kāsu. [Tel.] n. A small copper coin, a pie. A coin in general, whether gold, silver or copper, thus బంగారు కాసు a gold coin. మడికాసు a silver coin (lit. white coin. "అది సుధాకరబింబమా కాదు మడికాసువన్నె వేలుపుటన్నువత్తి గాని." P. iv. 251, 551. కాసైనా లేదు there is not even a farthing. (The కాసు or farthing was called cash by the English, and the coin called ten cash was about one halfpenny: "twenty cash" being a penny, and eighty cash a fanam.) కాసంత kāsanta. n. A pie's worth కాసంతలేదు not a bit remains. Ta. kācu gold, gold coin, money, a small copper coin. Ma. kāśu gold, money, the smallest copper coin. Ko. ka·c rupee. To. ko·s id. Ka. kāsu the smallest copper coin, a cash, coin or money in general. Tu. kāsů an old copper coin worth half a pie, a cash. Te. kāsu a cash, a coin in general, a gold coin, money. Go. (Ko.) kāsu
pice (< Te.; Voc. 663). / ? Cf. Skt. karṣa-.(DEDR 1431) काश् [p= 280,2] cl.1 A1. काशते (perf. चकाशे , 3. pl. °शिरे) , to be visible , appear MBh. &c  ; to shine , be brilliant , have an agreeable appearance ib. : cl.4. काश्यते Dha1tup. xxvi , 53 : Intens. P. A1. च्/आकशीति , चाकश्य्/अते , to shine brightly S3Br. ii Ka1tyS3r.;
to see clearly , survey S3Br. xi Pa1n2. 7-3 , 87 Va1rtt. 1 Pat.

காசு³ kācu , n. prob. kāš. cf. kāca. [M. kāšu.] 1. Gold; பொன். (ஆ. நி.) 2. Necklace of gold coins; அச்சுத்தாலி. காசும் பிறப்புங் கலகலப்ப (திவ். திருப்பா. 7). 3. An ancient gold coin = 28 gr. troy; ஒரு பழைய பொன்னாணயம். (Insc.) 4. A small copper coin; சிறுசெப்புக்காசு. நெஞ்சே யுனையோர் காசா மதியேன் (தாயு. உடல்பொய். 72). 5. Coin, cash, money; ரொக்கம். எப்பேர்ப்பட்ட பல காசா யங்களும் (S.I.I. i, 89). 6. Gem, crystal bead; மணி. நாண்வழிக் காசுபோலவும் (இறை. 2, உரை, பக். 29).

कर्ष [p= 259,3] m. ( √कृष्) , the act of drawing , dragging Pa1n2. mn. a weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy ; in common use 8 Rettis are given to the माष , and the कर्ष is then about 280 grains troy) Sus3r. VarBr2S. &c கஃசு kaḵcu, n. cf. karṣa. A measure of weight = ¼ பலம். தொடிப்புழுதி கஃசா வுணக்கின் (குறள், 1037). कार्षापणः णम् (or पणकः) A coin or weight of different values; पुराकल्प एतदासीत् षोडश माषाः कार्षापणं Mbh. on P.I.2.64. कार्षापणं तु विज्ञेयस्ताम्रिकः कार्षिकः पणः Ms.9.136,336;9.282. (= कर्ष). न हि काकिन्यां नष्टायां तदन्वेषणं कार्षापणेन क्रियते ŚB. on MS.4.3.39. -णम् Money, gold and silver. कार्षा* पण[p= 276,3] mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि ; cf. कर्ष्) " weighing a कर्ष " , a coin or weight of different values (if of gold , = 16 माषs » कर्ष ; if of silver , = 16 पणs or 1280 Kowries , commonly termed a Kahan ; if of copper , = 80 रक्तिकाs or about 176 grains ; but accord. to some = only 1 पण of Kowries or 80 Kowries) Mn. viii , 136 ; 336 ; ix , 282 (ifc.) worth so many कार्षापणs Pa1n2. 5-1 , 29 n. money , gold and silver L.

कर्ष [p= 259,3] 'a boat' (Monier-Williams)

కాసె (p. 280) kāse kāse. [Tel.] adj. Appertaining to the stonecutter trade, masonry, or brick-laying. కాసెవాడు or కాసెభట్టు a mason, a stonecutter, a bricklayer. కాసెపని masonry, building. కాసెయులి a stonecutter's chisel. రాయితొలిచే ఉలి, టంకము. కాసీడు (p. 280) kāsīḍu kāsīḍu. [Tel.] n. A mason. రాతి పనివాడు.

[quote] Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin –

कार्षापणशो ददाति

"he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or

कार्षापणम् ददाति

"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",

while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin".^[2] The Shatapatha Brahmana speaks aboutKārshāpaṇas weighing 100 ratis which kind were found buried at Taxila by John Marshall in 1912. The Golakpur (Patna) find pertains to the period of Ajātaśatru.^[3] The Chaman – I – Hazuri (Kabul) find includes two varieties of punch-marked Indian coins along with numerous Greek coins of 600-500 BCE, thereby indicating that those kind of Kārshāpaṇaswere contemporaneous to the Greek coins and in circulation as legal tender.^[4]

During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇa or Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part).The early indigenous Indian coins were called Suvarṇa (made of gold), Purāṇa or Dhārana (made of silver) andKārshāpaṇa (made of copper). The Golakpur (Patna) find is mainly pre-Maurya, possibly of the Nanda era, and appear to have been re-validated to make them kośa- praveśya (legal tender); the coins bearing larger number of marks are thought to be older in origin. The Maurya Empire was definitely based upon money-economy.^[5] The punch-marked copper coins were called paṇa.^[6] This type of coins were in circulation much before the occupation of Punjab by the Greeks ^[7] who even carried them away to their own homeland.^[8] Originally, they were issued by traders as blank silver bent-bars or pieces; the Magadha silver punch-marked Kārshāpaṇa of Ajatashatru of Haryanka dynasty was a royal issue bearing five marks and weighing fifty-four grains, the Vedic weight called kārsha equal to sixteen māshas.^[9]

Even during the Harappan Period (ca 2300 BCE) silver was extracted from argentiferous galena. Silver Kārshāpaṇas show lead impurity but no association with gold. The internal chronology of Kārshāpaṇa and the marks of distinction between the coins issued by the Janapadas and the Magadhan issues is not known, the Arthashastra of Kautilya speaks about the role of the Lakshanadhyaksha ('the Superintendent of Mint') who knew about the symbols and the Rupadarshaka ('Examiner of Coins'), but has remained silent with regard to the construction, order, meaning and background of the punched symbols on these coins hence their exact identification and dating has not been possible.^[10]

The English word, "Cash", is derived from the Sanskrit word, kārsha.^[11] The punch-marked coins were called "Kārshāpaṇa" because they weighed one kārsha each.^[12]Indian merchants, through land and sea routes, have traded with the east African, Arab and middle-east people from 12th century BCE onwards. The term Kārshāpaṇa referred to gold, silver and copper coins weighing 80 ratis or 146.5 grains; these coins, the earliest square in shape, followed the ancient Indian system of weights described in Manu Smriti.^[13] Use of money was known to Vedic people much before 700 BCE. The words,Nishka and Krishnala, denoted money, and Kārshāpaṇas , as standard coins, were regularly stored in the royal treasuries.^[14] The Local silver punch-marked coins, included in the Bhabhuā and Golakpur finds, were issued by the Janapadas and were in circulation during the rule of the Brihadratha Dynasty which was succeeded by the Magadha empire founded by the Haryanka dynasty in 684 BCE; these coins show four punch-marks - the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, arrows (three) and taurine (three) which were current even during the rule of Bimbisara (604-552 BCE). Ajatashatru (552-520 BCE) issued the first Imperial coins of six punch-marks with the addition of the bull and the lion. The successors of Ajatashatru who ruled between 520 and 440 BCE and the laterShishunaga dynasty and the nanda dynasty issued coins of five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol and any three of the 450 symbols. The Maurya coins also have five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, three-arched hill with crescent at top, a branch of a tree at the corner of a four-squared railing and a bull with a taurine in front. Punch-marked copper coins were first issued during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya or Bindusara. The Bhīr find includes Maurya coins and a coin of Diodotus I (255-239 BCE) issued in 248 BCE.^[15]

1. 4 Recording the Progress of Indian History. Primus Books.
2. Jump up5 Radhakumud Mookerji. Chandragupta Maurya and his times. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 106, 107, 215, 212.
3. 6ump up Indian Sculpture. University of California Press. p. 67.
4. Jump up7 Alexander Cunnigham. Coins of Ancient India. Asian Educational Services. p. 47.
5. Jump up8 Frank L. Holt. Into the Land of Bones. University of California Press. p. 161.
6. Jump up9 D.D.Kosambi. The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline. p. 124,129.
7. Jump up10 Hari C. Bhardwaj. Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 140, 142.
8. Jump up11 C.A.S.Williams. Chinese Symbolism and Art Motifs. Tuttle Publishing. p. 76.
9. Jump up12 A.V.Narsimha Murthy. The Coins of Karnataka. Geetha Book House. p. 19.
10. Jump up13 S.N.Naskar. Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture. Abhinav Publications. p. 186.
11. Jump up14 D.R.Bhandarkar. Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics. Asian Educational Services. pp. 55, 62, 79.
12. Jump up15 Parmeshwari Lal Gupta. Coins. National Book Trust. pp. 17–20, 239–240. [unquote] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana

I do NOT agree with his arguments and conclusions. For example, about the Taxila hoard examples discussed in this note he states as follows: "In each set of marks, the first four represent the king; the fifth, an issuing authority such as a crown prince. Often the fifth mark in one set becomes the fourth in another set, indicating the accession of the crown prince to the throne."

This is an example of mere speculation.

 (loc.cit. DD Kosambi)

Padmam vajram parasu-khadga-trisula-gada-cakra-svastika-kalasa-minasan-khakundala-dhvaja-patakam

Pasa-ghantaka-dvarakadhanurnaraca-mudgara etairvividhakarapraharanamudraih (pp. 408-9)

Praharana mudra = stamped punch-marked coins. praháraṇa n. ʻ attack, weapon ʼ MBh., ʻ striking ʼ Pañcat. 2. praharaṇīya -- n. ʻ a weapon ʼ MBh. [√hr̥] 1. Pa. paharaṇa -- n. ʻ striking ʼ, °aka -- adj.; Pk. paharaṇa -- n. ʻ striking, weaponʼ; Si. paraṇa ʻ stroke, blow, flogging ʼ.2. Or. pāhāruṇi ʻ iron -- studded stick used in threshing rice ʼ.(CDIAL 8901) प्र-° हरण [p= 701,1] n.striking, beating , pecking Pan5cat. attack , combat MBh. (Monier-Williams) This is the closest equivalent in Indian sprachbund, of 'punch-marked'.

The expressions in Kannada anguli-praharaṇa, anguli-mudra clearly demonstrate that the word praharaṇa in the Prakrtam text cited by DD Kosambi, should be a reference to punch-marked mudra:

Taxila hoard (After Fig. 12.1) 

Mauryan coin symbols (After Fig. 11.3 Amaravati hoard)

Mauryan coin symbols (After Fig. 11.2 Amaravati hoard)

Mauryan coin symbols (After Fig. 11.1 Amaravati hoard)

(After Fig. 10.5 Kosala region. Paila hoard)

(After Fig. 9.1 Five obverse and one reverse marks. Bodenayakanur hoard)

(After Fig. 8.1 Taxila hoard) Mauryan after Chandragupta. Additional marks are shown below dotted line of each frame.

(After Fig. 8.2 Taxila hoard)

(After Fig. 8.3 Taxila hoard)

(After Fig. 8.4 Taxila hoard)

Ancient India, Maghadan Empire. Late Period IV, c. 321 BC.

The Eight Sons of Mohapadina Nanda. Silver "punchmark" coin, Karshapana mint. Numerous symbols (see illustration below).

ref: Amennti IV, IX A3. 21x18 mm, 3.28 g.

Ancient India, Maghadan Empire. Late Period IV, c. 321 BC.

The Eight Sons of Mohapadina Nanda. Silver "punchmark" coin, Karshapana mint. Numerous symbols (see illustration below).

ref: Amennti IV, IX A3. 21x18 mm, 3.28 g.

East Khandesh hoard. Punch-marked coin

(After Fig. 4.1 Silver punch-marked coins. Taxila hoard)

(After Fig. 4.6 Silver punch-marked coins. Taxila hoard)

Arthasastra, A. II, 12, 30; Meyer, 9, p. 120. The text describes the alloys of copper used in coins.

Arthasastra, "Rupadarsaka is to establish or adjust the panayatra, or circulation of currency.

Saddahasi sigdlassa surapitassa brahmana

Sippikdnam satam natthi kuto kamsasata duve (Jat. I, 426)

“He hasn’t a hundred cowries, how could he have two hundred bronze coins? Those who examined coins were called herannika (Samskrtam haira-nyika) Heranilika’s are described in the Visuddhimagga, 14,4…” karsapana = kahapano

Karsharpanastu vighneya tamrigha karshigha panha ‘ karsapana = copper coin one karsa in weight’; karsa = 16 masaka."

https://indiacoinsmarks.wordpress.com/

 [Pl. 39, Tree symbol (often on a platform) on punch-marked coins; a symbol recurring on many Indus script tablets and seals.] Source for the tables of symbols on punchmarked coins: Savita Sharma, 1990, Early Indian Symbols, Numismatic Evidence, Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan. 

See more examples at http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/01/tree-yupa-indus-script-hieroglyphs.html

jm4heu 



           Punch-marked coin. Ashoka.This hypertext on a Punch-marked coin is a Harappa (Indus) Script hieroglyph, a remarkable evidence of continuum of script tradition in Bharatam.The hieroglyph 'plait of three strands' gets expanded semantically to orthograph the unique hypertext on Gandhara Punch-marked coins.On this punch-marked silver bent-bar coin of Gandhara, the three plaits (strands) are duplicated to signify six plaits emanating from the central 'dotted circle. The hypertext is read rebus in Meluhha: dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAu, dhAtu 'mineral ore' PLUS meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ ‘iron’.

 See Mohenjo-daro seal m1406 which signifies an identical three plaits. kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus, three 'plaited hieroglyphs' emanting from the central 'dotted circle' signify meḍ dhAtu 'iron mineral'. A pair of such hieroglyphs: dula 'pair' rebus;dul 'metal casting'. Thus, the six arms of six plaits (strands) signify: dul meḍ dhAtu 'cast iron mineral'.baTa 'six' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace'. Thus, the hypertext is a technical specification of mintwork repertoire of Gandhara mint with the centre-piece of a furnace to smelt mineral ores. See semantics of Rigveda: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour). 

This semantic expansion explains the unique hypertext orthographed on Gandhara silver-bent-bar Punch-marked coin.

Archaic Silver Punch-marked coin, Gandhara region, silver 'bent-bar', early type (flat bar with wide flan), (c. 450-400 BCE), Rajgor series 34, 11.39g. Obv: two radiate symbols punched at extreme ends. Rev: blank.

A silver 1/8 karshapana coin from the mint at Taxila, c.400's BCE

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/gandhara/coins/coins.html

John Huntington has demonstrated the continuum from Vedic times related to some symbols on punch-marked coins, traceable to Harappa Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts. 
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/10/vajra-six-angled-hypertext-of-punch.html Vajra षट्--कोण 'six-angled' hypertext of Punch-marked coins khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint'.

Metalworkers of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization expand their functions in janapada-s to manage mints and monetary transactions of the janapada-s.

With the decipherment of Harappa (Indus) Script as rebus cipher in Meluhha Script (Bharata sprachbund,language union), it is now possible to rename the punch-marked coins and symbols punched on the coins using Meluhha lexis (vocabulary) since most of the symbols used are a continuum from Harappa (Indus) Script tradition.

Thus, it is no longer necessary to name the symbols on Punchmarked coins with expressions such as taurine symbol, srivatsa, svastika, arrow, dotted circle, elephant, bull. All the symbols can now be expressed in Meluhha language, the lingua franca of Bhāratam Janam from ca. 7th millennium BCE. A coin is mudda ‘seal, stamp’. mudrāˊ f. ʻ seal, signet -- ring ʼ MBh. [Prob. ← Ir. EWA ii 654] Pa. muddā -- f. ʻ seal, stamp ʼ, muddikā -- f. ʻ signetring ʼ; NiDoc. mu(ṁ)dra, mutra ʻ seal ʼ; Pk. muddā -- , °diā -- f., °daya -- m. ʻ seal, ring ʼ; S. muṇḍra f. ʻ seal ʼ, °rī f. ʻ finger -- ring with seal ʼ; L. mundrī f. ʻ ring ʼ; P. mundar m. ʻ earring ʼ, mundī f. ʻ ring ʼ; Ku. munṛo ʻ earring ʼ, gng. mun*lṛ ʻ ring ʼ, N. mun(d)ro, MB. mudaṛī; Or. muda ʻ seal ʼ, mudi ʻ ring ʼ, mudā ʻ act of sealing ʼ; Bi. mū̃drī ʻ iron ring fastening blade of scraper ʼ; G. mū̃drī f. ʻ ring ʼ, M. mudī f., Ko. muddi; Si. mudda < muduva, st. mudu -- ʻ seal, ring ʼ; Md. mudi ʻ ring ʼ.mudraṇa -- , mudrayati; mudrākara -- . mudrākara m. ʻ maker of seals ʼ MW. [mudrāˊ -- , kará -- 1] Si muduvarayā ʻ goldsmith ʼ. (CDIAL 10203, 10204) முத்திரை muttira, n. < mudrā. 1. Impress, mark; அடையாளம். அசாதாரண முத்திரை யோடே வரவேணு மென்கிறார் (திவ்.பெரியாழ். 1, 8, 9, வ்யா.). 2. Seal, signet; இலாஞ்சனை. பொறித்த முத்திரையும் வேறாய்(திருவாலவா. 24, 8). 3. Stamp, as for postage, for court fees; தபால் முத்திரை முதலியன. 4. Badge of a soldier or peon; போர்ச்சேவகன் அல்லது சேவகனுக்குரிய அடையாள வில்லை.முத்திரைக்கணக்கர் muttirai-k-kaṇakkar, n. < முத்திரை +. A class of temple servants;கோயிற்பணியாளருள் ஒருவகையார். (மீனாட். சரித். i, 2.)

Four Harappa Script hieroglyphs are uambiguous on the Sunga coin and are relatale to the mineral/metal resources deployed in mint-work:

  The Meluhha rebus readings, respectively, from l. to r. are: iron, implements, red ore, zinc

mēḍhā 'a twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl' rebus:  meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi  ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'.

A variant for the 'twist' hieroglyph reading: kãsā 'twist, loo' rebus: kãsā 'bronze'.

kaṇḍa, 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa,'implements/sword
dhātu 'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore'
Hieroglyph: sattuvu (Kannada), svastika: sāthiyo (G.); satthia, sotthia (Pkt.) rebus: sattuvu pewter (Kannada), jasta 'zinc' (Hindi)

Thus, when a hypertext is orthographed including one or more of thee hieroglyphs, the message is clear and unambiguous, as, for example on a common hypertext on early Punch-marked coins which include three of these hieroglyphs: :mēḍhā 'twist' rebus: mēḍ 'iron', kaṇḍa 'arrow rebus:kaṇḍa,'implements' dhātu 'strand' rebus: dhātu 'red ore'.

An alternative reading is also apposite for the 'loop' imagery: kāca m. ʻloop' rebus: kāsa 'bronze'. Thus, the frequently signified hypertext on Punch-marked coins may be read: dhatu kāsa kaṇḍa 'mineral (metal), bronze implements'.

One some Punch-marked coins, hieroglyph mēḍhā 'twist' is elaborated with a hypertext which signfies:khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' (Lahnda CDIAL 13640) Ta. kampaṭṭam, kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. 
Bhaja Chaitya ca. 100 BCE. Hieroglyphs are: fish-fin pair; pine-cone; yupa: kandə ʻpine' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements, fire-altar' khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' (Lahnda CDIAL 13640) Ta. kampaṭṭam, kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Yupa: Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrow ʼ(CDIAL 3023). Rebus: kāṇḍa,'implements'.

Sunga 185-75 BCE karabha'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron' kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' Yupa: Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrow ʼ(CDIAL 3023). Rebus: kāṇḍa,'implements'. kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' Mountain range + crucible: OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse' PLUS ḍāng 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' 


Four dotted circles joined together orthographed as 'Ujjaini symbol': gaṇḍa 'four' rbus:   kaṇḍa'implements' PLUS dhātu 'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore'. Thus, metal implements (with a variety of ore alloys).

karṇaka  कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133  rebus: karṇaka 'helmsman' PLUS koḍa 'one'rebus: koḍ 'workshop' 

पोळ [pōḷa] 'zebu'  rebus: पोळ [pōḷa] 'magnetite, ferrite ore' 

.
Kausambi 200 BCE
arA 'spokes' rebus: Ara 'brass' eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast' arka'copper'.PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' (Lahnda CDIAL 13640) Ta. kampaṭṭam, kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Thus, copper mint.
dala 'petal' rebus:  ढाळ [ḍhāḷa] ḍhāḷako 'ingot' (Marathi)
kola 'tiger' rebus: kol'blacksmith'  karabha 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron' kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' ḍāng 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' 

Taxila. Pushkalavati 185-160 BCE Karshapana
Kalinga. Copper punch-marked 3rd cent. BCEarka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper gold'

Mauryan Dynasty .(321 to 185 BC ) Silver punch marked coins. ಮುರ್ಯರ , ಮುದ್ರಂಕಿಥ ಬೆಳ್ಳಿ ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳು  Hieroglyph: hare:  N. kharāyo ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) Rebus: khār'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) खार् ।

Is it a stylized 'ram' in the centre, reduplicated? dula 'pair' rebus; dul 'metal casting' PLUS  meḍho 'ram' rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi  ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'.

Janapadas, 600 - 300 BCE dhātu'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore'. Three combined are orthographed as a triangle with curved endings: tri-dhātu 'three strands' (Rigveda) rebus: tri-dhātu 'three red ores' (perhaps, magnetite, haematite, laterite). May also refer to eraka, arka 'red copper ores' (pyrites)..

Source: http://ancientcoinsofindiaaruns.blogspot.in/2010_03_01_archive.html 

Ancient Indian Coins. "ಪ್ರಾಚಿನ ಭಾರತದ ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳು." Thanks to Arun joepaladka@yahoo.co.in for these excellent images.

Silver punch-marked

Mauryan. Ashoka. This braided orthography of three strands may be a variant to signify: tri-dhātu 'three strands of rope' Rebus: dhāv 'red ore' (ferrite) ti-dhāu 'three strands' Rebus: ti-dhāv 'three ferrite ores: magnetite, hematite, laterite'.

Asmaka
 OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse' PLUS gota 'roundish stone' Rebus: goṭa  'laterite, ferrite ore''gold-lac, braid'.PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rbus:   kaṇḍa 'implements'
 ḍhāḷa 'sprig' rebus: ḍhāḷako 'large ingot'

kamaḍha 'archer, bow' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus:aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' PLUSmēḍhā 'a twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl' rebus:  meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi  ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'. Thus, alloy metal castings, iron castings.

Vidarbha janapada

.

Seven symbols

 Five symbols

Taxila symbol. A hypertext composed of 'round stone''crucible pair''a pair of persons standing with spread legs': 

gota 'roundish stone' Rebus: goṭa  'laterite, ferrite ore''gold-lac, braid'. 

OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse'

karṇaka  कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133  rebus: karṇaka 'helmsman'  

Mauryan. Karshapanakuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' 

http://www.worldofcoins.eu/forum/index.php?topic=1332.0

Mauryan.

ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy'  PLUS  gaṇḍa 'four' rbus:   kaṇḍa 'implements' Thus, metal alloy implements.

gota 'roundish stone' Rebus: goṭa  'laterite, ferrite ore''gold-lac, braid'. PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rbus:   kaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS mēḍhā 'a twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl' rebus:  meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi  ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'.

Thus, the hypertext signifies: ferrite metal implements

Agrawal, Banu & Rai, Subas, Indian Punchmarked coins, 1994

PL Gupta, Amaravati hoard of silver punchmarked coins, 1963 http://coincoin.com/bGuptaAmarS.jpg  maraka'peacock' Rebus: marakaka loha 'copper alloy' (Samskrtam)

Gupta, PL & Hardaker, 1985, Ancient Indian silver punchmarked coins, Magadha-Maurya series

Kothari, Narendra, 2006, Ujjaini coins.  Hieroglyph 1: கமடம், [ *kamaṭam, ] s. A turtle, a tortoise, ஆமை (Winslow Tamil lexicon) rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'..

Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, multi-symbol type

Weight: 4.22 gm., Diameter: 18 mm.
Centrally placed Ujjain symbol; svastika and Indradhvaja on right and
    railed tree on left; fish-tank above the Ujjain symbol and parts of
    chakra on top right; river at the bottom.
Double-orbed Ujjain symbol
Reference: Pieper 379 (plate specimen)

Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/4 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 5.98 gm., Diameter: 17x15 mm.
Six-armed symbol in center; svastika and taurine above a railed tree on
    the left; Ujjain symbol above Indradhvaja on the right; river at the
    bottom; above the six-armed symbol is a square tank with two fishes
    and two turtles.
Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb.
Reference: Pieper 384 (plate specimen)

Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, tree type
Weight: 4.19 gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm.
Obv.: Tree-on-hill on right and six-armed symbol on left.
Rev.: Ujjain symbol with alternating taurines and svastikas in the orbs.
Reference: Pieper 400

Ujjain, inscribed AE 1/2 karshapana, 'tank between trees' type
Weight: 5.62 gm., Diameter: 14x14 mm.
Fishtank from which a water channel is branching flanked by two railed
     trees; Brahmi legend part below reading 'sidhatho(madana)'
Ujjain symbol
Reference: Pieper 409 (plate specimen)

Until now the legend on this coin type had been read as 'rathimadana'. This is the first specimen to show at least the first three letters of the legend clear beyond doubt. Credit goes to Harry Falk to have read the legend as 'sidhato'. The second part of the name appears to have been correctly identified from the available specimens except for the last letter which still is somewhat doubtful but '...madana' is well possible. In that case the complete name would be 'Sidhathomadana'.

Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/8 karshapana, makara type
Weight: 1.17 gm., Diameter: 10x8 mm.
Obv.: Makara to right in form of an aquatic creature with fishtail and
          head of an elephant; Ujjain symbol at top.
 Rev.: Ujjain symbol with a dot in each angle.
Reference:  Pieper 366 (plate specimen)

The makara is the vahana (mount) of Ganga, the goddess of the river Ganges, and of the sea-god Varuna. Its frontal part is that of a terrestrial animal, its hind part that of a sea-creature. The depiction of a creature with fish-tail and elephant's head, like on this coin, is frequently used in depictions of a makara.

mahā kara = मकर [ makara ] m (S) An aquatic monster understood usually of the alligator, crocodile, and shark, but, properly, a fabulous animal. It is the emblem of the god of love. (Marathi) H گهڙيال घड़ियाल ghaṛiyāl [S. घण्टिका+आलः or आलु], s.m. A crocodile; the Gangetic alligator, Lacerta gangetica (cf. magar).H مگر मगर magar [Prk. मकरो; S. मकरः], s.m. An alligator; a crocodile. mahā kara = मकर [ makara ] is a hieroglyph multiplex composed of a number of hieroglyph components:

1. Crocodile snout, ghara Rebus: khār ‘blacksmith’

2. Fish-tail, xolā Rebus: kolle 'blacksmith'

3. Elephant trunk as snout, ibha 'elephant' Rebus: ib 'iron'

కారుమొసలి a wild crocodile or alligator (Telugu).

Rebus: khār ‘blacksmith’ khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith.

Synonym: ayo ‘fish’ (Mu.); rebus: aya ‘(alloyed) metal’ (G.) kāru  a wild crocodile or alligator (Te.) Rebus:khār  a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār) (Kashmiri) 

Combined rebus reading: ayakāra ‘iron-smith’ (Pali).

Tree in railing. Svastika and comb. Found in river bed 4 feet from surface immediately below the Ruhunu Maha Kataragama Temple. http://coins.lakdiva.org/codrington/chapter_iii_edit.html

dãtɔ m. a kind of rake or harrow (Gujarati) rebus: dhatu 'mineral, ore' PLUS satthiya 'svastika' rebus:svastika 'pewter', jasta 'zinc'.

Magadha janapada. Silver karshapana

c. 5th-4th century BCE
Weight: 3.08 gm., Dim: 26 x 24 mm.
Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others, plus banker's marks /
Banker's marks
Ref:  GH 36. meḍha 'polar star' (Marathi). meḍ 'iron' (Ho.Mu.) .

This hieroglyph, twist of three strands, signified on Punch-marked coins of Gandhara is traced to Harappa Script hieroglyph tradition. This signifies dhā̆vaḍ 'smelter' meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ‘iron’

 See Mohenjo-daro seal m1406

m1406 Seal using 

tri-dhAtu 'three-stranded rope':  Rebus: tri-hAtu, three red ores.

Hieroglyph:  धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c ; cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu  *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773)

Rebus: M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; (CDIAL 6773) धातु  primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral, ore (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh. &c element of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]) (Monier-Williams. Samskritam) Harappa (Indus) script hieroglyphs signify dhAtu 'iron ore', Dharwar, Ib names of places in India in the iron ore belt.

S. mī˜ḍhī f., °ḍho m. ʻ braid in a woman's hair ʼ, L.  f.; G. mĩḍlɔ, miḍ° m. ʻ braid of hair on a girl's forehead ʼ; M. meḍhā m. ʻ curl, snarl, twist or tangle in cord or thread ʼ.मेढा [ mēḍhā ] meṇḍa A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl. (Marathi) (CDIAL 10312). meḍhi, miḍhī, meṇḍhī = a plait in a woman’s hair; a plaited or twisted strand of hair (P.)(CDIAL 10312)]. 

Rebus: semantics 'iron': meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho)meṛed (Mundari);mẽṛed iron; enga meṛed soft iron; sanḍi meṛedhard iron; ispāt meṛed steel; dul meṛed cast iron; i meṛed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bica meṛed iron extracted from stone ore; bali meṛed iron extracted from sand ore; meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.)

There are two Railway stations in India called Dharwad and Ib. Both are related to Prakritam words with the semantic significance: iron worker, iron ore.

dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ (Marathi)(CDIAL 6773) PLUS kanka, karNaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo' PLUS mēd, 'boatman, one who plays drums at ceremonies' Rebus:  mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron (metal)’Alternative: dhollu ‘drummer’ (Western Pahari) dolutsu 'tumble' Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’. 

A variant orthography shows a pair of three strands of twisted rope, signified as a total of six spokes emanating from a dotted circle in the centre (See image of Silver shatamana of Gandhara). 

Six spokes: baṭa 'six' rebus:  bhaṭa 'furnace'.

Rebus reading: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS , meḍhi 'plait' meḍ ‘iron’ Thus, cast iron.

PLUS dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(Marathi) The expression dhā̆vaḍ  is composed of two words: dhāu 'strand' rebus: dhāu 'three red ores, minerals' PLUS vaṭa 'string'. 

“That the guilds or corporations of taders were empowerd to issue coins is attested by the  Negama coins from  Taxila. The word Negama (Skt. Naigamah here should be taken to mean ‘the s’reis or corporations of  merchants’. The Taxila Negama coins bear several other words: Dojaka, Atakataka, Ralimasa, Kaare, etc. (Allan, Catalogue of Coins of Ancient India, pp. 214-219, pls. XXXI and XXXIV). I think that these terms refer to the merchants’ localities where the respective coins were minted. Some Taxila coins bear the legend Pancanekame mening probably that they were issues of a joint body of five nigamas or of a guild called Panchanigama. This would indicate that in the Gandhara region during the 3^rd-2^nd centuries BCE, there existed several guilds of traders who were authorized to issue coins bearing their particular names.” (Bajpai, KD, 2004, Indian numismatic studies, Abhinav Publications, Delhi, p.2)

“Some Taxila coins bear the legend Pancanakame (Alan, CCBM, pp. 214-19, Pl. XXXi and XXXiv). The legend shows that the coins were either the issues of a joint body of five nigamas or of a guild calledpancanigama. Further, it indicates that there existed, in the Gandhara region during the third-second centuries BCE, several guilds of traders who were authorised to issue coins bearing their particular names. The nigama or negama series of Taxila coins refer to Ralimasa which, like Dojaka, Dosanasa and Hiranasama, has been differently interpreted. DR Bhandarkar is inclined to take it as the name of a city.”(Paramanand Gupta, 1989, Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals, Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, p.147).

After Fig. 10.13. ibid. Coinage ascribable to the Mauryan and immediately post-Mauryan period. 6,7,8 silver punchmarked coins, national series; 9,10,11 coper cast coins; 12,13,15,16 die-struck copper coins; 14. inscribed copper coin, Taxila; obv. negama (Brahmi script), rev. kojaka (Kharosthi script). "We believe it is reasonable to conclude that during the Mauryan period silver punchmarked coins of the national series were very widely distributed in South Asia, and were accompanied by coins of the cast copper varieties."(Allchin, FR & George Erdosy, 1995, The archaeology of early historic South Asia: the emergence of cities and states, Cambridge University Press, p.221).

It is known that sculptors of Sanchi and Bharhut artifacts were in the tradition of ivory carvers of Begram.

The hieroglyphs -- for example, elephant, tiger, mountain-range, tree, fire-altar, sun's rays, svastika -- deployed on the coins of Mauryan period are comparable to the hieroglyphs on Indus Script Corpora. The later-day inventors of Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts are likely to have been adept at Indus Script hieroglyph writing (mlecchita vikalpa, i.e. Meluhha cipher).

arka 'sun' rebus: arka, eraka 'gold, copper moltencast'
kanda 'fire-altar'
kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'
Ku. ḍã̄g, ḍã̄k ʻ stony land ʼ; B. ḍāṅ ʻ heap ʼ, ḍāṅgā ʻ hill, dry upland ʼ; H. ḍã̄g f. ʻ mountain -- ridge ʼ; M. ḍã̄g m.n., ḍã̄gaṇ, °gāṇ, ḍãgāṇ n. ʻ hill -- tract ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : N. ḍaṅgur ʻ heap ʼ.
M. ḍũg m. ʻ hill, pile ʼ, °gā m. ʻ eminence ʼ, °gī f. ʻ heap ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Pk. ḍuṁgara -- m. ʻ mountain ʼ; Ku. ḍũgar, ḍũgrī; N. ḍuṅgar ʻ heap ʼ; Or. ḍuṅguri ʻ hillock ʼ, H. ḍū̃gar m., G. ḍũgar m., ḍũgrī f. S. ḍ̠ū̃garu m. ʻ hill ʼ, H. M. ḍõgar m.(CDIAL 5523) rebus: N. ḍāṅro ʻ term of contempt for a blacksmith ʼ; Or. dhāṅgaṛ ʻ young servant, herdsman, name of a Santal tribe ʼ,H.dhaṅgar m. ʻ herdsman ʼ, dhã̄gaṛ, °ar m. ʻ a non-- Aryan tribe in the Vindhyas, digger of wells and tanks ʼ(CDIAL 5524) For rebus readings of elephant, tiger, see following paragraphs.

Hieroglyph: svastika: satthiya 'svastika' rebus: satthiya, jasta 'zinc'

Taxila coin

Semantics of negama (Brahmi) and kojaka (Kharosthi) on Taxila coin which meant 'merchant caravans' and 'treasurer' respectively as may be seen from the glosses of Indian sprachbund (both Indo-Aryan including Prakritam and Dravidian):

नि-° गम a town , city , market-place A1past. Car.  a caravan or company of merchants (ifc. f(आ).) R. Das3. Lalit. trade , traffic W. 

नि-° गम the root (as the source from which a word comes ; hence ifc.” derived from “) (Nir.) the वेद or the Vedic text Hariv. Pa1n2. Pur.&c any work auxiliary to and explanatory of the वेदs Mn. iv , 19 ( Kull.)  a sacred precept , the words of a god or holy man MBh. Pur.doctrine , instruction in , art of (comp.) Ba1lar.&c m. insertion (esp.of the name of a deity into a liturgical formula) S3rS. the place or passage (esp. of the वेदs) where a word occurs or the actual word quoted from such a passage Nir

One meaning of the word nigama is: the place where the passage from Veda occurs. It is possible that the semantics of nigama as a market or merchant guild are relatable to this vedic inference as the production of metalwork from a yajna, treating the yajna as a smelting process of metals, bahusuvarNaka, metals of many colours.

नि-° गम [p= 545,3] a caravan or company of merchants (ifc. f(आ).) R. Das3. ;a town , city , market-place A1past. Car. Lalit. m. insertion (esp. of the name of a deity into a liturgical formula) SrS.the वेद or the Vedic text Hariv. Pa1n2. Pur. &cany work auxiliary to and explanatory of the वेदs Mn. iv , 19 ( Kull. )doctrine , instruction in , art of (comp.) Ba1lar.= परिशिष्ट Cat. (Monier-Williams)

nigamá m. ʻ marketplace ʼ Āpast. [√gam]Pa. nigama -- m. ʻ market town ʼ, Pk. ṇigama -- m.; OSi. niyama ʻ marketplace ʼ.(CDIAL 7158)*nigamagrāma ʻ market village ʼ. [nigamá -- , grāˊma -- ]Si. niyamgama ʻ large village ʼ.(CDIAL 7159) Go<tiniGam>(A)  {V} ``to ^start (doing something)''.(Munda etyma) It is possible that the gloss is linked to grAma 'village'. grāˊma m. ʻ troop, village ʼ RV., °aka -- m. MBh.Pa. gāma -- , °aka -- m. ʻ village ʼ, Aś. gāma -- , KharI. grama, Dhp. gama, NiDoc. grame pl.; Pk. gāma -- m. ʻ collection, village ʼ; Gy. eur. gav m. ʻ village, town ʼ; Ash. glam ʻ village ʼ, Kt. gŕom, Pr. gəm, Dm. gram, Paš. dar. lām, kuṛ. lāma, chil. lōm, ar. dlōm, lōm (not dialects in which it would collide with lām < kárman -- IIFL iii 3, 109), Niṅg. Shum. lām, Woṭ. gām m., Gaw. lām, Kal. grom, Kho. gram (in cmpds. and place names), Bshk. lām, Tor. gām, Mai. gã̄, Gau. gaõ, Sv. grām, Phal. grōm, Sh. girōm ʻ cowpen ʼ (earlier → Bur. gir*lm ʻ clan, village ʼ Morgenstierne in Lorimer BurLg I, xxii), dr. gām ʻ village ʼ, gur. gāõ (← Ind. ~ kui < kuṭī -- ); K. gām m. ʻ village ʼ, S. gã̄u m., L. girã̄ m., P. grã̄, girã̄, °rāũ m., WPah. bhad. ḍḷã̄, bhiḍ. bhal. ḍḷaũ n., paṅ. cam. grã̄; cur. girã̄ ʻ field ʼ; rudh. gyeũ ʻ village ʼ, khaś. grão, Ku. gaũ, gng. gɔ̃, N. A. gāũ, B. Or. gã̄, Bi. gã̄w, Mth. gã̄o, gām, Bhoj. Aw. lakh. H. gã̄u m., Marw. gã̄v, G. gām n., M. gã̄v, gāv m.n., Ko. gã̄vu m., Si. gama; -- ext. -- ṭa -- : Sk. grāmaṭikā -- f. ʻ wretched village ʼ, Pk. gāmaḍa -- m., G. gāmṛũ n. ʻ small village ʼ.grāmín -- ; *agrāmin -- , agrāmya -- , *nirgrāmika -- , saṁgrāmá -- ; grāmakūṭa -- , grāmaṇīˊ -- , *grāmadāra -- , *grāmadhāna -- , grāmavāsin -- , grāmastha -- , grāmāntá -- , *grāmārdha -- ; *gōgrāma -- , *nigamagrāma -- , *paragrāma -- , *pāṇḍavagrāma -- , *pālagrāma -- , mātr̥grāma -- .Addenda: grāˊma -- : WPah.kṭg. (kc.) graũ m. (obl. kṭg. graũ, kc. grama) ʻ village ʼ.(CDIAL 4368)

Traders’ Guild Coin – Nigama (2nd century BC), Copper, 1.29 g, Brahmi legend written in circular fashion, Nigamaye (of Nigam). The other side has a motif similar to capital U. The U hieroglyph on the reverse is a crucible: kuThara ‘crucible’ rebus: kuThAru ‘armourer’ koThAr ‘warehouse’.

Taxila, regional 'Guild' coinage, c. 2nd century BC, 'Five Guilds' type, MAC4423-4425, 4.76g. Obv: Dharmachakra (Wheel of Law) Rev: a row of Buddhist symbols (Triratna, Swastika, Triratna), Kharoshthi legend Panchanekame below.

http://classicalnumismaticgallery.com/searchauctionitem.aspx?auctioncode=2&pricerange=&keyword=&category=1&material=0&lotno=

Artifact finds of Sanchi and Bharhut demonstrate the use of Brahmi and Kharosthi syllabic writing which demonstrate that the language of the artists and artisans was Prakritam. Use of Brahmi and Kharosthi writing is also evidenced on a punchmarked coin of Taxila (Fig. 10.13.14) with inscriptions: obv. negama(Brahmi) and rev. kojaka (Kharosthi).

"In the northwest Kharosthi continued to flourish and most of the known inscriptions in that are were written in this script between c. BCE 200 and CE 200. Kharosthi gained wide currency for coin inscriptions in the same reion. That its use spread at an early date into the Ganges valley can be inferred from the fact that at Bharhut the masons used Kharosthi letters for their masonry marks. Recently a number of Kharosthi inscriptions have been discovered on potsherds from sites in Bengal. Coinage. Around the opening of the second century BCE the establishment of an Indo-Greek kingdom in Gandhara introduced into the northwest a major new currency system, with a predominantly silver and bronze coinage. At an early stage the Greeks employed bilingual inscriptions in Greek and in Prakrit in Brahmi or Kharosthi script, and their coins provided a model which later rulers in the region were to initiate. The Greeks were followed into India by a series of foreign groups, first the Sakas and later the Kusanas who were among those to emulate the Greek patterns of coin...On the coins of Kaniska and his successors in the second century CE a wide variety of deities was depicted, including, beside the mainly Iranian pantheon, the Buddha and Siva, as well as Greek and Egyptian deities."(Allchin, FR & George Erdosy, 1995, The archaeology of early historic South Asia: the emergence of cities and states, Cambridge University Press, p.311).

Malwa, clay sealing

Weight:  4.48 gm., Dimensions: 20×15 mm.

Railed yupa (sacrificial post) with side decorations and a Brahmi legend below reading khadasa

Reference: Pieper collection “Thanks to Shailendra Bhandare for the correct reading. According to Bhandare the legend refers to the worship of Skanda; similar objects pertaining to the Skanda cult have been reported from regions of Malwa, Vidarbha and the Deccan.”

http://coinindia.com/galleries-eran2.html

Indus Script hieroglyphs on Eran_Vidhisha coins deciphered:

yupa Skambha as mEDha ‘pillar, stake’ rebus: meD ‘iron’ med ‘copper’ (Slavic) dula ‘pair’ rebus: dul ‘cast metal’ kadasa kanda? rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’ Thus, fire-altar for cast copper/iron.

bhagila text: rebus: गर्भगळीत, गर्भगिळीत, गर्भगीळ (p. 225) [ garbhagaḷīta, garbhagiḷīta, garbhagīḷa ] a (गर्भ & गळणें) That has dropped or cast the womb. भागी (p. 607) [ bhāgī ] c भागीदार or भागीलदार c A partner, an associate in a joint concern. 2 A sharer or partaker; a shareholder.

DAng ‘hill range’ rebus: dhangar ‘blacksmith’ PLUS kuThara ‘crucible’ rebus: kuThAru ‘armourer’

Vedi in Vedisa: vedi ‘fire-altar’ rebus: vetai ‘alchemy, transmutation of base metals into precious metals’ vedha ‘pierced hole’ rebus: vedi ‘fire-altar’ वेदिका f. a sacrificial ground , altar VarBr2S

kulyA ‘hood of snake’ rebus: kol ‘working in iron’ kolle ‘blacksmith’ kolhe ‘smelter’ nAga ‘snake’ rebus: nAga ‘lead (ore)’.eraka ‘knave of wheel’ rebus: eraka ‘moltencast, copper’

poLa ‘zebu’ rebus: poLa ‘magnetite ore’

tAmarasa ‘lotus’ rebus: tAmra ‘copper’

kANDa ‘water’ rebus: khaNDa ‘metal implements’

gaNDa ‘four’ rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’ (see Ujjain symbol)

kariba ‘elephant trunk’ ibha ‘elephant’ rebus: karb ‘iron’ ib ‘iron’ kanga ‘brazier’ sangaḍa ‘brazier’ rebus: kanka ‘gold’ karNI ‘supercargo’ kammaṭamu 'portable goldsmith's furnace' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

kuTi ‘tree’ rebus: kuThi ‘smelter’ kuThara ‘crucible’ rebus: kuThAru ‘armourer’ koThAri ‘warehouse’ dhAv ‘strand of rope’ rebus: dhAtu ‘ore’ kandit ‘bead’ rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’.

Tree shown on a tablet from Harappa. kuTi 'tree' Rebus: kuThi 'smelter'. In semantic expansion, tree as hieroglyph also signifies an armourer. कुठारु [p= 289,1]  ‘a tree, a monkey, an armourer’ (Monier-Williams)

“Vidisha, Sanchi and Udayagiri complex, together with Dhar, Mandu and Eran, all in Madhya Pradesh, have yielded ancient metallic objects (exemplified by the Delhi iron pillar)…”  http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/12-14/features3372.htm

Indus script hieroglyphs: karaDi ‘safflower’ rebus: karaDa ‘hard alloy’; poLa ‘zebu’ rebus: poLa ‘magnetite’; jasta ‘svastika’ rebus: sattva ‘zinc, spelter’ kariba ‘trunk of elephant’ ibha ‘elephant’ rebus: karb ‘iron’ ib ‘iron’; kuTi ‘tree’ rebus: kuThi ‘smelter’ sangaDa ‘brazier, standard device’ rebus: sangaTas ‘collection of implemnts’ dhAV ‘ strand of rope, dotted circle’ rebus: dhavaD ‘smelter’; dhAtu ‘mineral ore’; kANDa ‘water’ rebus: khaNDa ‘implements’. Infixed within the ‘standard device’ is a ‘twist’ hieroglyph: meDha ‘twist’ rebus: meD ‘iron’ med ‘copper’ (Slavic)

Billon drachm of the Indo-Hephthalite King Napki Malka(Afghanistan/Gandhara, c. 475–576). Obverse shows a fire altar with a spoked wheel on the left kanda ‘fire-altar’ eraka ‘knave of wheel’ rebus: eraka ‘moltencast, copper’. Eraka! this is the source for the name of Erakina. Eraka is also the appellation of Subrahmanya in Swamimalai, a place renowned for cire perdue castings of pancaloha murti-s and utsava bera-s. Eraka is an emphatic semantic indicator of copper metalwork and metalcastings.

We have been that a Mihirakula coin showed a fire-altar. Toramana’s coins are also found in plenty in Kashmir. (J F Fleet, Coins and history ofToramana, IA,1889 26.) See:  “Notes on the Yuezhi – Kushan Relationship and Kushan Chronology”, by Hans Loeschner. Journal of Oriental Numismatic Society 2008, p.19

Erakina has a fort in ruins attributed to the Dangis who are kshatriyarajput,  in Bundelkhand region, Rajasthanand spread across the statesMadhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana(in Haryana and Panjab they are called kshatriya Jat) , Gujarat, Uttrakhand,Maharashtra,Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Punjab, and Nepal. Dangi is a dialect of Braj Bhasha.

Eran was a coin-minting centre. Semi-circle on Eran coins may have signified a crucible: kuThAra ‘crucible’ Rebus: kuThAri ‘warehouse keeper’ kuThAru ‘armourer’.

Eran was on the Bharruch (Bhragu Kachha), Ujjain to Kaushambi, Mathura, Taxishila trade route.

Eran-Vidisha AE 1/2 karshapana, Bhumidata, six punch type

Weight:  5.10 gm., Dimensions: 21x21 mm.
Railed tree in centre; elephant on left and railed Indradhvaja on right;
     river at the bottom; on top right taurine in fixed railing and on top left legend
     punch reading rajno bhumidatasa
Blank reverse
Reference: S. Tiwari collection, p. 196, var.3 / Pieper 489 (plate coin)

Orthography of the 'dotted circle' is representation of a single strand:dhāu rebus: dhāū 'red stone minerals. 

It is this signifier which occurs in the orthography of the dotted circle hieroglyph-multiplex on early punch-marked coins of Magadha -- a proclamation of the dhāū 'element, mineral ores' used in the Magadha mint. On one Silver Satamana punch-marked coin of Gandhara septa-radiate or, seven strands emerge from the dotted circle signifying the use in the mint of सप्त--धातु 'seven mineral ores'.

The 'dot' within the circle is a signifier of a mineral dhāū ingot खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'

A triskelion hieroglyph of Kuntala punchmarked coins can be signifiers of त्रि धातु 'three minerals'. The endings of the triskelion are curved like crucibles holding 'dots' or ingots. koṭhārī ʻ crucible ʼ (Old Punjabi) rebus: koṭhari 'chamber' (oriya) koṭṭhāgāra ʻstorehouse' (Prakrtam) खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'

The hieroglyphs which accompany such meaningful Indus Script cipher orthographs read rebus in Old Prakrtam are also metalwork catalogues:

Magadha. Silver Karshapana. c. 5th-4th century BCE

Weight: 3.37 gm., Dim: 21 x 22 mm.
Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others, plus a banker's mark /
Blank
Ref:  GH 249.

arka 'sun' rebus: arka,'copper' eraka 'moltencast copper'

मेढा [mēḍhā] Atwist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl rebus:  mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu. Ho.) mRdu id. (Samskrtam)

kaṇḍa, 'arrow' rebus: 'implements/sword'

kariba 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron'

पोळ pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (ferrite ore)'

khambhaṛā 'fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'coiner, coinage, mint' aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal'

Six dots above crucilbe+ ingot: baTa 'six' rebus: baTa 'iron' bhaTa 'furnace' koṭhārī ʻ crucible ʼ (Old Punjabi) rebus: koṭhari 'chamber' (oriya) koṭṭhāgāra ʻstorehouse' (Prakrtam) PLUS खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'

 Sixth hieroglyph from left:kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'.

Ref:  Rajgor, 502-509. Kuntala janapada Punch-marked coin 450 BCE.  Two angular shaped parallel lines having solid dot on the head connect to the circle. This addition indicates that a sun is not signified by the dotted circle. There is a A triskelion or triskele (which invariably has rotational symmetry) a motif consisting of three interlocked spirals between the two solid dots.

Hieroglyph: two chains with rings: śã̄gal, śã̄gaḍ ʻchainʼ (WPah.) śr̥ṅkhala m.n. ʻ chain ʼ MārkP., °lā -- f. VarBr̥S., śr̥ṅkhalaka -- m. ʻ chain ʼ MW., ʻ chained camel ʼ Pāṇ. [Similar ending in mḗkhalā -- ]Pa. saṅkhalā -- , °likā -- f. ʻ chain ʼ; Pk. saṁkala -- m.n., °lā -- , °lī -- , °liā -- , saṁkhalā -- , siṁkh°, siṁkalā -- f. ʻ chainʼ Rebus: Vajra Sanghāta 'binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue. (Allograph) Hieroglyph: sãghāṛɔ 'lathe'.(Gujarati) See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/03/metallurgy-alloying-competence-chain.html?view=magazine

Magadha. Silver karshapana. c. 5th-4th century BCEWeight: 3.07 gm., Dim: 14 x 21 mm.
Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others /
Banker's marks
Ref:  GH 463.
 Zebu over a hill: Ta. meṭṭu mound, heap of earth; mēṭu height, eminence, hillock; muṭṭu rising ground, high ground, heap. Ma. mēṭu rising ground, hillock; māṭu hillock, raised ground; miṭṭāl rising ground, an alluvial bank; (Tiyya) maṭṭa hill. Ka. mēḍu height, rising ground, hillock; miṭṭu rising or high ground, hill; miṭṭe state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) muṭṭe heap (as of straw). Tu. miṭṭè prominent, protruding; muṭṭe heap. Te. meṭṭa raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meṭṭumound; miṭṭa high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mēṭu, mēṭa, mēṭi stack of hay; (Inscr.) meṇṭa-cēnu dry field (cf. meṭṭu-nēla, meṭṭu-vari). Kol. (SR.) meṭṭā hill; (Kin.) meṭṭ, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. meṭṭ hill, mountain. Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) meṭṭa high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) maṭṭā, (Mu.)maṭṭa mountain; (M. L.) meṭā id., hill; (A. D. Ko.) meṭṭa, (Y. Ma. M.) meṭa hill; (SR.) meṭṭā hillock (Voc. 2949). Konḍa meṭa id. Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) meṭa sand hill. (DEDR 5058) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu. Ho.) mRdu id. (Samskrtam) Thus the nature of the ferrous ore is reinforced phonetically, as a ferrous (iron) ore.

Vidarbha janapada. Silver 1/3 karshapana

c. 5th century BCEFour punches / Blank
Weight: 1.21 gm., Dim: 16 x 16 mm.
Ref:  Rajgor 27 var

Mauryan empire. Silver karshapana
c. 4th-2nd century BCEWeight: 3.19 gm., Dim: 16 x 17 mm.
Ref:  GH 477.

Many so-called 'megalithic symbols' on ancient artifacts -- particularly punch-marked coins from Gandhara, Magadha, Maurya mints from ca. 6th century BCE (perhaps earlier, ca. 12th century BCE -- pace DK Chakrabarti's opinion) -- in Indian sprachbund of Bronze Age should be read as Indus Script cipher metalwork catalogues in Prakritam (Mleccha/Meluhha, the lingua franca).

dhamaka is blacksmith; dhammiya is righteous. The same gloss becomes the dominant hieroglyph on Nandipada, Srivatsa hieroglyph multiplex layers, a celebration of dharma-dhamma order.

It is possible to explain the so-called taurine, nandipada and srivatsa symbols as Indus script hieroglyph multiplexes read rebus in Prakritam (Mleccha-Meluhha).

Hieroglyph: kuṭi  in cmpd.‘curve' (CDIAL 3231).  kuṭilá ʻ bent, crooked ʼ KātyŚr., °aka -- Pañcat., n. ʻ a partic. plant ʼ lex. [√kuṭ1]Pa. kuṭila -- ʻ bent ʼ, n. ʻ bend ʼ; Pk. kuḍila -- ʻ crooked ʼ, °illa -- ʻ humpbacked ʼ, °illaya -- ʻ bent ʼ(CDIAL 3231)  कुटिल a [p= 288,2] mf(आ)n. bent , crooked , curved , round , running in curved lines , crisped , curled Ka1tyS3r. MBh.&c; n. tin W. (Monier-Williams)

Rebus: kuṭi ‘smelter furnace’ (Santali) kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin)(CDIAL 3230). [cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass' (Samskritam)

Hieroglyph 1: dhánvan1 n. ʻ bow ʼ RV. [dhánus -- ]Pa. daḷha -- dhamma -- ʻ having a strong bow ʼ (< dṛḍhadhanvan -- MBh.); Pk. dhamma -- m. ʻ bow ʼ; Kal.rumb. thum, urt. thām ʻ bow ʼ (th -- due to Ir. influence, cf. Av.qanvarə ʻ bow ʼ?).(CDIAL 6728) Rebus: dhárma m. ʻ what is established, law, duty, right ʼ AV. [dhárman -- n. RV. -- √dhr̥]Pa. dhamma -- m. (rarely n.), Aś.shah. man. dhrama -- , gir. kāl. &c. dhaṁma -- ; NiDoc. dham̄a ʻ employment in the royal administration ʼ; Dhp.dharma -- , dhama -- , Pk. dhamma -- m.; OB. dhāma ʻ religious conduct ʼ; H. kāmdhām ʻ work, business ʼ; OSi. dama ʻ religion ʼ (Si. daham ← Pa.).(CDIAL 6753) dharmin ʻ pious, just ʼ Gaut. [dhárma -- ]Pa. dhammika -- ʻ righteous ʼ; NiDoc. dharmiyas̱a gen. sg. ʻ title of a king ʼ; Pk. dhammi -- , °ia -- ʻ righteous ʼ (dhamma -- < dharmya -- , cf. Pa.dhammiya -- , or < dhārmá -- ); Paš.ar. dräm ʻ friend ʼ; Si. dämi ʻ righteous ʼ.(CDIAL 6762)

Hieroglyph 2: kamaDha 'bow' Rebus: kampaTTa 'mint' 

Normally, there are 5 hieroglyphs on punch-marked coins:

Hieroglyphs 3, 4 and 5 are: elephant, bull, bird, peacock, fish, crocodile, spoked wheel, bow and arrow, All these are Indus Script hieroglyphs and continue to be deployed on punch-marked coins to signify metalwork.

Hieroglyph: karibha 'trunk of elephant'; ibha 'elephant' Rebus: karba 'iron' (Tulu)

Hieroglyph: barad, barat 'bull' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c. भरताचें भांडें (p. 603) [ bharatācē mbhāṇḍēṃ ] n A vessel made of the metal भरत. 2 See भरिताचें भांडें.भरती (p. 603) [ bharatī ] a Composed of the metal भरत.(Marathi)

Hieroglyph: कारंडव (p. 159) [ kāraṇḍava ] m S A drake or sort of duck. कारंडवी f S The female. Rebus: करडा (p. 137) [ karaḍā ]  Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi)

Hieroglyph: maraka 'peacock' Rebus: marakaka loha'copper alloy, calcining metal'. Rebus: लोह lōha मारक a. calcining a metal (Samskritam)

aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron, metal' (Gujarati. Rigveda)

karA, ghariyAl 'crocodile' Rebus: khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü -ब&above;ठू&below; । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy-बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru -द्वकुरु‍&below; । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji -ग&above;जि&below;or -güjü -ग&above;जू&below; । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü -हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü -कूरू‍&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu -क&above;टु&below; । लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü -क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 -म्य&above;च&dotbelow;ू&below; । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3] ), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu -न्यचिवु&below; । लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun] ), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -च्&dotbelow;ञ । लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil. (Kashmiri)

Hieroglyph:  eraka 'nave of wheel' Rebus: eraka 'copper molten cast'. Hieroglyph:  arā (nave, spokes) Rebus: arA 'brass' as in ArakUTa आर--कूट [p= 149,2] m. n. a kind of brass. (Monier-Williams)

Taurine (hieroglyph multiplex: bent oval or kernel or seed PLUS crucible as superscript). The encircling dots around the hieroglyph multiplex signifies khōṭa 'alloy ingots.'

goṭi, ‘silver, laterite’ are signified by goṭa, ‘seed’ hieroglyph.

Hieroglyph: seed, something round: *gōṭṭa ʻ something round ʼ. [Cf. guḍá -- 1. -- In sense ʻ fruit, kernel ʼ cert. ← Drav., cf. Tam. koṭṭai ʻ nut, kernel ʼ, Kan. goṟaṭe &c. listed DED 1722]K. goṭh f., dat. °ṭi f. ʻ chequer or chess or dice board ʼ; S. g̠oṭu m. ʻ large ball of tobacco ready for hookah ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; P. goṭ f. ʻ spool on which gold or silver wire is wound, piece on a chequer board ʼ; N. goṭo ʻ piece ʼ, goṭi ʻ chess piece ʼ; A. goṭ ʻ a fruit, whole piece ʼ, °ṭā ʻ globular, solid ʼ, guṭi ʻ small ball, seed, kernel ʼ; B. goṭā ʻ seed, bean, whole ʼ; Or. goṭā ʻ whole, undivided ʼ, goṭi ʻ small ball, cocoon ʼ, goṭāli ʻ small round piece of chalk ʼ; Bi. goṭā ʻ seed ʼ; Mth. goṭa ʻ numerative particle ʼ; H. goṭf. ʻ piece (at chess &c.) ʼ; G. goṭ m. ʻ cloud of smoke ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ kernel of coconut, nosegay ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ lump of silver, clot of blood ʼ, °ṭilɔ m. ʻ hard ball of cloth ʼ; M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ a marble ʼ, goṭuḷā ʻ spherical ʼ; Si. guṭiya ʻ lump, ball ʼ; -- prob. also P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H. goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ.*gōḍḍ -- ʻ dig ʼ see *khōdd -- .Addenda: *gōṭṭa -- : also Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271) Ta. koṭṭai seed of any kind not enclosed in chaff or husk, nut, stone, kernel; testicles; (RS, p. 142, items 200, 201) koṭṭāṅkacci, koṭṭācci coconut shell. Ma. koṭṭakernel of fruit, particularly of coconut, castor-oil seed; kuṟaṭṭa, kuraṭṭa kernel; kuraṇṭi stone of palmfruit. Ko. keṭ testes; scrotum. Ka. koṭṭe, goṟaṭe stone or kernel of fruit, esp. of mangoes; goṭṭa mango stone. Koḍ. koraṇḍi id. Tu. koṭṭè kernel of a nut, testicles; koṭṭañji a fruit without flesh; koṭṭayi a dried areca-nut; koraṇtu kernel or stone of fruit, cashew-nut; goṭṭu kernel of a nut as coconut, almond, castor-oil seed. Te. kuriḍī dried whole kernel of coconut. Kol. (Kin.) goṛva stone of fruit. Nk. goṛage stone of fruit. Kur. 

goṭā any seed which forms inside a fruit or shell. Malt. goṭa a seed or berry. / Cf. words meaning 'fruit, kernel, seed' in Turner, CDIAL, no. 4271 (so noted by Turner).(DEDR 2069) Rebus: khōṭa 'alloy ingot' (Marathi)

Hieroglyph multiplex: koṭhārī f. ʻcrucible' PLUS khōṭa 'alloy ingot', kuṭi  in cmpd.‘curve' Rebus:kuṭhi'smelter' Rebus: koṭhārī ʻ treasurer ʼ

Hierolyphs 1 and 2 are: sun and six-armed hieroglyph multiplex.

Hieroglyph: arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc] Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624) अर्क [p=89,1]m. ( √ अर्च्) , Ved. a ray , flash of lightning RV. &cthe sun RV. &cfire RV. ix , 50 , 4 S3Br. Br2A1rUp.

Rebus: cast metal, metal infusion: arka copper L. Ka. eṟe to pour any liquids, cast (as metal);n. pouring; eṟacu, ercu to scoop, sprinkle, scatter, strew, sow; eṟaka, eraka any metal infusion; molten state, fusion. Tu. eraka molten, cast (as metal); eraguni to melt.(DEDR 866)

 kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Hieroglyph: kuṭilá ʻbent, crookedʼ Rebus 1: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) Hieroglyph:goṭa a seed or berry. Rebus 2: khōṭa 'alloy ingot' (Marathi)

kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' Hieroglyph: kāˊṇḍa (kāṇḍá -- TS.) m.n. ʻ single joint of a plant ʼ AV., ʻ arrow ʼ MBh., ʻ cluster, heap ʼ (in tr̥ṇa -- kāṇḍa -- Pāṇ. Kāś.). [Poss. connexion with gaṇḍa -- 2makes prob. non -- Aryan origin (not with P. Tedesco Language 22, 190 < kr̥ntáti). Prob. ← Drav., cf. Tam. kaṇ ʻ joint of bamboo or sugarcane ʼ EWA i 197]

Pa. kaṇḍa -- m.n. ʻ joint of stalk, stalk, arrow, lump ʼ; Pk. kaṁḍa -- , °aya -- m.n. ʻ knot of bough, bough, stick ʼ; Ash. kaṇ ʻ arrow ʼ, Kt. kåṇ, Wg. kāṇ, kŕãdotdot;, Pr. kə̃, Dm. kā̆n; Paš. lauṛ. kāṇḍ, kāṇ, ar. kōṇ, kuṛ. kō̃, dar. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, kã̄ṛī ʻ torch ʼ; Shum. kō̃ṛ, kō̃ ʻ arrow ʼ, Gaw. kāṇḍ, kāṇ; Kho. kan ʻ tree, large bush ʼ; Bshk. kāˋ'n ʻ arrow ʼ, Tor. kan m., Sv. kã̄ṛa, Phal. kōṇ, Sh. gil. kōn f. (→ Ḍ. kōn, pl. kāna f.), pales. kōṇ; K. kã̄ḍ m. ʻ stalk of a reed, straw ʼ (kān m. ʻ arrow ʼ ← Sh.?); S. kānu m. ʻ arrow ʼ, °no m. ʻ reed ʼ, °nī f. ʻ topmost joint of the reed Sara, reed pen, stalk, straw, porcupine's quill ʼ; L. kānã̄ m. ʻ stalk of the reed Sara ʼ, °nī˜ f. ʻ pen, small spear ʼ; P. kānnā m. ʻ the reed Saccharum munja, reed in a weaver's warp ʼ, kānī f. ʻ arrow ʼ; WPah. bhal. kān n. ʻ arrow ʼ, jaun. kã̄ḍ; N. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, °ṛo ʻ rafter ʼ; A. kã̄r ʻ arrow ʼ; B. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ,°ṛā ʻ oil vessel made of bamboo joint, needle of bamboo for netting ʼ, kẽṛiyā ʻ wooden or earthen vessel for oil &c. ʼ; Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻ stalk, arrow ʼ; Bi. kã̄ṛā ʻ stem of muñja grass (used for thatching) ʼ; Mth. kã̄ṛ ʻ stack of stalks of large millet ʼ, kã̄ṛī ʻ wooden milkpail ʼ; Bhoj. kaṇḍā ʻ reeds ʼ; H. kã̄ṛī f. ʻ rafter, yoke ʼ, kaṇḍā m. ʻ reed, bush ʼ (← EP.?); G. kã̄ḍ m. ʻ joint, bough, arrow ʼ, °ḍũ n. ʻ wrist ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ joint, bough, arrow, lucifer match ʼ; M. kã̄ḍ n. ʻ trunk, stem ʼ, °ḍẽ n. ʻ joint, knot, stem, straw ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ joint of sugarcane, shoot of root (of ginger, &c.) ʼ; Si. kaḍaya ʻ arrow ʼ. -- Deriv. A. kāriyāiba ʻ to shoot with an arrow ʼ.kāˊṇḍīra -- ; *kāṇḍakara -- , *kāṇḍārā -- ; *dēhīkāṇḍa -- Add.Addenda: kāˊṇḍa -- [< IE. *kondo -- , Gk. kondu/los ʻ knuckle ʼ, ko/ndos ʻ ankle ʼ T. Burrow BSOAS xxxviii 55]S.kcch. kāṇḍī f. ʻ lucifer match ʼ? (CDIAL 3023) *kāṇḍakara ʻ worker with reeds or arrows ʼ. [kāˊṇḍa -- , kará -- 1]L. kanērā m. ʻ mat -- maker ʼ; H. kãḍerā m. ʻ a caste of bow -- and arrow -- makers ʼ.(CDIAL 3024) Rebus: लोखंडकाम (p. 723) [ lōkhaṇḍakāma ] n Iron work; that portion (of a building, machine &c.) which consists of iron. 2 The business of an ironsmith.लोहोलोखंड (p. 723) [ lōhōlōkhaṇḍa ] n (लोह & लोखंड) Iron tools, vessels, or articles in general. khāṇḍa 'tools, metalware'.

http://coins.lakdiva.org/codrington/images/CCC_006.jpg karibha 'elephant trunk' (Pali) rebus: karba 'iron' Dhanga 'mountain range' rebus: Dhangar 'blacksmith'. sal 'two' rebus: sal 'workshop' aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron, metal' (Rigveda. Gujarat).

Decipherment of Indus Script Hypertexts on Ancient Indian Silver punch-marked mint coins, signifying wealth accounting ledgers of vajra & other metalwork

May 24, 2018, 6:24 pm

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https://tinyurl.com/y6vmg2mx

This monograph is an addendum to: 

Arthaśāstra wealth categories & Money economy of kārṣāpaṇa (Pāṇini, ANE and Indian standard), are a continuum of Indus Script Cipher tradition https://tinyurl.com/ycdjr8b9

vajra is a thunderbolt weapon of Indra (R̥gveda) Indus Script hypertexts signify vajra as a षट्--कोण 'a six-angled orthograph'  to describe the armourers' metalwork catalogues of metal weapons (including vajra, 'thunderbolt weapon').

The symbols used on ancient Punchmarked coins are a celebration of the metalwork devices and resources used by mintworkers and metalworkers of Sarasvati Civilization. For example, the hieroglyph/hypertext of sun's rays is a sacred symbol used in Indus Script Corpora. A symbol comparable to Mohenjodaro hieroglyph on seal m428 is used as the first symbol on Ancient Indian Silver Punchmarked coins.

M428 Mohenjo-daro. Sun, Sun's rays. Decipherment of Indus Script Hypertext: arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper, gold' eraka 'moltencast'

Version of the ancient star/Sun symbol of Shamash 

'Sun' in 'four quadrants', painted on faiz Mohammad style grey ware from Mehrgarh, period VI (c. 3000-2900 BCE), Kacchi plain, Pakistan. After C. Jarrige et al., 1995, Mehrgarh Field Reports 1974-1985: From neolithic times to the Indus civilization, Karachi: Sind Culture Department: 160.

Seal from Rahman  Dheri with the motif of 'rays around concentric circles'. After Durrani, FA, et al., 1994-95, Seals and inscribed sherds in: Excavations in the Gomal valley: Rehman Dheri report No.2 ed. Taj Ali. Ancient Pakistan 10, Peshawar: Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar: Pp. 198-223.

 

Indus Script hypertexts signify sun's rays on a seal arka'sun' rebus: arka'copper, gold' eraka 'moltencast'

Shamash (Akkadian: Šamaš ^dUD 𒀭𒌓) was the solar deity in ancient Semitic religion, corresponding to the Sumeriangod Utu. Shamash was also the god of justice in Babylonia and Assyria.

Akkadian šamaš "Sun" is cognate to Phoenician: 𐤔𐤌𐤔 šmš, Classical Syriac: ܫܡܫܐ‎ šemša, Hebrew: שֶׁמֶשׁ‎ šemeš and Arabic: شمس‎ šams.

Conate semantics in Veda culture are: षष् num. a. (used in pl., nom. षट्; gen. षण्णाम्) Six; तेषां त्ववयवान् सूक्ष्मान् षण्णामप्यमितौजसाम् Ms.1.16;8.43. अशीतिः f. (-ष़डशीतिः) 1 eighty-six. -2 N. of the four passages of the sun from one zodiacal sign to the other. शोषयित्नुः [शुष्-इत्नुच् Uṇ.3.29] The sun.शोषिणी Ether. Fire; शुचि a. [शुच्-कि] 1 Clean, pure, clear; the sun शुचीनां हृदयं शुचिः Mb.12.193.18. शाश्वत a. (-ती f.) 1 [शश्वद् भवः अण्] 1 Eternal, per- petual, everlasting; शाश्वतीः समाः Rām.1.2.15 (= U.2. 5) 'for eternal years', 'ever more', 'for all time to come'; श्रेयसे शाश्वतो देवो वराहः परिकल्पताम् U.5.27 (v. l.); R.14.14. -2 All. -तः 1 N. of Śiva. -2 Of Vyāsa. -3 The sun. 

Decipherment of Indus Script inscriptions on 854 Indian Silver Punch-marked coins of 36 late hoards -- of mints from Al Khanoum to Amaravati (Map Fig. 1). 

An average cluster of five Indus Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts are signified on each inscription. 

The number of such distinct clusters is 16. These 16 clusters are listed in Errington Plates 19 to 23 and are deciphered in this monograph. P.L.Gupta and TR Hardaker, Ancient Indian Punchmarked Coins of the Magadha-Maurya Kārṣāpaṇa Series (Nasik, 1985), cited as Gupta and Hardaker or GH. 

A variant of six-arms of Gandhara Punchmarked coins shows six ladles emerging from the central, dotted circle:

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two different symbols. The 'dot' between two arms between 3 o'clock and 4 o'clock signifies an Indus Script Hypertext: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'.

Long concave silver bar, 33mm long, 12mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each end. 11.5 grams. Rajgor unlisted. This particular piece has two DIFFERENT punches - something that seems to be unpublished for these shatamanas (the published examples always depict an identical symbol struck on both ends of the piece). This coin is of numismatic significance, suggesting that different punches were employed in Gandhara at the same time.(Image courtesy ACC) "Kārshāpaṇas were basically silver pieces stamped with one to five or six rūpas ('symbols') originally only on the obverse side of the coins initially issued by the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas, and generally carried minute mark or marks to testify their legitimacy. Silver punch-marked coins ceased to be minted sometime in the second century BCE but exerted a wide influence for next five centuries." (Parmeshwari Lal Gupta. Coins, National Book Trust. pp. 7–11.) 

Vajra set

Count of six in numeration is a significant hypertext: baṭa 'six' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'. Thus, six arms or six ladles are read as: baṭa muka 'six ladles'rebus: muhã bhaṭa 'ingot furnace'. This is further semantically elucidated as षट्--कोण n. a six-angled figure (रामतापनीय-उपनिषद्; पञ्चरात्र)n. the thunderbolt of इन्द्र; synonym:  वज्र mn. " the hard or mighty one " , a thunderbolt (esp. that of इन्द्र , said to have been formed out of the bones of the ऋषि दधीच or दधीचि [q.v.] , and shaped like a circular discus , or in later times regarded as having the form of two transverse bolts crossing each other thus x ; sometimes also applied to similar weapons used by various gods or superhuman beings , or to any mythical weapon destructive of spells or charms , also to मन्यु , " wrath " RV. or [with अपाम्] to a jet of water AV. &c ; also applied to a thunderbolt in general or to the lightning evolved from the centrifugal energy of the circular thunderbolt of इन्द्र when launched at a foe ; in Northern Buddhist countries it is shaped like a dumb-bell and called Dorje ; » MWB. 201 ; 322&c )(R̥gveda etc.)

Each of the six arms on the hypertext is read as: muka, moghā 'ladle' (Tamil.Marathi)(DEDR 4887) rebus: mũh, muhã'ingot' or muhã'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.'.Ta. muka (-pp-, -nt-) ladle; mukai large earthen vessel; mō (-pp-, -nt-) to take in a vessel (as water). Ko. mu·g clay pot in which cows are milked by priests at milk-ceremony. To. mu· the most sacred dairy-vessel; aḍy mu· earthen vessel with various dairy uses, including that of fetching water from the stream. Ka. moge to ladle out (any fluid with a small vessel out of a larger one), scoop, bale; n. state of (water) being sufficient to be taken (out of a pond, etc.); moge, mage, magi small earthen vessel for ladling out; (K.2) mogape a vessel for lifting water. Tu. mugè, mugayi small earthen vessel; mogēre fisherman; muggerů a Malayalam fisherman; magapuni to draw and turn over; nīrů m. to draw water (or with 4617 Ta. makiṭi). / Cf. Mar. moghā a kind of vessel (used on water-wheels, etc.)(DEDR 4887)

Vajra set of Indus Script hypertexts on Ancient Indian Coins

The following pair of Indus Script hypertexts are common in the 5/6 set of hypertexts signified as 'punch-marks' on ancient Indian Silver Punchmarked coins. This may be calledthe 'Vajra set' of manufactories in ancient mints.

Hypertext 1: arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper metal'; Hypertext 2: dhã̄i 'strand, (dot =) throw of one in dice ' rebus: dhã̄i 'mineral' PLUS vaṭa 'string, circle'; together rebus:dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter';  aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver' PLUS kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa 'metalware'. Thus, the hypertext signifies a smelter of mint (working with) silver ingots, iron, minerals, metal casting. The hypertext is signified in quadruplicate: gaṇḍa 'four' Rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar', kaṇḍa 'metalware'.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore'; Hypertext 4:  ara 'spoke' rebus: ara 'brass'. era, er-a = eraka = ?nave rebus: eraka 'molten cast'; Hypertext 5:  aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'.Thus, the hypertext signifies iron, metal casting mint, working with silver ingots.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'; Hypertext 4: kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa 'metalware'; aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'; Hypertext 5:  baṭa'rimless pot' rebus: baṭa'iron', bhaṭa 'furnace'. 

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: kharā 'hare' rebus: khār 'blacksmith'PLUS aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver';Hieroglyph 4: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa 'metalware';  Hieroglyph 5: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' 

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore'; Hypertext 4: dhã̄i 'strand, (dot =) throw of one in dice ' rebus: dhã̄i 'mineral' PLUS baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: baṭa 'iron', bhaṭa 'furnace'; Hypertext 5: dhã̄i 'strand, (dot =) throw of one in dice ' rebus: dhã̄i 'mineral' PLUS vaṭa 'string, circle'; together rebus:dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter' PLUS aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore'; Hypertext 4: dhanga'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'; Hypertext 5: dhã̄i 'strand, (dot =) throw of one in dice ' rebus: dhã̄i 'mineral' PLUS vaṭa 'string, circle'; together rebus:dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter' PLUS aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'; Hypertext 4:  kassa kamaṭha'turtle' rebus: karṣa'weight of gold, wealth' PLUS kammaṭa'mint, coiner, coinage'; Hypertext 5: dhã̄i 'strand, (dot =) throw of one in dice ' rebus: dhã̄i 'mineral' PLUS  gaṇḍa 'four' Rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar'.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'; Hypertext 4: पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore'; Hieroglyph 5: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' 

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: kharā 'hare' rebus: khār 'blacksmith'; Hypertext 4: पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore'; Hieroglyph 5: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS (fish-fins infixed in a circle):  dhã̄i 'strand, (dot =) throw of one in dice ' rebus: dhã̄i 'mineral' PLUS vaṭa 'string, circle'; together rebus:dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter'.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith';Hypertext 4 ladle: muka, moghā 'ladle' (Tamil.Marathi)(DEDR 4887) rebus: mũh, muhã 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.' Hieroglyph 5: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS (fish-fins infixed in a circle):  dhã̄i 'strand, (dot =) throw of one in dice ' rebus: dhã̄i 'mineral' PLUS vaṭa 'string, circle'; together rebus:dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter'.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'; Hypertext 4: tulā 'scaleyard balance' PLUS kharā 'hare' rebus: khār 'blacksmith' PLUS dhã̄i 'strand, (dot =) throw of one in dice ' rebus: dhã̄i 'mineral' PLUS vaṭa 'string, circle'; together rebus:dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter' PLUS aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'; Hypertext 5: kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'.

Roman steelyard balance from Pompeii 

After Fig. 3& 4 in Km. Vijya Lakshmi Sharma and HC Bhardwaj, 1989, Weighing devices in ancient India in: Indian Journal of History of Science, 24(4): 329-336, p. 331 http://insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol24_4_7_VLSharma.pdf

After Km. Vijya Lakshmi Sharma and HC Bhardwaj, 1989, Weighing devices in ancient India in: Indian Journal of History of Science, 24(4): 329-336, p. 331 http://insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol24_4_7_VLSharma.pdf “The idea of invention of steel yard balance is generally attributed to the Romans,but this credit should rather be given to the Indians because in India, its earliest evidence can be traced back to fourth century BCE and its regular use can be seen from this period onwards…Taking literary and numismatic evidences together, there looks to be a fair chance of Indian priority in origin and its early diffusion to East (China) and West (Rome).” (ibid., p.336)

[tula'balance' N. of a measure (= 100 पलs) MBh. iii , xiv वराह-मिहिर 's बृहत्-संहिता; सुश्रुत; अष्टाङ्ग-हृदय;शार्ङ्गधर-संहिता i , 31); a balance , weight VS. xxx S3Br. xi Mn. &c (°लया धृ or °लां with Caus. of अधिरुह् , " to hold in or put on a balance , weigh , compare " ; °लां with Caus. of अधि-रुह् , " to risk " Pan5cat. i , 16 , 9 ; °लाम् अधि- or आ- or सम्-ा-रुह् , " to be in a balance " , be equal with [instr.] ; the balance as an ordeal Ya1jn5. ii Mr2icch. ix , 43); equal measure , equality , resemblance Ragh. &c (°लाम् इ or गम् or आ-या or आ-लम्ब् or धा , " to resemble any one or anything " [instr. or in comp.] ; °लां न भृ , " to have no equal " Prasannar. i , 37 ; °लां with Pass. of नी , " to become equal to " [gen.])(Samskrtam) Ancient Greek στατήρ (statḗr), from ἵστημι (hístēmi)]. "According to Mark Schiefsky of Harvard University, the steelyard was in use among Greek craftsmen of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, even before Archimedes demonstrated the law of the lever theoretically." (Simon, Emily (11 October 2007). "Even Without Math, Ancients Engineered Sophisticated Machines". Faculty of Arts & Science, Harvard University.)

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' PLUS पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore'; Hypertext 4: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'; Hieroglyph 5: kūdī'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi'smelter furnace' PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' PLUS पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore'; Hypertext 4: aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'; Hieroglyph 5: kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' PLUS aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hieroglyph 3: kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' PLUS aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'; Hieroglyph 4:  mēḍi plaits of hair' rebus:  medhā 'yajna, nidhi' meḍ 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic); Hieroglyphh 5: koḍe 'young bull' (Telugu) खोंड [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. Rebus: kõdā 'to turn in a lathe' (B.) कोंद kōnda 'engraver, lapidary' kō̃da कोँद 'smelter kiln' PLUS  kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'  

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hieroglyph 3: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' PLUS kuṭhāru'crucible'rebus: kuṭhāru'armourer';Hieroglyph 4: kharā 'hare' rebus: khār 'blacksmith'; Hypertext 5: kariba, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' PLUS aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hieroglyph 3: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' PLUS kuṭhāru 'crucible' rebus: kuṭhāru 'armourer'; Hieroglyph 4: kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace'; Hypertext 5: पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore' PLUS aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'; Hieroglyph 6: A variant of scaleyard balance: tula 'balance' rebus: N. of a measure (= 100 पलs); Hypertext 7: aya 'iron' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS  गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver' PLUS kuṭhāru 'crucible' rebus: kuṭhāru 'armourer'.

Hypertexts 1 and 2: Vajra set. Hypertext 3:  पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu' rebus pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrite ore' PLUS arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper, gold' eraka 'moltencast'; Hieroglyph 4: kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS  ?kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa 'metalware'. Hieroglyph 5: arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper, gold' eraka 'moltencast';

Source: A Survey of Late Hoards of Indian Punch-marked Coins, Numismatic Chronicle 2003, pp. 60-121, plates 18-23.

Ancient Maritime Tin/Silver route. Gandika of Burma (Bawdwin Namtu silver mines), as a source of silver for kārṣāpaṇa of Magadha janapada

May 25, 2018, 8:31 pm

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https://tinyurl.com/y749ag2j

Historians of civilization studies have wrongly assumed that the source of silver ingots used in early Punchmarked coins of Ancient India came from Ancient Near East. I suggest that an important source of tin could be Ancient Far East, in particular the ancient large 'Bawdwin' silver mines of Burma. This source may explain the early silver coins of Magadha Janapada, pre-Mauryan Empire, i.e. prior to 5th cent. BCE.

The Ancient Maritime Tin Route which sourced the tin mineral from the Himalayan river basins of Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong through Brahmaputra, Ganga, Sarasvati, Sindhu rivers, through Persian Gulf may (and along the Indian Ocean Rim) also have sourced the silver which reached Magadha and other Janapada-s of Ancient India. The Ancient Martitime Tin Route is firmly attested by four tin ingots found in a Haifa Shipwreck, with Indus Script inscriptions.

The Ancient Maritime Tin Route of 5th millennium BCE may also be called Ancient Maritime Tin/Silver Route in the context of the Monetary revolution of 1st millennium BCE, promoted by early silver coins as currency medium for trade exchanges.

 See: https://independent.academia.edu/SriniKalyanaraman 1277 monographs (May 2018) Decipherment of inscriptions on tin ingots: ranku 'antelope' ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin' datu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore', muh 'face' rebus: muh 'ingot'. Thus, the inscriptions read: tin mineral ore ingot.

Bawdwin means 'silver mines' in Burmese language. These mines wer possible sources of silver used in early Punchmarked coins of Magadha Janapada. It is notable that the bent bars of silver are wedge-shaped and yield the rebus reading in Indus Script: khũṭā, °ṭi ʻ wooden post, stake, pin, wedge ʼ(Bengali)(CDIAL 3893) rebus:  G. goṭ m. ʻ cloud of smoke ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ kernel of coconut, nosegay ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ lump of silver, clot of blood ʼ, °ṭilɔ m. ʻ hard ball of cloth ʼ; M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ a marble ʼ, goṭuḷā ʻ spherical ʼ; Si. guṭiya ʻ lump, ball ʼ; -- prob. also P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H. goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ. *gōḍḍ -- ʻ dig ʼ see *khōdd -- . Addenda: *gōṭṭa -- : also Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271)

"Prior to the Mauryas, the accepted chronology of Magadha's kings is as follows:
      Haryanaka dynasty
            Bimbisara (545-493 BCE)
            Ajatashatru (493-461 BCE)
            Udayabhadra (461-445 BCE)
            Aniriddha & Munda (445-437 BCE)
            Nagadaska (437-413 BCE)
      Shishunaga dynasty
            Shishunaga (413-395 BCE)
            Kalashoka (395-367 BCE)
            Sons of Kalashoka (367-345 BCE)
      Nanda dynasty
            Mahapadma Nanda (345- ? BCE)
            Sons of Mahapadma Nanda ( ? - 323 BCE)".

http://coinindia.com/galleries-magadha.html

गण्डिका गण्डक a coin of the value of four cowries L.; (ifc.) a mark , spot (?) Bauddham literature.

It is possible that the 'marks, spots' on the following Magadha coin may relate to this rebus reading. गण्डिका 'mark, spot' गण्ड gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar', गण्डिका 'source of silver' (from Bawdwin mines of Burma. The four 'dots' or 'pebbles' on Ujjain coins may also signify a similr rebus reading in Indus Script Cipher.

Ujjain region, punchmarked AE, 'standing Shiva type' Weight: 2.21 gm., Dimensions: 12x11 mm. Standing Shiva; sun; six-armed symbol; three-arched hill 

http://coinindia.com/galleries-ujjain1.html arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper,gold' Hieroglyph: S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773).

Rebus: Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

षट्--कोण [p= 1108,2] 'six-angled'; hexagon; a six-angled figure  Ra1matUp.  Pan5car;  vajra, the thunderbolt of इन्द्र L.. rebus: vajra'thunderbolt weapon'. kāṇḍa 'arrow'

rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements.

On some sculptural friezes, the 'fish-fin' hypertext is ligatured to the tip of the spokes of the wheel emanating

from the dotted circle. This signifies: ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'metal' aya 'iron'.

PLUS  khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Carved in the prayer hall of Bhaja caves. Four 'fish-fin' hypertexts PLUS two चषालः caṣāla with cakra-s, two pine-cones. Thus, a total of eight hypertexts. Mintwork, smelting work, implements production are signified.

Bhaja Chaitya ca. 100 BCE. Two fish-fins are tied together. dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS pine-cone hieroglyph:kanda m. bulbous root (Samskritam) Ash. piċ--kandə ʻ pine ʼ Rebus:lo-khānḍa 'tools, pots and pans, metal-ware'. लोखंड [lōkhaṇḍa ] 'metalwork' Rebus: loh 'copper, iron, metal' (Indian sprachbund, Meluhha). gaNDa 'four' rebus: kanda 'fire-altar' PLUS kandə ʻpine' rebus: kaNDa 'implements'. Thus, the composition of eight hypertexts reads: metalwork, implements, metal mintwork: ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'metal' aya 'iron'

Ligature to 'mintwork' signifier is also shown on the wheel sculptural friezes of Amaravati -- spokes are ligatured on their tips with 'fish-fins' joined together:ayo kammaTa 'iron mintwork' ayo 'fish' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin'.

//Silver 20-mashakas c. 5th century BCE Weight: 4.73 gm., Dim: 27 x 23 mm. Central 6-arm punch, surrounded by three other punches / blank. Ref: MATEC 2780-82.arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper,gold'

kola 'tiger' rebus: kolhe 'smelter' kol 'working in iron' kolle 'blacksmith' kolimi 'smithy, forge'

poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite ferrite ore'

gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'fire-altar' PLUS khoTa 'ingot'.

Certain small ingots of silver whose mark is three circular dots, often known as pulley, represents possibly the earliest form. I suggest that the three dots signify: kolom 'three' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'.

MAGADHA, Nanda dynasty, c. 370-320 BCE, silver karshapana, GH series IVd, #418 http://www.anythinganywhere.com/commerce/coins/coinpics/indi-punch.html arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper,gold''

poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite ferrite ore'

c. 5th-4th century BCE Weight: 3.08 gm., Dim: 26 x 24 mm. Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others, plus banker's marks / Banker's marks. Ref: GH 36. http://coinindia.com/galleries-magadha.html kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' 

मेढ (p. 662) [ mēḍha ] 'polar star' (Marathi) rebus:  mẽṛhet iron (metal), meD 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) mRdu 'iron' (Samskrtam) khoTa 'ingots, wedges'.

The possibility that the Magadha Punchmarked coins used the bent bar silver ingots from Gandika, Burma cannot be ruled out.

http://coincoin.com/I067.htm " Resembling a Hang, or small trough for feeding animals, these long, bowed, rectangular bars called nén bac are a distinctly Vietnamese type of semi-official sycee, which was later produced outside Vietnam as well for use in the opium trade. Today most specimens come to the West via Thailand where they are called Ngern Rong. They were made from the early 1800s reportedly through World War II. Cast mainly from Spanish American 8 Reales, Indian Rupees, and French Indochina Piastres they assay consistently .991 fine. Weights generally range 370-380gm. with a likely standard of 380. Size is typically 110x31x14m except the early class which is longer and thinner. They were made by bankers (silver merchants); when presented to government officials for testing, a fee was paid and Thap (10)Lang and three other "verification stamps" were added. Bars later presented in payment of a standard 10 Lang tax were stamped on obverse (concave side) with three panels of two characters each, giving the reign title, sexagenary date, and province respectively, with a fourth Noi Te if paid at the Capital...The reverse (convex) side shows a hand-etched thâp (ten) with numerous short strokes below representing a crude Lang (Tael, Ounce) at the top of the bar. Though lacking on pieces made 1812-32, according to Thierry, three additional verification stamps were applied in relief. At the top left side (generally) is Công giáp (proper fineness), or sometimes just giáp. At the top right side (generally) is trung bín, a type of scale. The top or bottom end bears a two-character verification stamp, either Thüc khán, (true, certified) during Minh Mang and Thieu Tri, or Khán khán, (examine examine)...  " http://coincoin.com/I067.htm

"A group of four spectacular large Chinese silver ingots.  Total weight about 1.5 kilograms.  Collected in Northern Laos near the China/Burma borders.  These ingots belonged to a former soldier in the Laos army.  Silver ingots of various sizes and weights were used as currency in former Indochine (Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam)." http://www.szentesifineart.com/blog/?p=260

VIETNAM, anonymous, late 19-early 20th c., 5 lang silver bar, MA-4540v, assay stamps on sides, no location named, 187.6g, http://www.anythinganywhere.com/commerce/coins/coinpics/viet-cash.htm

Annam (Burma).

Anonymous silver Bullion Bar ND (19th century) Fine, Known as a curved "Banana Bar" weighing 373 gm. Five characters present indicating the weight and purity.

https://www.numisbids.com/n.php?p=lot&sid=1046&lot=31428

Thabeik silver bowl, Burma (Myanmar), colonial time, late 19th or early 20th century http://www.opiumgewichte.com/index_Silver.htm

weight: 142 g
height: 68 mm / 2.68 in
diameter: approx. 104 mm / 4.09 in

This finely chased repoussé bowl shows the eight animals of the Burmese days of the week, which are Garuda (Sunday), Tiger (Monday), Lion (Tuesday), Tusked Elephant (Wednesday morning), Tuskless Elephant (Wednesday afternoon), Rat (Thursday), Guinea Pig (Friday) and finally Naga (Saturday). Please note the floral scrollwork below the rim and the acanthus leaf band at lo

ttp:

It is possible that such lumps of silver were the bent bars of silver from Burma.

kārṣāpaṇa of Magadha Janapada

Silver bowl. Burma. High-relief repoussé decoration;circa 1890

15 1/2" diameter x 8 1/4" high; 72 oz. The ancient art of Myanmar silver-work dates back to the 13th century.https://www.rauantiques.com/burmese-silver-bowl

Namtu နမၼတူ
Town
Namtu Location in Burma
Coordinates: 23°5′33″N 97°24′4″E
Country	Myanmar
State	Shan State
District	Kyaukme District
Township	Namtu Township
Population (2005)
• Ethnicities	Shan, Palaung
• Religions	Buddhism
Time zone	MST (UTC+6.30)

Namtu (နမၼတူ) is a town situated in northern Shan State, Burma. It is famous for Bawdwin and Namtu silver mines,,,The Namtu Bawdwin Mines were the world's largest source of lead, and one of the world's largest sources of silver before the Second World War. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namtu

Copper hoards (ca. 1100 to 800 BCE) from Gungeria yielded 102 pieces of silver plates along with 424 copper implements. (VA Smith, 1905, Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXIV, p.233 et seq.) Ancient mines of Zawar may have yielded zinc blende argentiferous galena. (Wealth of India, Pt V, CSIR, New Delhi, 1960, p. 133).“In North Burma, Bawdwin mines (Shan States) of argentiferous galena are of special importance.It supplied large quantities of silver and from the slag heaps around these mines, it looks that only silver was extracted and lead was left out. Though,it is primarily a lead-zinc-copper sulphide ore, itsname ‘bawdwin’ (silver mine in Burmese language) indicates that main purpose of its mining was silver extraction...Though, silver has not been reported profusely from archaeological excavations, yet it is known from Harappans, Copper Hoards and punch marked coins and further on. More thorough analysis would be necessary (both of silver objects and the argentiferous ores) before any viable rsults could be obtained. We feel, that there are good chances of rich Bawdwin (Burma) argentiferous galena ore having been smelted for obtaining silver in Ancient India.” (Hans C. Bhardwaj, 1979, Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., Delhi, p.133, p.140)

Dotted circle: pāso ‘die’ (orthography: dotted circle). Rebus: pāśo = a silver ingot; pāśātāṇiyo = one who draws silver into a wire (G.) pāslo = a nugget of gold or silver having the form of a die (G.) 

Triratna? on Taxila coin 185-168 BCE. No, ayo kamma

ṭa'metals mint'. cf. Mahavamsa, XXV, 28, ayo-kammata-dvara, 'iron studded gate " (of a city)'. 

https://tinyurl.com/ycfxxar3

This is an Indus Script hypertext. ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' (Rigveda) khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' Rebus: kammaṭi a coiner (Ka.); kampaṭṭam coinage, coin, mint (Ta.) kammaṭa = mint, gold furnace (Te.)  kamaṭa = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Telugu) PLUS gōṭā  m A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone Rebus: khoTa 'ingot' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS dala 'petal' Rebus: ḍhāḷako = a large ingot (G.) ḍhāḷakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (G.) 

“It is evident that the first coins were minted in India just before 5^th century BCE. Few scholars/historians have suggested that India had her coinage in the 8^th century BCE (much earlier than Lydia/Ionia). The archaeological evidenc reveals that Indians invented coins around 500 to 400 BCE. Panini (500 BCE), in his treatise Ashtadhyayi has written about coins and its fractions: Satamana (sata = 100, mana = units), Nishkas, Sana, Vimsatika, Karshapana. Each unit was called ‘Ratti’ weighing 0.11 gram, a mass of Gunja seed (black tipped bright red seed). Satamana typically weighed 11 gms and Karshapana weighed 32 rattis. It is in 500-600 BCE, silver became abundantly available of which most of it came from Afghanistan and Persia as a result of international trade. Silver for coins were available in three types, namely Tuthatat of Tutha mountain, Gandika from Burma and Kambu from Afghanistan’s Kamboja. Kambu silver was used for earlier coins more than the other two types. Certain small ingots of silver whose mark is three circular dots, often known as pulley, represents possibly the earliest form. The heavy bent bars of silver and copper with heptha radiated symbol stamped on the two ends of concave surface seems to be the next in order. These two categories are computed to  have been in circulation as coins at least as early as 600 BCE. On the other hand, from every ancient Indian sites, from Kabul till the modern Tamilnadu, thousands of pieces of silver alloys have been recovered and they are numismatically known as Punchmarked coins due to the manufacturing techniques used in them. These coins were made of much alloyed silver, not of gold or electrum that were used in Lydian and Ionian coins. The silver in the form of thin sheets were clipped to adjust them into proper weights. These rectangular, square, oval and sometimes curious shaped sheets were then impressed with one to six symbols by means of separate punches mostly on one side. Of these symbols, sun and six-armed wheel are most consistent which leads us to believe that they are the descendants of Surya dynasty (Surya Vamsi). The other varying symbols were probably to guarantee the weight and purity. Until 19^th century, they did not draw much attention, it is only during 1890, when W. Theobald took a special attention in analyzing the symbols, it was understood to have varieties of forms such as hill, animal, reptile, human figures and other objects.”

https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/earliest/punchmrk.html

Argyre of Pliny the Elder is Arakan, the silver country of Burma with Indus Script Hypertext 'Srivatsa'

May 25, 2018, 10:19 pm

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https://tinyurl.com/y72cnp6o

This is an addendum to: 

Ancient Maritime Tin/Silver route. Gandika of Burma (Bawdwin Namtu silver mines), as a source of silver for kārṣāpaṇa of Magadha janapada https://tinyurl.com/y749ag2j

It is significant that the pyu who used coins from ca. 2nd century in Burma used the 'srivatsa' Indus Script Hypertextt.This 'srivatsa' hypertext signifies: dula 'pair' rebus:dul 'metal casting' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭda 'mint'.Thus, the hypertext reads: dul ayo kammaṭa 'metal casting, alloy metal mint'.

"Chryse and Argyre were a pair of legendary islands, located in the Indian Ocean and said to be made of gold (chrysos in Greek) and silver (argyros). In Book 6, chapter 23 of his Natural History, concerning the regions near the Indus River, Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) wrote that "Beyond the mouth of the Indus are the islands of Chryse and Argyre, abounding in metals, I believe; but as to what some persons have stated, that their soil consists of gold and silver, I am not so willing to believe that."Some five or six centuries later, in section XIV.vi.11 of his encyclopedic Etymologies, Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) repeated much the same information: "Chryse and Argyre are islands situated in the Indian Ocean, so rich in metal that many people maintain these islands have a surface of gold and silver; whence their names are derived."^[This was almost certainly taken—like much else in the Etymologies, as Isidore freely admitted—directly from the Natural History. Both of these Latin works, the Naturalis Historia and especially the Etymologiae, were widely read in Europe throughout the Middle Ages, and this ensured the survival of the legend of the Gold and Silver Islands until the beginning of the Age of Discovery." 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chryse_and_Argyre

This region of 'argyre' referred to by Pliny the Elder is Arakan of Burma. The region of Arakan  is now renamed Rakhine State

"Arakan (/ˈærəkæn/ ARR-ə-kan or /ˈɑːrəkɑːn/ AR-ə-kahn^[1]) is a historic coastal region in Southeast Asia. It borders faced the Bay of Bengal to its west, the Indian subcontinent to its north and Burma proper to its east. The Arakan Mountains isolated the region and made it accessible only by sea. The region now forms the Rakhine State in Myanmar." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arakan

Arakan state also used the 'srivatsa' hypertext on ancient coins.

Silver coin of king Nitichandra, Arakan. Brahmi legend "NITI" in front, Shrivatasa symbol on the reverse. 8th century CE. The Indus Script Hypertexts on the coin read: dul ayo kammaṭa 'metal casting, alloy metal mint'.  पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu, bos indicus taurus' rebus: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, ferrite ore: Fe3O4'. गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'

"Native silver and natural silver bearing minerals are the sources of all silver used in human history. Metallurgical processing of the silver minerals to produce silver metal dates from about 2,500 BCE during the Bronze Age. The largest single source of silver in the world from about 482 BCE until 280 BCE was the Laurion mine in ancient Greece. Over 200 million ounces of silver coins were in circulation at the height of the Roman Empire. Many of these coins were dispersed through trade to the Arabian Peninsula, central Asia, India and China, becoming valuable secondary sources of silver for non-currency use. Legend Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE), a Roman naturalist and military commander, described two fabled islands in the Indian Ocean named Chryse and Argyre where the soil consists of gold (chrysos in Greek) and silver (argyros). Later historical research moved these islands to various geographical positions proximal to Japan, Java and Arakan on the northwest coast of present day Burma.

வங்கம்¹ vaṅkam , n. < vaṅga. 1. Lead; purified lead; ஈயம். (நாமதீப. 378.) வங்கத்திற் செம்பொனுந் தெரிப்பாம் (கந்தபு. மார்க். 123). 2. Tin; தகரம். 3. Zinc; துத்தநாகம். (யாழ். அக.) 4. cf. vaṅga-jīvana. Silver; வெள்ளி. (பிங்.) 5. Bengal, one of 56 tēcam, q.v.; தேசம் ஐம்பத் தாறனுள் ஒன்று. (இரகு. திக்குவி. 66.) வங்கர்² vaṅkar , n. < வங்கம்². Mariners; நெய்தனிலமாக்கள்.

...

...Pyu Silver

Silver was first used in Burma for coinage and silver by the Pyu. The Pyu are a Tibeto-Burman people who built complex cities across northern and central Burma during the period 200 to 850 CE. The Pyu may have formed a link in the trade routes that connected the Roman Empire to southeast Asia and beyond to China. A Chinese chronical from 290 alludes to an overland route from southwestern Yunnan to the Pyu kingdom. A later chronical from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) describes Pyu cities and culture in detail.

Pyu silver coin (Obverse)
A stylized rising sun in a circle of dots.
Diam. 37 mm Weight 26 g

Pyu silver coin (Reverse)
A Srivatsa design

Diam. 37 mm Weight 26 g

Silver Mines

The Bawdwin ore body, located near Lashio in northern Shan State, was one of the world’s largest and richest deposits of silver, lead, and zinc. It was mined continuously at variable production scales from at least the 15th until the 21st century. The name Bawdwin derives from ‘baw’, the Burmese word for silver and ‘dwin’, the word for hole or hollow. Bawdwin produced over 175 million ounces, or 5,000 tons, of silver metal."
https://www.noblesilver88.com/magazine/silver_sources/

Cuneiform records evidence gold, silver, tin trade involving Meluhha merchants; this suggests Ancient Maritime gold-silver-tin route between Hanoi (Vietnam) and Haifa (Israel)

May 26, 2018, 7:16 am

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https://tinyurl.com/yabor8sn

The 1977 paper of Simo Parpola et al reviews texts containing references to Meluhha and Meluhhans, focussing on 9 texts dated to Ur III times (22nd to 21st cent. BCE) and included references to Sargonic texts (24th to 23rd cen. BCE). (Parpola S., A. Parpola & R.H. Brunswig, Jr. (1977) “The Meluhha Village. Evidence of acculturation of Harappan traders in the late Third Millennium Mesopotamia.” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient, 20, 129-165.)

Massimo Vidale provides a succint summary of the general picture presented in the paper of Simo Parpola et al. The surprising references relate to the fact that metals like gold, silver and tin were imports from Meluhha and involved Meluhhan settlers in Ancient Far East. "The maximum archaeological evidence of Indian imports and Indusrelated artefacts in Mesopotamia may be dated to latest phases of ED III (at the Royal Cemetery of Ur) and immediately later to the Akkadian period, when, as widely reported, Sargon claimed with pride that under his power Meluhhan ships docked at his capital, and at least one tablet mentions a person with an Akkadian name qualified as a “the holder of a Meluhha ship.”… (pp.262, 263)… according to the literary sources, between the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC Meluhhan ships exported to Mesopotamia precious goods among which exotic animals, such as dogs, perhaps peacocks, cocks, bovids, elephants (? Collon 1977) precious woods and royal furniture, precious stones such as carnelian, agate and lapislazuli, and metals like gold, silver and tin (among others Pettinato 1972; During Caspers 1971; Chakrabarti 1982, 1990; Tosi 1991; see also Lahiri 1992 and Potts 1994). In his famous inscriptions, Gudea, in the second half of the 22nd century BC, states that Meluhhans came with wood and other raw materials for the construction of the main temple in Lagash (see Parpola et al. 1977: 131 for references). Archaeologically, the most evident raw materials imported from India are marine shell, used for costly containers and lamps, inlay works and cylinder seals; agate, carnelian and quite possibly ivory. Hard green stones, including garnets and abrasives might also have been imported from the Subcontinent and eastern Iran (Vidale & Bianchetti 1997, 1998-1999; Heimpel et al. 1988; Vidale 2002; see also Collon 1990, Tallon 1995 and Sax 1991). Carnelian could have been imported in form of raw nodules of large size (as implied by some texts) to be transformed into long beads, or as finished products. As we shall see, recent studies would better suggest that the Indus families in Mesopotamia imported raw materials rather than finished beads (Kenoyer 1997; Kenoyer & Vidale 1992; Inizan 2000), and expediently adapted their production to the changing needs of the Mesopotamian demand and markets. To the same period is ascribed a famous cylinder seal owned by a certain Su-ilisu, “Meluhha interpreter” (Sollberger 1970; Tosi 1991). Another Akkadian text records that Lu-sunzida “a man of Meluhha” paid to the servant Urur, son of AmarluKU 10 shekels of silver as a payment for a tooth broken in a clash. The name Lu-sunzida literally means “Man of the just buffalo cow,” a name that, although rendered in Sumerian, according to the authors does not make sense in the Mesopotamian cultural sphere, and must be a translation of an Indian name…… the Mesopotamian demand and markets. To the same period is ascribed a famous cylinder seal owned by a certain Su-ilisu, “Meluhha interpreter” (Sollberger 1970; Tosi 1991). Another Akkadian text records that Lu-sunzida “a man of Meluhha” paid to the servant Urur, son of AmarluKU 10 shekels of silver as a payment for a tooth broken in a clash. The name Lu-sunzida literally means “Man of the just buffalo cow,” a name that, although rendered in Sumerian, according to the authors does not make sense in the Mesopotamian cultural sphere, and must be a translation of an Indian name." (MASSIMO VIDALE Ravenna Growing in a Foreign World: For a History of the “Meluhha Villages” in Mesopotamia in the 3rd Millennium BC Published in Melammu Symposia 4: A. Panaino and A. Piras (eds.), Schools of Oriental Studies and the Development of Modern Historiography. Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project. Held in Ravenna, Italy, October 13-17, 2001 (Milan: Università di Bologna & IsIao 2004), pp. 261-80. Publisher: http://www.mimesisedizioni.it/)

https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/201402/Vidale-Indus-Mesopotamia.pdf

Among the imports from Meluhha into the Ancient Near East, the imports of silver and tin metals are significant because these two metals were the principal engines of the Tin-Bronze Revolution from 5th millennium BCE and for laying the foundations of monetary systems based on currency-based transactions which emerged in 7th century BCE with the Lydia electrum coins and Aegean Turtle silver staters of 480 to 457 BCE.

Sources of tin, silver and gold ca. 5th millennium BCE from Ancient Far East

What are the sources of Meluhha tin, Meluhha silver and Meluhha gold -- all three metals mentioned in cuneiform texts as imports from Meluhha into Ancient Near East?

Meluhha is often explained by historians as a reference to Sarasvati (Indus) Civilization area. But, this civilization area is not endowed with the gold, silver or tin mineral resources or mines. Whatever gold or tin was sourced was from placer deposits of Himalayan rivers. So, the reference to imports of gold, silver and tin into the Ancient Near East (ANE) in cuneiform records may simply mean that Meluhhan merchants were intermediaries who transacted with the miners of regions east of ancient India and supplied the minerals to the demand centres of ANE.

The most frequently occurring hypertext in Indus Script Corpora is a one-horned young bull. I suggest that this signifies:   kõda 'young bull-calf'. Rebus:kundana 'fine gold' (Kannada; konda 'furnace, fire-altar'kō̃daकोँद 'furnace';  kũdār'turner'; 

The Shu-ilishu cylinder seal is a clear evidence of the Meluhhan merchants trading in copper and tin. The Meluhha merchant carries melh,mr̤eka'goat or antelope' rebus: milakkhu'copper and the lady accompanying the Meluhhan carries a ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin'.

The rollout of Shu-ilishu's Cylinder seal. Courtesy of the Department des Antiquites Orientales, Musee du Louvre, Paris. The cuneiform text reads: Shu-Ilishu EME.BAL.ME.LUH.HA.KI (interpreter of Meluhha language). Apparently, the Meluhhan is the person carrying the antelope on his arms.

सु-वर्ण--द्वीप m. n. " golden island " , (prob.) N. of Sumatra (कथासरित्सागर; Bauddham texts); सु-वर्ण m. (rarely n.) a partic. weight of gold (= 1 कर्ष , = 16 माषs , = 80 रक्तिकाs , = about 175 grains troy) Mn. MBh. &c; m. a gold coin Mr2icch. (Monier-Williams)

"Suvarṇabhūmi (Sanskrit: सुवर्णभूमि; Pali: Suvaṇṇabhūmi) --spelled in various local languages as: Malay: Suwarna Bumi; Burmese: သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ, [θṵwʊ̀ɴna̰bùmḭ]; Khmer: សុវណ្ណភូមិ, Sovannaphoum; and Thai: สุวรรณภูมิ, RTGS: Suwannaphum--is the name of a land mentioned in many ancient Buddhist sources such as the Mahavamsa ("To Suvarnabhumi he [Moggaliputta] sent Sona and Uttara"; Mahānāma, The Mahāvaṃsa, or, The Great Chronicle of Ceylon, translated into English by Wilhelm Geiger, assisted by Mabel Haynes Bode, with an addendum by G.C. Mendis, London, Luzac & Co. for the Pali Text Society, 1964, Chapter XII, "The Converting of Different Countries", p.86.),some stories of the Jataka tales,and Milinda Panha...Suvaṇṇabhumī means "Golden Land" or "Land of Gold" and might be a region named Aurea Regio in "India beyond the Ganges" of Ptolemy, also referred to as the Golden Chersonese. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea refers to the Land of Gold, Chryse, and describes it as "an island in the ocean, the furthest extremity towards the east of the inhabited world, lying under the rising sun itself, called Chryse... Beyond this country... there lies a very great inland city called Thina"(Lionel Casson (ed.), Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Princeton University Press, 1989, p.91)...The city of Thina was described by Ptolemy's Geography as the capital city of the country on the eastern shores of the Magnus Sinus (Gulf of Thailand).". It is significant that the aisport of Bangkok, Thailand is called Suvannaphom Airport, consistent with this identification. "In a study of the various literary sources for the location of Suvannabhumi, Saw Mra Aung concluded that it was impossible to draw a decisive conclusion on this, and that only thorough scientific research would reveal which of several versions of Suvannabhumi was the original." (Saw Mra Aung, "The Accounts of Suvannabhumi from Various Literary Sources", Suvannabhumi: Multi-Disciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies(Busan University of Foreign Studies, Korea), vol. 3, no.1, June 2011, pp.67-86.)...An eighth century Indian text known as the "Samaraiccakaha" describes a sea voyage to Suvarnadvipa and the making of bricks from the gold rich sands which they inscribed with the name dharana and then baked.(R.K. Dube, "Southeast Asia as the Indian El-Dorado", in Chattopadhyaya, D. P. and Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy, and Culture (eds.), History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1999, Vol.1, Pt.3, C.G. Pande (ed.), India's Interaction with Southeast Asia, Chapter 6, pp.87-109.)... Hendrik Kern concluded that Sumatra was the Suvarnadvipa mentioned in ancient Hindu texts and the island of Chryse mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and by Rufius Festus Avienus.(H. Kern, "Java en het Goudeiland Volgens de Oudste Berichten", Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, Volume 16, 1869, pp.638-648.[1]; See also Gabriel Ferrand, "Suvarņadvīpa", in L'empire sumatranais de Crivijaya, Paris, Imprimerie nationale, 1922, p.121-134.)...Many claim that Suvarnabhumi was actually situated in central Bengal. In some Jain texts, it is mentioned that merchants of Anga (in present-day Bihar) regularly sailed to Suvarnabhumi, and ancient Bengal was in fact situated very close to Anga, connected by rivers of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta. Bengal has also been described in ancient Indian and Southeast Asian chronicles as a "seafaring country", enjoying trade relations with Dravidian kingdoms, Sri Lanka, Java and Sumatra.

Thina mentioned in Periplus may be cognate with Sinae as noted in: George Coedès, review of Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), in T'oung Pao 通報, vol.49, parts 4/5, 1962, pp.433-439; Claudius Ptolemy, Geography, Book I, chapter 17, paragraph 4; Louis Malleret, L’Archéologie du Delta du Mékong, Tome Troisiéme, La culture du Fu-nan, Paris, 1962, chap.XXV, "Oc-Èo et Kattigara", pp.421-54; "Mr Caverhill seems very fairly to have proved that the ancient Cattagara [sic] is the same with the present Ponteamass [Banteaymeas], and the modern city Cambodia [Phnom Penh] the ancient metropolis of Sinae, or Thina", The Gentleman's Magazine, December 1768, "Epitome of Philosophical Transactions", vol.57, p.578; John Caverhill, "Some Attempts to ascertain the utmost Extent of the Knowledge of the Ancients in the East Indies", Philosophical Transactions, vol.57, 1767, pp.155-174.

"Chryse and Argyre were a pair of legendary islands, located in the Indian Ocean and said to be made of gold (chrysos in Greek) and silver (argyros). In Book 6, chapter 23 of his Natural History, concerning the regions near the Indus River, Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) wrote that "Beyond the mouth of the Indus are the islands of Chryse and Argyre, abounding in metals, I believe; but as to what some persons have stated, that their soil consists of gold and silver, I am not so willing to believe that."Some five or six centuries later, in section XIV.vi.11 of his encyclopedic Etymologies, Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) repeated much the same information: "Chryse and Argyre are islands situated in the Indian Ocean, so rich in metal that many people maintain these islands have a surface of gold and silver; whence their names are derived."^[This was almost certainly taken—like much else in the Etymologies, as Isidore freely admitted—directly from the Natural History. Both of these Latin works, the Naturalis Historia and especially the Etymologiae, were widely read in Europe throughout the Middle Ages, and this ensured the survival of the legend of the Gold and Silver Islands until the beginning of the Age of Discovery."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chryse_and_Argyre

Crisa and Aureia, the Isles of Gold, near the Aurea Chersonese, the Golden Peninsula, near Java in the Indian Ocean, on the map of Andreas Walsperger, around 1448

The Golden Chersonese - details from the eleventh map of Asia (southeast Asia). Details from Nicolaus Germanus's 1467 copy of a map from Ptolemy's Geography, showing the Golden Chersonese, i.e. the Malay Peninsula. The horizontal line represents the Equator, which is misplaced too far north due to its being calculated from the Tropic of Cancer using the Ptolemaic degree, which is only five-sixths of a true degree.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suvarnabhumi

References to Meluhha seem to extend to the area east of the Persian Gulf and east of Susa. Thus, the references to Meluhha included silver and tin which were imported through Meluhha merchants who sources the metals from the Ancient Far East which are the acknowledges sources of silver and tin.

See: Argyre of Pliny the Elder is Arakan, the silver country of Burma with Indus Script Hypertext 'Srivatsa' https://tinyurl.com/y72cnp6o

This is an addendum to: 

Ancient Maritime Tin/Silver route. Gandika of Burma (Bawdwin Namtu silver mines), as a source of silver for kārṣāpaṇa of Magadha janapada https://tinyurl.com/y749ag2j

It is significant that the pyu who used coins from ca. 2nd century in Burma used the 'srivatsa' Indus Script Hypertext.This 'srivatsa' hypertext signifies: dula 'pair' rebus:dul 'metal casting' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭda 'mint'.Thus, the hypertext reads: dul ayo kammaṭa 'metal casting, alloy metal mint'.

This region of 'argyre' referred to by Pliny the Elder is Arakan of Burma. The region of Arakan  is now renamed Rakhine State

"Arakan (/ˈærəkæn/ ARR-ə-kan or /ˈɑːrəkɑːn/ AR-ə-kahn^[1]) is a historic coastal region in Southeast Asia. It borders faced the Bay of Bengal to its west, the Indian subcontinent to its north and Burma proper to its east. The Arakan Mountains isolated the region and made it accessible only by sea. The region now forms the Rakhine State in Myanmar." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arakan

Arakan state also used the 'srivatsa' hypertext on ancient coins.

Silver coin of king Nitichandra, Arakan. Brahmi legend "NITI" in front, Shrivatasa symbol on the reverse. 8th century CE. The Indus Script Hypertexts on the coin read: dul ayo kammaṭa 'metal casting, alloy metal mint'.  पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu, bos indicus taurus' rebus: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, ferrite ore: Fe3O4'. गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'

"Native silver and natural silver bearing minerals are the sources of all silver used in human history. Metallurgical processing of the silver minerals to produce silver metal dates from about 2,500 BCE during the Bronze Age. The largest single source of silver in the world from about 482 BCE until 280 BCE was the Laurion mine in ancient Greece. Over 200 million ounces of silver coins were in circulation at the height of the Roman Empire. Many of these coins were dispersed through trade to the Arabian Peninsula, central Asia, India and China, becoming valuable secondary sources of silver for non-currency use. Legend Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE), a Roman naturalist and military commander, described two fabled islands in the Indian Ocean named Chryse and Argyre where the soil consists of gold (chrysos in Greek) and silver (argyros). Later historical research moved these islands to various geographical positions proximal to Japan, Java and Arakan on the northwest coast of present day Burma.

வங்கம்¹ vaṅkam , n. < vaṅga. 1. Lead; purified lead; ஈயம். (நாமதீப. 378.) வங்கத்திற் செம்பொனுந் தெரிப்பாம் (கந்தபு. மார்க். 123). 2. Tin; தகரம். 3. Zinc; துத்தநாகம். (யாழ். அக.) 4. cf. vaṅga-jīvana. Silver; வெள்ளி. (பிங்.) 5. Bengal, one of 56 tēcam, q.v.; தேசம் ஐம்பத் தாறனுள் ஒன்று. (இரகு. திக்குவி. 66.) வங்கர்² vaṅkar , n. < வங்கம்². Mariners; நெய்தனிலமாக்கள்.

...

Pyu Silver

Silver was first used in Burma for coinage and silver by the Pyu. The Pyu are a Tibeto-Burman people who built complex cities across northern and central Burma during the period 200 to 850 CE. The Pyu may have formed a link in the trade routes that connected the Roman Empire to southeast Asia and beyond to China. A Chinese chronical from 290 alludes to an overland route from southwestern Yunnan to the Pyu kingdom. A later chronical from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) describes Pyu cities and culture in detail.

Pyu silver coin (Obverse)
A stylized rising sun in a circle of dots.
Diam. 37 mm Weight 26 g

Pyu silver coin (Reverse)
A Srivatsa design
Diam. 37 mm Weight 26 g

Silver Mines

The Bawdwin ore body, located near Lashio in northern Shan State, was one of the world’s largest and richest deposits of silver, lead, and zinc. It was mined continuously at variable production scales from at least the 15th until the 21st century. The name Bawdwin derives from ‘baw’, the Burmese word for silver and ‘dwin’, the word for hole or hollow. Bawdwin produced over 175 million ounces, or 5,000 tons, of silver metal."
https://www.noblesilver88.com/magazine/silver_sources/

See:

Ancient Maritime Tin/Silver route. Gandika of Burma (Bawdwin Namtu silver mines), as a source of silver for kārṣāpaṇa of Magadha janapada https://tinyurl.com/y749ag2j

Historians of civilization studies have wrongly assumed that the source of silver ingots used in early Punchmarked coins of Ancient India came from Ancient Near East. I suggest that an important source of tin could be Ancient Far East, in particular the ancient large 'Bawdwin' silver mines of Burma. This source may explain the early silver coins of Magadha Janapada, pre-Mauryan Empire, i.e. prior to 5th cent. BCE.

The Ancient Maritime Tin Route which sourced the tin mineral from the Himalayan river basins of Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong through Brahmaputra, Ganga, Sarasvati, Sindhu rivers, through Persian Gulf may (and along the Indian Ocean Rim) also have sourced the silver which reached Magadha and other Janapada-s of Ancient India. The Ancient Martitime Tin Route is firmly attested by four tin ingots found in a Haifa Shipwreck, with Indus Script inscriptions.

The Ancient Maritime Tin Route of 5th millennium BCE may also be called Ancient Maritime Tin/Silver Route in the context of the Monetary revolution of 1st millennium BCE, promoted by early silver coins as currency medium for trade exchanges.

 See: https://independent.academia.edu/SriniKalyanaraman 1277 monographs (May 2018) Decipherment of inscriptions on tin ingots: ranku 'antelope' ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin' datu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore', muh 'face' rebus: muh 'ingot'. Thus, the inscriptions read: tin mineral ore ingot.

Bawdwin means 'silver mines' in Burmese language. These mines wer possible sources of silver used in early Punchmarked coins of Magadha Janapada. It is notable that the bent bars of silver are wedge-shaped and yield the rebus reading in Indus Script: khũṭā, °ṭi ʻ wooden post, stake, pin, wedge ʼ(Bengali)(CDIAL 3893) rebus:  G. goṭ m. ʻ cloud of smoke ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ kernel of coconut, nosegay ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ lump of silver, clot of blood ʼ, °ṭilɔ m. ʻ hard ball of cloth ʼ; M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ a marble ʼ, goṭuḷā ʻ spherical ʼ; Si. guṭiya ʻ lump, ball ʼ; -- prob. also P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H. goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ. *gōḍḍ -- ʻ dig ʼ see *khōdd -- . Addenda: *gōṭṭa -- : also Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271)

"Prior to the Mauryas, the accepted chronology of Magadha's kings is as follows:
      Haryanaka dynasty
            Bimbisara (545-493 BCE)
            Ajatashatru (493-461 BCE)
            Udayabhadra (461-445 BCE)
            Aniriddha & Munda (445-437 BCE)
            Nagadaska (437-413 BCE)
      Shishunaga dynasty
            Shishunaga (413-395 BCE)
            Kalashoka (395-367 BCE)
            Sons of Kalashoka (367-345 BCE)
      Nanda dynasty
            Mahapadma Nanda (345- ? BCE)
            Sons of Mahapadma Nanda ( ? - 323 BCE)".

http://coinindia.com/galleries-magadha.html

गण्डिका गण्डक a coin of the value of four cowries L.; (ifc.) a mark , spot (?) Bauddham literature.

It is possible that the 'marks, spots' on the following Magadha coin may relate to this rebus reading. गण्डिका 'mark, spot' गण्ड gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar', गण्डिका 'source of silver' (from Bawdwin mines of Burma. The four 'dots' or 'pebbles' on Ujjain coins may also signify a similr rebus reading in Indus Script Cipher.

Ujjain region, punchmarked AE, 'standing Shiva type' Weight: 2.21 gm., Dimensions: 12x11 mm. Standing Shiva; sun; six-armed symbol; three-arched hill 

http://coinindia.com/galleries-ujjain1.html arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper,gold' Hieroglyph: S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773).

Rebus: Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ(CDIAL 6773)

षट्--कोण [p= 1108,2] 'six-angled'; hexagon; a six-angled figure  Ra1matUp.  Pan5car;  vajra, the thunderbolt of इन्द्र L.. rebus: vajra 'thunderbolt weapon'. kāṇḍa 'arrow'

rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements.

On some sculptural friezes, the 'fish-fin' hypertext is ligatured to the tip of the spokes of the wheel emanating

from the dotted circle. This signifies: ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'metal' aya 'iron'.

PLUS  khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Carved in the prayer hall of Bhaja caves. Four 'fish-fin' hypertexts PLUS two चषालः caṣāla with cakra-s, two pine-cones. Thus, a total of eight hypertexts. Mintwork, smelting work, implements production are signified.

Bhaja Chaitya ca. 100 BCE. Two fish-fins are tied together. dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS pine-cone hieroglyph:kanda m. bulbous root (Samskritam) Ash. piċ--kandə ʻ pine ʼ Rebus:lo-khānḍa 'tools, pots and pans, metal-ware'. लोखंड [lōkhaṇḍa ] 'metalwork' Rebus: loh 'copper, iron, metal' (Indian sprachbund, Meluhha). gaNDa 'four' rebus: kanda 'fire-altar' PLUS kandə ʻpine' rebus: kaNDa 'implements'. Thus, the composition of eight hypertexts reads: metalwork, implements, metal mintwork: ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'metal' aya 'iron'

Ligature to 'mintwork' signifier is also shown on the wheel sculptural friezes of Amaravati -- spokes are ligatured on their tips with 'fish-fins' joined together:ayo kammaTa 'iron mintwork' ayo 'fish' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin'.

//Silver 20-mashakas c. 5th century BCE Weight: 4.73 gm., Dim: 27 x 23 mm. Central 6-arm punch, surrounded by three other punches / blank. Ref: MATEC 2780-82.arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper,gold'

kola 'tiger' rebus: kolhe 'smelter' kol 'working in iron' kolle 'blacksmith' kolimi 'smithy, forge'

poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite ferrite ore'

gaNDa 'four' rebus: kaNDa 'fire-altar' PLUS khoTa 'ingot'.

Certain small ingots of silver whose mark is three circular dots, often known as pulley, represents possibly the earliest form. I suggest that the three dots signify: kolom 'three' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'.

MAGADHA, Nanda dynasty, c. 370-320 BCE, silver karshapana, GH series IVd, #418 http://www.anythinganywhere.com/commerce/coins/coinpics/indi-punch.html arka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper,gold''

poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite ferrite ore'

c. 5th-4th century BCE Weight: 3.08 gm., Dim: 26 x 24 mm. Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others, plus banker's marks / Banker's marks. Ref: GH 36. http://coinindia.com/galleries-magadha.html kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' 

मेढ (p. 662) [ mēḍha ] 'polar star' (Marathi) rebus:  mẽṛhet iron (metal), meD 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) mRdu 'iron' (Samskrtam) khoTa 'ingots, wedges'.

The possibility that the Magadha Punchmarked coins used the bent bar silver ingots from Gandika, Burma cannot be ruled out.

http://coincoin.com/I067.htm " Resembling a Hang, or small trough for feeding animals, these long, bowed, rectangular bars called nén bac are a distinctly Vietnamese type of semi-official sycee, which was later produced outside Vietnam as well for use in the opium trade. Today most specimens come to the West via Thailand where they are called Ngern Rong. They were made from the early 1800s reportedly through World War II. Cast mainly from Spanish American 8 Reales, Indian Rupees, and French Indochina Piastres they assay consistently .991 fine. Weights generally range 370-380gm. with a likely standard of 380. Size is typically 110x31x14m except the early class which is longer and thinner. They were made by bankers (silver merchants); when presented to government officials for testing, a fee was paid and Thap (10)Lang and three other "verification stamps" were added. Bars later presented in payment of a standard 10 Lang tax were stamped on obverse (concave side) with three panels of two characters each, giving the reign title, sexagenary date, and province respectively, with a fourth Noi Te if paid at the Capital...The reverse (convex) side shows a hand-etched thâp (ten) with numerous short strokes below representing a crude Lang (Tael, Ounce) at the top of the bar. Though lacking on pieces made 1812-32, according to Thierry, three additional verification stamps were applied in relief. At the top left side (generally) is Công giáp (proper fineness), or sometimes just giáp. At the top right side (generally) is trung bín, a type of scale. The top or bottom end bears a two-character verification stamp, either Thüc khán, (true, certified) during Minh Mang and Thieu Tri, or Khán khán, (examine examine)...  " http://coincoin.com/I067.htm

"A group of four spectacular large Chinese silver ingots.  Total weight about 1.5 kilograms.  Collected in Northern Laos near the China/Burma borders.  These ingots belonged to a former soldier in the Laos army.  Silver ingots of various sizes and weights were used as currency in former Indochine (Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam)." http://www.szentesifineart.com/blog/?p=260

VIETNAM, anonymous, late 19-early 20th c., 5 lang silver bar, MA-4540v, assay stamps on sides, no location named, 187.6g, http://www.anythinganywhere.com/commerce/coins/coinpics/viet-cash.htm

Annam (Burma).

Anonymous silver Bullion Bar ND (19th century) Fine, Known as a curved "Banana Bar" weighing 373 gm. Five characters present indicating the weight and purity.

https://www.numisbids.com/n.php?p=lot&sid=1046&lot=31428

Thabeik silver bowl, Burma (Myanmar), colonial time, late 19th or early 20th century http://www.opiumgewichte.com/index_Silver.htm

weight: 142 g
height: 68 mm / 2.68 in
diameter: approx. 104 mm / 4.09 in

This finely chased repoussé bowl shows the eight animals of the Burmese days of the week, which are Garuda (Sunday), Tiger (Monday), Lion (Tuesday), Tusked Elephant (Wednesday morning), Tuskless Elephant (Wednesday afternoon), Rat (Thursday), Guinea Pig (Friday) and finally Naga (Saturday). Please note the floral scrollwork below the rim and the acanthus leaf band at lo

ttp:

It is possible that such lumps of silver were the bent bars of silver from Burma.

kārṣāpaṇa of Magadha Janapada

Silver bowl. Burma. High-relief repoussé decoration;circa 1890

15 1/2" diameter x 8 1/4" high; 72 oz. The ancient art of Myanmar silver-work dates back to the 13th century.https://www.rauantiques.com/burmese-silver-bowl

Namtu နမၼတူ
Town
Namtu Location in Burma
Coordinates: 23°5′33″N 97°24′4″E
Country	Myanmar
State	Shan State
District	Kyaukme District
Township	Namtu Township
Population (2005)
• Ethnicities	Shan, Palaung
• Religions	Buddhism
Time zone	MST (UTC+6.30)

Namtu (နမၼတူ) is a town situated in northern Shan State, Burma. It is famous for Bawdwin and Namtu silver mines,,,The Namtu Bawdwin Mines were the world's largest source of lead, and one of the world's largest sources of silver before the Second World War. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namtu

Copper hoards (ca. 1100 to 800 BCE) from Gungeria yielded 102 pieces of silver plates along with 424 copper implements. (VA Smith, 1905, Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXIV, p.233 et seq.) Ancient mines of Zawar may have yielded zinc blende argentiferous galena. (Wealth of India, Pt V, CSIR, New Delhi, 1960, p. 133).“In North Burma, Bawdwin mines (Shan States) of argentiferous galena are of special importance.It supplied large quantities of silver and from the slag heaps around these mines, it looks that only silver was extracted and lead was left out. Though,it is primarily a lead-zinc-copper sulphide ore, itsname ‘bawdwin’ (silver mine in Burmese language) indicates that main purpose of its mining was silver extraction...Though, silver has not been reported profusely from archaeological excavations, yet it is known from Harappans, Copper Hoards and punch marked coins and further on. More thorough analysis would be necessary (both of silver objects and the argentiferous ores) before any viable rsults could be obtained. We feel, that there are good chances of rich Bawdwin (Burma) argentiferous galena ore having been smelted for obtaining silver in Ancient India.” (Hans C. Bhardwaj, 1979, Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., Delhi, p.133, p.140)

Dotted circle: pāso ‘die’ (orthography: dotted circle). Rebus: pāśo = a silver ingot; pāśātāṇiyo = one who draws silver into a wire (G.) pāslo = a nugget of gold or silver having the form of a die (G.) 

Triratna? on Taxila coin 185-168 BCE. No, ayo kamma

ṭa 'metals mint'. cf. Mahavamsa, XXV, 28, ayo-kammata-dvara, 'iron studded gate " (of a city)'. 

https://tinyurl.com/ycfxxar3

This is an Indus Script hypertext. ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' (Rigveda) khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' Rebus: kammaṭi a coiner (Ka.); kampaṭṭam coinage, coin, mint (Ta.) kammaṭa = mint, gold furnace (Te.)  kamaṭa = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Telugu) PLUS gōṭā  m A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone Rebus: khoTa 'ingot' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS dala 'petal' Rebus: ḍhāḷako = a large ingot (G.) ḍhāḷakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (G.) 

“It is evident that the first coins were minted in India just before 5^th century BCE. Few scholars/historians have suggested that India had her coinage in the 8^th century BCE (much earlier than Lydia/Ionia). The archaeological evidenc reveals that Indians invented coins around 500 to 400 BCE. Panini (500 BCE), in his treatise Ashtadhyayi has written about coins and its fractions: Satamana (sata = 100, mana = units), Nishkas, Sana, Vimsatika, Karshapana. Each unit was called ‘Ratti’ weighing 0.11 gram, a mass of Gunja seed (black tipped bright red seed). Satamana typically weighed 11 gms and Karshapana weighed 32 rattis. It is in 500-600 BCE, silver became abundantly available of which most of it came from Afghanistan and Persia as a result of international trade. Silver for coins were available in three types, namely Tuthatat of Tutha mountain, Gandika from Burma and Kambu from Afghanistan’s Kamboja. Kambu silver was used for earlier coins more than the other two types. Certain small ingots of silver whose mark is three circular dots, often known as pulley, represents possibly the earliest form. The heavy bent bars of silver and copper with heptha radiated symbol stamped on the two ends of concave surface seems to be the next in order. These two categories are computed to  have been in circulation as coins at least as early as 600 BCE. On the other hand, from every ancient Indian sites, from Kabul till the modern Tamilnadu, thousands of pieces of silver alloys have been recovered and they are numismatically known as Punchmarked coins due to the manufacturing techniques used in them. These coins were made of much alloyed silver, not of gold or electrum that were used in Lydian and Ionian coins. The silver in the form of thin sheets were clipped to adjust them into proper weights. These rectangular, square, oval and sometimes curious shaped sheets were then impressed with one to six symbols by means of separate punches mostly on one side. Of these symbols, sun and six-armed wheel are most consistent which leads us to believe that they are the descendants of Surya dynasty (Surya Vamsi). The other varying symbols were probably to guarantee the weight and purity. Until 19^th century, they did not draw much attention, it is only during 1890, when W. Theobald took a special attention in analyzing the symbols, it was understood to have varieties of forms such as hill, animal, reptile, human figures and other objects.”

https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/earliest/punchmrk.html

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Tracing ancient roots of Kirāta, Meluhha speakers of Shu-ilishu cylinder seal, links with आमलक fruit, malaka people, authors of Indus Script Cipher

May 26, 2018, 9:10 pm

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https://tinyurl.com/yde89yyl

मलक m. pl. N. of a people (मार्कण्डेय-पुराण)(Monier-Williams) I suggest, tracing ancient roots of Kirāta, Meluhha speakers of Shu-ilishu cylinder seal, links with आमलक fruit, malaka people, that the authors of Indus Script Cipher are Kirāta, the seafaring merchants of Meluhha from Sarasvati Civilization.

This is my humble tribute to the work of Suniti Kumar Chatterji. his magnum opus is embedded (SK Chatterji, 1951, Kirāta Janakriti, the Indo-Mongoloids,their contribution to the history and culture of India Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta). I suggest that Kirāta are Meluhha mentioned in Akkadian cuneiform texts; they are settlers in north India, seafaring merchants from Malacca Straits who are Meluhha speakers (Indian sprachbund,'speech union').

https://www.scribd.com/document/380261232/Kir%C4%81ta-Janakriti-the-Indo-Mongoloids-their-contribution-to-the-history-and-culture-of-India-SK-Chatterji-1951

I suggest that these people called Malaka are the Kirāta who are mleccha speakers, traders. Malaka finds semantic expansion in the expression in gooseberry fruit: आमलक mf(ई). (g. गौरा*दि Pa1n2. 4-1 , 41) Emblic Myrobalan, Emblica Officinalis Gaertn.; n. the fruit of the Emblic Myrobalan MBh. Sus3r. ChUp.
&c (Monier-Williams). āmalaka m. ʻ the small tree Phyllanthus emblica or myrobalan ʼ, n. ʻ its fruit ʼ ChUp. Pa. āmalaka -- m., °kī -- f.; Pk. āmalaya -- m. ʻ the tree ʼ, n. ʻ its fruit ʼ, āmalaī -- f. ʻ the tree ʼ, āmala -- m.n. ʻ its fruit ʼ (cf. āmaṁḍa -- m. ʻ wild myrobalan ʼ); Kho. (Lor.) amuluk ʻ a partic. fruit -- bearing tree ʼ; K. ōmalam. ʻ Phyllanthus emblica ʼ, S. ã̄uro, ã̄wiro m., L. awāṇ āvlā, P. ã̄ulā, āmlā m., °lī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; Ku. gng. ɔ̄˜ã ʻ a partic. fruit ʼ; N. āmlo ʻ Ph. emblica ʼ, B. ã̄olā, āmlā, Or. aũḷā, ãḷā, ãbrā, Bhoj. ãwãrā, Aw. lakh. aũrā, H. ã̄wlā, āmlā m. ʻ the tree ʼ, ã̄wal m. ʻ its fruit ʼ, OG. āmalaüṁ n., G. āmḷũ, ã̄bḷũ n.; M. ã̄vḷā, āv° m. ʻ the fruit ʼ, ã̄vḷī, av° f. ʻ the tree ʼ; Ko. āvāḷo ʻ gooseberry (?) ʼ; Si. äm̆bul ʻ Ph. emblica ʼ, äm̆billa ʻ the plant Antidesma (Euphorbiaceae) ʼ(CDIAL 1247) The prefix ām may relate to the sour, tangy taste comparable to the taste of a mango: S. āmo m., āmī f. ʻ small unripe mango ʼ; Ku. ām, N. ã̄p, A. ām, B. ã̄b, ām, Or. āmba, Bi. ām, Mth. amuo (ām ← H.), Bhoj. ām, OAw. āṁba, lakh. ãbiyā ʻ green mango ʼ, H. ã̄b, ām m., ambuā ʻ small mango ʼ; G. ã̄b, ām m.n., ã̄bɔ m. ʻ the tree ʼ(CDIAL 1268).
Jambu fruit or Syzygium cumini fruit color changing from green to pink to blood red to black as it matures. These Malaka are the people from Sumatra (Indonesia); the name, Strait of Malacca in the Indian Ocean is derived from the word malaka, the name of a people derived from the malaka fruit, emblic myrobalan. This naming of a region with the name of a tree, fruit is comparable to the naming of Jambudvipa from the fruit and tree, jambu, the Indian blackberry.  jambú, °būˊ -- f. ʻ the rose -- apple tree Eugenia jambolana ʼ Kauś. [Cf. jambula -- ]Pa. jambu -- f., Pk. jaṁbū -- f., S. j̄amū̃ m. ʻ the tree and fruit ʼ, L. jamū̃ m., P. jammū m.; WPah. bhal. j̈emmu m. ʻ a tree with a black fruit ʼ, rudh. j̈ammu m.; N. jāmu ʻ E. ramosissima ʼ; A. zāmū ʻ E. jambolana and its fruit ʼ, B. jām, Or. jāmba, jāma, °mū, H. jām m., G. jām, jã̄bu n. ʻ the fruit ʼ, jã̄buṛī f., °ṛɔ m. ʻ the tree ʼ, jã̄buṛũ ʻ dark purple ʼ; M. j̈ã̄b(h) m. ʻ E. jambolana and its fruit ʼ, Ko. jã̄mba; Si. dam̆ba ʻ E. jambolana ʼ, dan ʻ the fruit tree Eugenia or Syzygium caryophyllaea ʼ. -- S. jāmu m. ʻ the guava (Psidium pyriferum) ʼ, Or. jāmbu, jāma? -- K. (Lawrence) "zúmb", (Elmslie) "zamb -- chule"ʻ Prunus padus ʼ?(CDIAL 5131) These are the Me-luh-ha mentioned in ancient cuneiform texts and on Shu-ilishu cylinder seal in the context of a trade transaction with Meluhha speaker,Meluhha speaker (who carries a goat or antelope to signify his identity: melh,mr̤eka 'goat or antelope' rebus: milakkhu 'copper trader', cognate mleccha 'copper') accompanied by a lady who carries a ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin'; thus, a trader in copper and tin.

The Shu-ilishu cylinder seal is a clear evidence of the Meluhhan merchants trading in copper and tin. The Meluhha merchant carries melh,mr̤eka 'goat or antelope' rebus: milakkhu 'copper and the lady accompanying the Meluhhan carries a ranku 'liquid measure' rebus: ranku 'tin'.

The rollout of Shu-ilishu's Cylinder seal. Courtesy of the Department des Antiquites Orientales, Musee du Louvre, Paris. The cuneiform text reads: Shu-Ilishu EME.BAL.ME.LUH.HA.KI (interpreter of Meluhha language). Apparently, the Meluhhan is the person carrying the antelope on his arms.

See: Cuneiform records evidence gold, silver, tin trade involving Meluhha merchants; this suggests Ancient Maritime gold-silver-tin route between Hanoi (Vietnam) and Haifa (Israel) https://tinyurl.com/yabor8sn

Meluhha is said to explain the origin of the Sanskrit mleccha, meaning "speaker who mispronounces and uses ungrammatical expressions." See: Parpola, Asko; Parpola, Simo (1975). "OnSee the relationship of the Sumerian Toponym Meluhha and Sanskrit Mleccha". Studia Orientalia. 46: 205–238. 

Kamboja

The Kambojas were a people of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature. The tribe coalesced to become one of the solasa (sixteen) Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) of ancient India mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya.

Kambojas and other Mahajanapadas in the Post Vedic period. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambojas

Saka

Sakas: In Afghanistan at Encyclopædia Iranica"The ethnonym Saka appears in ancient Iranian and Indian sources as the name of the large family of Iranian nomads called Scythians by the Classical Western sources and Sai by the Chinese (Gk. Sacae; OPers. Sakā)."
Scythia and Parthia in about 170 BC (before the Yuezhi invaded Bactria). Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saka

Huna

"Hunas or Huna was the name given by the ancient Indians to a group of Central Asian tribes who, via the Khyber Pass, entered India at the end of the 5th or early 6th century. They occupied areas as far as Eran and Kausambi, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire. The Hunas were ultimately defeated by the Indian Gupta Empire and the Indian king Yasodharman...The Hunas are thought to have included the Xionite and/or Hephthalite, the Kidarites, the Alchon Huns (also known as the Alxon, Alakhana, Walxon etc) and the Nezak Huns. Such names, along with that of the Harahunas (also known as the Halahunas or Harahuras) mentioned in Hindu texts."

Pahlava

"The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita. In some texts the Pahlavas are also mentioned as "Pallavas": While the Vayu Purana distinguishes between Pahlava and Pahnava, the Vamana Purana and Matsya Purana refer to both as Pallava. The Brahmanda Purana and Markendeya Purana refer to both as Pahlava or Pallava. Bhishama Parava Mahabharata 6.11.66 . of the Mahabharata also does not distinguish between the Pahlavas and Pallavas... According to P. Carnegy,(See: Notes on the Races, Tribes, and Castes inhabiting the Province of Oudh, Lucknow, Oudh Government Press 1868, p 4; The Geographical Data in Early Puranas, a Critical Studies, 1972, p 135, Dr M. R. Singh; Sacred Books of the East, XXV, Intr. p cxv, Rapson, Coins of Ancient India, p 37, n.2.) the Pahlava are probably those people who spoke Paluvi or Pehlvi, that is the Parthian language. Buhler similarly suggests Pahlava is an Indic form of Parthava meaning 'Parthian'.(The Geographical Data in Early Puranas, a Critical Studies, 1972, p 135, Dr M. R. Singh; Sacred Books of the East, XXV, Intr. p cxv; Rapson, Coins of Ancient India, p 37, n.2.)In the 4th century BCE, Vartika of Katyayanamentions the Sakah-Parthavah demonstrating an awareness of these Saka-Parthians, probably by way of commerce.(India as Known to Panini, 1954, p 444, Dr V. S. Agarwala.)". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahlavas

Bahlikas in Balkh or Bactria

According to the Bhuvanakosha section of the Puranas, Bahlika was a Janapada located in the Udichya (Uttarapatha) division.(Vayu I.45.115; Vamana 13.37; Garuda 55.16; Brahamanda, 27.24-52v etc). Some hymns of Atharvaveda invoke the fever to go to the Gandharis, Mahavrsas (a tribe of Punjab), Mujavants and, further off, to the Bahlikas. Mujavant is the name of a hill (and a people) located in Hindukush/Pamir.Atharvaveda-Parisista juxtaposes the Vedic Bahlikas with the Kambojas (i.e. Kamboja-Bahlika--).(AV-Par, 57.2.5). Besides Atharvaveda Parisista, several other ancient texts also associate the Bahlikas with the Kambojas.

Shakah.Kamboja.Bahlika.Yavanah.Paradastatha | (MBH 7/98/13)

Kritavarma tu sahitah KambojaivarBahlikaih |.(MBH 6/75/17; MBH 2/27/23-23 etc)

VanayujanParvatiyanKamboj.Aratta.Bahlikan |.(Mahabharata 7.36.36)

Kamboja.vishhaye jatair Bahlikaishcha hayottamaih | (Valmiki Ramayana I.6.22)

Kashmir recension of ancient Ramayana has the following reading:

Aratta.Kapisham.Balhim....(Ramayana, 4/44/23)

Sanskrit Acharya Kshmendra of Kashmir has rendered the above text into his Ramayana Manjri as follows:

Aratta.Bahlika.Kamboja.......(Ramayana Manjari, 4/252)

Besides Kambojas, Atharvaveda-Parisista also associates the Vedic Bahlikas with the Sakas, Yavanas and Tusharas (Saka-Yavana-Tukhara-Vahlikaishcha).(Atharvaveda Pari. 51.33)

The fact that Puranic evidence locates the Bahlikas in Uttarapatha and further the close association of the Bahlikas with the Kambojas as well as with Tusharas, Sakas and Yavanas in the Atharvaveda Parisista and in some other ancient sources suggests that the Bahlikas were located as a close neighbor to the Tusharas, Sakas, Yavanas and the Kambojas etc. Since the Kambojas were located in Badakshan and Pamirs, the Tusharas on the north of Pamirs and the Sakas on the river Jaxartes and beyond, the Bahlikas or Bahlams, as neighbors to these people should be placed in Bactria.

The Brahmanda Purana attests that river Chaksu (Oxus or Amu Darya) flowed through the land of Bahlavas (Bahlikas).

The Iron pillar of Delhi inscription by King Chandra (4 CE), also makes mention of Bahlikas as living on the west side of the Indus River (Sindhu). After crossing the seven mouths of the Indus, King Chandra is stated to have defeated the Bahlikas.(Indian Historical Quarterly, XXVI, 118n)

These above several references attest that the Bahlikas were originally located beyond the seven mouths of river Indus in the country of Bactria and the land was watered by the river Oxus. But later, a section of these people had moved from Balkh to Punjab while still others appear to have moved to south-western India as neighbors to the Saurashtras and Abhiras of Sauviras.

The Bahlikas have been equated to Mlechchas in the later Brahmanical literature. There is a distinct prophetic statement in the Mahabharata that the mlechcha kings of Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas etc. will rule unrighteously in Kali yuga. (3.188.34-36: viparite tada loke purvarupa.n kshayasya tat.34 bahavo mechchha rajanah prithivyam manujadhipa .mithyanushasinah papa mrishavadaparayanah. 35.Andhrah ShakAh Pulindashcha Yavanashcha naradhipah .Kamboja Bahlikah Shudrastathabhira narottama. 36.(MBH 3/187/28-30))

" Uttaramadras and Kambojas—all were located beyond the Himalaya/Hindukush ranges. Probably, the Uttarakurus were located in the northern parts of Bahlika, the Uttaramadras were in the southern parts of it and the Kambojas (=Parama Kambojas) were to the east of Bahlika, in the Transoxiana region. The ancient Bahlika appears to have spanned a large expanse of territory. The commentator of Harsha-Carita of Bana Bhatta also defines the Kambojas as Kambojah-Bahlika-Desajah i.e. the Kambojas originated in/belonged to Bahlika. Thus, it seems likely that in the remote antiquity, the ancestors of the Uttarakurus, Uttaramadras and the Parama Kambojas were one people or otherwise were closely allied and had lived in/around Bahlika (Bactria)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahlikas

Rishika

According to Matsya Purana the Rishikas were descendants of the Rishis, or inspired poets (Rishika.putra.rishikastu.. 145.86; See also: Vayu Purana 59.84–94; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, p 31).

"According to traditional accounts, during the 2nd century BCE a subgroup of Rishikas migrated to southwestern India and settled there, crossing Afghanistan, Balochistan, Sindhu and Sovira. According to the Mahabharata, there two sub-tribal were divisions within the Rishikas: Uttara ("northern") and Parama ("supreme") ( Lohan.ParamaKambojan.Rishikan.uttaranapi |sahita.nstanmaharaja vyajayatpakashasanih ||24||Rishikeshu tu sanggramo babhuvAtibhaya.n karah|taraka maya sankashah Paramarshika parthayoh ||25|| {Mahabharata, Critical Edition, 2.25.24–25.) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishikas 

Shakanam Pahlavana.n cha Daradanam cha ye nripah |

Kamboja Rishika ye cha pashchim.anupakash cha ye ||5.5.15||

Trans: The kings of the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Daradas, and the Kamboja-Rishikas live in the west in the Anupa region (seacoast).

According to B. N. Puri, the Kambojas (Rishikas) were a branch of the Tukharas. (BN Puri, Buddhism in Central Asia, p. 90).PC Bagchi links them with Yuezhi. (Journal of Tamil Studies, 1969, pp 86, 87, International Institute of Tamil Studies – Tamil philology; Also see: International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics: IJDL., 1984, p 348, University of Kerala Dept. of Linguistics – Dravidian languages; India and Central Asia, 1955, p 31-32, Prof P. C. Bagchi.) The Sabhaparava of the Mahabharata describes the Lohas, Kambojas and Rishikas as neighboring tribes west of the Himalayas (MBH II.27.25).  In the Udyogaparava of the Mahabharata,  the Kambojas and Rishikas are described as one people (Kambojarishika).

Rishika may also be asii (a variant of Yuezhi) cited by the ancient Greeks. (Chandra Chakraberty – Ethnology; Literary History of Ancient India in Relation to Its Racial and Linguistic Affiliations, 1953, pp 148, 152, Chandra Chakraberty – Sanskrit literature). "The name "Asii" (or "Asioi" mentioned by Strabo, according to one view, alludes to their connections with horses (asva or assa). Based on the earlier information from Megasthenes' (350-290 BC) Indica, Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) mentions Osii (Orsi), Asoi, Aseni, Taxillae and Peucolaitae as Indian peoples living in the upper Indus valley south of the Hindu Kush.^[17][18] The Taxillae and Peucolaitae are Gandharans of the Indian traditions while the Asoi, Osii/Orsi and Aseni appear yet other variants of the Assaceni (Aspasioi) and Assacani (Assakenoi)—the Asvayana and Asvakayana of Pāṇini and Katyayana). The Aspasios and Assakenois were notable Kamboja groups engaged in horse culture." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishikas

The Kambojas, in the Dronaparava section of the Mahabharata, are also described as a scholarly people. (Sanskrit: ye tvete rathino rajandrishyante kanchanadhvajah.|ete durvarana nama Kamboja yadi te shrutah.||43||hurashcha kritavidyashcha dhanurvede cha nishthitah.|sa.nhatashcha bhrisha.n hyete anyonyasya hitaishinah.||44||akshauhinyashcha sa.nrabdha dhartarahhtrasya bharata.|— (MBH 7.112.43–44) English translation:Those other car-warriors with golden standards, O king, whom you see, and who, like the wild elephants are difficult of being resisted, they are called the Kambojas. They are brave, a learned people (kritavidyash) and are firmly devoted to the science of weapons. Desiring one another's welfare, they are all highly united and mutually co-operative. They constitute a full Akshauhini of wrathful warriors.)

Kirāta are mleccha

Among the people termed Mlechcha in ancient Indian texts are Sakas, Hunas, Yavanas, Kambojas, 
Pahlavas, Bahlikas and Rishikas (Kambojas). The Amarakosha described Kiratas, Khasas and Pulindas as the Mleccha-jatis. Indo-Greeks, Scythians, and Kushanas were also mlecchas. "The Kirāta (Kirat) (Sanskrit: किरात) is a generic term in Sanskrit literature for people who had territory in the mountains, particularly in the Himalayas and North-East India and who are believed to have been Sino-Tibetan in origin. The Kiratas are Limbu, Rai, Yakkha, Sunuwar and Lepcha tribes of Eastern Nepal The Kiratas in Distant Past A Sanskrit-English Dictionary refer the meaning of 'Kirat' as a 'degraded, mountainous tribe, a savage and barbarian' while other scholars attribute more respectable meanings to this term and say that it denotes people with the lion's character, or mountain dwellers." (Radhakumud Mukharji (2009), Hindu Shabhyata, Rajkamal Prakashan Pvt Ltd). Mleccha are mentioned in the Yajurveda (Shukla XXX.16; Krisha III.4,12,1), Atharvaveda (X.4,14). and  Manu's Dharmashastra (X.44). "(Kirata) are characterized as barbaric in their ways and Mongoloid in appearance (Shafer 124). From the widespread area in which the literary sources place the Kiratas Heine-Geldern (167) concludes that the name was a general designation for all the Mongoloid peoples of the north and east. Shafer (124), on the basis of the nomenclature of their kings, concludes that they spoke a Tibeto-Burmic language and were the predecessors of the Kirantis, now living in the easternmost province of Nepal.(Casson, Lionel (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 234).

Ancient texts give n indication of the geographical position of mleccha speakers. "In the Mahabharata, Bhima meets the Kiratas to the east of Videha, where his son Ghatotkacha is born; and in general the dwellers of the Himalayas, especially the eastern Himalayas, were called Kiratas. In general they are mentioned as "gold-like", or yellow, unlike the Nishadas or the Dasas, who were dark Austric people." {Chatterji, S. K. (1974). Kirata-Jana-Krti. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, p.31).https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirata Sylvain Lévi (1985) concluded that Kirata was a general term used by the Hindus of the plains to designate the Tibeto-Burman speaking groups of the Himalayas and Northeast.(Concept of tribal society 2002 Page 32 Deepak Kumar Behera, Georg Pfeffer "Does this mean that the Kirata were a well-defined group, a kind of ancient Himalayan tribe, which has been there for times immemorial (as popular usage often implies)? A critical look at the evidence leads to different considerations. Already the Indologist Sylvain Lévi concluded that Kirata was a general term used by the Hindus of the plains to designate the Tibeto-Burman speaking groups of the Himalayas and Northeast Thus it is unlikely that the Kirata who ruled the Kathmandu Valley were a particular ethnic group. Rather the evidence suggests that they were forefathers of the present day Newar (the Tibeto-Burman speaking indigenous people of the valley).
Meluḫḫa or Melukkha is the Sumerian name of a prominent trading partner of Sumer during the Middle Bronze Age (3rd millennium BCE). Most historians associate Melukkha with Sarasvati (Indus) Civilization.."Sumerian texts repeatedly refer to three important centers with which they traded: Magan, Dilmun, and Meluhha. Magan is usually identified with Egypt in later Assyrian texts; but the Sumerian localization of Magan was probably Oman. Dilmun was a Persian Gulf civilization which traded with Mesopotamian civilizations, the current scholarly consensus is that Dilmun encompassed Bahrain, Failaka Island and the adjacent coast of Eastern Arabia in the Persian Gulf.The location of Meluhha, however, is hotly debated. There are scholars today who confidently identify Meluhha with the Indus Valley Civilization (modern South Asia) on the basis of the extensive evidence of trading contacts between Sumer and this region." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluhha 

Malacca plant and fruit. Malacca gets its name from Malacca tree (Malay: Pokok Melaka) which is Phyllanthus emblica, also known as emblic, emblic myrobalan, myrobalan, Indian gooseberry, Malacca tree, or amla from Sanskrit amalaki is a deciduous tree of the family Phyllanthaceae. It is known for its edible fruit of the same name. In the Sanskrit Bauddham tradition, half an amalaka fruit was the final gift to the Buddhist sangha by the great Indian emperor Ashoka: "A great donor, the lord of men, the eminent Maurya Ashoka, has gone from being lord of Jambudvipa [the continent] to being lord of half a myrobalan." (Strong, J. S. (1983) The Legend of King Ashoka, New York: Princeton University PressStrong, p. 99). "In Indian temple architecture, an Amalaka, is a stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, that sits atop a temple's main tower (Shikhara). The shape of the amalaka is thought to have been inspired by the fruit of the amla tree." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllanthus_emblica

Triphala (Sanskrit: triphalā [t̪ripʰɜl̪äː], “three fruits”) is an Ayurvedic herbal Rasāyana formula consisting of equal parts of three myrobalans, taken without seed: Amalaki (Emblica officinalis), Bibhitaki(Terminalia bellirica), and Haritaki (Terminalia chebula) (Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia committee. The Ayurvedic Formulary of India, Part I, 2nd English ed. New Delhi: Controller of Publications; 2003).

Tradition of Ayurveda with the centrality of therapeutic effects of triiphal is matched by the tradition of Ancient Indian alchemy called Rasāyana, रसायन (science of mercury) or or Rasaśāstra, रसशास्त्र in Sanskrit, Nepali, Marathi, Hindi, Kannada and several other languages. Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage:

"Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of the Guptatimes, when India was looked to, even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and cement... By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders, and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times; King Porus is said to have selected, as a specially valuable gift from Alexander, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Moslems took much of this Hindu chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing "Damascus" blades, for example, was taken by the Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India."

Amalaka at the top of the Lingaraj temple in Bhubaneswar

The Strait of Malacca (Malay: Selat Melaka, Indonesian: Selat Malaka; Jawi: سلت ملاک) or Straits of Malacca is a narrow, 550 mi (890 km) stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia) and the Indonesian island of Sumatra...The strait is the main shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, linking major Asian economies such as India, Indonesia, Malaysia, 
Singapore, China, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea. Over 94,000 vessels pass through the strait each year (2008) making it the busiest strait in the world, carrying about 25% of the world's traded goods, including oil, Chinese manufactured products, coal, palm oil and Indonesian coffee. About a quarter of all oil carried by sea passes through the Strait, mainly from Persian Gulf suppliers to Asian markets...In the 7th century the maritime empire of Srivijaya based on Palembang, Sumatra, rose to power, and its influence expanded to the Malay peninsula and Java. The empire gained effective control on two major choke points in maritime Southeast Asia; the Strait of Malacca and the Sunda Strait. By launching a series of conquests and raids on potentially rival ports on both side of the strait, Srivijaya ensured its economic and military domination in the region lasted for about 700 years. Srivijaya gained a great benefit from the lucrative spice trade, the tributary trade system with China, and trade with Indian and Arab merchants." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca 

The strait is narrow, only 2.8 km (1.5 nautical miles) wide, with a depth of 25 metres or 82 feet.

Map of the Kingdom of Siam and Strait of Malacca.

Map based on the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a source of information about the Indian Ocean region during the early centuries CE.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kedah#/media/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg

The four Kedahan Nations by 1860 in colour, after the loss of Terang(Trang) to Siam in 1810, the secession of Prince of Wales Island and Province Wellesley to the British between 1786 to 1860 and the Kedah Partition of 1843 that witnessed the birth of four separate dominions. The four kingdoms are in their respective colours, while other neighbouring polities are in light brown. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Setul_Mambang_Segara

Silk Road routes connecting Ancent Near East and Ancient Far East through India, in the context of Ancient Maritime Gold-silver-tin route along Himalayan waterways and Indian Ocean Rim

Location of Chi Tu as indicated in the map of Transpeninsula route-ways."Chinese Sui Dynasty annals of the 7th century describe an advanced kingdom called Chi Tu or Raktamrittika (as in Kelantanese history) as being in Kelantan, which the name was later changed to "Sri Wijaya Mala". The founding of Sri Wijaya Mala was 667 BCE with its capital called "Valai", and it was situated along the upper Kelantan river of Pergau, known for its rich gold mines. It was until 570 BCE that the kingdom changed its name to Sri Wijaya." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_Tu

An settlement and port as early as 1st century is the archaeological site of Sungai Batu Kedah. "Three kinds of craft are described by the author of the Periplus: light coasting boats for local traffic, larger vessels of a more complicated structure and greater carrying capacity, and lastly the big ocean-going vessels that made the voyages to Malaya, Sumatra, and the Ganges." (Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (2000) [1935]. Cholas (fifth printing ed.). Chennai: University of Madras. pp. 86 & 318.) 

Horace Geoffrey "H.G." Quaritch Wales, author of 

Siamese State Ceremonies (1931) and Ancient Siamese Government and Administration (1934) studied over thirty sites  around the port of Kedah and proved the continuous occupation of the sites for centuries, by people with strong South Indian, Buddhist and Hinduinfluences. Keda is the landing point of Srivijaya (the dominant Malay state) and a major power in the Indian Ocean trade. An inscribed rectangular stone bar has an inscription of the Pali verse 'Ye Dhamma... ' 

Essence of dependent origination dharani(Skt. Pratītyasamutpādahṛdaya; Tib. རྟེན་འབྲེལ་སྙིང་པོ་, Wyl. rten 'brel snying po) aka Yé Dharma — this is the statement which Shariputra heard from the monk Ashvajit when asking for a summary of the teachings of the Buddha. Shariputra passed the message onto his close friend Maudgalyayanaand together they became followers of the Buddha, and went on to become his foremost disciples.

ye dharmā hetu prabhavā hetun teṣāṃ tathāgato hy avadat teṣāṃ ca yo nirodha evaṃ vādī mahāśramaṇaḥ

ये धर्मा हेतु प्रभवा
हेतुं तेषां तथागतः ह्यवदत्
तेषां च यो निरोध
एवं वादी महाश्रमणः

Trans. All dharmas originate from causes. The Tathagata has taught these causes, And also that which puts a stop to these causes—
This too has been taught by the Great Shramana.

ye dhammā hetuppabhavā

tesaṃ hetuṃ tathāgato āha,

tesañca yo nirodho

evaṃ vādī mahāsamaṇo

Strait of Melaka, Malacca

Kirāta Janakriti, the Indo-Mongoloids, their contribution to the history and culture of India (SK Chatterji... by Srini Kalyanaraman on Scribd

ādi Śankara refers to sārasvata people & Draviḍa śiśu dwelling on सरस्वती river

May 27, 2018, 7:12 pm

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सारस्वत mf(ई)n. relating or belonging to सरस्वत् (q.v.) or to सरस्वती (the river or the goddess) derived or coming from them RV. &c; m. (pl.) N. of a people dwelling on the सरस्वती river (i.e. in the north-west part of the province of Delhi including part of the Panjab) AV.Paris3. MBh. VarBr2S. Pur.; m. a partic. ceremonial in the worship of सरस्वती; eloquence (प्रसन्नराघव) .

 In Soundraya Lahari. Verse 75, ādi Śankara refers to Draviḍa  śiśu and sārasvata in a prayer to Devi ātmā, 'life principle, sensation'; it should be noted that the Suktam RV 10.125 is addressed to ātmā as devatā. R̥ṣikā is: आम्भृणी f. daughter of अम्भृण , N. of वाच् (» अम्भृण.)

तव स्तन्यं मन्ये धरणिधरकन्ये हृदयतः 
पयः पारावारः परिवहति सारस्वतमिव । 
दयावत्या दत्तं द्रविडशिशु-रास्वाद्य तव यत् 
कवीनां प्रौढाना मजनि कमनीयः कवयिता ।। 

Translation: “The Milk of your Breasts, O daughter of the Mountain (Pārvati Devi), I think is as if from heart there flowed an ocean of milk  of sārasvata a people dwelling on the सरस्वती river, when the Draviḍa child tasted this as you gave it to him in compassion, Draviḍa child becomes the poet laureate of the master poets.” 

For a contra translation by Vedveer Arya see: https://www.facebook.com/groups/784419008350539/permalink/1580765322049233/

It is clear from this verse that ādi Śankara refers to sārasvata people & Draviḍa  śiśu dwelling on सरस्वती river.

Translation ( Sāyaṇa/Wilson): 10.125.01 I proceed with the Rudras, with the Vasus, with the A_dityas, and with the Vis'vedeva_s; I support both Mitra and Varun.a, Agni and Indra, and the two As'vins.[Deity Prama_tma_: the word, or first of creatures]. 

10.125.02 I support the foe-destroying Soma, Tvas.t.a_, Pu_s.an and Bhaga; I bestow wealth upon the institutor of the rite offering the oblation, deserving of careful protection, pouring forth the libation. 

10.125.03 I am the sovereign, the collectress of treasures, cognizant (of the Supreme Being), the chief of objects of worship; as such the gods have put me in many places, abiding in manifold conditions, entering into numerous (forms. 

10.125.04 He who eats food (eats) through me; he who sees, who breathes, who hears what is spoken, does so through me; those who are ignorant of me perish; hear you who have hearing, I tell that which is deserving of belief. 

10.125.05 I verily of myself declare this which is approved of by both gods and men; whomsoever I will, I render formidable, I make him a Brahma_, a r.s.i, or a sage. [A Brahman: Brahma_, the creator]. 

10.125.06 I bend the bow of Rudra, to slay the destructive enemy of the Bra_hman.as, I wage war with (hostile) men. I pervade heaven and earth. 

10.125.07 I bring forth the paternal (heaven) upon the brow of this (Supreme Being), my birthplace is in the midst of the waters; from thence I spread through all beings, and touch this heaven with my body. 

10.125.08 I breathe forth like the wind giving form to all created worlds; beyond the heaven, beyond this earth (am I), so vast am I in greatness.

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

May 28, 2016

Plant, animal genetics and gerrymandered genetics on 'peopling of India'-- K.S Sreedharan

May 28, 2018, 2:05 am

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Two excellent blogposts by KS Sreedharan explaining lucidly the pitfalls and potential of genetic studies to promote historical studies on ‘Peopling of India’.

Kalyanaraman

MAY 27, 2018 SREEDHARAN 

Plant, animal geneticsand the Indo-European igrations

In the previous blog the focus was on human genetic studies in relation to “Peopling of India” and establishment of its culture. But civilization is not just humans alone. There is food, there are animals and there are objects that are representative of a civilization. In this post these aspects in relation to the Vedic civilization, will be discussed in the context of genetic research and archaeological finds.

Food for thought

One of my friends came up with this wonderful hypothesis, that Lucknow in India is the centre of the world as far as food is concerned. His reasoning is that to the east of Lucknow, Wheat gives way to Rice as the staple cereal and to the West it is Wheat all the way, with the bread getting thicker as we go west. This logic could be extended to north and south directions, in India at the least, as well, with Rice dominating as we move more southwards.

Rice in the East

Little did I know that such a casual observation would have a pre-historic importance. Genetic studies on Rice (2017) have identified Ganga valley in India and Yangtze river valley in Southern China to be independent centres of Rice cultivation. This paper on “Archaeological and genetic insights into the origins of domesticated rice” (2014) says that rice appears to have been a staple food by 3000 BCE in northern parts of India.

The question of an origin of indica rice in India has been under active discussion, and recent research has done much to clarify and resolve the issue. It now appears that an independent origin of cultivation of ancestral indica or proto-indica rice took place in the Ganges plains, but that the plant was completely domesticated only when domesticated japonica arrived from China and hybridized with it about 4,000 y ago (47). Indica consumption began early, by 8400 BP, and the plant was cultivated and appears to have been a staple food by 5000 BP (47).

This article (2011) based on Archaeobotanical evidence from a place close to Lucknow, describes the geographical spread on Rice cultivation over the Indian subcontinent in the first and second millennium BCE.

Archaeobotanical evidence from Lahuradewa dates early wild rice use, to at least 7000 BCE, while there is clear evidence of cultivation from 2500 BCE. By 2000–1700 bc rice cultivation was established across northern India, including the Indus valley region, Gujarat and Rajasthan, and Orissa in the East. The hybridization of domestication from china has been hypothesized to occur in Northwestern India or northern Pakistan, in the centuries after 2000 bc when there is extensive evidence for the diffusion of several crops and harvesting technology from northern China, presumably via Central Asia

There is a hiatus, however, before rice cultivation is taken up in the Deccan, South India and Sri Lanka. It is not until the second half of the first millennium bc that we see archaeobotanical evidence and rice tempered pottery suggesting the use of rice as a main crop

In short the dispersal of rice in India starts from near Lucknow, spreading towards west, east and south.

Wheat,Barley to the West

The origins of various varieties of Wheat and Barley and their domestication is recorded to be in areas west of India, centred around the Fertile Crescent, roughly the area between Egypt and western Iran.

This paper Journey to the east: Diverse routes and variable flowering times for wheat and barley en route to prehistoric China(2017) discusses the migration of Barley and Wheat to China based on radio carbon dating of archaeological finds. The earliest probable dates for Barley cultivation in Northwest India and Gangetic plainsis estimated to be 2800 BCE to 2300 BCE, while on the northernside of the Tibetan Plateau, the earliest Barley cultivation dates are from 1630 BCE to 1497 BCE. This implies that as far as Barley is concerned the possibility of it being introduced from Central Asian regions into India is less. Let us revisit this specific aspect when we analyze references to crops in RigVeda.

According to this paper titled, History and Ethnobotany of Wheat in India (1985) earliest evidence of Wheat cultivation is found in Mehrgarh, present day Balochistan. Wheat samples during the Harappan period (2300 BCE to 1750 BCE) are found in Indus Valley Civilization locations in present day Pakistan and Punjab. Dating of wheat samples further inside India namely western UP and MP are found to be even later at about 2000BCE. As per the article referenced in the earlier paragraph, wheat was introduced comparatively earlier into Central Asia.

The Vedic connection

With these observations in mind, it is time to examine RigVeda for references to presence of these cereals. Things take an interesting turn here. Uniform opinion among scholars is that there is no mention of wheat in RigVeda. Godhuma is mentioned in plural in Yajurveda samhita and Brahmanas. The word occurs in singular in Shatapatha Brahmana. Till time of Sutras (800 – 300 BCE) the daily offerings were not made of wheat, instead Rice and Barley are mentioned as offerings. The renowned physician Dhanvantri had called wheat a food of condemned and degraded people. This observation begs the following questions

1. Why the Aryans who supposedly came from areas where Wheat was prevalent did not use them in their food or mention them in their earlier books?
2. Why was it still considered an inferior food even during later times and offerings made with cereals like Rice and Barley?

As far as the other two cereals is concerned, the earlier translators of RigVeda thought that Barley was the primary cereal. This was due to the presence of the word Yava. This book which is an index of names and subjects in Vedas mentions that usage of Yava and Dhana is not clear in RigVeda. Yava in RigVeda appears to be a generic term for any sort of grain and not merely Barley. Whether Barley was cultivated during Rigveda is not certain, but on the whole probable.

Vrihi (Rice) is not mentioned in RigVeda but frequently mentioned in Atharvaveda and later. But there is explicit mention about three Rice based preparations apupa, puroda and odana in RigVeda. These preparations have been associated with rice in many references in the later texts. Nivara “Wild rice” is mentioned in Yajurveda Samhitas and Brahmanas. Tandula grain, especially Rice grain is mentioned very often in Atharvaveda and later but not in RigVeda. If we go by etymology of Rice, Wheat and Barley only the Rice has its origins from Sanskrit.

So in summary Rice and Barley are very likely to be the cereals mentioned in RigVeda. The earlier quoted study of consumption of rice as staple diet from 3000 BCE can justify the preparation of rice based dishes for offerings. Barley was introduced into the Central Asian regions, which are supposed to be the land of Aryans, later than their dates in Indus Valley and surrounding areas. Based on these considerations, the geographical area that fits the composition of RigVeda best is to the east of Saraswati river.

It is also surprising that the study mentioned in the previous blogstates that the percentage of Anatolian farmer gene has an eastward cline and in what is present day Indus Valley it is close to zero. One can also visualize this as a completely different kind of agricultural civilization expanding from Gangetic region meeting the Iranian farmers from the west in what is probably present day Baluchistan.

Horse Controversy

Among the animals Horse occupies an important place in the Aryan Migration debates. The crux of the argument was that there was no horse in Harappa. Invading/Migrating Aryans came with horses. Horses were domesticated in the Steppe region. It is from here that horse domestication spread worldwide.

Now slowly, brick by brick, each of these assertions are falling apart. It has now been fairly established that remains of domesticated horses were found in Indus Valley sites and even as far as Karnataka even before the hypothetical Aryan migration.

Domesticated horse remains have been found in Surkotada (approx 2000 BCE), Kayatha Chambal Valley has domesticated horse remains at about 2450-2000 BCE. Even a more remote southern site at Hallur in Karnataka has horse remains in 1500 BCE, roughly about the time horse were supposedly introduced by Aryans.

Recent advances in the field of Genetics are casting doubts on the existing horse domestication theory.  A Science Magazine report on  ancient horse DNA largely disproves the current theory that modern horses arose more than 5000 years ago in Kazhaksthan.  This latest article in National Geographic  states that the  Botai rather than Yamnaya culture domesticated the horses. The scientific research paper referenced in the NatGeo article finds that Botai culture were hunter gatherers and not pastoralists. They had absolutely no interaction with the Yamanaya culture. Even the later use of horses among Yamnaya Pastoralists has been questioned in yet another study. All this blows to smithereens the key role of horses in the “Steppe Hypothesis”.

In this latest paper on Animal Genetics (2018) in a study on Male specific Y (MSY) phylogeny of Asian Horses, finds that Asian Horses show much higher diversity than previously found in European breeds. Here is a relevant quote from that paper.

Asian breeds also introduce a deep split to the phylogeny,preliminarily dated to 5527 +/- 872 years. We conclude thatthe deep splitting Asian Y haplotypes are remnants of a farmore diverse ancient horse population, whose haplotypes werelost in other lineages.

One other topic of discussion in the debate of the horses is related to the Siwalik horse.  The main contention of the scholars like Witzel was that the Siwalik horses had become extinct long before the Vedic period and hence the reference to 34 ribbed horses in RigVeda is not that of Siwalik horse. The Annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the year 1910 states that Siwalik horse is the oldest known true horse and that there is considerable evidence to support the view that domestic horses had multiple origin. Some present day Arabs and Thoroughbreds as wells as some Kirghiz horses have the distinct features of the Siwalik horses. Of these it is supposed that “Throughbreds built on the line of Stockwell and Persimmon are probably more intimately related to Equus Sivalensis than to fine bay horse of north Africa”. Much more extensive coverage of the Siwalik horse can be found in this blog by Dr.Priyadarshi.

Cow

Cows are an integral part of the farming culture and were one of the earliest domesticated animals . There are two species of Cows, namely Bos Indicus (Zebu) and Bos Taurus (Taurine). Of these Zebu cow is characterized by the hump. Evidence retrieved from the archaeological sites indicate that domestic zebu were present in Gujarat (~3500BCE) Indus Valley (~3000BCE), Ganges region (~2000BCE).  Initially it was postulated that both these cow species emerged from a common ancestor. But this research paper (1994) concluded, based on mtDNA analysis, that there were two independent  domestication of cattle with Zebu cattle evolving distinctly from the Taurine cattle. Subsequently this paper (2009) on Zebu cattle examined samples from 19 Asiatic countries to determine the exact geographical origins of Zebu domestication. It reports that Indus Valley to be the area where domestication of Bos Indicus happened.

Hence, the nucleotide diversity estimates for the I1 and I2 haplogroups presented here are consistent with the Indian subcontinent having served as the center of origin for modern domestic zebu cattle. Furthermore, we used bootstrap tests of significance (Manly 1997) to test for the effect of regional sample size on genetic diversity. For each group, we generated 10,000 replicates using sample sizes of n = 40, 100, and 200. The P values were estimated as the fraction of bootstrap samples in which nucleotide diversity was lower than the observed one. In all cases, the observed genetic diversity fell within the 95% interval of the bootstrap distribution (P > 0.05), suggesting that differences in sample size do not affect the estimates of genetic diversity presented here.

Now that the origin of Zebu cow is established, it would be worthwhile to trace the presence of the Zebu in other areas, more particularly Central Asia. This paper on Maternal and Paternal genealogy of Taurine cattle (2009) “mtDNA data indicates that the Ukrainian and Central Asian regions are zones where hybrids between taurine and zebu (B. indicus) cattle have existed. This zebu influence appears to have subsequently spread into southern and southeastern European breeds”. This research paper on Primitive European Cattle Breeds finds that the Balkan and Italian (BAI) breeds have a Zebu ancestry and these were the ones with the lowest number of aurochs (wild cattle) related DNA. These were supposed to have been brought by Yamnaya herders.

This article in fao site on Zebus and Zeboids  records archaeological evidence of Indicus cows in Central Asia.

A particularly important role in determining the time when zebu first appeared in Central Asia is assigned to the archaeological excavations at Kaunchip (Uzbekistan). V.I. Gromova (1940) writes: “Noteworthy is the presence of zebu, which is confirmed by the finding of the bifid spinous process of a thoracic vertebra of a young animal; no other ungulate animal except zebu has such a bifid spinous process”. This find permits us to assume that the true zebu appeared in Central Asia during 3000 to 2500 years B.C. It also confirms the view once expressed by Frederiks who believed that zebu had appeared in Turkestan before they came to Mesopotamia or at least they spread into the two regions at the same time.

From the material presented here, it is evident that Zebu cows had spread from around the Indus Valley into Central Asia, Mesopotamia rather than the other way around. Since these cows were domestic animals the human migration in that direction seems more plausible.

Life and Times in Vedas.

This book analyzes RigVeda from the perspective of lives in the times of Vedas and finds it to be arable farming based society and not a pastoral society. Earlier books of RigVeda mentions primitive dams for irrigation and controlling flows and digging of channels.

Reference to arable farming, growing crops in prepared fields, is available in earlier books of RigVeda. Later books mention ploughing and rituals, aspects such as measures, fences etc.  Older books also mention about roads.

Today the onset of spring is a major festival in most places but in RigVedic times this importance was reserved for rainy season, demonstrating the importance of rains to the civilization. Interestingly in the earliest books there are hymns requesting rains to stop, but in the later books like RV 1,10 there is mention about wells, and water being drawn from them using equipment. This can be indicative of the worsening water situation and the necessity for fetching water from underground. Complete list of all water-bodies makes its first appearance in YajurVeda. This is consistent with the recent study which postulates a 900 year drought to be the reason for the dwindling water resources in the Indus-Saraswati river systems.

Summary

The genetic research as well as archaeological finds of  animals and plants referenced in the Vedas, seem to indicate the region of the Vedic Civilization to be in the Saraswati-Indus valley region. The research also indicates a possibility of migrations from this area to the West and North leading to the spread of Zebu ancestry to Central Asia. New data from the horse genetics has shaken the foundations of one of the key tenets of the AIT/AMT, namely the Steppe hypothesis of horse domestication and their subsequent introduction to South Asia. Research on Ancient DNA too is increasingly coming up with observations of a northward migration co-terminus with a southward migration. The history of human migrations continues to be an evolving field with newer research having the potential to alter the understanding of South Asian history.

https://knowstorm.wordpress.com/2018/05/27/plant-animal-genetics-and-the-indo-european-migrations/

IS THE GENETIC STUDY ON INDIAN POPULATION BEING GERRYMANDERED?

APRIL 9, 2018 SREEDHARAN

Every few months a new genetic study crops up and there is a slew of articles that proclaim the debate on the “Peopling of India” is settled. As discussed in the previous blog, a migration of few people in a long series of migrations should not merit such attention. But this specific migration of Vedic Aryans is the foundation on which the policy and politics of Idea of India survives. Hence it is understandable that genetic studies on the “Peopling of India” gathers so much attention.

So this round of articles in media were triggered by a research paper in pre-print named the Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia. This research has analyzed ancient DNA, which is the DNA extracted from human remains from archaeological finds, along with contemporary samples to answer the questions related to genetic make up of South and Central Asians. The only representative ancient sample for South Asia happens to come from the Swat Valley and these too are relatively not that ancient. RakhiGarhi a pre Indus Valley settlement from where Ancient DNA samples, dated to 4600 years ago (~2600 BCE), have been collected, is not part of the study. For a moment let us ignore this and look at the important conclusions from this study on Genomic Formation,

• A mixture of AASI, Indus_Periphery, and Steppe_MLBA fits South Asians.
• Reject BMAC as a primary source of ancestry in South Asians. Instead of being a source for South Asia, the BMAC received admixture from South Asia.
• A distinctive ancestry type— 14%-42% AASI ancestry between 3100-2200 BCE in ancient DNA samples from Gonur in BMAC and Eastern Iran
• BMAC had little if any Steppe pastoralist ancestry of the type that is ubiquitous in South Asia today.
• By 1600 BCE in Kazakh Steppe, there were numerous individuals with admixture from Turan, providing genetic evidence of northward movement into the Steppe. Around this time southward movement from Steppe also noticed.
• Much of the formation of both the ASI and ANI occurred in the 2nd millennium BCE around the decline of the IVC.
• The ASI were not a clade with the earlier hunter-gatherer populations of South Asia (AASI), but harbored significant amounts of ancestry related to early Iranian agriculturalists,likely transmitted though the IVC.

The picture above maps approximately the areas described in the paper as well as some locations of interest. The Brown Starsindicate places where AASI were found in ancient samples. The Orange stars are those places where Iranian farmer ancestry was found suggesting a northward migration into Steppes. This picture would also be useful in understanding the discussion to follow. (The image can be opened in a new tab to view it more clearly).

The coverage in the media started with this article in Quint “How we, the Indians, came to be” authored by Tony Joseph. Emphasis of Tony’s  article is on ancestry of custodians of Vedas, nee Brahmins, and that of ASI Dravidian population. So the focus of this article also is on these two topics.

The conventional academic view of the “Peopling of India” places so much emphasis on Aryan Invasion/Migration. Before discussing the alternative viewpoints, it would be instructive to look at whether the scholars who believed in these race theories continued to stick on to their beliefs during later part of their lives. It is Max Mueller who is credited with the introducing of the term Aryan Race in English language.  Later on he  was the one who unequivocally condemned the use of Arya as a Racial term. Here is the relevant excerpt from the book Biographies of Words And The Home of The Aryas

Since Vedas were supposed to be the Aryan import into India, the dating of Vedas was contested even during Max Muellers time. Yielding to those critics, Max Mueller acknowledged that “whether the Vedic hymns were composed 1000 or 2000 or 3000 years BC, no power on earth will ever determine“. Even during his time  he had accepted 3000 BCE as a probable date of Vedas based on Babylonian finds.

It is surprising that neither the words “the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought” nor the acceptance of the dating of Vedas to an earlier period by Max Mueller seem to have been acknowledged in research papers.

There are other scholars who have tried to arrive at timelines for Vedas using methods, like  linguistics, archaeology, astronomical codes embedded in Vedas, archaeo-astronomy and so on. One such scholar, who has been using linguistics and archaeological finds to date RigVeda is Shrikant G Talageri. Apart from writing a few books on this subject, he also maintains a blog and actively responds to people who ask questions. Each of his books and articles also mentions the arguments put forward by his critics and his explanations there of.

Talageri’s works would be used as the reference to answer questions on Vedic civilization. Genetic studies  on diverse Indian population groups forms the basis for   discussing Vedic Brahmin ancestry and ASI ancestry.

Following are some of Shrikant G Talageri‘s conclusions which are discussed in his book Rigveda and the Avesta: Final Evidence. These are also discussed in part 2 and part 3 of a series of articles titled the “The Recorded History of the Indo-European Migrations”

1. The RigVedic period can be classified into Early, Middle and Late Rigvedic periods based on linguistic analysis, geographical, details of objects mentioned etc.
2. Geographical data in the Rigveda shows the Vedic Aryans long settled in the area to the east of the Sarasvati.
3. Early Rigvedic period which were composed in areas of northern India which show no acquaintance with more western areas.
4. Proto Iranians long settled in what is now  Northern Pakistan.
5. Dating of the Mitanni kingdom in northern Iraq/Syria to at least 1460-1330 BCE and even earlier dating of the Kassite conquestof Mesopotamia by at least 1677 BCE.
6. Indo Aryan elements in the Mittani and Kassite records are cultural elements found in later RigVedic Periods
7. There were many tribes mentioned in the RigVeda of which Puru tribe is associated with Vedic Indo Aryans and has contributed to one of the Proto IE dialects.
8. The Anu and Druhyu tribes were to the west of Purus and are candidates for the 10 other Proto IE dialects.
9. Yadu-s, Turvasu-s and Iksvaku-s were the tribes towards South and East of Puru’s
10. There were two waves of emigrations. The first one is of Druhyu-s  from what is North Pakistan today to what is Afghanistan today which had commenced during Pre RigVeda period.
11. The second is the Anu from what is Kashmir and adjoining areas to the west expanded into erstwhile Druhyu territories within the Rigvedic period.

The Geography of Vedic civilization

Aryan Invasion/Migration theory postulates that  emigrants from South Russia, settled down in Central Asia, where they developed a joint culture. Later, they separated from each other, and migrated into Middle east and South Asia respectively, where Rigveda and the Avesta, both representing the separate developments of the earlier culture developed

Image of Indo Aryan Migration  By Joshua Jonathan – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0

A picture is worth a thousand words and the  animated gif above pictorially represents the Indo Aryan migrations. What is interesting is that BMAC is that path in the migration from Steppes where the Mittani and, Vedic split happened, which then led to subsequent expansions.

Talageri in his books and articles places the geographical position of the Early Vedic Civilization to the east of Saraswati River, with westward migrations of the tribes over the period RigVeda was composed. He also acknowledges the presence of proto-Iranians in areas that constitute what is Northern Pakistan today.

Interestingly the research paper states that the BMAC is not a source for South Asia but received admixture from South Asia. This means that there was an outward migration from South Asia to BMAC, which is inline with what Talageri seems to imply. One other observation is that Steppe_MLBA (Steppe Middle Late Bronze Age 2000-1400 BCE) which was carried by people from Steppe to South Asia seems to have bypassed BMAC. Both these findings refute the possibility of BMAC being the cradle for earliest Vedic civilization.

The Dating of Vedas & Migrations

Talageri has conservatively dated the RigVedas to a period between 3000 BCE to 2000 BCE. The basis is the firm dating of Mittani records. The RigVeda dates are estimated from this base date. This dating of the RigVeda coincides with  the time when Indus Valley civilization was flourishing. As per Talageri The RigVedic people were in Northwestern India a point of time when all the 12 branches of Indo European languages were in contiguous locations. The geography and timeline of the Vedic civilization is summarized in the below mentioned quote of Talageri.

It is in this Early Period of the Rigveda, in the early third millennium BCE at the most conservative estimate, that the testimony of the geographical data in the Rigveda shows the Vedic Aryans long settled in the area to the east of the Sarasvatī, and the proto Iranians (let alone certain other Indo-European groups identified by us in the last chapter, and in our earlier books) long settled in the central parts of the Land of the Seven Rivers in present-day northern Pakistan.

These time-space correlates, at reasonably conservative estimates, place the joint IndoIranians exactly in, and all over, the area of the Harappan civilization, exactly in the period of the heyday of that civilization. These time-space correlates are based on solid chronological evidence from West Asia, and massive textual evidence from the Rigveda and the Avesta,

Interestingly, the research paper has found outliers in Turan and Eastern Iran with significant AASI component dated to 3100-2200 BCE and has considered them as Indus_Valley_Periphery samples. According to the research paper Indus_Valley_Periphery is one of the prime contributors to the ANI and ASI populations and that the admixture which resulted in these populations also happened about 2000 BCE. AASI being purely South Asian in origin, presence of such ancestry in Turan signifies an outward migrationfrom South Asia into Turan and Eastern Iran.

A recent research by IIT Kharagpur has concluded that Indus Valley civilization experienced an unprecedented drought of 900 years(from about 2350 BCE to 1450 BCE).  If the Aryan migration is dated to 1500 BCE, the importance of river Saraswati and Sapta-Sindhu references in RigVeda cannot be justified as this area would have been dry by that time. Even in 2000 BCE this area was approximately  in the middle of the 900 year drought. The presence of proto-Iranians in northern Pakistan and migration of Anu-s and Druhyu-s can explain the presence of Indus_Valley_Periphery in Turan

So with the Vedic civilization being in the same time period as IVC and being co-located in the IVC area, the possibility of a infusion of Vedic civilization from outside  does not seem logical.

Any civilization is not just about humans alone. It is also about crops, animals and other objects. It would be instructive to study references of these in RigVeda and compare it with genetic studies of animals and plants. As it is a fairly wide and independent topic by itself,  I intend to analyze this in a subsequent article.

The Steppe_MLBA mystery

Tony concludes, based on Genomic formation research paper, that ASI can be seen as a mixture of Iranian Agriculurists and South Asian hunter gatherers, which seems to imply  that Steppe_MLBA portion is absent in ASI. As per researchers  Steppe_MLBA  (2000 to 1400 BCE) rather than Steppe EMBA is considered as one of the components of the Indian population because Haplogroup R1a which is of the Z93 subtype common in South Asia today was of high frequency in Steppe_MLBA (68%), but rare in  Steppe_EMBA. Research paper also indicates that North Indian Brahmins have an elevated ratio of Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery related ancestry.

An interesting study of the origins of the R1a haplogroup with many samples from India along with samples from other regions, had come up with data  that the R1a* had local origins and was well represented across caste groups. Hence ASI to have no contribution from Steppe_MLBA does not seem plausible. Admixture and diversity analysis to determine the relative contribution of the hybrid population, which found Central Asian and Indian Brahmin R1a  as source population as the best fit for contributions to the European R1a component(Model 3).

In another research paper investigating a rare R1a1 Y-haplogroup L657 found in Goud Saraswat Brahmins the researchers show that the parental Z93 L342.2 subclade in which LPKSTR occurs originated in West Asia and that “LPKSTR individuals migrated toward the southeast by a Bolan Pass route distinct from the traditionally presumed route of Brahmin ingress into the Indian subcontinent. The proposed migration route is supported by archeological, toponymic, numismatic, linguistic, iconographic, and literary data.”

In a book named The Last Prabhu  by Bernardo D’Souza,  the author took a genetic test to trace his ancestry. He has a Saraswat Brahmin Christian lineage He has traced the migration of his ancestors from Mesapotamia to Saraswati river and then to Kashmir and then eventually to Konkan. Family Tree DNA placed him in J2b2 haplogroup. Incidentally J2 is found higher in Maratha males than in other Brahmin communities. Even within Goa, haplogroup H and L are found, albeit rarely, in persons with Brahmin ancestry. Surprisingly, these haplogroups are associated with early migrants to India about 30,000 ya.

In an study, conducted on Tribal and Caste population of Tamil Nadu, the genetic diversity as well as presence of R1a across castes and tribes is discussed. The study also concludes that the population differentiation predated the caste system. Here is a relevant quote from this study.

Coalescence analysis suggested that the social stratification was established 4–6 Kya and there was little admixture during the last 3 Kya, implying a minimal genetic impact of the Varna (caste) system from the historically-documented Brahmin migrations into the area. In contrast, the overall Y-chromosomal patterns, the time depth of population diversifications and the period of differentiation were best explained by the emergence of agricultural technology in South Asia. These results highlight the utility of detailed local genetic studies within India, without prior assumptions about the importance of Varna rank status for population grouping, to obtain new insights into the relative influences of past demographic events for the population structure of the whole of modern India.

In summary, Z93 is so enigmatic that various researches throw up various regions as their purported origin. In the case of D’Souza it turns out that Z93 is not even present. Even assuming that Z93 is exclusive to North Indian Brahmins,  the question would be how caste barriers were broken to accommodate Brahmins from other areas. Also interesting is how Saraswat Brahmins hailing from a small geographical area like Goa have such variety in their genetic make up. In light of these, it would too early to conclude on the migrations and their definitive impact on the social structure.

The Alternate Scenario

Just for a moment if we consider that Steppe_MLBA originated in India, then the suggestion that European R1a component came from Central Asian and Indian Brahmin component makes sense. The admixture into BMAC also can be explained. Further the dates that Shrikant Talegiri comes up with based on linguistic analysis for migration also fits into the timeframe of Steppe_MLBA. It can also explain the Northward migration from Turan to Steppes that happened about the same time as the southward migration of people carrying Steppe_MLBA as mentioned in the research paper.

The Rakhigarhi surprise?

Dr.Niraj Rai was part of the team involved with analysis of DNA of Rakhigarhi samples. His name also figures in the research paper that Tony cites. Jagaran  has published that Dr.Niraj Rai has told them that DNA of the human remains from Rakhigarhi matches with North Indian Brahmins and that these results are about to be published. It also claims that the spread of Indo European languages happened from India.

Assuming that Rakhigarhi results get published and is similar to what is mentioned in Jagaran article, it has potential to significantly influence the discussion on whether people from Steppes stepped into India and changed its culture for ever.

Beginning of  Conclusion

The debate on how India was populated and the answer to questions on  how the culture evolved is being widely studied. However the academic scholars continue to cling on to long challenged theories. There is an effort to gerrymander conclusions from new studies into a pre-established architecture. As far as India is concerned, leading scientists feel that contemporary samples used does not quiet reflect the genetic diversity of India. We still do not have an ancient IVC sample in any of the studies. The studies on “Peopling of India” is an evolving field. To claim that the puzzles in the population of India is settled is nothing but fantasy.

References:

The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture The Indo Aryan Migration debate  – Edwin Bryant

Biographies of Words and The Home of the Aryas –  F. Max Mueller

Rigveda and Avesta: Final Evidence – Shrikant Talageri

Preview and Review of the book The Last Prabhu – Bernardo D Souza

The Indian origin of paternal haplogroup R1a1* substantiates the autochthonous origin of Brahmins and the caste system –

Desmond D. Mascarenhas, Anupuma Raina, Christopher E. Aston, and Dharambir K. Sanghera, “Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage,” BioMed Research International, vol. 2015, Article ID 651415, 16 pages, 2015. doi:10.1155/2015/651415

Population Differentiation of Southern Indian Male Lineages Correlates with Agricultural Expansions Predating the Caste System

https://knowstorm.wordpress.com/2018/04/09/genetic-gerrymandering/

Bauddham in Ad Badri, cradle of Vedic Culture, Sarasvati River Basin

May 28, 2018, 5:26 am

≫ Next: Archaeology, geology & metallurgy of Kannada word ukku (wootz), crucible steel, an advanced material invented in Sarasvati Civilization

≪ Previous: Plant, animal genetics and gerrymandered genetics on 'peopling of India'-- K.S Sreedharan

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Posted at: May 26, 2018, 12:53 AM; last updated: May 26, 2018, 12:53 AM (IST)

Buddhism in cradle of Vedic culture

Mahatma Buddha visited Aadi Badri, the rising place of the Saraswati river and close to Sugh, where Vedic Rishis had meditatedA picture of the ancient mound at Sugh village captured using a drone.Sati memorials (a place of worship) at the ancient mound of Sugh village in Yamunanagar districtSati memorials (a place of worship) at the ancient mound of Sugh village in Yamunanagar district

Prof Mohan Maitray

Haryana, once a part of 'Sapt Sindhu Pradesh' is said to be the ‘Flag-bearer of Vedic culture’. Sages of ancient times meditated on the banks of the sacred Saraswati river and performed yajnas. Not being an abode of Har (Shiva) or Hari (Vishnu), but on account of fertility and greenery bestowed by the Saraswati, the land is known as Haryana. The sages gifted Vedas and various scriptures and the same are sources of Vedic culture. 

Buddhist thought and Vedic gospel differ in many aspects. In this context, the rise of Buddhism in the domain of Vedic culture makes an interesting reading. The region came under the influence of Buddhism during the sixth century. In fact Buddhism and Jainism were a revolt against the excessive Vedic rituals and animal sacrifices in the yajnas. Later on Sikh Gurus—Guru Nanak Dev and Guru Gobind Singh—on their visit to Kurukshetra on the eve of solar eclipse, raised their voice against superstitions creeping into the ancient religion.

Haryana has a number of important pre-Harappan and Harappan civilization sites at different places. Here we also have 22 ancient Buddhist sites having the potential to be listed as protected heritage monuments. The Buddha delivered his important sermons-Mahasati Patthana Sutta, Mgandkiya Sutta, Ananjujay Sutta and Mahanidan Sutta   in different parts of Haryana. The Buddha, according to Buddhist texts, visited Sugh (Yamunanagar) and the fact is endorsed by archaeological evidence. Historians claim that the Buddha along with his disciple Ananda travelled through Haryana on the Mathura-Taxila trade route and reached Gandhara.

The old mound of Sugh lies in an area of 12 km and the town was located at a height of 15 metres on the mound. According to General Cunningham, said to be the father of Indian archaeology, Sugh occupies a remarkable position in his researches. In shape it is almost triangular with a large projecting foot on citadel at each of the angles. The Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, who visited the area in the seventeenth century, mentions the village as ‘Srughana’. It has been said to be the capital of the country relating to the later part of the Hindu history. Hwen Thsang claims that Srughana (Sugh was a seat of considerable learning both Buddhist and Brahmanical. Panini, an ancient scholar, mentions three centres of higher learning in the country—Taxila, Nalanda and Sugh. Students of the Sugh centre were identified as “Sugnees”. People from abroad, even from Muslim countries, came to Sugh for study in the fields of astrology, philosophy and comparative religion.

During the rainy season pottery of the earlier times, coins relating to various kings and old idols of Lord Hanuman can be located in various corners of the mound of Sugh. Some idols have been preserved in the Museum and Art Gallery in Chandigarh. General Cunningham discovered from this place about 125 old coins—Chohan and Tunar, Rajas of Delhi and Mughal period. Broken bricks of large size 9½ to 10½ inches broad and 2½ to 3½ inches thick were also discovered. These finds may enable the researchers to reconstruct the history of the region.

Mahatma Buddha, according to researchers, also visited Aadi Badri, the rising place of the Saraswati river and close to Sugh, where Vedic Rishis had meditated. In excavation of the areas Buddha vihars and stupas have been located here. These outnumber all the remains located in other parts of Haryana. It is said that at one time 1,000 to 3,000 monks resided here. The stupas relate to the period 1500 to 1800 years earlier. A rare beautiful monastery located here presents a magnificent image of Buddha. A few cells meant for meditation are also a part of the complex. Two ancient stupas have also been located in Chaneti ( 3 km from Sugh in Yamunanagar) and Assandh (Karnal). Chaneti stupa, eight metres in height and having a diameter of 20 metres is said to be the contribution of King Ashoka. It is the oldest stupa of north India. The remains of a stupa have been found near Brahmasarovar, Kurukshetra. Agroha stupa has a rectangular base but the upper portion is domelike. Relics found at Topra are also spectacular.

The whole area around Aadi Badri needs to be projected as an ancient centre of Vedic and Buddhist culture. Kapal Mochan, Sun Temple at Amedalpur, and Aadi Badri Narain Temple, need to be developed as tourist spots. The Sun Temple here has only one other temple in the country of its stature and eminence—Konark in Odisha. The temple is unique as the first ray of the sun reaches its middle. 

Haryana shares border with Rajasthan in the west and the south. It is probable that Buddhism travelled to Rajasthan from Haryana. Buddhist relics are found in Rajasthan in the form of caves, stupas, idols and stone carvings. Stone carvings in Pali and Sanskrit have been located at Berath and Koshvardhan (Sher Ghar). The carving of Darra (Kota) is in Brahmi. Idols and stups are common in Bhadar Kali, Pir Sultan Munde (Lalsot, Rajasthan). Viharas were constructed in Kolbe (Jhalabad, Rajasthan), Gunai, Hathigor and Bhinmal.

Buddhism is a fast growing religion in the world. Conservation and preservation of the heritage needs to be the top priority of the government. 

(The writer is an educationist and author based at Panchkula)

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Tourism potential

• The whole area around Aadi Badri needs to be projected as an ancient centre of Vedic and Buddhist culture. Kapal Mochan, Sun Temple at Amedalpur, and Aadi Badri Narain Temple need to be developed as tourist spots.
• The Sun Temple here has only one other temple in the country of its stature and eminence—Konark in Odisha.

http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/weekly-pullouts/haryana-tribune/buddhism-in-cradle-of-vedic-culture/595084.html

Archaeology, geology & metallurgy of Kannada word ukku (wootz), crucible steel, an advanced material invented in Sarasvati Civilization

May 28, 2018, 9:30 pm

≫ Next: Iron making in Hallur of 1100 BCE, Ukku crucible steel evidence from Junnar caves dated to 3rd cent.BCE

≪ Previous: Bauddham in Ad Badri, cradle of Vedic Culture, Sarasvati River Basin

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https://tinyurl.com/y6v6pr4w

Ukku is an advanced metallurgical material invented in Sarasvati Civilization

While recorded evidence of ukku as an advanced material is mostly related to documents from 17th century CE, the archaeological evidence for ukku traces back to the Tin-Bronze Revolution of 4th millennium BCE of the Sarasvati Civilization. 

Evidence from Indus Script Corpora, metallurgical wealth accounting data archive,metalwork catalogues of 4th millennium BCE is presented.

This monograph posits a thesis that the roots of ukku, 'crucible steel' are to be found in the Kannada word, (variant pronunciation, wootz), since ancient Kannada speakers and metalworkers lived close to the rich iron ore mines of Sahyadri ranges, near Dharwar. An expression in Samskrtam which is a synonym is semantically related to dark colour and mixing: कालयवन kâla-yavana -loha, n. iron, steel. Synonyms:  asita असित-यवन = कालयवन q. v. गुरुकोपरुद्धपदमापदसितयवनस्य रौद्रताम् Śi.15.56; असित-1 Unbound (Ved). -2 [न सितः शुभ्रः] Not white, black, dark-blue, dark-coloured; असिता मोहरजनी Śānti.3.4; Y.3.166.यवन n. ( √2. यु) mixing , mingling (esp. with water) (न्यायमाला-विस्तर).

Crucible steel button. Steel smelted from iron sand in a graphite crucible.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crucible_steel_button.jpg

I also suggest that on the Shu-ilishu cylinder seal, a significant hieroglyph is shown. It is a crucible which may have been used by the copper-tin artisans to work with an extraordinary invention called ukku in Kannada produced in a crucible. I suggest that Kannada word ukku is the root word because of semantic association signified by cognate words: uggi, urika which mean 'burning'. Crucible steel process is vividly explained by these etyma.

Hieroglyph: jump, run, fly:  A jumping tiger often shown on Indus Script corpora may signify uruku 'jump' rebus: uruku 'crucible steel'. See for e.g. the jumping tiger on Mohenjo-daro seal m0304. kola 'tiger' rebus; kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' kolle 'blacksmith' PLUS uruku 'jump' rebus: uruku 'crucible steel'.

 The orthography of uruku kola'jumping tiger' is perhaps a signifier of this etymon.

Ta. uṟukku (uṟukki-) to jump, leap over; uṟuttai squirrel. Te. uṟu to retreat, retire, withdraw; uṟuku to jump, run away; uṟuta squirrel. Konḍa uRk- to run away. Kuwi (Isr.) urk- (-it-) to dance. Cf. 590 Ka. uḍute (DEDR 713) ఉరుకు uruku uruku. [Tel.] v. i. To run: fly, start. To run out or project. To transgress. ఉరుకుడు కప్ప the flying frog. ఉరుకు బొడ్డు a projecting navel. (Telugu)

ఉక్కు ukku ukku. [Tel.] n. Steel. Strength, courage, pride, vigour, potency. అయస్సారము, బలము, శౌర్యము. Steadiness. స్థైర్యము. తెలగ ఉక్కు. A very tough sort of steel. R. v. 197. ఉక్కు తీగె ukku-tīge. n. Steel wire. ఉక్కుతునక or ఉక్కుముక్క ukku-tunaka. n. A bit of steel, a brave, sharp or active man. ఉక్కు ముఖి ukku-mukhi. n. The crimson crested barbet, or coppersmith bird, Xantholaema haemaxtocephala. (F.B.I.) ఉక్కుసున్నము ukku-sunnamu. n. Ashes of calcined iron, scoriæ calx. (Telugu) Semantic expansion of the word ukku in Telugu also relates to the processes of crushing to death and of heroism:  ఉక్కడగించు or ఉక్కడచు ukkaḍaginṭsu. v. a. To crush one's pride, to humble: to dishearten. ఉక్కడగు ukkaḍagu. (ఉక్కు+అడగు) v. To sink or faint. To be disheartened. ఉక్కరి ukk-ari. (ఉక్కు+అరి) A man, a hero. శూరుడు, ధీరుడు.

The Kannada word ukku is clearly related to the metallurgical processes of dissolution, fusing, melting of metal, as evidenced by the following etyma: Ta. uruku (uruki-) to dissolve (intr.) with heat, melt, liquefy, be fused, become tender, melt (as the heart), be kind, glow with love, be emaciated; urukku (urukki-) to melt (tr.) with heat (as metals or congealed substances), dissolve, liquefy, fuse, soften (as feelings), reduce, emaciate (as the body), destroy; n. steel, anything melted, product of liquefaction; urukkam melting of heart, tenderness, compassion, love (as to a deity, friend, or child); urukkiṉam that which facilitates the fusion of metals (as borax). Ma. urukuka to melt, dissolve, be softened; urukkuka to melt (tr.); urukkam melting, anguish; urukku what is melted, fused metal, steel. Ko. uk steel. Ka. urku, ukku id. Koḍ. ur- (uri-) to melt (intr.); urïk- (urïki-) id. (tr.); ukkï steel. Te. ukku id. Go. (Mu.) urī-, (Ko.) uṛi- to be melted, dissolved; tr. (Mu.) urih-/urh- 

(Voc. 262). Konḍa (BB) rūg- to melt, dissolve. Kui ūra (ūri-) to be dissolved; pl. action ūrka (ūrki-); rūga (rūgi-) to be dissolved. Kuwi (Ṭ.) rūy- to be dissolved; (S.) rūkhnai to smelt; (Isr.) uku, (S.) ukku steel. (DEDR 661) urukku , n. < உருக்கு-. [T. ukku, K. urku, M. urukku.] 1. Steel; எஃகு. (சூடா.) 2. Anything melted, product of liquefaction; உருக் கினபொருள். செப்புருக் கனைய (கம்பரா. கார்கா. 91); உருகு-தல் uruku-, 5 v. intr. [M. uruhu.] 1. To dissolve with heat; to melt, liquefy; to be fused; வெப்பத்தால் இளகுதல். 2. To become tender; to melt, as the heart; to be kind; to commisserate; to sympathize; to glow with love; மனநெகிழ்தல். பூண்முலையார் மன முருக (பு. வெ. 9, 41, கொளு); உருகுபதம் uruku-patam, n. < உருகு- +. Softness of condition, melting state; இளகுதற்குரிய பக்குவம். உருகுபதத்திலே வளைந்தவை (ஈடு, 1, 4, 3).(Tamil)

Magnetite Iron ore resources of Kannada-speaker region in India

Karnataka is endowed with rich deposits of iron ores; with approximately 9.03 billion tonnes or about 41% of India’s estimated total haematitic and magnetitic iron ore resources...

Magnetite iron ore: The Kudremukh and partly Bababudan iron ore belts represent massive magnetite type of ores, occurring in the form of banded magnetite quartzites. In banded magnetite quartzites, layers of iron oxides (magnetite) alternate with those of quartz. The Early Precambrian BIFs have been metamorphosed to greenschist to amphibolite facies and the ores occur mainly in the magnetite form. Most of the estimated 7.8 billion tonnes of magnetite ores reserves of Karnataka are in the Kudremukh and Bababudan ranges falling within the limits of Chikmagalur district. Magnetite type iron ores are harder compared to haematitic ores and are amenable for underground type of mining. However, in Kudremukh area, KIOCL designed a large open cast type of mine to extract the low grade magnetite ore.

Table 2.Districtwise Production of iron ores in Karnataka (in metric tonnes)

District/Year		2001-02	2002-03	2003-04	2004-05	2005-06
Bagalkot		60,140	31,045	331,378	882,334	1,150,350
Belgaum		100	0	0	500	450
Bellary		5,955,728	15,925,769	25,413,044	31,494,682	36,301,615
Chikmagalur		5,572,265	5,759,722	5,241,459	4,458,760	2922
Chitradurga		1,281,116	1,277,321	2188942	2,324,037	2,326,454
Dharwad		0	0	13,300	261,827	0
Shimoga		0	900	222,500	0	0
Tumkur		8668	205,222	1,114,005	1,687,638	1,625,481
Total		12,878,017	23,199,979	34,524,628	41,109,778	41,407,272

http://geokarnataka.blogspot.in/2007/04/iron-ore-resources-of-karnataka.html

"Wootz steel is a crucible steel characterized by a pattern of bands, which are formed by sheets of micro carbides within a tempered martensiteor pearlite matrix in higher carbon steel, or by ferrite and pearlite banding in lower carbon steels. It is the pioneering steel alloy developed in Southern India in the 6th century BC and exported globally. It was also known in the ancient world by many different names including Ukku, Hindvi Steel, Hinduwani Steel, Teling Steel and Seric Iron...Wootz steel originated in India.^[1][2] There are several ancient Tamil, Telugu, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BC,^{[citation needed]} at production sites of Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, Golconda in Telangana, Karnataka and Sri Lanka and exported globally; the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty producing what was termed the finest steel in the world, i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BC.The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz"...The Tamilakam method was to heat black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give wrought iron, then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as Avārai.The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Chera Tamils by the 5th century BC. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as Anuradhapura, Tissamaharama and 

Samanalawewa, as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period.The Arabs introduced the South Indian/Sri Lankan wootz steel to Damascus, where an industry developed for making weapons of this steel. The 12th century Arab traveler Edrisi mentioned the "Hinduwani" or Indian steel as the best in the world (Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis (1998). The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 20.)" 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wootz_steel

Picture shows 18th-century Persian-forged sword was first manufactured in the southern part of India, in Tamil Nadu, on or before 11th century, also later manufactured in Damascus. Crucible steels, such as wootz steel and Damascus steel, exhibit unique banding patterns because of the intermixed ferrite and cementite alloys in the steel. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wootz_steel#/media/File:Watered_pattern_on_sword_blade1.Iran.JPG

Kannada etyma provide vivid semantic elucidations of the word ukku which relates to working with fire and producing a new metal with unique chemical, physical and metallurgical characteristics, a lohabheda. This word ukku enters the vocabulary of almost all ancient languages of India and gains global currency in pronunciation variants such as wootz.

This monograph presents archaeological evidence from deciphered Indus Script Corpora which refers to two materials -- magnetite, ferrite ore and pōḷad 'steel') deciphered in Indus Script hypertexts/hieroglyphs:  pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore) pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: pōḷad 'steel'. While the word pōḷa signifies 'magnetite, ferrite ore', the derivative word pōḷad 

signfies a hardened ferrite alloy called 'steel'.

A vivid historical document which summarises the pinnacle of metallurgical achievement of Sarasvati Civilization is a painting in the Institute of Steel Authority of India, Ranchi. See: 

Iron in Sarasvati civilization. R̥gveda, archaeometallurgy and Indus Script iron/steel catalogues of wealth, tracing antiquity of Sanchi, Mahāvamsa ayo-kammaṭa-dvāra https://tinyurl.com/yasc8ghs 

King Puru and Alexander the Great. ca. 330 BCE. Painting in the guesthouse of the largest R&D steel laboratory in the world, the Steel Authority of India, Ranchi. "After King Puru was defeated by Alexander the Great in battle, the King gave, as a token of respect, his sword to Alexander, and behind the King his aide is carrying an additional gift, a gold container within which is a cake of Indian wootz. At the time, this steel was more prized than gold. In a more recent period, the Russian poet, Alexander Pushkin immortalized 'bulat' with a similar comparison when he wrote in 1830 the following poem: All is mine, said gold;all is mine said bulat; all I can buy said gold, all I will take, said bulat. The exact procedures used by the ancient blacksmiths in making the surface markings on genuine Damascus steel swords (it is termed 'genuine' because it is made from a single ultrahigh carbon composition casting) have been the source of much speculation."

Ukku signifies the ingot produced in the metallurgical alloying process which is subjected to forging to achieve the desired shape of a sabre, sword or knife. Thus, pōḷa signifies the ferrite mineral ore, pōḷad signifies the alloy metal using the ferrite mineral ore, ukku signifies the ingot cake produced in a crucible.

Ukku, ingot or cake of Crucible steel http://www.Bladesmithsforum.com   

पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu' rebus: पोळा [ pōḷā ] rebus: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, Fe3O4'. The word for magnetite ore [pōḷa] gave the root for the famed crucible wootz steel called [pōlāda] n ( or P)  [pōlādi]  'steel'. A variant expression iin Russian is:  bulat 'steel'.

Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE. Cf. Fig. 2.18, J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Cat. No. 8.

http://www.guimet.fr/La-mission-archeologique-de-l,636 

loc. cit. http://www.waa.ox.ac.uk/XDB/tours/indus6.asp 

Hypertexs पोळ pōḷa 'zebu'& pōlaḍu 'black drongo' signify polad 'steel

Mohenjo-daro Seals m1118 and Kalibangan 032, glyphs used are: Zebu (bos taurus indicus), fish, four-strokes (allograph: arrow). ayo 'fish' (Mu.) rebus: aya 'iron' 

(Gujarati) ayas 'alloy metal' (Rgveda)  gaṇḍa 'four' kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus:khaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS poḷa ‘zebu' rebus polad 'steel'poḷa ‘magnetite ore'. Thus, the Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan seals inMeluhha Sarasvati Script cipher, signify plain-text message: poḷa ‘magnetite ore' PLUS ayas 'alloy 

Ukku, a word which has its roots in Dharwar iron ore belt and originated in Kannada was wrongly pronounced as wootz. Ukku is the first invented form by artisans of ancient Inid, of extraordinary metallurgical excellence called crucible steel.

Archaeological investigations of ukku steel

"Some of the archaeological and analytical evidence for crucible steel production is discussed covering the investigations of Rao [K. N. P. Rao, Wootz-Indian Crucible Steel, Feature Article. No.1, Metal News, 11 , (1989), pp. 1-6.], Rao et al. [K. N. P Rao, J. K. Mukherjee, and A. K. Lahiri, Some observations on the structure of ancient steel from south India and its mode of production, Bulletin of Historical Metallurgy, 4, (1970), pp. 12-4.], Lowe [T. L. Lowe, Solidification and the crucible processing of Deccani ancient steel. In Trivedi, R., Sekhar, J. A. and Mazumdar, J. (Eds.), Principles of Solidification and Materials Processing, Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi, Vol. 2, (1989),pp. 639-739; T. L. Lowe, Refractories in high-carbon iron processing: a preliminary study of Deccani wootz-making crucibles, In Kingery, W. D. (ed.), Ceramics and Civilization, The American Ceramic Society, Pittsburgh, 4(1990), pp. 237-50.], Srinivasan [S. Srinivasan, Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India, Papers from the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, 5 (1994), pp. 49-61.] and Srinivasan and Griffiths [S. Srinivasan and D. Griffiths, South Indian wootz: evidence for high-carbon steel from crucibles from a newly identified site and preliminary comparisons with related finds. Material Issues in Art and Archaeology-V, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings Series Vol. 462, Pittsburgh, (1997)]. These indicate that the crucible processes for steel production were spread over large parts of south India...The findings reported in Srinivasan, (opcit.) and Srinivasan and Griffiths [opcot/] are hence significant in that they prove beyond doubt that high-carbon steels were indeed made by crucible processes in south India. Studies by Srinivasan and Griffiths (opcit.) also indicated that temperatures of over 1400⁰ C had indeed been reached inside the crucibles to melt the wrought iron and carburise it to get a molten high-carbon steel with the typical hypereutectoid structure on solidification...Conclusions. The above review indicates that the reputation of wootz steel as an exceptional and novel material is one that has endured from early history right into the present day, with the story of the endeavours to study it in recent history being nearly as intriguing as the story of its past. The archaeological findings indicate that crucible steel does have an ancient history in the Indian subcontinent where it took roots as suggested by literary references, while the analytical investigations indicate that a high-grade ultra-high carbon steel was indeed produced by crucible processes in south India. Recent investigations on the properties of the ultra-high carbon wootz steel such as superplasticity justify it being called an advanced material of the ancient world with not merely a past but also perhaps a future." (S. Srinivasan and S. Ranganathan, WOOTZ STEEL: AN ADVANCED MATERIAL OF THE ANCIENT WORLD, Bangalore, Indian Institute of Science)http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm

History of the world-class metallurgical technology of ukku steel

Sharada Srinivasan and S Ranganathan provide a succint account of the awe with which Europeans marveled at the technology of ukku steel and how attempts were made during 17th to 19th centuries to replicate this technological marvel called ukku, 'crucible steel'.

"Several European travellers including Francis Buchanan [F. Buchanan, A Journey from Madras Through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, Vol. I, II, II, London (1807).] and Voysey [H. W. Voysey, Description of the native manufacture of steel in southern India. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1 (1832), pp. 245-7.] from the 17th century onwards observed the manufacture of steel in south India by a crucible process at several locales including Mysore, Malabar and Golconda. By the late 1600s shipments running into tens of thousands of wootz ingots were traded from the Coromandel coast to Persia. This indicates that the production of wootz steel was almost on an industrial scale in what was still an activity predating the Industrial Revolution in Europe. Indeed the word wootz is a corruption of the word for steel ukku in many south Indian languages. Indian wootz ingots are believed to have been used to forge Oriental Damascus swords which were reputed to cut even gauze kerchiefs and were found to be of a very high carbon content of 1.5-2.0% and the best of these were believed to have been made from Indian steel in Persia and Damascus according to Smith [C. S. Smith, A History of Metallography, University Press, Chicago (1960).]. Some of the finest swords and artefacts of Damascus steel seen in museums today are from the Ottoman region i.e. Turkey...It may be mentioned however that the term Damascus steel can refer to two different types of artefacts, one of which is the true Damascus steel which is a high carbon alloy with a texture originating from the etched crystalline structure, and the other is a composite structure made by welding together iron and steel to give a visible pattern on the surface. Although both were referred to as Damascus steels, Smith [C. S. Smith, A Search for Structure, MIT Press, Cambridge (1981)] has clarified that the true Damascus steels were not replicated in Europe until 1821...The legends associated with the excellent properties of the wootz steel and the beautiful patterns on Damascus blades caught the imagination of European scientists in the 17th-19th centuries since the use of high-carbon iron alloys was not really known previously in Europe and hence played an important role in the development of modern metallurgy. British, French and Russian metallography developed largely due to the quest to document this structure. Similarly the textured Damascus steel was one of the earliest materials to be examined by the microstructure...Although iron and steel had been used for thousands of years the role of carbon in steel as the dominant element was found only in 1774 by the Swedish chemist Tobern Bergman, and was due to the efforts of Europeans to unravel the mysteries of wootz. Tobern Bergman was able to determine that the compositions of cast iron, steel and wrought iron varied due to the composition of 'plumbago' i.e. graphite or carbon. In the early 1800s, following the descriptions of crucible steel making in south India by the European travellers, there was a spurt in interest in Europe in investigating south Indian wootz steel, from which the fabled Damascus blades were known to be made, with the aim of reproducing it on an industrial scale. Mushet-s [D. Mushet, Experiments on wootz or Indian steel, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, Ser. A. 95 (1804), p. 175.] studies in 1804 were one of the first to correctly conclude that there was more carbon in wootz than in steel from England, although this idea did not gain currency until later. Michael Faraday [M. Faraday, An analysis of wootz or Indian steel, Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts, 7 (1819), pp. 319-30.], the inventor of electricity and one of the greatest of the early experimenters and material scientists, as pointed out by Peter Day [Peter Day, Michael Faraday as materials scientist, History of Materials, Materials World, 1995], was also fascinated by wootz steel and enthusiastically studied it. Along with the cutler Stodart, Faraday attempted to study how to make Damascus steel and they incorrectly concluded that aluminium oxide and silica additions contributed to the properties of the steel and their studies were published in 1820 [J. Stodart and M. Faraday, On the Alloys of Steel, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Ser. A, 112 (1822), pp. 253-70.]. They also attempted to make steel by alloying nickel and noble metals like platinum and silver and indeed Faraday's studies did show that that the addition of noble metals hardens steel. Stodart [J. Stodart, A brief account of wootz, Asiatic Journal, 5 (1818)] reported that wootz steel had a very fine cutting edge. Following this the interest in Damascus steel moved to France. Wadsworth and Sherby [J. Wadsworth, and O. D. Sherby, On the Bulat-Damascus steels revisited, Progress in Materials Science, 25 (1980), pp. 35-67.] have pointed out that Faraday's research made a big impact in France where steel research on weapons thrived in the Napoleonic period. The struggle to characterize the nature of wootz steel is well reflected in the efforts of Breant [J. Stodart, A brief account of wootz, Asiatic Journal, 5 (1818)] in the 1820's from the Paris mint who conducted an astonishing number of about 300 experiments adding a range of elements ranging from platinum, gold. silver, copper, tin, zinc, lead, bismuth, manganese, arsenic, boron and even uranium, before he finally also came to the conclusion that the properties of Damascus steel were due to 'carburetted' steel. Smith  has indicated that the analysis of ingots of wootz steel made in the 180's showed them to have over 1.3% carbon. The Russian Anasoff [P. Anassoff, On the Bulat, reprinted in Annuire du Journal des Mines de Russie, (1843), pp. 192-236.] also studied the process of manufacturing wootz steel and succeeded in making blades of Damascus steel by the early 1800's.In the early 1900's wootz steel continued to be studied as a special material and its properties were better understood...Belaiew [N. T. Belaiew, Damascene steel, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 97 (1918), pp. 417-37.] reported that blades of such steel to cut a gauze handkerchief in midair. In 1912, Robert Hadfield [R. Hadfield, Sinhalese iron and steel of ancient origin, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 85 (1912).] who studied crucible steel from Sri Lanka recorded that Indian wootz steel was far superior to that previously produced in Europe. Indeed in the 18th-19th century special steels were produced in Europe as crucible steels, as discussed by Barraclough [K Barraclough, Crucible steel: The growth of technology, The Metals Society, London (1984)]....Such (crucible) steels Such steels had to be forged, however, in a narrow range of 850-650⁰ C and not at the white heat of 1200⁰ C to get the desired fine grain structure and plasticity. In fact as pointed out in an appraisal of Indian crucible steel making by Rao [K. N. P. Rao. Unpublished monograph. Wootz-Indian crucible steel. An appraisal. Scientific Investigation of Ancient Metal Working of Copper and Iron in Karnataka, Indian Institute of World Culture, Bangalore.], and in a review of ancient iron and steel in India by Biswas [A. K. Biswas, Iron and steel in pre-modern India- a critical review, Indian Journal of History of Science, 29 (1994), pp. 579-610.], the early European blacksmiths failed to duplicate Damascus blades because they were in the practice of forging only low carbon steels at white heat, which have a higher melting point. Biswas (ibid.) mentions that the forging of wootz at high heat would have led to the dissolution of the cementite phase in austenite so that the steels were found to be brittle enough to crumble under the hammer. While it is not yet known how fully the superplastic or superformable properties of this steel were exploited by the ancient blacksmiths of West Asia and India, accounts indicate that they were certainly able to manipulate the alloy with a skill that could not be easily replicated by the European experimenters of the 19th century. Indeed the swords of Damascus steel were reported to have high strength and ductility. Nevertheless, whereas the links between the patterns on the traditional Damascus blades and the crystalline structure of ultra-high carbon steels have been better established, the mechanical properties of the traditional Damascus blades and the degree of exploitation of the unique properties of the steel are less well understood...the experimental simulations by Verhoeven et al. [J. D. Verhoeven, A. H. Pendray, and E. D. Gibson, Wootz Damascus Steel Blades, Materials Characterization 37 (1996), pp. 9-22.] served to monitor in detail the thermal cycles and cooling curves and composition so as to be able to arrive at a final product which matched that of Damascus blades and to understand the mechanism of formation of the pattern of aligned bands on the blades, which is reported by them to be produced by a carbide banding mechanism which was found to be assisted by the addition of P, S along with V, Cr, and Ti. " (S. Srinivasan and S. Ranganathan, WOOTZ STEEL: AN ADVANCED MATERIAL OF THE ANCIENT WORLD, Bangalore, Indian Institute of Science)http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm

Wootz Steel as the Acme of Mankind’s Metallurgical Heritage 

“Wootz was the first high-quality steel made anywhere in the world. According to reports of travelers to the East, the Damascus swords were made by forging small cakes of steel that were manufactured in Southern India. This steel was called wootz steel. It was more than a thousand years before steel as good was made in the West.” -J. D. Verhoeven and A. Pendray, Muse, 1998

India's legendary wootz steel http://met.iisc.ernet.in/~rangu/text.pdf

:"The Mystery of the Damascus Sword " by John Verhoeven and. Alfred Pendray appeared in Muse, Volume 2, Number 2, pp. 35-43, April 1998 
https://tinyurl.com/hewlxyo

(This remarkable document is embedded for ready reference). https://www.scribd.com/document/380383198/Mystery-of-the-Damascus-Sword-J-Verhoeven-a-Pendray-1998

The metal was called crucible steel. This new metal was stronger than any other metal that was being used in the time period. Crucible steel lasted from 300 BCE to 1900 CE.

Indian Crucible Steel

    India invented crucible steel around 300 B.C. and had a big effect on the way that India advanced to where it is now. During the time period that crucible steel was being used it was the best steel in the world. This gave India the ability to make much stronger weapons than any other country.

Process of Making Crucible Steel

    There were three processes in which to make crucible steel in ancient times. The three ways were carburization of wrought iron, decarburization of wrought iron, and mixing of wrought and cast iron.

Crucible Steel Superiority

    Crucible steel was the best and highest quality steel back then until modern day steel was made. The key factors that crucible steel had that other steels didn’t have were, the steel had a high impact hardness, ultra-high carbon steel exhibiting properties, it was placed in clay bowls then put into a pit then fuel was lit and used to air blast the steel, and the swords made from crucible steel could bend at a 90 degree angle.

Products

    The products that were made from crucible steel that influenced military strength were swords, daggers, and armour. The swords that were made were called crucible steel swords. Crucible steel blades helped in the battles that India fought.

"Secrets behind Historic Indian Sword Revealed."

Http://www.newsroompost.com  

Help in combat

The armour that was worn by the soldiers was important when they were fighting in the front line against the enemy soldiers. Daggers were used as a secondary weapon in combat. The swords could cut through a helmet clean and come back out undamaged.

"Battle of the Hydaspes." 

Https://en.wikipedia.org 

Importance

    Crucible steel was a very important invention in India and South Asia because many surrounding countries wanted to have the type of steel that India had. Since there was a great demand for crucible steel, India started to trade with neighboring countries along the silk road.

https://sites.google.com/a/brvgs.k12.va.us/wh-15-sem-1-ancient-india-gm/crucible-steel

Russian archaeologists find oldest crucible steel weapon in East Europe

April 21, 2015, Russian Academy of Sciences

Sometimes old friends give you a surprise. Russian archaeologists were conducting a routine examination of an old sabre unearthed seven years ago in Yaroslavl, when it turned out to be oldest crucible steel weapon in East Europe.

"It was a highly unexpected and exciting find," said Dr. Asya Engovatova from the RAS Institute of Archaeology, who lead the research. "We were analysing a fragment of a sabre that had already been in the Yaroslavl State Museum over seven years – and discovered it was a unique artifact."

The sabre was unearthed by Engovatova and her colleagues in 2007 at an excavation site in the historic centre of the city of Yaroslavl, alongside the Dormition Cathedral. The site is a mass grave of city defenders and civilians slaughtered by Batu Khan's invaders on a single day 1238.

"The site contains comprehensive evidence of the atrocity committed that day. We found numerous skeletons of murdered women and children, many household objects like dishes, jewelery, many weapons items - and this sabre," Engovatova said.

The metallographic methods used in the analysis revealed that the sword was made from crucible steel. The technology used to produce steel of this kind was first perfected in India, in the 1 A.D. Artifacts crafted from such steel later begin to turn up in Central Asia. European sword makers appear to have known nothing of this technology. The techniques for making crucible steel were later lost and European steel makers reinvented it only at the end of the 18th century.

In the Middle Ages and thereafter, crucible steel was very expensive. It produces bladed weapons more exactly than any other material, conferring a combination of great strength and the ability to maintain sharpness throughout the length of the blade.

X-ray microtomography image

Scientists suggest that the "Yaroslavl Sabre" could have belonged to a very wealthy warrior from Batu Khan's army.

Alan Williams, a well-known British expert on the ancient technologies of bladed weapons, said that Central Asian crucible steel was used only for blades of German swords branded ULFBERHT, dating from the eighth and ninth centuries, and never for forging all-steel blades.

Microphotography image of microcracks in metal

The intense interest surrounds not only the production methods for the blade, but how it came to be buried. The sabre was broken, its handle lost, and its blade bent. Analysis shows micro-cracks present in the blade, usually an indication that an object has been burned. Most likely, the weapon was subjected to bending as ritual damage, for which the blade had to have been heated to a high temperature.

Currently, the sabre has been restored and returned to the Yaroslavl Museum, together with the entire collection of archaeological treasures found at the excavations.

X-ray microtomography image, trace of welding

Provided by: Russian Academy of Sciences

https://phys.org/news/2015-04-russian-archaeologists-oldest-crucible-steel.html?utm_source=TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=Phys.org_TrendMD_1

Historic Indian sword was masterfully crafted

February 10, 2015, Springer

The master craftsmanship behind Indian swords was highlighted when scientists and conservationists from Italy and the UK joined forces to study a curved single-edged sword called a shamsheer. The study, led by Eliza Barzagli of the Institute for Complex Systems and the University of Florence in Italy, is published in Springer's journal Applied Physics A - Materials Science & Processing.

The 75-centimeter-long sword from the Wallace Collection in London was made in India in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century. The design is of Persian origin, from where it spread across Asia and eventually gave rise to a family of similar weapons called scimitars being forged in various Southeast Asian countries.

Two different approaches were used to examine the shamsheer: the classical one (metallography) and a non-destructive technique (neutron diffraction). This allowed the researchers to test the differences and complementarities of the two techniques.

The sword in question first underwent metallographic tests at the laboratories of the Wallace Collection to ascertain its composition. Samples to be viewed under the microscope were collected from already damaged sections of the weapon. The sword was then sent to the ISIS pulsed spallation neutron source at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in the UK. Two non-invasive neutron diffraction techniques not damaging to artefacts were used to further shed light on the processes and materials behind its forging.

"Ancient objects are scarce, and the most interesting ones are usually in an excellent state of conservation. Because it is unthinkable to apply techniques with a destructive approach, neutron diffraction techniques provide an ideal solution to characterize archaeological specimens made from metal when we cannot or do not want to sample the object," said Barzagli, explaining why different methods were used.

It was established that the steel used is quite pure. Its high carbon content of at least one percent shows it is made of wootz steel. This type of crucible steel was historically used in India and Central Asia to make high-quality swords and other prestige objects. Its band-like pattern is caused when a mixture of iron and carbon crystalizes into cementite. This forms when craftsmen allow cast pieces of metal (called ingots) to cool down very slowly, before being forged carefully at low temperatures. Barzagli's team reckons that the craftsman of this particular sword allowed the blade to cool in the air, rather than plunging it into a liquid of some sort. Results explaining the item's composition also lead the researchers to presume that the particular sword was probably used in battle.

Craftsmen often enhanced the characteristic "watered silk" pattern of wootz steel by doing micro-etching on the surface. Barzagli explains that through overcleaning some of these original 'watered' surfaces have since been obscured, or removed entirely. "A non-destructive method able to identify which of the shiny surface blades are actually of wootz steel is very welcome from a conservative point of view," she added.

 Explore further: Scientists determine Viking trade routes by the metal in their swords

More information: Barzagli E. et al (2015). Characterization of an Indian sword: classic and noninvasive methods of investigation in comparison, Applied Physics A - Materials Science & Processing. DOI: 10.1007/s00339-014-8968-0

https://phys.org/news/2015-02-historic-indian-sword-masterfully-crafted.html

Scientists determine Viking trade routes by the metal in their swords

January 5, 2009

Scientists at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Teddington have worked with the Wallace Collection to analyse the contents of Viking swords - and the results shed new light on trade routes in the middle ages.

Curators at the collection were researching the steel structure of ancient swords to find out more about where they had come from. To achieve this, they needed to analyse examples of ancient weapons to determine their carbon contents - those with very high carbon were likely made with crucible steel, which was only available in India and Central Asia.

Standard metallographic techniques that compare samples with published atlases of alloy microstructures were unable to determine the carbon contents of Viking-age swords. Instead the Wallace Collection relied on the experts at NPL to come up with another way of assessing the samples.

NPL used a highly calibrated Scanning Electron Microscope to determine the carbon contents of the steel samples provided. It analysed very small specimens (1mm in diameter) from Viking-age swords obtained from various museums in Norway and Finland.

The results showed that the swords were made of imperfectly melted steel - consisting of a mixture of iron and carbonaceous materials heated together to give high-carbon steel. NPL's results match descriptions of ancient sword making in Herat (now in Afghanistan) described by ninth century Arab philosopher and writer Al-Kindi. This links to a known Viking trade route down the Volga and across the Caspian Sea to Iran but until now it was not known that Vikings had brought crucible steel back to Scandinavia and integrated ancient Arab steelmaking methods with their own swordsmithing.

The National Physical Laboratory's Tony Fry said:

"Our role at NPL was to use our measurement expertise to analyse tiny fragments of Viking swords and determine the source of the steel used by the Vikings to make them. Standard methods using atlases of microstructures to compare optical images with an image in a book, is a difficult method to use, it is subjective and prone to generalisations. By mixing scientific expertise with a top of the range Electron Microscope we were able to provide a quantifiable value, rather than the standard qualitative approach of using an atlas, and enlighten our understanding of trade in the middle ages."

Dr Alan Williams, Consultant Archaeometallurgist at the Wallace Collection, said:

"Sword making in Viking times was important work, to the point that the best smiths had their work imitated and copied. On their travels, the Vikings were keen to pick up any innovative new means of improving their sword-making, but until now we haven't known where they have sourced some of their materials. The results from NPL confirm for the first time that the material analysed was brought by the Vikings from the Middle East to the Baltic area - and thrown new light on an important trade route that was in use until the 11th Century."

Source: National Physical Laboratory

https://phys.org/news/2009-01-scientists-viking-routes-metal-swords.html

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/iams/newsletter/accordion/journals/iams_21/iams_21_2001_simpson

See: Feuerbach A., Merkel, J. F., and Griffiths D. R. (1997), Co-Fussion production of Crucible Steel, Material Issues in Art and Archaeology, 5: 105-110. Washington: Materials Research Society

पोळ pōḷa, 'Zebu, bos indicus' of Sarasvati Script corpora is rebus:pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), fuladh (Persian) folādī (Pashto) 

http://tinyurl.com/mrsqcws

Map showing the main sites of Middle Asia in the third millennium BC (whorls indicate the presence of Indus and Indus-likeseals bearing multiple heads of different animals arranged in whirl-like motif). "The hypothesis which is validated in historical chronology of peoples’ movements in Eurasia is that Meluhha artisans and merchants of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization moved to spread the archaeometallurgical initiatives of alloying. They had invented a unique writing system with hieroglyph multiplexes as signifiers to compile metalwork catalogues."  

This is consistent with the evidence of Baudhāyana Śrauta Sūtra  18.44:397.9 sqq which records: 

Ayu migrated eastwards. His (people) are the Kuru-Pancalas and the Kasi-Videhas. This is the Ayava (migration). Amavasumigrated westwards. His (people) are the Ghandhari, Parsu and Aratta. This is the Amavasu (migration).  See: https://www.academia.edu/14548989/Bhirrana_to_Mehrgarh_and_beyond_in_the_civilization_contact_areas_from_8th_millennium_BCE

Meluhha and Jiroft

A dominant hieroglyph depicted on Jiroft artifacts is a 'wallet'. The Meluhha word for this hieroglyph is dhokra. Meluhha hieroglyphs related to metalwork are depicted on artifacts shaped like wallets.

Hieroglyph: wallet:  *dhōkka1 ʻ sacking, matting ʼ. 2. *dhōkha -- . 3. *dhōṅga -- 2. 4. *ḍhōkka -- 1. [Cf. *ṭōkka -- 1]1. Ext. -- ḍ -- : N. dhokro ʻ large jute bag ʼ, B. dhokaṛ; Or. dhokaṛa ʻ cloth bag ʼ; Bi. dhŏkrā ʻ jute bag ʼ; Mth. dhokṛā ʻ bag, vessel, receptacle ʼ; H. dhukṛī f. ʻ small bag ʼ; G. dhokṛũ n. ʻ bale of cotton ʼ; -- with -- ṭṭ -- : M. dhokṭī f. ʻ wallet ʼ; -- with -- n -- : G. dhokṇũ n. ʻ bale of cotton ʼ; -- with -- s -- : N. (Tarai) dhokse ʻ place covered with a mat to store rice in ʼ.2. L. dhohẽ (pl. dhūhī˜) m. ʻ large thatched shed ʼ.3. M. dhõgḍā m. ʻ coarse cloth ʼ, dhõgṭī f. ʻ wallet ʼ.4. L. ḍhok f. ʻ hut in the fields ʼ; Ku. ḍhwākā m. pl. ʻ gates of a city or market ʼ; N. ḍhokā (pl. of *ḍhoko) ʻ door ʼ; -- OMarw. ḍhokaro m. ʻ basket ʼ; -- N. ḍhokse ʻ place covered with a mat to store rice in, large basket ʼ.(CDIAL 6880) Rebus: dhokra kamar 'cire perdue, lost-wax casting metalworker'

 Jiroft. Vase. Basket-shaped wallet. http://antikforever.com/Perse/Divers/jiroft.htm Bi. dhŏkrā ʻ jute bag ʼ; Mth. dhokṛā ʻ bag, vessel, receptacle ʼ; OMarw. ḍhokaro m. ʻ basket ʼ; -- N. ḍhokse ʻ place covered with a mat to store rice in, large basket ʼ.(CDIAL 6880) Rebus: dhokra kamar 'cire perdue, lost-wax casting metalworker'. āre 'lion' rebu: āra 'brass' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore) pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: pōḷad 'steel' Thus, this Jiroft vase with Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs is a professional calling card -- dharma samjñā 'responsibility badge' -- of the Meluhha  cire perdue metalcaster.

Hieroglyph 1: kulā ʻhood of a snakeʼ(Assamese) (CDIAL 3350) खोळ (p. 216) [ khōḷa ] A hooded cloak for children. (CDIAL 3942)Rebus: kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calōkam (five metals) (Tamil) kol ‘working in iron’, blacksmith’; kolle'blacksmith’ kolhe ‘smelters’ kole.l ‘smithy, Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; temple’ ;  (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy (Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge.(DEDR 2133) kollaṉ blacksmith. Ma. kollanblacksmith, artificer. Ko. kole·l smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwala·lKota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace; konimi blacksmith;(Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollëblacksmith.                                                                

Hieroglyph 2: bica 'scorpion' rebus: bica 'haematite'   

Hieroglyph 3: pōladu 'Black drongo' rebus:  pōlāda 'steel'

Madjidzadeh, 13 January 2007, http://www.cais-soas.com/News/2007/January2007/13-01.htm

Stairs of Konar Sandal Ziggurat The main part of the Konar Sandal Ziggurat of the Jiroft ancient site, located in the southern Iranian province of Kerman, has recently been excavated, the Persian service of CHN reported on Friday.

Before the discovery of the ziggurat in 2002, Chogha Zanbil, a major remnant of the Elamite civilization near Susa , was the only surviving ziggurat in Iran . Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat dates back to 1250 BCE.

“The main part of the Konar Sandal Ziggurat is the lower part and is 200 years older than the upper section. Thus, construction of the ziggurat was carried out in stages beginning in 2200 BCE,” said Professor Yusef Majidzadeh, the director of the archaeological team working at the site.

Built some time around 2100 BCE by king Ur-Nammu, the Ur Ziggurat is the oldest one in Mesopotamia , but the Konar Sandal Ziggurat is a century older than it, he added.

The Ur Ziggurat was built in honor of the god Sin in Ur , a Sumerian city on the Euphrates , in the south of modern-day Iraq . It was called 'Etemennigur', which means 'house whose foundation creates terror'.

“The archaeologists have determined the original shape of the Konar Sandal Ziggurat for restoration,” Majidzadeh said.

Jiroft came into the spotlight nearly four years ago when reports of extensive illegal excavations and plundering of the priceless historical items of the area by local people surfaced.

Since 2002, two excavation seasons have been carried out at the Jiroft site under the supervision of Majidzadeh, leading to the discovery of a ziggurat made of more than four million mud bricks dating back to about 2200 BCE.

Jiroft is one of the richest historical areas in the world, with ruins and artifacts dating back to the third millennium BCE. Over 100 historical sites are located along the approximately 400 kilometers of the Halil Rud riverbank.

Many Iranian and foreign experts see the findings in Jiroft as signs of a civilization as great as Sumer and ancientMesopotamia . Majidzadeh believes that Jiroft is the ancient city of Aratta , which was described as a great civilization in a Sumerian clay inscription.

http://www.cais-soas.com/News/2006/February2006/25-02-discovery.htm

Konar Sandal white marble cylinder seal: metalwork repertoire

Massimo Vidale and Dennys Frenez present (2015) "a detailed analysis of the iconography carved on a cylinder seal found in a metallurgical sitewithin the archaeological complex of Konar Sandal South, near Jiroft, in the Halil river valley of the Kerman province, south-eastern Iran. This seal is made of a whitish marble and  even if heavily worn by use it retainstraces of different animal figures. These animals represent the translation into local style of a rare but characteristic iconography found in the seal production of the Indus Civilization. The merging into a single seal of different animals, some of which clearly belong to the standard animal series of the Indus seals, might have provided theowner with a special authority that allowed him/her to hold different administrative functions. Moreover, the discovery at Konar Sandal South of a cylinder seal bearing an Indus-related iconography might further testify to the direct interest of Indus merchants and probably craftsmen in trade exchanges with a major early urban site in south-eastern Iran." (Massimo Vidale and Dennys Frenez, 2015, Indus components in the iconography of a white marble cylinder seal from Konar Sandal South (Kerman, Iran) in: South Asian Studies Vol. 31, No. 1, pp.144-154 )

https://www.academia.edu/11850285/Indus_Components_in_the_Iconography_of_a_White_Marble_Cylinder_Seal_from_Konar_Sandal_South_Kerman_Iran_

Photographs of the cylinder seal in white marble found at Konar Sandal South in the excavation of Trench IX. Courtesy of Halil  Rud Archaeological Project

Drawing of the animals carved on the cylinder seal found at Konar Sandal South.

"The cylinder seal published by Pittman is 23.97 mm long and has a maximum diameter at the base of 12.42mm. It is made of whitish marble with pale brown shadows...This seal has a zebu depicted in front of a small round object...The main subject of this seal and its iconographic arrangement are clearly Indus, but the engraving technique based on drill-holes links it to the copper seal from Konar Sandal South and with other stamp seals found in Oman, further stressing the intense cultural interactions that occurred between Eastern Arabia, Iran and the Indus Valley during the second half of the third millennium BCE...The second creature is an Indus unicorn...Image 3.3...probably belong to the head of an Indus buffalo...Image 3.4...may represent the long ears of a large, evidently disproportionate, hare or rabbit...Image 3.5...(maybe) a markhor wild goat (Capra folconeri) or a blackbuck antelope (Antilope cervicapra)...Considered all together, these animals may symbolize something more than a simple list or procession, representing instead the physical disembodiment of a concept represented on two similar Indus whirl-like images on stamp seals...In general, the Halil Rud animal imagery more directly linked to the iconography of the Indus civilization suggests a precise knowledge of very important eastern symbols, but also a strategic will of subverting their original implications, adapting them to the local style and tradition. More likely, the cylinder seal found at Konar Sandal South bears the linear translation of a similar rotatory template...The uncommon iconographies with multiple animal heads present in Indus seals production are still a mystery, but the most reasonable addumption is that animals and fantastic creatures represented different identities, social roles, and/or social segment of the developing universe...The white marble cylinder seal on study was found inthe excavation of Trench IX, a large trench (15 x 20 m)dug in a low mound  c. 500 m south-east of Konar Sandal South. In the same area, eight furnaces built onceramic jars operated on massive mud-bricks platforms.As stated by the excavator: Close to the furnaces, clear evidence of craft activitywas found including nearly five kilos of copper slag,fragments of ingots, and open molds. In addition, a number of copper and bronze objects and tools suchas chisels, stone vessels in marble, and steatite/chlorite,microlithic tools, and a large number of clay objects possibly connected with pyrotechnical activities havealso been recovered. It was evidently a neighbourhood occupied by a com-munity specialized in roasting and smelting copper ores and casting various types of artefacts in moulds and thorough lost-wax processes...The presence of a cylinder sealbearing a distinctive even if rare – Indus iconographysupports the hypothesis of a specific interest and actualfrequentation of Indus merchants and craftsmen, or of families maintaining formal ties with the Indus communities, in the copper ore deposits of the Kerman-Halilriver region. (Note: Originally put forward in S. Ashtana, 'Harappans interest in Kirman', Man and Environment, 3 (1979), 55-60. See also S. Ashtana, 'Harappan trade in metals and minerals: a regional approach, in Harappan civilization: a recent perspective, ed. by GL Possehl, 2nd edn, New Delhi, Oxford & IBH, 1993, pp. 271-86)."

श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. पोळ (p. 305) pōḷa m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large. Rebus 1: pōḷa ‘magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4'.पोळ [ pōḷa ]  ‘magnetite (ore)’ (Asuri) पोलाद (p. 533) [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel (Marathi)

Bolad (alternatively spelled Pulad, Pulat, Polat, or Polad in Persian and Turkic languages) is common given name among the Inner Asian peoples. The meaning of the word Bolad is "steel". In Khalkha Mongolian form of the word is Bold. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolad_(given_name)Addorsed zebu, Rakhigarhi. dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: pōḷa 'magenetite, ferrite ore'. Thus the addorsed pair of zebus signifies: dul pōḷa, 'magnetite casting'. [After Fig. 69 in: KN Dikshit, 2013, Origin of early Harappan cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent archaeological evidence and radiometric dates, Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology No. 9, 2013, pp. 88 to 142 (Plates)]

Figurine of zebu, humped bull discovered in Binjor 4MSR http://www.dailypioneer.com/vivacity/revelations-in-history.html

metal' khaṇḍa 'implements'.

Bulat steel blade of a knife "Bulat is a type of steel alloy known in Russia from medieval times; regularly being mentioned in Russian legends as the material of choice for cold steel. The name булат is a Russian transliteration of the Persian word fulad, meaning steel. This type of steel was used by the armies of nomadic peoples. Bulat steel was the main type of steel used for swords in the armies of Genghis Khan, the great emperor of the Mongolian Empire. The technique used in making wootz steel has been lost for centuries and the bulat steel used today makes use of a more recently developed technique...Carbon steel consists of two components: pure iron, in the form of ferrite, and cementite or iron carbide, a compound of iron and carbon. Cementite is very hard and brittle; its hardness is about 640 by the Brinell hardness test, whereas ferrite is only 200. The amount of the carbon and the cooling regimen determine the crystalline and chemical composition of the final steel. In bulat, the slow cooling process allowed the cementite to precipitate as micro particles in between ferrite crystals and arrange in random patterns. The color of the carbide is dark while steel is grey. This mixture is what leads to the famous patterning of Damascus steel.Cementite is essentially a ceramic, which accounts for the sharpness of the Damascus (and bulat) steel. "
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulat_steel Wootz was imported into the Middle East from Im India. (Jeffrey Wadsworth and Oleg D. Sherby (1980). "On the Bulat – Damascus Steel Revisited". Prog. Mater. Sci. 25 (1): 35–68)  "In the Muslim world of the 9th-12th centuries CE, the production of fuladh, a Persian word, has been described by Al-Kindi, Al-Biruni and Al-Tarsusi, from narm-ahanand shaburqan, two other Persian words representing iron products obtained by direct reduction of the ore. Ahan means iron. Narm-ahan is a soft iron and shaburqan a harder one or able to be quench-hardened. Old nails and horse-shoes were also used as base for fuladh preparation. It must be noticed that, according to Hammer- Purgstall, there was no Arab word for steel, which explain the use of Persian words. Fuladh prepared by melting in small crucibles can be considered as a steel in our modem classification, due to its properties (hardness, quench hardened ability, etc.). The word fuladh means "the purified" as explained by Al-Kindi. This word can be found as puladh, for instance in Chardin (1711 AD) who called this product; poulad jauherder, acier onde, which means "watering steel", a characteristic of what was called Damascene steel in Europe. In Russian the corresponding word is bulat and in Mongol bolot. In the 19th century AD, it was accepted as evident by European metallurgists that the ancient word bulat / fuladh and the newly introduced one Wootz represented the same kind of high carbon crucible steel (1-2wt % C) which should have been used by Muslim blacksmiths to forge the so called Damascene blades, the secret of which had been lost as was said by Russian and European metallurgists of that time." http://www.indianscience.org/essays/Wootzstory.shtml DP Agarwal, Linguistic Avatars of Wootz: the ancient Indian Steel in: History of Indian Science and Technology Source: J. LE COZE. 2003. About the Signification of Wootz and Other Names Given to Steel. Indian Journal of History of Science. 38 (2):117-127.
The magnetite ore stones are identified as pola iron by Meluhha speakers.   अयस्कान्त [p= 85,1] m. (g. कस्का*दि) , " iron-lover " , the loadstone (cf. कान्ता*यस) Ragh. xvii , 63 , &c;  ayaskānta m S (The iron gem.) The loadstone. (Marathi) Lodestone or Loadstone or Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring igneous and metamorphic rocks with black or brownish-black with a metallic luster. 'Schrader gives a list of names for 'steel' related to Pers. pulAd; Syr. pld; Kurd. pila, pola, pulad; Pehl. polAwat; Armen. [quote]Magnetite, a ferrimagnetic mineral with chemical formula Fe3O4, one of several iron oxides, is one of the more common meteor-wrongs. Magnetite displays a black exterior and magnetic properties....A piece of intensely magnetic magnetite was used as an early form of magnetic compass. Iron, steel and ordinary magnetite are attracted to a magnetic field, including the Earth's magnetic field. Only magnetite with a particular crystalline structure, lodestone, can act as a natural magnet and attract and magnetize iron. The name "magnet" comes from lodestones found in a place called Magnesia. [unquote] http://meteorite-identification.com/Hot%20Rocks/magnetite.htmlSee: Srinivasan, Sharada; Ranganathan, Srinivasa (2004). "India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World". Iron & Steel Heritage of India. Bangalore: National Institute of Advanced Studies: 69–82. Significance of wootz steel to the history of materials science --Srinivasan Sharada and S ranganathan http://eprints.nias.res.in/916/1/2011-Srinivasan%20S%20and%20S%20Ranganathan-Pioneering%20Metallurgy.pdfhttps://www.scribd.com/document/380380294/Significance-of-wootz-steel-to-the-history-of-materials-science-Srinivasan-Sharada-and-S-Ranganathan-2011
See: http://tinyurl.com/nsfgedh Pōlāda: archaeometallurgy of ancient Indian metalwork. Signified on Indus Script Corpora by hieroglyph: zebu, bos indicus
See: http://met.iisc.ernet.in/~rangu/text.pdf (india's legendary 'wootz' steel - Materials Engineering)“Wootz was the first high-quality steel made anywhere in the world. According to reports of travelers to the East, the Damascus swords were made by forging small cakes of steel that were manufactured in Southern India. This steel was called wootz steel. It was more than a thousand years before steel as good was made in the West.” -J. D. Verhoeven and A. Pendray, Muse, 1998 ‘Polad, 

  Polad,bulat Crucible steel
'Schrader gives a list of names for 'steel' related to Pers. pulAd; Syr. pld; Kurd. pila, pola, pulad; Pehl. polAwat; Armen. polovat; Turk. pala; Russ. bulat; Mizdzhegan polad, bolat; Mongol. bolot, bulat, buriat. He is unable to suggest an origin for these words. Fr. Muller pointed out that the Pehlevi and Armenian should be polapat and suggested Greek 'much-beaten' as the original word...not all the countries of Asia had been exhausted in search for similar names...by adding Tibetan p'olad, Sulu bAlan, Tagalog patalim, Ilocano paslip, we at once see that the origin of the word may lie to the east. Naturally one thinks of China as the possible point of issue, for there steel was known in the third millenium before our era and we have the positive reference to steel in a Chinese writer of the fifth century BCE...Cantonese dialect fo-lim, literally 'fire-sickle'..."(Wiener, Leo, 2002, Contributions toward a history of Arabico-Gothc culture, vol.4, Gorgias Press LLC, pp. xli-xlii)

"...‘pulad’ of Central Asia. The oasis of Merv where crucible steel was also made by the medieval period lies in this region. The term ‘pulad’ appears in Avesta, the holy book of Zorastrianism and in a Manichéen text of Chinese Turkestan. There are many variations of this term ranging from the Persian
‘polad’, the Mongolian ‘bolat’ and ‘tchechene’, the Russian ‘bulat’, the Ukrainian and Armenian ‘potovat’, Turkish and Arab ‘fulad’, ‘farlad’ in Urdu and ‘phaulad’ in Hindi. It is this bewildering variety of descriptions that was used in the past that makes a study of this subject so challenging."
https://www.scribd.com/doc/268526061/Wootz-Steel-Indian-Institute-of-Science Wootz Steel, Indian Institute of Science                                                                                                                                                         PWLẠD (پولاد) > BOLD RUSSIAN (ПОЛАД) ORIGIN: PERSIAN (TĀJĪK)  /  MONGOLIAN 

INDO-EUROPEAN > INDO-IRANIAN > INDO-ARYAN 

This name derives from the Mongolian (Qalq-a ayalγu) “Bold”, from the Persian (Tājīk) "pwlạd", meaning “steel”. 

Bolad († 1313), was a Mongol minister of the Yuan Dynasty, and later served in the 

Ilkhanate as the representative of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and cultural adviser

 to the Ilkhans. Geographical spread:

http://www.name-doctor.com/name-polad-meaning-of-polad-25852.html

See: http://tinyurl.com/zadb5cz

पोळा [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. "Pola is a bull-worshipping festival celebrated by farmers mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra (especially among the Kunbis). On the day of Pola, the farmers decorate and worship their bulls. Pola falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya (the new moon day) in the month of Shravana (usually in August)."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_(festival)  Festival held on the day after Sankranti ( = kANum) is called pōlāla paNDaga (Telugu).

A phonetic determinant is provided by the popular bird, black drongo with habitat in Bharatam.Hieroglyph: eagle పోలడు [ pōlaḍu ] , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu)

పసి (p. 730) pasi pasi. [from Skt. పశువు.] n. Cattle. పశుసమూహము, గోగణము. The smell of "With short legs, they sit upright on thorny bushes, bare perches or electricity wires. They may also perch on grazing animals."(Whistler, Hugh (1949). Popular handbook of Indian birds (4th ed.). Gurney and Jackson, London. pp. 155–157.) 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drongo

పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu. n. The Black Drongo or King crow, Dicrurusater. (F.B.I.) ఏట్రింత.Also, the Adjutant. తోకపసులపోలిగాడు the Raquet-tailed Drongo shrike. Jerdon. No. 55. 56. 59. కొండ పనులపోలిగాడు the White bellied Drongo, Dicrurus coerulescens.  వెంటికపనుల పోలిగాడు the Hair-crested Drongo, Chibia hottentotta. టెంకిపనుల పోలిగాడు the larger Racket-tailed Drongo, Dissemurus paradiseus (F.B.I.)పసులవాడు pasula-vāḍu. n. A herdsman, గొల్లవాడు. the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu)

"With short legs, they sit upright on thorny bushes, bare perches or electricity wires. They may also perch on grazing animals."(Whistler, Hugh (1949). Popular handbook of Indian birds (4th ed.). Gurney and Jackson, London. pp. 155–157.) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drongo

Rebus: Bolad (alternatively spelled Pulad, Pulat, Polat, or Polad in Persian and Turkic languages) is common given name among the Inner Asian peoples. The meaning of the word Bolad is "steel". In Khalkha Mongolian form of the word is Bold. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolad_(given_name)

A Black drongo in Rajasthan state, northern India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drongo

Rebus: पोळ [ pōḷa ] 'magnetite', ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4 (Asuri)

Rebus: cattle festival: पोळ (p. 305) pōḷa m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large.  பொலியெருது poli-y-erutu , n. < பொலி- +. 1. Bull kept for covering; பசுக்களைச் சினையாக்குதற் பொருட்டு வளர்க்கப்படும் காளை. (பிங்.) கொடிய பொலியெருதை யிருமூக்கிலும் கயி றொன்று கோத்து (அறப். சத. 42). 2. The leading ox in treading out grain on a threshing-floor; களத்துப் பிணையல்மாடுகளில் முதற்செல்லுங் கடா. (W.) பொலி முறைநாகு poli-muṟai-nāku, n. < பொலி + முறை +. Heifer fit for covering; பொலியக்கூடிய பக்குவமுள்ள கிடாரி. (S. I. I. iv, 102.)

Rebus 1: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4'.

पोळा [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. (Marathi) "Pola is a bull-worshipping festival celebrated by farmers mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra (especially among the Kunbis). On the day of Pola, the farmers decorate and worship their bulls. Pola falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya (the new moon day) in the month of Shravana (usually in August)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_(festival) Festival held on the day after Sankranti ( = kANum) is called pōlāla paNDaga (Telugu).

A pair of black drongo birds are perched on the Daimabad bronze chariot flanking the charioter.

[quote]The Indus Valley sites display a highly sophisticated technology of copper and bronze metalworking, even in the earliest excavated levels of the major cities (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1967). Issues with the integrity of the stratigraphy of early excavations of these major Indus sites makes it harder for present-day archaeologists to track the different developmental stages of the civilization's metallurgy though. However, based upon the wide array of metal artifacts found in these early deposits, it is suggested that these advanced metallurgical skills were known to the inhabitants of the Indus Valley before city constructions began and possibly originated in previous cultures to the west from which the Indus people progressed from. 

Roger Matthews, 2002, Zebu: harbingers of doom in Bronze Age western Asia? in: Antiquity 76 (2002) Number: 292: 438-446  https://www.scribd.com/doc/115702890/Ant-0760438 "The significance of zebu, or humped cattle as potential indicators of episodes of aridification in the Bronze Age of western Asia is explored through study of figurines and faunal remains from Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia." "Magnetite is a mineral, ferrous-ferric oxide, one of the three common naturally occurring iron oxides (chemical formula Fe3O4) and a member of the spinel group. Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring minerals on Earth.[Harrison, R. J.; Dunin-Borkowski, RE; Putnis, A (2002). "Direct imaging of nanoscale magnetic interactions in minerals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (26): 16556–16561] Naturally magnetized pieces of magnetite, called lodestone, will attract small pieces of iron, and this was how ancient people first noticed the property of magnetism...Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite, and the mineral pair forms a buffer that can control oxygen fugacity." Gate on Nahalmishmar crown: pol m. ʻgate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate': Ka. por̤al town, city. Te. prōlu, (inscr.) pr̤ōl(u) city. ? (DEDR 4555) पोवळ or पोंवळ [ pōvaḷa or pōṃvaḷa ] f पोवळी or पोंवळी f The court-wall of a temple. (Marathi) *pratōlika ʻ gatekeeper ʼ. [pratōlī -- ] H. pauliyā, pol°, pauriyā m. ʻ gatekeeper ʼ, G. poḷiyɔ m.(CDIAL 8632) pratōlī f. ʻ gate of town or fort, main street ʼ MBh. [Cf. tōlikā -- . -- Perh. conn. with tōraṇa -- EWA ii 361, less likely with *ṭōla -- ] Pk. paōlī -- f. ʻ city gate, main street ʼ; WPah. (Joshi) prauḷ m., °ḷi f., pauḷ m., °ḷi f. ʻ gateway of a chief ʼ, proḷ ʻ village ward ʼ; H. paul, pol m. ʻ gate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate ʼ, paulī f. ʻ gate ʼ; OG. poli f. ʻ door ʼ; G. poḷi f. ʻ street ʼ; M. pauḷ, poḷ f. ʻ wall of loose stones ʼ. -- Forms with -- r -- poss. < *pradura -- : OAw. paüri ʻ gatepost ʼ; H. paur, °rī, pãwar, °rī f. ʻ gate, door ʼ.WPah.poet. prɔ̈̄ḷ m., prɔḷo m., prɔḷe f. ʻ gate of palace or temple ʼ.(CDIAL 8633) Porin (adj.) [fr. pora=Epic Sk. paura citizen, see pura. Semantically cp. urbane>urbanus>urbs; polite= poli/ths>po/lis. For pop. etym. see DA i.73 & 282] belonging to a citizen, i. e. citizenlike, urbane, polite, usually in phrase porī vācā polite speech D i.4, 114; S i.189; ii.280=A ii.51; A iii.114; Pug 57; Dhs 1344; DA i.75, 282; DhsA 397. Cp. BSk. paurī vācā MVastu iii.322. Porisa2 (nt.) [abstr. fr. purisa, *pauruṣyaŋ, cp. porisiya and poroseyya] 1. business, doing of a man (or servant, cp. purisa 2), service, occupation; human doing, activity M i.85 (rāja˚); Vv 6311 (=purisa -- kicca VvA 263); Pv iv.324 (uṭṭhāna˚=purisa -- viriya, purisa -- kāra PvA 252). -- 2. height of a man M. i.74, 187, 365.(Pali) పౌరము [ pauramu ] pauramu. [Skt. from పుర.] adj. Belonging to a city or town (పురము.) పౌరసతులు the ladies of the place: citizens' wives. పౌరలోకము paura-lōkamu. n. The townsfolk, a body of citizens. పౌరుడు pauruḍu. n. A citizen. పౌరులు citizens, townsfolk.(Telugu)

Rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrite ore' This may be reinforced by the phonetic determinant:  dula 'pair' 

rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS pōladu 'Black drongo bird pair' shown on the crown.

sã̄gāḍā m. ʻ frame of a building ʼ (M.)(CDIAL 12859) Rebus: jaṅgaḍ ‘entrustment articles’ sãgaṛh m. ʻ line of entrenchments, stone walls for defence ʼ (Lahnda).(CDIAL 12845) Allograph: saṅgaḍa ‘lathe’. 'potable furnace'. sang ‘stone’, gaḍa ‘large stone’. Rebus: Vajra-samghāta is to be compounded of 8 parts of lead, 2 parts of bell metal and 1 part of brass, melted and poured hot. It is stated that when this type of cement is applied to temple, etc. they last for around thousand years. Vajra-samghāta means, composition as hard as thunderbolt. 

http://www.niscair.res.in/sciencecommunication/researchjournals/rejour/ijtk/Fulltextsearch/2006/April%202006/IJTK-vol%205(2)-April%202006-pp%20259-262.htm samghāta सं-घात b [p= 1130,1] close union or combination , collection , cluster , heap , mass , multitude TS. MBh. &c वज्र--संघात [p= 914,1]mfn. having the hardness or compactness of adamant (said of भीम) MBh. i , 4775; m. N. of a kind of hard cement VarBr2S.

dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal'. koḍ ‘horns’ Rebus: koḍ‘artisan’s workshop’.

पोलाद [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel. (Marathi) ولاد polād, s.m. (6th) The finest kind of steel. Sing. and Pl. folād P فولاد folād or fūlād, s.m. (6th) Steel. Sing. and Pl. folādī P فولادي folādī or fūlādī, adj. Made of steel, steel. (Pashto) pŏlād प्वलाद् or phōlād फोलाद् ।मृदुलोहविशेषः m. steel (Gr.M.; Rām. 431, 635, phōlād).pŏlödi pōlödi  phōlödi (= ) । लोहविशेषमयः adj. c.g. of steel, steel (Rām. 19, 974, 167, pōo) pŏlāduwu । शस्त्रविशेषमयः adj. (f. pŏlādüvü made of steel (H. v, 4).(Kashmiri).

WOOTZ STEEL: AN ADVANCED MATERIAL OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 

S. Srinivasan and S. Ranganathan 

Department of Metallurgy 

Indian Institute of Science 

Bangalore

Abstract
The development of ancient Indian wootz steel is reviewed. Wootz is the anglicized version of ukku in the languages of the states of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, a term denoting steel. Literary accounts suggest that the steel from the southern part of the Indian subcontinent was exported to Europe, China, the Arab world and the Middle East.
Though an ancient material, wootz steel also fulfills the description of an advanced material, since it is an ultra-high carbon steel exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness and held sway over a millennium in three continents- a feat unlikely to be surpassed by advanced materials of the current era.
Wootz deserves a place in the annals of western science due to the stimulus provided by the study of this material in the 18th and 19th centuries to modern metallurgical advances, not only in the metallurgy of iron and steel, but also to the development of physical metallurgy in general and metallography in particular.
Some of the recent experiments in studying wootz by re-constructing composition, microstructure and mechanical behaviour, along with some recent archaeological evidence, are described.
Wootz, High-carbon Steel, South India, Superplasticity, Crucibles, Analyses
1. Introduction
India has been reputed for its iron and steel since ancient times. Literary accounts indicate that steel from southern India was rated as some of the finest in the world and was traded over ancient Europe, China, the Arab world and the Middle East. Studies on wootz indicate that it was an ultra-high carbon steel with 1-2% carbon and was believed to have been used to fashion the Damascus blades with a watered steel pattern. Wootz steel also spurred developments in modern metallographic studies and also qualifies as an advanced material in modern terminology since such steels are shown to exhibit super-plastic properties. This paper reviews some of these developments.
2. History of wootz steel
There are numerous early literary references to steel from India from Mediterranean sources including one from the time of Alexander (3rd c. BC) who was said to have been presented with 100 talents of Indian steel, mentioned by Pant [1]. Bronson [2] has summarised several accounts of the reputation of Indian iron and steel in Greek and Roman sources which suggest the export of high quality iron and steel from ancient India. Srinivasan [3], Biswas [4] and Srinivasan and Griffiths [5] have pointed out that the archaeological evidence from the region of Tamil Nadu suggests that the Indian crucible steel process is likely to have started before the Christian era from that region. Zaky [6] pointed out that it was the Arabs who took ingots of wootz steel to Damascus following which a thriving industry developed there for making weapons and armour of this steel, the renown of which has given the steel its name. In the 12th century the Arab Edrisi mentioned that the Hindus excelled in the manufacture of iron and that it was impossible to find anything to surpass the edge from Indian steel, and he also mentioned that the Indians had workshops where the most famous sabres in the world were forged, while other Arab records mention the excellence of Hinduwani or Indian steel as discussed by Egerton [7].
Several European travellers including Francis Buchanan [8] and Voysey [9] from the 17th century onwards observed the manufacture of steel in south India by a crucible process at several locales including Mysore, Malabar and Golconda. By the late 1600�s shipments running into tens of thousands of wootz ingots were traded from the Coromandel coast to Persia. This indicates that the production of wootz steel was almost on an industrial scale in what was still an activity predating the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
Indeed the word wootz is a corruption of the word for steel ukku in many south Indian languages. Indian wootz ingots are believed to have been used to forge Oriental Damascus swords which were reputed to cut even gauze kerchiefs and were found to be of a very high carbon content of 1.5-2.0% and the best of these were believed to have been made from Indian steel in Persia (Figure 1) and Damascus according to Smith [10]. Some of the finest swords and artefacts of Damascus steel seen in museums today are from the Ottoman region i.e. Turkey.
In India till the 19th century swords and daggers of wootz steel were made at centres including Lahore, Amritsar, Agra, Jaipur, Gwalior, Tanjore, Mysore, Golconda etc. although none of these centres survive today. Different types of Damascus sword

Figure 1. Detail of 17th century Persian blade of Damascus steel or Wootz steel showing typical etched crystalline structure of high-carbon steel (Smith [11])
patterns have been identified, described in some depth by Pant [1], who also identified a new design from blades kept in the collection of the Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad.
It may be mentioned however that the term Damascus steel can refer to two different types of artefacts, one of which is the true Damascus steel which is a high carbon alloy with a texture originating from the etched crystalline structure, and the other is a composite structure made by welding together iron and steel to give a visible pattern on the surface. Although both were referred to as Damascus steels, Smith [11] has clarified that the true Damascus steels were not replicated in Europe until 1821.
3. Role of wootz steel in the development of modern metallurgy
The legends associated with the excellent properties of the wootz steel and the beautiful patterns on Damascus blades caught the imagination of European scientists in the 17th-19th centuries since the use of high-carbon iron alloys was not really known previously in Europe and hence played an important role in the development of modern metallurgy. British, French and Russian metallography developed largely due to the quest to document this structure. Similarly the textured Damascus steel was one of the earliest materials to be examined by the microstructure. Smith [10, 11] has fascinatingly elucidated this early historiography of the interest in the study of wootz steel and its significance to the growth of metallurgy.
Although iron and steel had been used for thousands of years the role of carbon in steel as the dominant element was found only in 1774 by the Swedish chemist Tobern Bergman, and was due to the efforts of Europeans to unravel the mysteries of wootz. Tobern Bergman was able to determine that the compositions of cast iron, steel and wrought iron varied due to the composition of �plumbago� i.e. graphite or carbon. As suggested by Smith [11] the Swedish studies received an impetus following the setting up of a factory to make gun barrels of welded Damascus steels, and it was on observation of the black and white etching of the steel and iron parts that a Swede metallurgist guessed that there was carbon in steel, and interest in replicating true Damascus steels followed.
In the early 1800�s, following the descriptions of crucible steel making in south India by the European travellers, there was a spurt in interest in Europe in investigating south Indian wootz steel, from which the fabled Damascus blades were known to be made, with the aim of reproducing it on an industrial scale. Mushet�s [12] studies in 1804 were one of the first to correctly conclude that there was more carbon in wootz than in steel from England, although this idea did not gain currency until later. Michael Faraday [13], the inventor of electricity and one of the greatest of the early experimenters and material scientists, as pointed out by Peter Day [14], was also fascinated by wootz steel and enthusiastically studied it. Along with the cutler Stodart, Faraday attempted to study how to make Damascus steel and they incorrectly concluded that aluminium oxide and silica additions contributed to the properties of the steel and their studies were published in 1820 [15]. They also attempted to make steel by alloying nickel and noble metals like platinum and silver and indeed Faraday�s studies did show that that the addition of noble metals hardens steel. Stodart [16] reported that wootz steel had a very fine cutting edge.
Following this the interest in Damascus steel moved to France. Wadsworth and Sherby [17] have pointed out that Faraday�s research made a big impact in France where steel research on weapons thrived in the Napoleonic period. The struggle to characterize the nature of wootz steel is well reflected in the efforts of Breant [18] in the 1820�s from the Paris mint who conducted an astonishing number of about 300 experiments adding a range of elements ranging from platinum, gold. silver, copper, tin, zinc, lead, bismuth, manganese, arsenic, boron and even uranium, before he finally also came to the conclusion that the properties of Damascus steel were due to �carburetted� steel. Smith [10] has indicated that the analysis of ingots of wootz steel made in the 1800�s showed them to have over 1.3% carbon. The Russian Anasoff [19] also studied the process of manufacturing wootz steel and succeeded in making blades of Damascus steel by the early 1800�s.
In the early 1900�s wootz steel continued to be studied as a special material and its properties were better understood as discussed further in the next section. Belaiew [20] reported that blades of such steel to cut a gauze handkerchief in midair. In 1912, Robert Hadfield [21] who studied crucible steel from Sri Lanka recorded that Indian wootz steel was far superior to that previously produced in Europe. Indeed in the 18th-19th century special steels were produced in Europe as crucible steels, as discussed by Barraclough [22].
4. Investigations of superplasticity and other mechanical properties of wootz steel
Some European scientists were successful in replicating and forging wootz and Stodart who used it in his cutlery business found that wootz steel had a superior cutting edge to any other, while Zschokke in 1924 found that with heat treatment this steel had special properties such as higher hardness, strength and ductility, mentioned by Smith [10]. By 1918 an important finding concerning Damascus steel was made by Belaiew [20] who was probably the first to attribute the malleability of Damascus steel to the globulitic (i.e. spheroidised) nature of the forged steel and to recognize that this occurs during forging at a temperature of red heat (i.e. 700-800 ⁰ C).
Panseri [23] in the 1960�s was one of the first to point out that Damascus steel was a hypereutectoid ferrocarbon alloy with spheroidised carbides and carbon content between 1.2-1.8%. Recent studies have indicated that ultra-high carbon steels exhibit superplastic properties. As pointed out by Wadsworth and Sherby [17], by 1975 Stanford University had found that steels with 1-2.1% C i.e. ultrahigh carbon steels could be both superplastic at warm temperatures and strong and ductile at room temperatures. It was only subsequently that it came to the authors� notice that these steels were in fact similar in carbon content to the Damascus steels.
Superplasticity is a phenomenon whereby an elongation of several hundred percent can be observed in certain alloys in tension, with neck free elongations and without fracture. By contrast most crystalline materials can be stretched to no more than 50-100 per cent. Superplasticity occurs at high temperatures and superplastic materials can be formed into complex shapes. For superplastic materials the index of strain rate sensitivity (m) is high, being around 0.5. At ideal m=1 flow stress is proportional to strain rate and the material behaves like a Newtonian viscous fluid such as hot glass. Superplasticity occurs only above 0.3-0.4 Tm K where Tm is the melting point. Another feature is that once super-plastic flow is initiated the flow stress required to maintain it is very low. Superplastic material essentially comprises of a two-phase material of spherical grains of extremely fine grain size of not more than 5 microns at the working temperature. Such ultrafine grained materials exhibit grain boundary sliding yielding superplastic properties.
Contemporary studies by Wadsworth and Sherby [17] and Sherby [24] indicated that UHCS (i.e. ultra-high carbon steels) with 1.8% C showed a strain-rate sensitivity exponent nearing 0.5 at around 750⁰ C (Figure 2) suggesting that Damascus steel could well have exhibited superplastic properties and a patent was awarded for the manufacture of such UHCS.
The explanation of the superplasticity of the steel is that the typical microstructure of ultra-high carbon steel with the coarse network of pro-eutectoid cementite forming along the grain boundaries of prior austenite (Figure 3 a, b), can lead to a fine uniform distribution of spheroidised cementite particles (0.1 m m diam.) in a fine grained ferrite matrix. This spheroidisation of cementite is described in Wadsworth and Sherby [17], Sherby [24] and Ghose et al. [25]. Such steels are also found to have strength, hardness and wear resistance.

Figure 2. The flow stress-strain rate response of ultra-high carbon steel at 750⁰ C illustrates that the stress-strain rate curve has a slope showing a strain-rate sensitivity exponent of 0.43 indicating it is a superplastic material (Sherby [24])
Fig. 3a  Fig. 3b
Figure. 3 a) Photomicrograph of ultra-high carbon steel with 1.8% C, showing coarse pro- eutectoid carbide (cementite) network (Sherby [24])
b) Photomicrograph of same structure at high magnification shows iron grains with fine spheroidised carbides (Sherby [24])
Such steels had to be forged, however, in a narrow range of 850-650⁰ C and not at the white heat of 1200⁰ C to get the desired fine grain structure and plasticity. In fact as pointed out in an appraisal of Indian crucible steel making by Rao [26], and in a review of ancient iron and steel in India by Biswas [4], the early European blacksmiths failed to duplicate Damascus blades because they were in the practice of forging only low carbon steels at white heat, which have a higher melting point. Biswas [4] mentions that the forging of wootz at high heat would have led to the dissolution of the cementite phase in austenite so that the steels were found to be brittle enough to crumble under the hammer.
Moreover, attractive combinations of strength and ductility were found to be achieved by Wadsworth and Sherby [17] and Sherby [24] when the ultra-high carbon steels were in spheroidised conditions with high yield strengths varying from 800 Mpa to 1500 Mpa with increasing fineness of spheroidised carbides, while the steel with coarsely spheroidised carbides was especially ductile with up to 23% tensile elongation.
While it is not yet known how fully the superplastic or superformable properties of this steel were exploited by the ancient blacksmiths of West Asia and India, accounts indicate that they were certainly able to manipulate the alloy with a skill that could not be easily replicated by the European experimenters of the 19th century. Indeed the swords of Damascus steel were reported to have high strength and ductility. Nevertheless, whereas the links between the patterns on the traditional Damascus blades and the crystalline structure of ultra-high carbon steels have been better established, the mechanical properties of the traditional Damascus blades and the degree of exploitation of the unique properties of the steel are less well understood.
Verhoeven [27] and Verhoeven et al. [28, 29] have attempted to �re-invent� the Damascus steel and blades as it were with replication experiments based on historical studies of Damascus blades and composition of wootz ingots. Verhoeven et al. [29] used two methods by which the ingots were made, one of which consisted of melting iron charge in a small sealed clay graphite crucible inside a gas-fired furnace with the ingot formed by furnace cooling. These were made by rapidly heating the charge and holding it for a period of 20-40 minutes between 1440⁰ C-1480⁰ C followed by cooling at furnace cooling rates or faster. The composition of the charge was chosen to match that of genuine Damascus blades of about 1.6% C and 0.1% P. However the fairly high level of phosphorus made the blades very hot short and difficult to forge. To overcome this problem the ingots were held at 1200⁰ C in iron oxide to produce a protective rim of pure iron around the ingot which was ductile so that the ingot could be forged. Ingots were also made with the phosphorus levels reduced to the point where the ingots were not hot short which eliminated the need for the rim heat treatment. Verhoeven et al. [29] also made ingots by a process of vacuum-induced melting whereby the charge was melted by heating to around 1000⁰ C, backfilling with nitrogen gas, heating to about 1580⁰ C and then outgassing for around 5 minutes so that cooling rates at arrest temperature were around 5-10⁰ C/minute.
It may be commented however, that although the structures of the ingots so produced do simulate those of Damascus blades, the methods used by Verhoeven et al. [29] are not strictly experimental re-constructions of the traditional processes, but rather laboratory simulations of the process, since the methods used do not really replicate conditions related to traditional or archaeological processes. For instance the charge is fired in both the methods described above in a very short time and the melt is cooled very rapidly under modern industrial conditions which could not have been achieved traditionally, while the 19th century descriptions of the wootz process suggest a very long firing cycle for the charge. In fact the eye witness descriptions of Voysey [8] and Buchanan [9] lay emphasis on the fact that the prolonged heating of the charge and its slow cooling were essential for obtaining the optimum results in the wootz process.
However the experimental simulations by Verhoeven et al. [29] served to monitor in detail the thermal cycles and cooling curves and composition so as to be able to arrive at a final product which matched that of Damascus blades and to understand the mechanism of formation of the pattern of aligned bands on the blades, which is reported by them to be produced by a carbide banding mechanism which was found to be assisted by the addition of P, S along with V, Cr, and Ti. Moreover their experiments are amongst the few comprensive studies on the general process of manufacture of the ingots themselves.
5. Archaeological and analytical evidence
Some of the archaeological and analytical evidence for crucible steel production is discussed covering the investigations of Rao [30], Rao et al. [31], Lowe [32, 33], Srinivasan [3] and Srinivasan and Griffiths [5]. These indicate that the crucible processes for steel production were spread over large parts of south India. Lowe�s investigations have concentrated mainly on surveying and studying numerous sites from the Hyderabad region or the Deccani crucible steel process while pioneering investigations by Rao et al. [31] have covered other parts of south India such as the Mysore region and Salem district of Tamil Nadu. Field and analytical investigations were made by Srinivasan in 1990, whereby she was able to identify some hitherto unreported sites of crucible steel production in South Arcot, Tamil Nadu and from Gulbarga, Karnataka, reported in Srinivasan [3] and Srinivasan and Griffiths [5]. Figure 4 gives a view of a dump for wootz crucible steel production from South Arcot, Tamil Nadu and Figure 5 of fragments of fired wootz crucibles from Gulbarga identified by Srinivasan.
Srinivasan [3] has pointed out that whereas the process documented by Lowe [32, 33], the Hyderabadi or Deccani process, involved the co-fusion of cast iron with wrought iron, the crucibles from sites reported by Srinivasan from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka pertained to the carburisation of wrought iron in crucibles by packing it with carbonaceous material. Analytical investigations made by Rao et al [30], Lowe [32, 33], Srinivasan [3], Craddock [34] and Srinivasan and Griffiths [5] on crucibles from production sites are briefly summarized.
The details of the furnace described and sketched by Buchanan [8] indicate that crucibles were packed in rows of about fifteen inside a sunken pit filled with ash to constitute the furnace which was operated by bellows of the buffalo hide, fixed into a perforated wall which separated them from the furnace probably to minimize fire hazards (Figure 6). The fire was stoked from a circular pit which was connected to the bottom of the ash pit. The crucibles themselves were conical and could contain up to 14 oz. of iron, along with stems and leaves. The wootz steel process in general refers to a closed crucible

Figure 4. View of newly identified old dump for high-carbon wootz crucible steel production from South Arcot, Tamil Nadu (photographed by S. Srinivasan)

Figure 5. Fragments of newly identified remains of fired wootz crucibles from Gulbarga, Karnataka (photographed by S. Srinivasan)
 

Figure 6. Furnace for production of crucible steel production sketched by Buchanan (1807) during his travels, indicating that crucibles were packed in a pit with the furnace being operated by bellows of buffalo hide (reproduced from K. N. P. Rao, unpublished monograph)
process and Lowe [32] has remarked that the processing of plant and mineral materials in closed crucibles is often described in Indian alchemical Sanskrit texts of the 7th-13th c. AD.
Investigations by Craddock [34] indicated the wootz ingot itself had a dendritic cast structure. Lowe [32, 33] has investigated particularly well the refractory nature of the crucibles of the crucibles which indicate that they were robust enough refractories to withstand the long firing cycles of up to 24 hours for the process. The formation of mullite and cryistobalite was detected in the crucible fragments studied by Lowe [32, 33] suggesting they had been well fired to high temperatures of over 1300-1400⁰ C, while Rao et al [31] also observed the formation of mullite and cryistobalite in crucibles.
However the microstructures investigated by Lowe [32] of the metal remnants within the particular Deccani crucibles studied by her from Konasamudram could only be related to a failed process of crucible steel production at that particular site or context since they related more to white cast iron, a brittle and not very malleable material formed by over-carburisation, rather than ultra-high carbon steel. In fact based on these findings Lowe [32] has preferred to cautiously aver that it was a white cast iron ingot that was produced by the Indian crucible process. Craddock [34] has also opined that the product of the Indian crucible steel process was probably a general homogenous steel rather than specifically a high-carbon steel.
On the other hand investigations by Srinivasan [3] and Srinivasan and Griffiths [5] indicated the presence of solidified metal droplets in the crucibles with a typical micro-structure and micro-hardness corresponding to a good quality hypereutectoid steel with the formation of hexagonal grains of prior austenite with fine lamellar pearlite within the grains, with the precipitation of pro-eutectoid cementite along the grain boundaries of prior austenite: which is in fact the classic structure of ultra-high carbon steels of about 1.5% C which were made under laboratory conditions by Wadsworth and Sherby [17}and Verhoeven et al. [29]. The findings reported in Srinivasan [3] and Srinivasan and Griffiths [5] are hence significant in that they prove beyond doubt that high-carbon steels were indeed made by crucible processes in south India. Studies by Srinivasan and Griffiths [5] also indicated that temperatures of over 1400⁰ C had indeed been reached inside the crucibles to melt the wrought iron and carburise it to get a molten high-carbon steel with the typical hypereutectoid structure on solidification.
Conclusions
The above review indicates that the reputation of wootz steel as an exceptional and novel material is one that has endured from early history right into the present day, with the story of the endeavours to study it in recent history being nearly as intriguing as the story of its past. The archaeological findings indicate that crucible steel does have an ancient history in the Indian subcontinent where it took roots as suggested by literary references, while the analytical investigations indicate that a high-grade ultra-high carbon steel was indeed produced by crucible processes in south India. Recent investigations on the properties of the ultra-high carbon wootz steel such as superplasticity justify it being called an advanced material of the ancient world with not merely a past but also perhaps a future.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Indian National Academy of Engineering. Srinivasan would like to acknowledge the support of British Council, New Delhi for a British Chevening Scholarship for doctoral research, and the interest of Dr. D. Griffiths, Institute of Archaeology, University College London, Dr. J. A. Charles, Cambridge University, late Dr. C. V. Seshadri, founder-President, Congress of Traditional Science and Technology, and Hutti Gold Mines Ltd. for assistance with fieldwork and the support of the Homi Bhabha Research Council.
References
 

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4. A. K. Biswas, Iron and steel in pre-modern India- a critical review, Indian Journal of History of Science, 29 (1994), pp. 579-610.
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12. D. Mushet, Experiments on wootz or Indian steel, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, Ser. A. 95 (1804), p. 175.
13. M. Faraday, An analysis of wootz or Indian steel, Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts, 7 (1819), pp. 319-30.
14. Peter Day, Michael Faraday as materials scientist, History of Materials, Materials World, 1995.
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16. J. Stodart, A brief account of wootz, Asiatic Journal, 5 (1818)
17. J. Wadsworth, and O. D. Sherby, On the Bulat-Damascus steels revisited, Progress in Materials Science, 25 (1980), pp. 35-67.
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Archaeotechnology

The Key Role of Impurities in Ancient Damascus Steel Blades

J.D. Verhoeven, A.H. Pendray, and W.E. Dauksch

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION DAMASCUS STEEL Reproducing Wootz Damascus Blades THE SWORDS Zschokke Swords Four Wootz Damascus Blades THE LADDER PATTERN THE ROLE OF IMPURITIES IN BAND FORMATION EXISTING DAMASCUS BLADES QUALITY WHY THE ART WAS LOST ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS References

The art of producing the famous 16-18th century Damascus steel blades found in many museums was lost long ago. Recently, however, research has established strong evidence supporting the theory that the distinct surface patterns on these blades result from a carbide-banding phenomenon produced by the microsegregation of minor amounts of carbide-forming elements present in the wootz ingots from which the blades were forged. Further, it is likely that wootz Damascus blades with damascene patterns may have been produced only from wootz ingots supplied from those regions of India having appropriate impurity-containing ore deposits.

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Author's Note: All compositions are given in weight percent unless otherwise noted.

INTRODUCTION

The arms and armor section of most large museums display examples of Damascus steel weapons. These steels are of two different types, pattern-welded Damascus and wootz Damascus, both of which were apparently first produced prior to around 500.^1,2 These steels have in common an attractive surface pattern composed of swirling patterns of light-etched regions on a nearly black background. The pattern-welded steels were produced by forge welding alternating sheets of high- and low-carbon steels. This composite was then folded and forge-welded together, and the fold/forge cycle was repeated until a large number of layers was obtained.
This article is concerned with the second type of Damascus steel, sometimes called oriental Damascus. The most common examples of these steels are swords and daggers, although examples of body armor are also known. The name Damascus apparently originated with these steels. The steel itself was produced not in Damascus, but in India and became known in English literature in the early 19th century³ as wootz steel, as it is referred to here. Detailed pictures of many such wootz Damascus swords are presented in Figiel's book,⁴ and the metallurgy of these blades is discussed in Smith's book.⁵
Unfortunately, the technique of producing wootz Damascus steel blades is a lost art. The date of the last blades produced with the highest-quality damascene patterns is uncertain, but is probably around 1750; it is unlikely that blades displaying low-quality damascene patterns were produced later than the early 19th century. Debate has persisted in the metallurgy community over the past 200 years as to how these blades were made and why the surface pattern appeared.^6-8 Research efforts over the years have claimed the discovery of methods to reproduce wootz Damascus steel blades,^9-12 but all of these methods suffer from the same problem—modern bladesmiths have been unable to use the methods to reproduce the blades. The successful reproduction of wootz Damascus blades requires that blades be produced that match the chemical composition, possess the characteristic damascene surface pattern, and possess the same internal microstructure that causes the surface pattern.

DAMASCUS STEEL

Wootz steel was produced as roughly 2.3 kg ingots, commonly referred to as cakes, that are solidified in a closed crucible. It was a relatively high-purity iron steel with 1.5% carbon. The cakes were shipped to Damascus, Syria, where bladesmiths learned to forge them into the swords that displayed a beautiful surface pattern. The hypereutectoid carbon level of these steels plays a key role in producing the characteristic surface pattern, because the pattern results from alignment of the Fe₃C particles that form in such steels on cooling. When western Europeans first encountered these patterned weapons, they adopted the name Damascus steel. Wootz Damascus blades possessing the highest-quality damascene patterns were produced in the 16th-17th century.⁴

a

b

Figure 1. (a) A reconstructed wootz Damascus blade showing the Damascene surface pattern containing a combined Mohammed ladder and rose pattern. (b) A longitudinal section of the same blade showing the bands of cementite particles responsible for the surface pattern.

Both the internal microstructure and the chemical composition of these steels were well established early in this century.^11,13 The internal microstructure of a wootz Damascus blade possessing a high-quality damascene surface pattern is a unique metallurgical microstructure.⁸ It consists of bands of small (generally around 6 mm diameter) particles of Fe₃C (cementite) clustered along the band centerline. The bands have a characteristic spacing in the 30-70 mm range and are contained in a steel matrix. The structure of the steel matrix varies depending on how the smith heat-treated the blade, but it is generally found to be pearlite. The bands lie parallel to the forging plane of the blades. By manipulating the angle of the blade surface relative to the plane of the bands, the smith can produce a variety of convoluted patterns of intersection of the bands with the blade surface. With polishing and etching, the Fe₃C particles cause the bands to appear white and the steel matrix nearly black; thus, the surface pattern is created.

Reproducing Wootz Damascus Blades

In recent work, a technique to produce blades that match the best museum-quality wootz Damascus blades in both surface appearance and internal microstructure has been developed. Figure 1 presents a blade recently made by one of the authors, A.H. Pendray, showing the characteristic damascene surface pattern. It has been specially prepared to include the famous Mohammed's ladder pattern that appears on many of the higher-quality museum swords and blades. The circular pattern between the ladders is often termed the rose pattern, and it is also sometimes found on high-quality museum blades.⁴ A longitudinal section from an adjoining piece of this blade is also shown, which illustrates the aligned bands of clustered cementite particles typical of the better quality museum blades.
A detailed picture description of the production process for this blade has recently been published.¹⁴ In addition, the technique has been fully described in the literature,^15-17 and it has been shown that blades possessing high-quality damascene patterns can be repeatedly produced utilizing the technique. The technique is, in essence, a simple reproduction of the general method described by the earlier researchers. A small steel ingot of the correct composition (Fe + 1.5C) is produced in a closed crucible and is then forged to a blade shape. However, some key factors are now specified. These include the time/temperature record of the ingot preparation, the temperature of the forging operations, and the type and composition level of impurity elements in the Fe + 1.5C steel. It appears that the most important factor is the type of impurity elements in the steel ingot. Recent work^17-18has shown that bands of clustered Fe₃C particles can be produced in the blades by the addition of very small amounts (0.03% or less) of one or more carbide-forming elements, such as V, Mo, Cr, Mn, and Nb. The elements vanadium and molybdenum appear to be the most effective elements in causing the band formation to occur. An obvious question raised by these results is, are these elements also present at low levels in the 16-18th century wootz Damascus blades?

THE SWORDS

Figure 2. Macrophotographs of Zschokke sword blades.

A major problem in doing scientific experiments on wootz Damascus steel is the inability to obtain samples for study. Such study requires that the blades be cut into sections for microscopic examination, and small quantities must be sacrificed for destructive chemical analysis. A rare example where museum-quality wootz Damascus blades were donated to science for study is reported in the 1924 paper of Zschokke.¹³ A famous explorer and collector, Henri Moser, amassed a collection of some 2,000 Damascene blades and donated two daggers and four swords to Zschokke for study. The Moser collection is now displayed in the Berne Historical Museum in Switzerland, and the remaining pieces from the four swords of the Zschokke study remain there. Recently, Ernst J. Kläy of the Berne Museum donated a small sample of each sword for further study to be conducted.
This article presents the results of a study of these four samples. Also, four additional wootz Damascus blades, all thought to be a few hundred years old, have been acquired and are included. Hence, all of the blades studied here are more than two centuries old and were presumably made from wootz steel. These blades are referred to as genuine wootz Damascus blades to differentiate them from the reconstructed wootz Damascus blades made by the technique developed by the authors.

Zschokke Swords

Zschokke identified the four swords of his study as swords 7-10, and the same code is used here. The swords had an original width of around 30 mm. The samples provided were approximately 18 mm wide by 88 mm in length and contained the cutting edge. The surface of the samples were refinished by polishing with fine SiC papers and then etching in ferric chloride. The contrast on the sample's surface was enhanced by applying the ferric chloride with repeated rubbing from a cloth. Figure 2 presents macrographs of the four sword samples; sword 9 has the most distinct pattern.
Pieces were cut from one end of each of the samples with a thin diamond saw. A 2 cm length was cut for chemical-analysis studies, and an 8 mm length sample was used for microstructure analysis. The chemical analyses were done using emission spectroscopy on a calibrated machine at Nucor Steel Corporation. Table I presents the chemical analyses, along with the values reported by Zschokke. Agreement between the analyses done by Zschokke in 1924 and the present data is reasonably good.

Table I. A Comparison of the Current Chemical Analyses with Zschokke's Analyses13*
	Sword 7		Sword 8		Sword 9		Sword 10
Material	Current	Zschokke	Current	Zschokke	Current	Zschokke	Current	Zschokke
C	1.71	1.87	0.65	0.60	1.41	1.34	1.79	1.73
Mn	150	50	1,600	1,590	<100	190	300	280
P	1,010	1,270	1,975	2,520	980	1,080	1,330	1,720
S	95	130	215	320	60	80	160	200
Si	350	490	1,150	1,190	500	620	500	620
* Analyses are given in parts per million by weight, except for C, which is in weight%.

Sword 8 is hypoeutectoid and, therefore, cannot be a true wootz Damascus steel, because such steels will not form Fe₃C particles on cooling. Metallographic examination confirmed this expectation and revealed that the surface pattern seen on this sword (Figure 2) was due to ferrite bands in a pearlite matrix. Therefore, this sword will not be considered to be a genuine wootz Damascus sword in the following discussion.
Micrographs of surface and transverse sections of the remaining three swords are shown in Figure 3. The micrographs of the surfaces are, in effect, taper sections through the bands seen on the micrographs of the section views, and, as expected, the widths of the bands are expanded in the surface views.

a	b	c
d	e	f
Figure 3. Micrographs of Zschokke blades showing (a) the surface of blade 7, (b) a transverse section of blade 7, (c)the surface of blade 9, (d) a longitudinal section of blade 9, (e) the surface of blade 10, and (f) a transverse section of bade 10.

Table II presents a summary of the microstructural observations of the steels. The three wootz Damascus swords all display band spacing in the 40-50 mm range. Sword 7 contains graphite stringers not shown in the micrographs. Sword 10 contains a mixture of large and small particles in the bands. Sword 9 displays the most distinct bands on the micrographs and also appears to give the most attractive damascene pattern (Figure 2). The bands are the most distinct because this blade contains the least amount of Fe₃C particles lying between the carbide bands. Interestingly, however, Zschokke rated the damascening quality of the four swords and reports sword 10 as "the most beautiful and the most precious of the four." Three other museum-quality blades were sectioned,⁸ and the carbide bands appear similar to sword 9, being more distinct than in swords 7 and 10 and without the large cementite particles of sword 10.
Rockwell C hardness data were taken along the centerline of the transverse sections of all four swords in order to more fully characterize them. A large variation in hardness was found and is presented in Table II. The hardness correlated with the matrix microstructure. The matrix structure of the blades underwent a transition from pearlite at the thin tip to a divorced eutectoid ferrite + cementite at the fat end (thickness = 3-4 mm). These structures are consistent with recent kinetic studies of the eutectoid reaction in hypereutectoid steels.^19-20 The studies show that in two-phase (austenite + Fe₃C) steels, the divorced eutectoid transformation (DET) dominates at slow cooling rates and the pearlite reaction dominates at higher cooling rates; the DET is favored as the density of the Fe₃C particles in the transforming austenite increases. Hence, the matrix microstructures indicate that the blades were air-cooled with pearlite dominating near the faster cooling cutting edge. The dominance of the DET matrix structure in swords 7 and 10 probably results from the higher amount of interband Fe₃C present in these swords.

Table II. Microstructural and Hardness Data for the Wootz Zschokke Swords
Sword	Microstructure	Hardness Range
7	Diffuse bands of elongated Fe3C particles in matrix. Significant graphite stringers. Band spacing = 42 µm. Matrix: Pearlite extending 7 mm from the cutting edge; remainder = DET	Rc = 32, Pearlite matrix Rc = 8, DET matrix*
9	Very distinct bands of Fe3C particles in matrix. Band spacing = 50 µm. Matrix: Pearlite except for a thin DET region near the fat end	Rc = 23, Pearlite matrix Rc = 9, DET matrix*
10	Distinct bands of Fe3C particles in matrix. Band spacing = 46 µm. Pearlite extending 3 mm from the cutting edge; remainder = DET	Rc = 37, Pearlite matrix Rc = 5, DET matrix*
* Divorced eutectoid transformed matrix giving Fe3C particles in ferrite.

Because of the unique historical value of these blades, a fairly careful study was done to characterize the morphology of the carbide particles comprising the bands causing the damascene patterns. The faces on the 2 cm length samples used to perform the emission spectrograph analyses were mounted and polished and etched in picral. These face surfaces, along with both transverse and longitudinal sections of the swords prepared with similar metallography, were then examined with a high-resolution digital camera. Image-analyzing software was used to determine the average area, maximum diameter, and minimum diameter of the Fe₃C particles (Table III). Three regions were examined for each reported measurement. An average of the largest 20 unconnected particles in a sample field of 500-600 particles was determined on each region, and the table presents the average of the three average measurements. The results present a quantitative measure for the shape anisotropy of the particles, which is apparent in Figure 3.
In swords 7 and 10, the particles are dominantly plate-shaped with the thin direction aligned in the forging plane of the sword blades. Consequently, the area of the particles on the sword face is generally larger than on the sections. The standard deviation of the data was consistently in the range of 20-25%, so that differences in the areas on the three surfaces are problematic, whereas, the differences in minimum and maximum diameters are significant. For blades 7 and 10, the maximum/minimum aspect ratio of the particles averages around three on both transverse and longitudinal sections and around two on the sword faces. The ratios are slightly less for blade 9, reflecting the more globular shape of the particles and the observation that the oblong particles do not have their broad face well aligned in the forging plane, as they do on blades 7 and 10.

Table III. A Summary of Fe3C Particle Size Measurements*
		Section
Sword	Dimension	Face	Longitudinal	Transverse
7	Diameter (max./min.) Area	13/7.4 88	16/4.6 69	10/3.230
9	Diameter (max./min.) Area	11/5.7 59	12/5.6 65	11/3.9 41
10 (small)	Diameter (max./min.) Area	13/6.6 76	16/4.8 62	15.4.9 63
10 (large)	Diameter (max./min.) Area	54/27 1,300	44/14 590	46/15 640
Kard Blade	Diameter (max./min.) Area	8.0/4.0 30
* Diameter is measured in mm; area in mm2.

The large particles in blade 10 present a significantly larger area on the blade face and might be expected to enhance the damascene pattern. This enhancement was not found on the sample repolished for this study. However, it is difficult to cause the matrix to etch dark on blades 7 and 10 because of the large amount of ferrite produced by the DET structure of the matrix in these blades. With a picral etch, the blade surfaces show a very weak pattern due to this problem, as opposed to a brilliant pattern on blade 9 with its pearlite matrix. With the rubbing ferric chloride etch, the matrix etches darker, but still not as dark as blade 9, as seen in Figure 2. It may be that Zschokke, who had refinished the blades for his 1924 study, employed a superior etching technique that was able to etch the DET matrix of blade 10 darker and thus produce more distinct bands, leading to the conclusion that its damascene pattern was superior to blade 9.

Four Wootz Damascus Blades

In order to obtain a better statistical sampling of the level of impurity elements in genuine wootz Damascus blades, four additional blades were analyzed. Three of the blades were previously studied, with section views showing well-aligned bands of Fe₃C particles similar in morphology to sword 9. Also, the surfaces of all of the blades displayed excellent damascene patterns. The three blades have been identified as Voigt,²¹ Figiel,⁸ and Old B.¹⁵ All three were reanalyzed for this study on the same emission spectrometer used for the Zschokke swords. The results of the analyses, plus the full analyses of the four Zschokke swords, are presented in Table IV.

Table IV. Chemical Analysis of Seven Wootz Damascus Blades*
Element	7	9	10	Old B	Figiel	Voigt	Kard
C	1.71	1.41	1.79	1.51	1.64	1.00	1.49
Mn	150	<100	300	100	200	500	100
P	1,010	980	1,330	950	1,620	260	1,440
S	95	60	160	53	85	115	90
Si	350	500	500	470	460	975	500
Ni	600	400	700	<100	180	<100	200
Cr	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100
Mo	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100
Cu	1,750	900	1,830	330	780	300	900
Al	<10	<10	10	12	8	25	30
V	145	50	270	40	40	<10	60
Nb	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100	<100
Pb	<10	<10	<10	<10	10	10	40
Sn	<10	10	<10	<10	<10	15	<10
Ti	9	11	6	13	16	7	19
Zr	<10	<10	<10	<10	<10	<10	<10
B	<1	<1	<1	<1	2	<1	<1
Ca	19	17	15	11	2	13	<1
*All analyses are in parts per million by weight, except C, which is in weight percent.

The kard blade referenced in Tables III and IV is a knife in the style of a Persian kard recently obtained from L. Figiel. It has a walrus-ivory handle (known as shamoni) and chisel work on the blade surface that adjoins the handle, as shown on Figure 4. It was acquired in India by Figiel and is believed to be a genuine wootz Damascus blade produced in the 18th century. This blade was studied to expand the database and illustrate that it is possible to obtain chemical-analysis data using emission-spectrometer analysis without the permanent loss of the damascene pattern. The electric arc utilized in this analysis produces a discolored crater-shaped disk about 1 cm in diameter on the surface in which the surface atoms are vaporized and the pattern destroyed. To successfully arc the blade, it is necessary to clean both sides of the blade surrounding the crater region with emery paper to achieve adequate electrical contact. Figure 4a shows the surface of the kard blade after it had been lightly polished with emery paper and sparked in the emission spectrometer. It was subsequently polished with emery paper to remove the shallow crater region; then, the surface was re-etched with the rubbing/ferric chloride technique.

a

b

Figure 4. (a) The surface of a kard blade showing the emery-paper scratches and the burn mark made by the emission spectrograph analysis. (b) The region near the burn mark after refinishing.

After polishing, the effects of emission-spectrometer analysis are no longer apparent (Figure 4b). The original damascene pattern has been restored, and, even knowing where the crater had been, it is very difficult to detect its presence by visual examination. The damascene pattern in this blade is well formed, but requires a small magnification to be clearly seen, because of the combination of the small size of the cementite particles and the large amount of interband Fe₃C particles in this blade. Digital micrographs of the surface of the kard blade were examined with the same image-analyzing technique used for the Zschokke blades. The results presented at the bottom of Table III illustrate the significantly smaller area of the Fe₃C particles in the kard blade versus the Zschokke blades.

THE LADDER PATTERN

The museum-quality wootz Damascus blades with the most attractive surface patterns often display the Mohammed's ladder pattern, similar to that of the blade in Figure 1 and Zschokke sword 9 in Figure 2. Several theories evolved as to how these ladder patterns were produced. Early authors, such as Zschokke,¹³ upheld a theory attributed to Tschernoff that they resulted from radial dendrites in the steel cakes that were aligned across the blades by piercing the ingots and opening them up during the initial stages of forging. Smith⁵ argues that this process is unlikely and suggests that they were produced by cutting or grinding shallow grooves across a nearly finished blade and then forging the blade flat, a technique he attributes to Massalski²² and De Luynes.²³ Panseri carried out experiments on pattern-welded blades in which he produced transverse grooves in a nearly finished blade by both cutting and forging with a chisel-shaped die.²⁴ He showed that both techniques produce a ladder pattern and argued that the patterns from forged grooves more closely resemble the patterns in wootz Damascus blades than those from cut grooves. This question of how the ladder patterns were produced is also discussed by Figiel,⁴ who presents several excellent photographs of various ladder-patterned blades.

Figure 5. (a) A longitudinal section view after a notch cut across blade-(b) Distortion of the carbide bands by forging flow. (c) A schematic of the blade surface showing band spacing after forging flow.

A qualitative illustration of the mechanism of ladder formation using the notch-cutting technique is presented in Figure 5. For a given band spacing in the blade, the band spacing on the blade surface, S, is controlled by the angle of the band planes with the blade surface, shown as a on Figure 5. When a is increased, the band spacing on the surface decreases. It is the systematic variation of this angle a that results in the oscillation of the spacing of the bands on the blade surface and causes the characteristic wavy damascene pattern. Experiments show that the waviness of the pattern can be dramatically increased by simply using rounded or peening hammer heads to increase variations in a. After cutting a groove across a nearly finished blade, subsequent forging causes the metal at the groove base to fill the groove cavity. The direction of this forging flow is shown by the vertical arrow of Figure 5a. This flow deforms the bands, causing the local a angles at the blade surface to increase at the notch wall locations. The resulting decrease of the surface spacing S at those two locations is shown in Figure 5c. If the grooves are wide, the narrowed band spacing appears along the two walls of the groove and not the bottom, depending on the depth of the groove. The details of the pattern are a complex function of the width and depth of the groove cavity and the shape of the groove cavity.
Experiments have been carried out on the reconstructed wootz Damascus blades in which the ladder and rose pattern were produced by both the groove-cutting and groove-forging techniques. The patterns in the blade of Figure 1 were made with the groove-cutting technique, and detailed photographs of the process have recently been published (Figure 6a).¹⁴ These patterns may be compared to similar ladder/rose patterns made by the die-forging technique (Figure 6b). The circular pattern in Figure 6b (called the rose pattern on ancient blades) was made with a hollow cylindrical die, while the pattern in Figure 6a was made by removing metal with a specially shaped solid drill. In the case of the die-forged patterns, the ridges produced by the upsetting action of the die were removed with a belt grinder prior to additional forging.
A comparison of the ladder patterns produced by grinding versus forging reveals nearly identical features (Figure 6). Figiel points out that there is a large variation in the pattern in the bands of the several examples presented in his book.⁴ Hence, this study is only able to conclude that the ancient smiths produced the ladder patterns by making parallel grooves across the surface of nearly finished blades, either by forging or cutting/grinding.

THE ROLE OF IMPURITIES IN BAND FORMATION

a

b

Figure 6. The ladder and rose pattern produced by (a)grooves cut into the surface of the nearly finished blade and (b) grooves forged into the surface of the nearly finished blade.

A major conclusion of the studies on reconstructed wootz Damascus steel^17-18 is that the band formation in these steels results from microsegregation of low levels of carbide-forming elements from V, Mo, Cr, Mn, and Nb, with vanadium and molybdenum being most effective. Experiments have shown that vanadium levels as low as 40 parts per million by weight (ppmw) are quite effective in producing the bands of clustered Fe₃C particles. The data of Table III show that all of the hypereutectoid steels contain vanadium at or above this level, except for the Voigt blade. However, the Voigt blade contains manganese at the 500 ppmw level, and experiments show¹⁸that banding is induced with manganese levels of only 200 ppmw. Hence, analyses of the seven genuine wootz Damascus steels of Table III are consistent with the theory that low levels of carbide-forming elements, apparently mainly vanadium and to a lesser extent manganese, are essential to the surface-pattern formation of these blades. We believe that it is the microsegregation of these elements during solidification that is causing the Fe₃C particles to cluster into bands during the forging, which, in turn, produce the damascene patterns.
It is well established^25-28 that the ferrite/pearlite banding of hypoeutectoid steels results from microsegregation of the X element in Fe-C-X alloys, where X is generally manganese, phosphorus, or an alloy addition. For the example X = P, it is established that the microsegregation of phosphorus to the interdendritic regions (IRs) causes ferrite to nucleate preferentially in the IRs. If the cooling rate is slow enough, the ferrite grows as blocky grain boundary allotriomorphs and pushes the carbon ahead of the growth front until pearlite forms between neighboring IRs. Apparently, rolling or forging deformation is quite effective in aligning the IRs of the solidified ingots into planar arrays, because the ferrite appears as planar bands parallel to the deformation plane separated by bands of pearlite. The ferrite/pearlite bands of sword 8 were probably produced by this type of banding caused, most likely, by the microsegregation of phosphorus.
A strong body of evidence has been obtained^16-18 that supports the theory that the layered structures in the normal hypereutectoid Damascus steels are produced by a mechanism similar to the mechanism causing ferrite/pearlite banding in hypoeutectoid steels with one important difference in ferrite/pearlite banding, the bands form on a single thermal cycle. For example, the ferrite/pearlite bands can be destroyed by complete austenitization at low temperatures (just above the A₃ temperature) followed by rapid cooling and are then reformed in a single heat up to austenite, followed by an adequately slow cool.²⁶ (Low-temperature austenitization is required to avoid homogenization of the microsegregated X element.) The carbide bands of the wootz Damascus steel are destroyed by a complete austenitization at low temperatures (just above the A_cm temperature) followed by cooling at all rates, slow or fast. However, if the steel is then repeatedly cycled to maximum temperatures of around 50-100°C below A_cm, the carbide bands will begin to develop after a few cycles and become clear after 6-8 cycles.
The formation mechanism of the carbides clustered selectively along the IRs during the cyclic heating of the forging process is not resolved. It seems likely, however, that it involves a selective coarsening process, whereby cementite particles lying on the IRs slowly become larger than their neighbors lying on dendrite regions and crowd them out. A model for such a selective coarsening process has been presented.¹⁷ During the heat-up stage of each thermal cycle, the smaller cementite particles will dissolve, and only the larger particles will remain at the forging temperature, which lies just below the A_cm temperature. The model requires the segregated impurity atoms lying in the IRs to selectively reduce the mobility of the cementite/austenite interfaces in those regions. Larger particles would then occur in the IRs at the forging temperature. They probably maintain their dominance on cool down because one would not expect the small particles that had dissolved to renucleate on cool down in the presence of the nearby cementite particles. These near-by particles would provide sites for cementite growth prior to adequate local supercooling sufficient to nucleate new particles.

EXISTING DAMASCUS BLADES QUALITY

In the course of our research on producing reconstructed wootz Damascus steel blades, it has become evident that it is much easier to forge blades from the small ingots that display little to no damascene pattern than to produce blades with the damascene pattern. The Fe₃C particles are still present in these blades, but they are randomly arrayed rather than arrayed as bands. Such blades are widespread in collections and are often referred to as granular blades.⁴ To produce the banded structure, the right combination of time/temperature firing during ingot making, the right chemical composition (minor element additions), and the proper thermomechanical sequencing during the forging process are required. It is relatively easy to make an ingot that will not pattern on forging.
Based on this experience, it seems likely that the fraction of Indian crucible steel that was successfully forged into the damascened blades was probably quite small; the majority of surviving wootz Damascus blades probably display low-quality surface patterns. Craddock²⁹ has come to this same conclusion based on an analysis of the literature on damascene-patterned steels. The results on the four Moser blades studied by Zschokke support this same conclusion. These blades were supposedly representative of good-quality damascened blades from the east, and yet of the four, only sword 9 displays the high-quality Fe₃C bands characteristic of the best museum-quality wootz Damascus blades.

WHY THE ART WAS LOST

The discovery that vanadium is extremely effective in producing Fe₃C banding in high-carbon steels¹⁷ was aided by the accidental use of Sorel metal as a raw material for making the small ingots. Sorel metal is a high-purity Fe-C alloy, containing 3.9-4.7% C, marketed by Rio Tinto Iron and Titanium America, Chicago. The alloy is produced from a large ilmenite ore deposit at Lac Tio on the north shore of the St. Lawrence River. Analyses of several batches of the Sorel metal has found that it consistently contains a few hundred ppmw of vanadium impurity. Apparently, the impurity is contained in the ilmenite ore. This suggests the possibility that the low levels of vanadium found in the genuine wootz blades of Table III may have resulted from ore deposits in India where the wootz steels were produced.
One of the big mysteries of wootz Damascus steel has been why the art of making these blades was lost. The vanadium levels provide the basis for a theory. Based on our studies, it is clear that to produce the damascene patterns of a museum-quality wootz Damascus blade the smith would have to fulfill at least three requirements. First, the wootz ingot would have to have come from an ore deposit that provided significant levels of certain trace elements, notably, Cr, Mo, Nb, Mn, or V. This idea is consistent with the theory of some authors³⁰ who believe the blades with good patterns were only produced from wootz ingots made in southern India, apparently around Hyderabad. Second, the data of Table IV confirm previous knowledge that wootz Damascus blades with good patterns are characterized by a high phosphorus level. This means that the ingots of these blades would be severely hot short, which explains why Breant's⁹ 19th century smiths in Paris could not forge wootz ingots. Therefore, as previously shown,¹⁵ successful forging would require the development of heat-treating techniques that decarburized the surface in order to produce a ductile surface rim adequate to contain the hot-short interior regions. Third, a smith who developed a heat-treatment technique that allowed the hot-short ingots to be forged might still not have learned how to produce the surface patterns, because they do not appear until the surface decarb region is ground off the blades; this grinding process is not a simple matter.
The smiths that produced the high-quality blades would most likely have kept the process for making these blades a closely guarded secret to be passed on only to their apprentices. The smiths would be able to teach the apprentices the second and third points listed, but point one is something they would not have known. There is no difference in physical appearance between an ingot with the proper minor elements present and one without. Suppose that during several generations all of the ingots from India were coming from an ore body with the proper amount of minor elements present, and blades with good patterns were being produced. Then, after a few centuries, the ore source may have been exhausted or become inaccessible to the smithing community; therefore, the technique no longer worked. With time, the smiths who knew about the technique died out without passing it on to their apprentices (since it no longer worked), so even if a similar source was later found, the knowledge was no longer around to exploit it. The possible validity of this theory could be examined if data were available on the level of carbide-forming elements in the various ore deposits in India used to produce wootz steel.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge helpful discussions with the late David Peterson and with Rohit Trivedi. Mark Schmidt performed the chemical analyses at the Darlington plant of Nucor Steel Corporation. Hal Sailsbury at Ames Laboratory carried out most of the metallography. The research was funded cooperatively by a grant from Nucor Steel Corporation and the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Research, through the Ames Laboratory, Iowa State University, contract W-7405-ENG-82.

References

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
J.D. Verhoeven is currently a professor in the Materials Science and Engineering Department at Iowa State University. A.H. Pendray is currently president of the Knifemakers Guild. W.E. Dauksch is retired as vice president and general manager of Nucor Steel Corporation.
For more information, contact J.D. Verhoeven, Iowa State University, Materials Science and Engineering Department, 104 Wilhelm Hall, Ames, Iowa 50011; (515) 294-9471; fax (515) 294-4291; jver@iastate.edu. 

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