Jallikattu, eru thazhuvuthal

January 19, 2017, 8:47 pm

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See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2017/01/pola-festival-is-bharatiya-millennial.html

Pola festival is a Bharatiya millennial tradition. Jallikattu is part of the celebration, hugging the zebu, Bos Indicus, the wealth of Bharatam

Embracing the bull or Eru Thazhuvuthal. Found in Alwarthirunagari, Tuticorin district at Perumal temple. Era: 17th century.

The bull is friendly after domestication. Found in Karikaiyur, Nilgiris district. Era: prehistoric period.
An attempt to catch or tame a group of bulls. Found in Karikaiyur, Nilgiris district. Era: prehistoric period.
Bull surrounded by people, shows early domestication. Found in Karikaiyur, Nilgiris district. Era: prehistoric period.
Bull surrounded by people, shows early domestication. Found in Karikaiyur, Nilgiris district. Era: prehistoric period.
Lone man trying to tame a bull. Found in Usilampatti, Madurai district. Era: prehistoric period.
Krishna taming the bull. Found in Ramanathapuram palace. Era: 18th cent.

Bull-taming in Tamil Nadu’s ancient rock art

Rock art discoveries in Tamil Nadu have depicted prehistoric men capturing bulls and attempting to tame them

Art historian and archaelogist K.T. Gandhirajan has unearthed around 15 out of the nearly 70 ancient rock art sites discovered in Tamil Nadu. Many of these rock art discoveries have depicted men from prehistoric times capturing bulls and attempting to tame them. According to Mr, Gandhirajan, it is this taming of the bull that eventually led to the bull-taming sport of jallikattu evolving. Speaking to The Hindu the art historian said that many of these art depictions are found across Tamil Nadu in places such as Nilgiri Hills, Palani Hills and Tuticorin. They were drawn using white clay or crushed white stone, he said. Some of the depictions were inspired by the mythical tales associated with Lord Krishna and his association with cows and bulls, Mr. Gandhirajan said. These rock art descriptions have been compiled in his recent book in Tamil on the subject of Jallikattu 'Eru Thazhuvuthal ,Jallikattu: Thonnam, Panbadu, Arasiyal'.

http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/Bull-taming-in-Tamil-Nadu%E2%80%99s-ancient-rock-art/article17061183.ece

Vidya Venkat

JANUARY 19, 2017 17:34 IST

century

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Archaeological tracking of Proto-Indo-European: Bronze Age koryos in Krasnosamarskoe

January 19, 2017, 11:20 pm

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Note

The report says: "In the Rigveda, an ancient Sanskrit text composed sometime before 1000 B.C., young men can only become warriors after sacrificing a dog at a winter ceremony and wearing its skin for four years, which they burn upon their return to society."

What is the Rigveda evidence of dog skin?

Kalyanaraman

www.arxaiologia.gr

20/01/2017

Objects providing pictorial evidence of initiation rites in different Indo-European cultures. Credit: D. Anthony.

News: Russia

Wolf Rites of Winter

Ancient Indo-European tradition supported by archaeological evidence

by Archaeology Newsroom - Thursday, 19 September 2013

“I remember saying early on in the dig that we were finding a lot of dog bones. But I had no idea how important they would turn out to be. When the team got to work analyzing all the animal bones in the lab, they identified the remains of about 51 dogs and seven wolves, as well as six canines that could not be classified as either. At other Timber Grave sites, dog and wolf bones never make up more than 3 percent of the total animal bones found. At Krasnosamarskoe, they made up more than 30 percent. “I don’t know of any other site in the world with such a high percentage of dog bones”.
This is the way archaeozoologist Nerissa Russel describes the procedure of excavating Krasnosamarskoe, one of the most enigmatic sites in the history of modern archaeology. Situated in the Russian steppes north of the Black Sea, Krasnosamarskoe is an otherwise typical site representing the so called Timber Grave Culture, a nomadic culture that flourished in Northern Europe during the local Bronze Age. Still, the finding of an enormous amount of dog and wolf bones -also cut in unusual, systematic ways that did not resemble ordinary butchering practices- was a phenomenon its excavators, archaeologists David Anthony (Hartwick College) and his wife Dorcas Brown could not fully explain. The almost ceremonial cutting of these bones was reminiscent of a sacrifice. But why, and in what way?

The Indo-European connection

Enter the science of linguistics and especially the Indo-European language theory. It is generally considered that the people who lived at Krasnosamarskoe almost certainly spoke an Indo-European language, an event that implies cultural connections with a wide range of people inhabiting the area covering Northern and Central Europe, the Russian Steppes and India. Moreover, Proto-Indo-European (PIE), the language all Indo-European languages stem of (probably spoken between 4500 and 2500 BC), included words signifying certain cultural practices,which are well recorded in later Eurasian cultures. Such a word is “koryos”, signifying a group of young people acting like (and often getting inspiration by) wolf packs.

Dancing with the Wolves

The institution of youthful war bands that go on seasonal raids is so widespread in Indo-European cultures that historical linguists and mythologists concluded that it had to be a long-standing PIE tradition. In the ancient Celtic, Germanic, Greek, and Indo-Iranian traditions, young men often left their families to form warrior societies. “These were young guys on the edge of society who occasionally would steal cows, and you’d rather they were off stealing someone else’s cows,” says Anthony. “So they were expelled from their social groups and told to raid other communities.” In Germanic traditions, these bands of young warriors thought of themselves as wolf packs. A famous myth about the hero Siegfried has him donning a dog skin to go raiding with his nephew, whom he is training to become a warrior. In the Rigveda, an ancient Sanskrit text composed sometime before 1000 B.C., young men can only become warriors after sacrificing a dog at a winter ceremony and wearing its skin for four years, which they burn upon their return to society. Such mid-winter actions are also stated through other traditions, allowing scholars to support that in a distant past, young men became warriors during a mid-winter ritual that involved dog sacrifice (probably because of the physical resemblance of dogs and wolves).

The archaeological context has provided iconographical evidence which supports the above traditions. A stele found in a tomb near Kivik, Sweden, dating from about 1300 to 1000 B.C., depicts eight hooded figures follow a leader. The depiction has been interpreted as showing a long-standing Indo-European rite initiating boys into the warrior class.
Indeed, the number eight may have held some special significance to youthful Indo-European war bands. At a Celtic settlement in France that dates to about A.D. 100, eight horses and eight men were buried together. And in the Siegfried myth, Siegfried tells his nephew not to call for him unless attacked by more than seven men, “which is eight”, states Anthony. “Perhaps, koryos were ideally groups of eight young men, and that fundamental unit of warriors endured into later times”, posits Anthony.

Koryos: the physical evidence

Going back to the finds of Krasnosamarskoe, they provide significant indications that the site had been used for such midwinter koryos initiations. But did this reconstructed tradition existed 4,000 years ago?
Once they sent the canine teeth from the site to archaeozoologist Anne Pike-Tay, who studies incremental growth bands on teeth to determine what season an animal died in, the final piece of the puzzle fell into place. She was able to determine that cows sacrificed at the site were killed year-round.By contrast, 16 out of 17 canines were killed in the wintertime -16, which makes two groups of 8. For Anthony and Brown, this was a powerful piece of evidence that koryos existed hundreds of years before they were first mentioned in the Rigveda.

Raiders of Culture

Just as roving bands of youthful raiders played an important role in later Indo-European societies, Anthony thinks they would have been critical to the Timber Grave people. “It was an organized way of not just controlling potentially dangerous young men,” he says, “but it was a way of expanding and gaining wealth.”Anthony thinks koryos could help explain why Indo-European languages spread so successfully. Previous generations of scholars imagined hordes of Indo-Europeans on chariots spreading their languages across Europe and Asia by the point of the sword. But Anthony thinks Indo-European spread instead by way of widespread imitation of Indo-European customs, which included, for example, feasting to establish strong social networks. The koryos could have simply been one more feature of Indo-European life that other people admired and adopted, along with the languages themselves.
Anthony is now looking ahead to a time when archaeologists will be willing to use linguistic and literary evidence to understand the prehistoric past in much more subtle ways than they do now. He notes, as an example, that koryos is not the only term for warrior band in reconstructed PIE. There is another word that was apparently used to refer to a larger group of warriors that included all the grown men of a community—surely a very different kind of grouping. “These kinds of distinctions,” he says, “are impossible to dig up with a trowel. We have only barely begun to use the information in the Proto-Indo-European vocabulary to understand the people who spoke it.”

Notes

Archaeology (info), http://www.archaeology.org/issues/102-1309/features/1205-timber-grave-culture-krasnosamarskoe-bronze-age (17/09/2013)
Anthony, D and Brown, D. 2012, Midwinter dog sacrifices at LBA Krasnosamarskoe, Russia, and traces of initiations for Männerbünde Paper presented at the seminar "Tracing the Indo-Europeans: Origin and migration", organized by Roots of Europe -- Language, Culture, and Migrations, University of Copenhagen, 12--14 December 2012 http://tinyurl.com/nan5w4n

https://www.archaeology.wiki/print-article/?print=60111

See: http://tinyurl.com/z5hlxec

Midwinter dog sacrifices at LBA Krasnosamarskoe, Russia, and traces of initiations for Männerbünde Paper presented at the seminar "Tracing the Indo-Europeans: Origin and migration", organized by Roots of Europe -- Language, Culture, and Migrations, University of Copenhagen, 12--14 December 2012 (Paper by Dorcas Brown and David Anthony)

See: http://squinchpix.blogspot.in/2015_07_12_archive.html

Spreadsheet on the Männerbünde

Archaeologists digging a Bronze Age site on the Russian steppes are using evidence from language and mythology to understand a remarkable discovery
By ERIC A. POWELL
Tuesday, September 17, 2013
Archaeologists found chopped dog and wolf bones scattered at the small Bronze Age settlement of Krasnosamarskoe.
Around 4,000 years ago, on the steppes north of the Black Sea, a nomadic people began settling down in small communities. Known today as the Timber Grave Culture, these people left behind more than 1,000 sites. One of them is called Krasnosamarskoe, and Hartwick College archaeologist David Anthony had big expectations for it when he started digging there in the late 1990s. Anthony hoped that by excavating the site he might learn why people in this region first began to establish permanent households. But he and his team have since discovered that Krasnosamarskoe has a much different story to tell. They found that the site held the remains of dozens of butchered dogs and wolves—vastly more than at any comparable site.
Nerissa Russell, the project’s archaeozoologist, says, “I remember saying early on in the dig that we were finding a lot of dog bones. But I had no idea how important they would turn out to be.” When the team got to work analyzing all the animal bones in the lab, they identified the remains of about 51 dogs and seven wolves, as well as six canines that could not be classified as either. At other Timber Grave sites, dog and wolf bones never make up more than 3 percent of the total animal bones found. At Krasnosamarskoe, they made up more than 30 percent. “I don’t know of any other site in the world with such a high percentage of dog bones,” says Russell. She and her team found that most of the dogs were unusually long-lived, up to 12 years old in some cases, which meant they were probably not raised for food. “Were they treasured pets, hunting dogs, or pariahs? We don’t know,” she says. “But they are so old that these were dogs that had been around for a while and had some kind of relationship to these people.”
Pieces of dog skull from the site were cut into small, standardized pieces that may have had ritual significance.To add to the mystery, the bones were cut in unusual, systematic ways that did not resemble ordinary butchering practices. Snouts were divided into three pieces and the remainder of the skulls were broken down into geometrically shaped fragments only an inch long. No one would have made these cuts to simply get meat off the bones.
Anthony and his wife, archaeologist Dorcas Brown, knew it was a unique discovery. Brown, in particular, suspected the canines were probably sacrificed there as part of a ritual and decided to examine the research literature broadly on the subject of rituals involving dogs. What she discovered was that there was indeed a body of work on just such ancient practices. In an unusual move for prehistoric archaeologists, they decided to consult historical linguistics and ancient literary traditions to better understand the archaeological record.

A bronze Viking plate from the 6th century A.D. depicts a helmeted figure who may be the god Odin dancing with a warrior wearing a wolf mask.They knew that the people who lived at Krasnosamarskoe almost certainly spoke an Indo-European language. This huge language family today consists of most of the European languages including English, and many spoken in Asia, such as Hindi. All these languages are “daughters” of one language, which was probably spoken on the Eurasian steppes between 4500 and 2500 B.C.. Historical linguists call it Proto-Indo-European (PIE). By comparing words across all the ancient and modern Indo-European languages, they have been able to reconstruct a great deal of the lexicon of this long-dead language. Not only have they reconstructed—and traced across these ancient Indo-European cultures—terms as varied as the words for bee, wheel, and snore, but linguists can also make inferences about these cultures from this vocabulary.
Despite the rich picture of ancient life that can be drawn of ancient life in this way, many archaeologists are hesitant to trust reconstructed PIE word roots and concepts. “This is the kind of information that prehistoric archaeologists would normally kill to have,” says Anthony, “but they generally distance themselves from Indo-European linguistics because they can’t really see how the two sets of data can be combined.” Anthony has spent much of his career trying to convince his colleagues that the efforts of linguists and mythologists shouldn’t be ignored. “I’m interested in combining linguistic and mythological evidence with archaeological evidence,” he says. “These roots contain information about kinship, systems of honor, systems of debt, lordship, and feasting. We ought to be mining this vocabulary to figure out what was going on in their minds.”
So, without consulting these linguistic sources, many archaeologists would have been satisfied simply knowing the dogs were sacrificed. But Brown and Anthony’s passion for bringing linguistic evidence to bear on archaeological discoveries made them go deeper. “I think it’s lucky that we were the ones who excavated the site,” says Anthony.
Brown continued to search the literature on Indo-European ceremonies for information on dogs that might yield clues about what kind of ritual was being practiced at the site. She found that historical linguists and mythologists have long linked dog sacrifice to an important ancient Indo-European tradition, the roving youthful war band.

In the ancient Celtic, Germanic, Greek, and Indo-Iranian traditions, young men often left their families to form warrior societies. “These were young guys on the edge of society who occasionally would steal cows, and you’d rather they were off stealing someone else’s cows,” says Anthony. “So they were expelled from their social groups and told to raid other communities.” In Germanic traditions, these bands of young warriors thought of themselves as wolf packs. A famous myth about the hero Siegfried has him donning a dog skin to go raiding with his nephew, whom he is training to become a warrior. In the Rigveda, an ancient Sanskrit text composed sometime before 1000 B.C., young men can only become warriors after sacrificing a dog at a winter ceremony and wearing its skin for four years, which they burn upon their return to society.
Enigmatic stelae dating from about 1300 to 1000 B.C. were found in a tomb near Kivik, Sweden. One (second from left) may depict a long-standing Indo-European rite initiating boys into the warrior class. Along its bottom, eight hooded figures follow a leader. The number eight may have held some special significance to youthful Indo-European war bands.
The institution of youthful war bands that go on seasonal raids is so widespread in Indo-European cultures that historical linguists and mythologists concluded that it had to be a long-standing PIE tradition, and that these young men became warriors during a mid-winter ritual that involved dog sacrifice. Linguists even reconstructed the PIE word for these warrior bands: koryos. But, as with many reconstructed PIE words and ideas, physical proof that koryosactually roamed the Eurasian steppes thousands of years ago had been lacking. Anthony and Brown, however, because of the sheer number of dog and wolf bones at the site, strongly suspected Krasnosamarskoe might indeed be a site of one of these midwinter koryos initiations. But they needed to prove that this reconstructed tradition existed 4,000 years ago.
Once they sent the canine teeth from the site to archaeozoologist Anne Pike-Tay, who studies incremental growth bands on teeth to determine what season an animal died in, the final piece of the puzzle fell into place. She was able to determine the season of death for 17 of the canines and found that 16 of them were killed in the wintertime. Cows sacrificed at the site, by contrast, were killed year-round. For Anthony and Brown, this was a powerful piece of evidence that koryos existed hundreds of years before they were first mentioned in the Rigveda.
Just as roving bands of youthful raiders played an important role in later Indo-European societies, Anthony thinks they would have been critical to the Timber Grave people. “It was an organized way of not just controlling potentially dangerous young men,” he says, “but it was a way of expanding and gaining wealth.” Indeed, Anthony thinks koryos could help explain why Indo-European languages spread so successfully. Previous generations of scholars imagined hordes of Indo-Europeans on chariots spreading their languages across Europe and Asia by the point of the sword. But Anthony thinks Indo-European spread instead by way of widespread imitation of Indo-European customs, which included, for example, feasting to establish strong social networks. The koryos could have simply been one more feature of Indo-European life that other people admired and adopted, along with the languages themselves.
Near a Celtic stronghold in France, a burial dating to about A.D. 100 held the remains of eight men and eight horses. Archaeologist David Anthony thinks that in the Indo-European tradition, eight warriors may have been the ideal complement of youthful war bands.
Since he and Brown have begun following the linguistic trail of the koryos, Anthony has come across other puzzles in both the archaeological record and in texts that could potentially be solved in similar ways. In particular, he thinks a possible association of warrior bands with the number eight might be significant, since it occurs frequently. “In Iron Age Indian texts, boys are eight years old when they first begin training, then at 16 they are initiated into warriorhood,” says Anthony. “In the Siegfried myth,” he continues, “the hero tells his nephew not to call for him unless attacked by more than seven men ... which is eight.” At a 3,000-year-old Bronze Age tomb in Kivik, Sweden, stelae lining the inside of the grave chamber depict eight figures in hoods following a leader. “That could be a depiction of an initiation ceremony,” says Anthony. At a Celtic settlement in France that dates to about A.D. 100, eight horses and eight men were buried together. Perhaps, posits Anthony, koryos were ideally groups of eight young men, and that fundamental unit of warriors endured into later times.
Anthony is now looking ahead to a time when archaeologists will be willing to use linguistic and literary evidence to understand the prehistoric past in much more subtle ways than they do now. He notes, as an example, that koryos is not the only term for warrior band in reconstructed PIE. There is another word that was apparently used to refer to a larger group of warriors that included all the grown men of a community—surely a very different kind of grouping. “These kinds of distinctions,” he says, “are impossible to dig up with a trowel. We have only barely begun to use the information in the Proto-Indo-European vocabulary to understand the people who spoke it.”
Eric A. Powell is online editor at ARCHAEOLOGY.
http://www.archaeology.org/issues/102-1309/features/1205-timber-grave-culture-krasnosamarskoe-bronze-age

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An open letter to Trump from the US Press Corps -- Kyle Pope, CJR

January 20, 2017, 1:00 am

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≪ Previous: Archaeological tracking of Proto-Indo-European: Bronze Age koryos in Krasnosamarskoe

By Kyle Pope, CJR

JANUARY 17, 2017

DEAR MR. PRESIDENT ELECT:

In these final days before your inauguration, we thought it might be helpful to clarify how we see the relationship between your administration and the American press corps.

It will come as no surprise to you that we see the relationship as strained. Reports over the last few days that your press secretary is considering pulling news media offices out of the White House are the latest in a pattern of behavior that has persisted throughout the campaign: You’ve banned news organizations from covering you. You’ve taken to Twitter to taunt and threaten individual reporters and encouraged your supporters to do the same. You’ve advocated for looser libel laws and threatened numerous lawsuits of your own, none of which has materialized. You’ve avoided the press when you could and flouted the norms of pool reporting and regular press conferences. You’ve ridiculed a reporter who wrote something you didn’t like because he has a disability.

All of this, of course, is your choice and, in a way, your right. While the Constitution protects the freedom of the press, it doesn’t dictate how the president must honor that; regular press conferences aren’t enshrined in the document.

But while you have every right to decide your ground rules for engaging with the press, we have some, too. It is, after all, our airtime and column inches that you are seeking to influence. We, not you, decide how best to serve our readers, listeners, and viewers. So think of what follows as a backgrounder on what to expect from us over the next four years.

Related: The coming storm for journalism under Trump

Access is preferable, but not critical. You may decide that giving reporters access to your administration has no upside. We think that would be a mistake on your part, but again, it’s your choice. We are very good at finding alternative ways to get information; indeed, some of the best reporting during the campaign came from news organizations that were banned from your rallies. Telling reporters that they won’t get access to something isn’t what we’d prefer, but it’s a challenge we relish.

Off the record and other ground rules are ours—not yours—to set. We may agree to speak to some of your officials off the record, or we may not. We may attend background briefings or off-the-record social events, or we may skip them. That’s our choice. If you think reporters who don’t agree to the rules, and are shut out, won’t get the story, see above.

We decide how much airtime to give your spokespeople and surrogates. We will strive to get your point of view across, even if you seek to shut us out. But that does not mean we are required to turn our airwaves or column inches over to people who repeatedly distort or bend the truth. We will call them out when they do, and we reserve the right, in the most egregious cases, to ban them from our outlets.

We believe there is an objective truth, and we will hold you to that. When you or your surrogates say or tweet something that is demonstrably wrong, we will say so, repeatedly. Facts are what we do, and we have no obligation to repeat false assertions; the fact that you or someone on your team said them is newsworthy, but so is the fact that they don’t stand up to scrutiny. Both aspects should receive equal weight.

We’ll obsess over the details of government. You and your staff sit in the White House, but the American government is a sprawling thing. We will fan reporters out across the government, embed them in your agencies, source up those bureaucrats. The result will be that while you may seek to control what comes out of the West Wing, we’ll have the upper hand in covering how your policies are carried out.

We will set higher standards for ourselves than ever before.We credit you with highlighting serious and widespread distrust in the media across the political spectrum. Your campaign tapped into that, and it was a bracing wake-up call for us. We have to regain that trust. And we’ll do it through accurate, fearless reporting, by acknowledging our errors and abiding by the most stringent ethical standards we set for ourselves.

Related: 12 images that capture the new reality show at Trump Tower

We’re going to work together. You have tried to divide us and use reporters’ deep competitive streaks to cause family fights. Those days are ending. We now recognize that the challenge of covering you requires that we cooperate and help one another whenever possible. So, when you shout down or ignore a reporter at a press conference who has said something you don’t like, you’re going to face a unified front. We’ll work together on stories when it makes sense, and make sure the world hears when our colleagues write stories of importance. We will, of course, still have disagreements, and even important debates, about ethics or taste or fair comment. But those debates will be ours to begin and end.

We’re playing the long game. Best-case scenario, you’re going to be in this job for eight years. We’ve been around since the founding of the republic, and our role in this great democracy has been ratified and reinforced again and again and again. You have forced us to rethink the most fundamental questions about who we are and what we are here for. For that we are most grateful.

Enjoy your inauguration.

—The Press Corps

http://www.cjr.org/covering_trump/trump_white_house_press_corps.php

↧

The great game in Jallikattu, Project Thessalonica -- Sankrant Sanu. Protect Hindu institutions.

January 20, 2017, 2:37 am

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Sankrant Sanu @sankrant

Demography (Persecution & Proselytisation) | 20-01-2017

The great game in Jallikattu

Tamil Nadu is a major battleground for the Church where it is has been able to establish deep institutional control. The battle for Jallikattu has to be seen in that light.

Some months ago, I had written about Project Thessalonica, an evangelical project that systematically aims to attack Hindu festivals and institutions. Tamil Nadu is a major battleground for the Church where it is has been able to establish deep institutional control. The battle for Jallikattu has to be seen in that light.

What is Project Thessalonica?

“Project Thessalonica aims to stop or limit Hindu activity by converting people, who form the pillars of Hindu culture, festivals, traditions and activity…They are making environmental groups raise the voice so that Ganesh processions, Kumbh Melas and Jagannath Rath Yatras are limited…”[1]

Native festivals are part of a social ecosystem that binds people to native traditions. This is one reason native festivals have always been attacked as part of establishing Christian dominance. Let us look briefly at the timeline for the Jallikattu ban.

In 2006, a judge in the Madras High Court suo moto banned Jallikattu, even though she was hearing an entirely different case and no one had petitioned against the ban.

As, The Hindu reported, based on the lawyer Shaji Chellan’s interview [2]:

“Pointing out that he had actually filed a writ petition seeking permission for rekla (bullock cart) race at Thaniankootam in Ramanathapuram district, the lawyer claims that Justice R. Banumathi (now a Supreme Court judge) expanded the scope of the case on her own and banned rekla race, oxen race and jallikattu.

‘…High Court had already allowed similar writ petitions and granted permission for rekla race in other districts. To my rude shock, Ms. Justice Banumathi took a differing view and questioned how could such races be conducted against the provisions of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,’ he recalls.”

Not only did the Judge on her own add Jallikattu to the case, she also overturned the precedence of earlier judgments to ban multiple festivals in one go. The judgment itself was passed, without any notice, and without allowing anyone in favor of Jallikattu to plead.

Mr. Chellan says the judgment was passed immediately after lunch break on the day of admission itself without notice being issued to any party.

Who was this judge, and how did she manufacture a judgment out of thin air? The Judge is Justice R Bhanumati, and according to an article in VigilOnline, she is a Christian.[3] However, that does not automatically imply any kind of bias, unless such bias is evident in her work. Apart from unilaterally banning Jallikattu, without any petition to do so, Justice Bhanumati appears to have passed harsh judgements on other Hindu matters as well.

Justice Bhanumati ruled against the right of Podhu Dikshidhars, traditional Hindu priests at the fifth-century Natarajar Temple at Chidambaram to manage their own affairs.

“In February 2010, she justified the government takeover of the administration of the famous fifth-century Natarajar temple in Chidambaram saying, ‘Administration of temple is purely secular and the state can intervene and regulate the administration if the secular activities of the institution are mismanaged.’ The judgment, however, was overturned by the Supreme Court earlier this year.”[4]

The Supreme Court found reason to overturn her judgment in the Natrajar temple case. Another exceedingly harsh judgment was passed by Justice Bhanumati against a Hindu Sadhu,

“Making it clear that he would not be eligible for any remission or early release, she said in the judgment that he would serve his second life term after completion of the first life sentence. The order was meant to keep the godman in jail forever. He died in jail in February 2011.”

In yet another case, Justice Bhanumati ruled against grandparents, who sought custody of a child, who was allegedly being converted into Christianity by the other grandparents, when her Hindu parents died.[5]

Without trying to impugn on the motives and judgment of Justice Bhanumati, there is at least prime facie evidence that her extraordinary intervention to ban Jallikattu, without any petition, may be part of an intolerance towards Hindu festivals and institutions, reflected in Project Thessalonica.

While a regulation was passed by the TN government to circumvent the Madras High Court ban in 2009, the Congress Party’s role in this has been equally dubious. In 2011, Congress’ Environment Minister, Jairam Ramesh, banned the use of bulls in sports, with an eye to ban Jallikattu.

“Chairperson, Humane Society International, Nandita Krishna said that by its historic verdict, the Supreme Court has vindicated Ramesh’s position and upheld the ban. ‘I must particularly mention and thank Ramesh who, as Minister for Environment and Forests, banned the use of bulls as performing animals in 2011’.[6]”

While the UPA government was still in power, the Supreme Court, in its subsequent order in 2014 banned Jallikattu altogether[7].

Waking up late, it was not until January 2016 that the BJP government was able to pass a notification reversing the earlier one from 2011, promulgated by Jairam Ramesh of the Congress, and allowing Jallikattu to take place. However the Supreme Court, despite a heavy case backlog of nearly 50,000 pending cases, over a thousand of which are pending for over 10 years[8], decided that it must urgently protect bulls from their owners and stayed the regulation.

In May 2016, the Congress Party, in its manifesto in Tamil Nadu, perhaps with an eye on evangelical support, specifically included upholding the ban on Jallikattu.[9]

The Congress which is criticising the Narendra Modi Government for the ban on Jallikattu, had in its manifesto for the Tamil Nadu Assembly Election in May 2016 had declared that it would ban the Jallikattu. “The party supports the ban on Jallikattu,” said the Congress manifesto.

“Tamil Nadu Assembly elections 2016: Congress releases manifesto, promises ban on Jallikattu”, the dailies had carried banner headlined reports the day after the manifesto was released by Mukul Wasnik, AICC general secretary.

Former PM Manmohan Singh, in a letter to NG Jayasimha, managing director, Humane Society International, a NGO based in Secunderabad had said that he was for banning the bull fight. “The Humane Society Internationale India has a worthy objective and certainly we have to work to discourage bullfights which provide a cruel form of entertainment. I wish you all success in achieving your objective,” said Manmohan Singh in his letter dated December 15, 2015.

Note that Human Society International is another foreign-funded NGO, just at PETA, both of which were major advocates for the ban.

The case against Jallikattu was pleaded by Congress leader Abhishek Singhvi, who called the sport “wanton torture[10]” leading the Supreme Court reinstated the ban in July 2016.

Bharata, World's education capital -- Restore the status, says Sahana Singh. Dharma Wijaya for Indian Ocean Community.

January 20, 2017, 3:52 am

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How India went from World’s Education Capital to Depths of Illiteracy

Just a thousand years ago, India was dotted with universities across its length and breadth where international students flocked to gain credentials in advanced education. But in the last 200 years, the connection with age-old knowledge streams has been severely disrupted. In the first part of this new series, Sahana Singh will examine the pedagogy of ancient Indian universities, and in subsequent parts will trace their demise.

When Tagore started an open-air school at Shantiniketan in 1901, which later went on to become a famous university, he was one in a long line of educators from India, who believed that holistic learning could only be obtained in the midst of nature under the close supervision of a parent-like guru.

India’s earliest teachers were the gurus, who taught in gurukulams and ashrams located far away from the hustle and bustle of towns in what could be called forest universities. It is no surprise that the Vedas, which are the earliest known oral books containing the thoughts of a highly civilised society are replete with exquisite references to nature and the concept of inter-dependence of living organisms. To these gurus, it was important for humans to realise their humble status in the infinite universe before embarking on the long journey of learning.

Over time, the systems of transmission of learning to newer generations got institutionalised and gave birth to famous universities such as Takshshila, Nalanda and many famous temple universities of which the remains are still found in southern India. A sizeable number of foreign students came to study in India from China, Korea, Japan, Indonesia and West Asia. While the most famous names are Fa-Hien and Xuanzang, who left behind detailed accounts, there are scores of others, who made difficult journeys by foot and on board the ships just to imbibe knowledge from Indian professors. Many of the foreign students copied texts and commentaries to carry back to their countries. The rush for gaining an education from the Brahmins and Buddhist scholars of India was similar to today’s rush to study in or be certified by American and European universities.

There is a curious hesitation among modern historians to refer to India’s multi-disciplinary centres of traditional learning as universities. This comes from the excessive importance given to the written word, to solid buildings with established pedagogy and rigid systems of certification. Thus, the talented, but bare-chested and dhoti-clad engineers and architects of ancient India, who built incredible irrigation canals, rainwater harvesting structures, palaces, forts, roads, dams and aqueducts are barely acknowledged as professionals, who learned from professors in universities. Similarly, the medical practitioners of yore, who knew which combination of herbs could help in healing diseases, where to procure them in forests, how to conduct complex surgeries and who additionally possessed spiritual insights are often regarded as quacks or witch doctors.

Learning was a sacred, important duty

Ancient Indians were obsessed with gaining perspectives about “the material and the moral, the physical and the spiritual, the perishable and the permanent”. During the process of gaining these perspectives, they made important discoveries in the sciences, mathematics and applied medicine. The sacredness of learning is evident from the large number of Sanskrit shlokas that deify the guru such as “Acharya devobhava” (Taittiriya Upanishad). Initiation of children (both male and female) into the alphabets for the first time was done ceremonially in most parts of India.

Vidyarambham or Aksharabhyasa is an important Hindu ceremony marking the initiation of young boys and girls into the writing of alphabets. Photo Credit: Shiju Sugunan

Even today, the ceremony survives in the Haathekhori in Bengal (performed during Saraswati Puja) and the Vidyarambham in Southern India (when children are asked to trace alphabets on rice). The sacred thread ceremony or the Upanayanam ceremony performed for Dwija children between the ages of eight and 12 customarily marked the beginning of education. It was considered terrible to barter knowledge for money. Gurus usually took a token gift (Guru Dakshina) in return for the long years of knowledge they imparted.

The forest universities of Ancient India

The Mahabharata gives examples of famous ashramas such as Naimisha, which was a forest university headed by Saunaka. Other hermitages mentioned in the epic are those of Vyasa, Vasishtha and Visvamitra. One hermitage near Kurukshetra even mentions two female rishis. Among Vyasa’s famous disciples were Sumantra, Vaisampayana, Jamini, Paila and Suka.

Forest Universities

Rishi Kanva’s hermitage is not mentioned as a solitary unit, but as an assemblage of numerous hermitages around the central one presided by Rishi Kanva. There were specialists in every branch of learning cultivated in that age; in each of the four Vedas; in Yagna-related literature and art; Kalpa-Sutras; in the Chhanda (Metrics), Sabda (or Vyakarana), and Nirukta. There were also Logicians, knowing the principles of Nyaya, and of Dialectics. Specialists in physical sciences and art also taught their skills. The art of constructing altars of various dimensions and shapes for conducting yagna was regarded as significant and this required the teaching of Solid Geometry. There were no artificial demarcations between religion and science and often, one led to the other. Other topics that were taught included properties of matter (dravyaguna) and physical processes. Zoology was also a subject. Thus, the forest universities laid out an entire spread of subjects that imparted a holistic view of the world as it was then known.

The citadels of learning distributed across India

There were a staggering number of universities spread across the length and breadth of India. The oldest excavated so far is Takshashila, which is dated to the 6th century BCE, but could be much older. It is located in today’s Pakistan in the Rawalpindi District of Punjab. Others were Nalanda, Valabhi, Vikramshila, Pushpagiri, Jagaddala, Odantapuri, Somapura, Bikrampur, Ratnagiri, Mithila, Ujjaini and Kanchipuram, though this is only a partial list. Even today, archaeologists are coming across the remains of ancient universities close to the already excavated ones.

It is possible that both the forest universities and the brick and mortar universities existed side by side. There is an instance of Svetaketu, who is a graduate in the “arts” from Takshashila. He set out to gather practical arts by wandering all over the country, when he came across 500 rishis in a cluster of hermitages, who taught him their arts, texts and practices.

Traditionally, it is believed that the Mahabharata was first recited at Takshashila by Vaishampayana, student of Vyasa. Takshshila is described as a centre of great learning in the Buddhist Jātaka tales, written around the 5th century CE. The Chinese traveller Fa-Hien mentioned it in his account of his visit to Takshshila in 405 CE. Xuanzang (Hieun Tsang), another Chinese monk, visited Takshshila in 630 and 643CE. The city was overrun by the Huns in 455 CE so it was in ruins by the time Xuanzang visited.

Takshashila made great contributions to world culture and Sanskrit language. It is associated with Acharya Chanakya, also known as Kautilya. His famous Arthashastra is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. The renowned physician Charaka to whom Ayurveda owes a huge debt, also studied at Takshshila. He later became a professor in the same institute. Jivaka, another famous physician and surgeon studied here, according to Pali texts. The ancient grammarian Pāṇini, who codified the rules that would define Classical Sanskrit, was also a part of the Takshshila alumni. Clearly, Takshshila produced some formidable scholars.

According to the Jatakas, the students went to Takshshila for higher education, and they were trained in the Vedas. Apart from this, there were 18 Sippas or Arts that were taught. The Sippas include scientific and technical education. Takshshila also had special schools teaching Medicine, Law and Military Sciences. There was a demand for its archery courses, and there is a mention of 104 princes studying there at the same time. Not everyone came from affluent families.

It is said that Jivaka, a Takshashila alumnus cured Emperor Bimbisara of fistula and, as a result, was appointed as the physician to the King and to the Buddhist sangha. He is also credited with curing King Pradyota of Ujjaini of jaundice. Jivaka was noted to be a skilled surgeon. A case has been described where a merchant, who was suffering from a head disease, was treated by Jivaka by tying the patient to his bed, cutting through the skin of his head, drawing apart the flesh on each side of the incision, pulling two worms out of the wound, then closing up the sides of the wound, stitching up the skin on the head and anointing it with salve. He is also said to have successfully cured cases of twisted intestines.

Practical training was an important component of university learning

Great store was set by practical training. For example, in medicine, the practical course included a thorough knowledge of medicinal plants. Nature study was considered the best means of awakening a healthy curiosity. Students were required to give a practical demonstration of what they had learned in their colleges. So, Jivika, for example, was cited as having demonstrated his ability to conduct successful surgeries on patients. There is also a mention of a student, who gave a practical demonstration of the technical education he got, in front of his parents, after he returned from Takshshila. Extensive foreign travel was required at the end of the theoretical education in universities. This was specially insisted upon in the case of students from rich families, brought up in luxury, in order to make them experience the hardships of travelling, and to endure heat and cold.

Nalanda – a beacon of learning for students far and near

By far the most detailed description we have is of the Nalanda University in the ancient kingdom of Magadha thanks to the writings (seventh century CE) of Chinese travellers Xuanzang and Yijing. Students flocked from near and far to learn from the acclaimed teachers at the university and some came all the way from Tibet, China, Korea and Central Asia.

Nalanda University

It was not easy to gain admission into Nalanda University (just as in an earlier era, it was not easy to be accepted as pupils by renowned gurus). From the accounts of Xuanzang, it appears that Nalanda had a very tough entrance examination. Only about 20% of the students, who applied, seem to have got through it. And yet, the university had as many as 8,500 students and 1,500 teachers. There was even a network of schools that helped students prepare for getting into Nalanda, which sounds uncannily similar to today’s coaching centres for IIT-JEE and other competitive examinations.

The students of Nalanda were looked up to as models all over India and were highly respected, according to Xuanzang. Taking advantage of this, some people even faked their Nalanda degrees! By the seventh century, there were four other universities in Bihar, all largely inspired by Nalanda. They worked in collaboration, and by the tenth century, one of them—Vikramshila—emerged as a serious competitor to Nalanda in higher education.

A wide range of subjects were taught in Nalanda; sacred and secular, philosophical and practical, sciences and arts; it was the most complete education available at that time, says Xuanzang, who studied there for five years. He studied Yoga shastra under the highest authority of the time – Silabhadra. He also studied Nyaya, Hetuvidya, Shabdavidya and the Sanskrit grammar of Panini. There is an interesting side story to this. Xuanzang has written that, when he visited Kanchi, he met a number of monks from Ceylon. When he told them about his impending visit to Ceylon, they said it was futile because he would not meet anyone superior to them in knowledge. Intrigued, Xuanzang began to discuss yoga texts with them. To his disappointment, he found their explanations not as good as the one he got from Professor Silabhadra in Nalanda University.

Nalanda mainly flourished under the patronage of the Gupta Empire as well as emperors such as Harsha and later, the rulers of the Pala Empire. Various endowments were made by the kings, which led to the construction of impressive buildings, majestic in their size with richly adorned towers and turrets that gave the look of hill-tops, and observatories that were covered by mist in the mornings. According to Xuanzang, there was a lofty wall all around the grounds and a big gate, which opened into the university with a big main hall from which was separated eight other halls. He describes that the upper rooms towered above the clouds and from their windows, one could see the wind and clouds producing new forms, and from the soaring eaves (overhang from the roof), splendid sunsets and moonlit glories could be seen. A similar description is given in the Nalanda Stone Inscription of Yasovarman of the 8th century stating that the rows of monasteries had their series of summits (shikhara-shreni) licking the clouds (ambudhara). The grounds had deep, translucent ponds bearing blue lotuses interspersed with the deep red Kanaka flower, while Amra groves spread their shade all around. The massive external grandeur of the buildings is said to have contrasted with the delicate artistic beauty of the interior.

Debating – An intrinsic part of education in ancient India

Logic and debate were extremely significant for India’s philosophical traditions. This love for debate and presentation of arguments from ancient times formed the root of democracy, which has endured even today right down to the village level. The debates we see on TV channels and legislative bodies are a part of a continuum, albeit in a degraded form going back to a hoary past. References to Tarka-Vidya, the science and art of logic and debate and Vaada-Vidya, the art of discussion can be found in innumerable ancient texts such as Ramayana, Manusamhita, Mahabharata, Skandapurana, Yajnavalkya Samhita, and Chandogya Upanishad, to name just a few.

The famous Debate between Adi Shankaracharya and Mandana Mishra. Photo Credit: http://vipasana-vidushika.blogspot.in

The terminology of debate was well-developed. To give a flavour of the terms, consider saadhya (thesis which is to be established), siddhanta (proposition, tenet or conclusion), hetu (reason), udhaarana (example), saadharmya (affirmative example), vaidharmya (negative example), pratyaksha (perception), anumaana (inference) and pramaanaa (proof). In his book on Indian logic, Satish Chandra Vidyabhusana refers to Maitreya, an eminent teacher, also called Mirok in Chinese, who lived 900 years after the nirvana of Buddha. He wrote a treatise on debate in which, he postulated that the subject of debate should be a useful, not an irrelevant one. Further, he said debate should not be entered into in any place but in the presence of scholars or in a parishad (council). Maitreya laid out the rules by which a candidate’s victory or loss could be decided in a debate. He stressed that debaters should be well-versed in each other’s scriptures, must never discard dignity and use disrespectful language, must be fearless, must speak continuously and intelligibly, and with voice-variation, that is sometimes slowly and sometimes loudly. Is it not amazing that even today, these are the skills taught to public speakers and debaters?

According to Xuanzang the monks at Nalanda frequently assembled for discussions to test intellectual capacity. Those who were able to put forward finer points in philosophy, who could give subtle principles their proper place and who were ornate in diction, were rewarded. These universities played a big role in nourishing the spirit of open debate in ancient India. Yijing, another Chinese traveller to India, who came after Xuanzang mentions that kings were fond of organising intellectual tournaments in which people with superior knowledge and debating skills were richly rewarded.

Nalanda had a famous, well-equipped library with many rare manuscripts. According to Yijing, the library had three huge buildings called Ratnasagara, Ratnadadhi and Ratnaranjaka of which Ratnasagara was a nine-storeyed building that stored rare sacred works such as Prajna Paramita Sutra. Today, we marvel at the imposing libraries housed in Ivy League universities. Throw back your imagination to a time when such libraries were a part of Indian tradition.

Competition and collaboration between universities

Among the competitors of Nalanda was Valabhi University in Gujarat, which was famous for its teaching of secular subjects. Students went to study there from all over the country. Some of them got high government positions on graduating.

Vikramshila University was built by King Dharmapala in the 8th century, again a rival of Nalanda, but it also collaborated with it. The alumni of this university is said to have practically built the culture and civilization of Tibet. The most important of them is Dipankara Sri Jnana. Then there was Mithila, which specialised in logic and scientific subjects. According to historian Keay, it was so strict in guarding its knowledge that students were not allowed to take any books outside or even copies of lectures. They could only leave with their diplomas or degrees.

Vikramashila University. Photo Credit: http://madhurima-bharati.blogspot.in

The monopoly of Mithila University was broken by the Nadia University, which also specialised in logic. The story goes that Vasudeva Sarvabhauma in the 15th century, studied in Mithila University, but when he was prevented from copying the texts, he committed to memory, the whole of Tattva Chintamani and the metrical part of Kusumanjali. Then, in Nadia, he wrote down the texts he had memorised and founded a new academy of logic. Nadia soon outrivaled Mithila by producing better scholars.

When scientists, astronomers and mathematicians made a beeline for Ujjaini University

One university that simply stands out for its academic output in astronomy and mathematics is Ujjaini (also called Ujjain), which was equipped with an elaborate observatory and stood on the zero meridian of longitude of those times. Had imperialistic Europe not assumed control of the scientific discourse of the world, perhaps Ujjain, not Greenwich would have been today’s prime meridian.

Brahmagupta was among the most celebrated astronomers of Ujjaini University, who continued the tradition of Varahamihira and made significant contributions to mathematics. He worked on trigonometrical formulae, quadratic equations, area of cyclic quadrilateral, arithmetic progression and improved Aryabhata’s sine tables. In his treatise Brahmasphutasiddhanta, he was the first to treat zero as a number in its own right, rather than as simply a placeholder digit. He established basic mathematical rules for dealing with zero such as 1 + 0 = 1; 1 – 0 = 1; and 1 x 0 = 0. Brahmagupta’s works reached the court of Khalifa al-Mansur in Baghdad and played a path breaking role in making the Arabs conversant with Indian astronomy and mathematics. Later, this knowledge was transmitted to Europe.

The tradition of Brahmagupta was continued by Bhaskara II, also called Bhaskaracharya, who became the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjaini. He wrote the famous Siddhantasiromani and Lilavati. In the New World Encyclopedia, J. J. O’Connor and E. F. Robertson are quoted to have said in their paper for the School of Mathematics and Statistics that Bhaskaracharya “reached an understanding of the number systems and solving equations, which was not to be achieved in Europe for several centuries.” He was said to be the first mathematician to write a work with full and systematic use of the decimal number system. Bhaskaracharya is also considered as the founder of differential calculus, who applied it centuries before Newton and Leibniz. He too had a profound impact on Islamic mathematicians just like the earlier acharyas of Ujjaini.

In the next part, we will examine the role of temple universities in southern India, the role of Indian scholars in influencing global streams of knowledge and the weakening of India’s education fabric during colonial rule.

The author would like to acknowledge the inputs of the members of Indian History Awareness and Research (IHAR) and would like to specially thank Jyoti Gangopadhyay for her support.

References:

Ancient Indian Education by Radha Kumud Mookerjee
Universities in Ancient India by D.G. Apte
The Travel Records of Chinese Pilgrims Faxian, Xuanzang and Yijing by Tansen Sen
A History of Indian Logic by Satish Chandra Vidyabhusana
Ancient Indian Leaps into Mathematics By B.S Yadav and Manmohan
The Argumentative Indian By Amartya Sen

Choices, choices

A student who completed basic education in ancient India and wished to learn more, had a plethora of institutions to choose from, depending on whether he wanted to specialise in the Vedas, logic, medicine, sciences, classical music or any other subject. Thus, a student who wanted to learn classical music could, for instance, move to Varanasi and learn from the maestros in the city’s ancient college of music. If he found a friend keen on studying in Varanasi’s college of astronomy, then perhaps the two could travel together. Travelling was a risky proposition in those days when the land was covered with forests abounding in predators, and parents would celebrate when their children returned home after four to 12 years of higher education.
In the Kathasaritsagara, there is a reference to a Brahmin, who decided not to send his son for further studies to Nalanda or Varanasi, which were closer to his place of residence in the Ganga plains and instead took the risk of choosing a far-off Valabhi university located in today’s Gujarat (Bose, 1990). Valabhi’s graduates were known to secure employment in government services. Its courses in political science (niti) and business (varta) were well known alongside religious studies of Hinayana Buddhism (Apte).
An interesting reference to co-education is found in the Sanskrit play Malatimadhava written by Bhavabhuti (in the eighth century) where a female student Kamandaki is indicated to be a classmate and close friend of male students Bhurivasu and Devarata at a famous university in Padmavati. All three characters hail from different regions. (Mirashi, 1996)
There seems to have been a remarkable mobility of students and teachers across the universities of ancient India. Thus, we find professors in Nalanda, such as Sthiramati and Gunamati who had earlier established Valabhi University in the west. Dinnaga and Dharmapala, two famous scholars of Nalanda were both natives of Kanchipuram in the south. Ratnavajra, a noted professor at Vikramshila hailed from Kasmira (Kashmir). Xuanzang himself, after finishing his studies in Nalanda went to teach in Orissa upon receiving a directive from King Harsha (Mookerjee, 1960). The famous Bhaskara II, hailed by some as the greatest mathematician ever, taught at Ujjaini, but hailed from Bijapur in the south (Puttaswamy, 2012). Clearly, many of the learned people of yore travelled to centres of excellence in their areas of interest.
Bhaskara II, head of the astronomical observatory at the famous Ujjaini University in central India was a native of Bijapur in southern India.

Funding of higher education

An interesting aspect about the education system was that it was subsidised for pupils and teachers by the ruling kings as well as communities that lived around universities. The Nalanda University was described by Xuanzang as having been endowed with buildings and lands by ruling kings of the time. He also mentions that the revenues of 100 villages were allocated for meeting the expenses of the university. The students and teachers received clothes, food, bedding and medicine free of cost. (Mookerjee, 1960)
However, according to the Jatakas, students who wished to study at Takshshila were required to either pay their tuition fees at the beginning or if they lacked cash, to pay in the form of services to the teacher, such as bringing firewood. Most Brahmin students were too poor to pay upfront and would opt to carry out menial tasks. Some would get permission to pay at the end of their studies, and there were instances of Brahmin students soliciting financial assistance from households. We also hear of some winning state scholarships and not being required to pay any fees. Often, families living around the universities would generously host meals at their residences for the students. (Mookerjee, 1960)
There was a well-established ecosystem to support learning. Since the ethos of the times demanded that Brahmin scholars lead a simple life engaged in the pursuit of knowledge without amassing riches, it fell upon the shoulders of wealthy non-Brahmin families as well as humble farmers to support those who were devoting their entire lives to learning and teaching (Hazra, 1987).

Graduating the Indian way: Samavartana

Given that ancient Indians set so much store by learning, it should not come as a surprise that they had a meaningful rite of passage to mark the graduation of students, called Samavartana or Snana. In the presence of students, teachers and invited guests, the graduating student would offer his guru-dakshina (gift to guru), after which the guru would recite the snataka-dharma from the Taittiriya Upanishad. This would be followed by a homa (fire ritual) and snana (ceremonial bath). (Kane, 1941)
The Snataka Dharma recitation from Shiksha Valli in the Taittiriya Upanishad was an important ritual in the graduation ceremony.
A partial translation of the Snataka Dharma recitation is as follows:
Never deviate from Truth,
Never deviate from Dharma,
Never neglect your well-being,
Never neglect worldly activities (for gain and welfare),
Never neglect Svādhyāya (self study) and Pravachana (teaching of Vedas).

We all know the famous shloka
Maatru devo bhava,
Pitru devo bhava
Acharya devo bhava
Atithi devo bhava
This verse stating that one’s mother, father, teacher and a visiting guest are all equivalent to Devata comes from the Taittiriya Upanishad, which also was recited during the Samavartana. Equipped with holistic knowledge and blessings from the guru, a graduate or vidya-snataka (one who is bathed in learning) would be ready for the next stage of life – usually teaching and of course, marriage.

The temple universities of India

Photo courtesy Kanniks Kannikeswaran
An interesting aspect about ancient Indian temples is that often, they became centres of knowledge dissemination and debating. There was a continuity of learning with conferences and assemblies of learned scholars that have been mentioned in the Rig Veda itself, for disseminating the philosophies that form the core of Vedic literature. Well-endowed temples became magnets attracting students and teachers, which led to annexes being built for the temples and even entire colonies housing intellectuals from a variety of disciplines.
Multiple inscriptions on several temples of southern India reveal the extent to which higher education had got institutionalised. Ennayiram is one such location in Tamil Nadu, which abounds in inscriptions giving minute details related to the subjects taught, number of students, endowments and so on. For example, an inscription from the time of Rajendra Chola I (11th century) lays out the endowments given for the boarding and tuition of 340 students studying at a Vedic college. The college received 45 velis (300 acres) of land. Each student of Veda was noted to cost 6 Nalis of paddy per day and ½ Kalanju of gold per year. A student studying the more advanced Vedanta, Mimamsa or Vyakarana got 66% more. Meanwhile, a teacher was noted to receive a meal allowance equivalent to that of 16 students per day. The inscription notes that 75 students were studying the Rig Veda, 75 Yajur Veda, 10 Atharva Veda, 20 Chandoga Saman, 20 Talavakara Saman, 20 Vajasaneya, 25 Vyakarana, 35 Prabhakara Mimamsa, 10 Baudhayaneya Grihya, Kalpa and Gana, 40 Rupavatara and 10 Vedanta (Mookerjee, 1960). In 2013, archaeologists found more lines of inscriptions in the basement of a temple in Ennayiram (Subramanian, 2003). Clearly, there is a lot more waiting to be unearthed.
A temple inscription in Ennayiram, Tamil Nadu describing a college attached to a temple along with a hostel and hospital. Photo courtesy: Tamil Nadu Tourism (http://tamilnadu-favtourism.blogspot.sg)
Even the medical care of students was accounted for. Some inscriptions describe colleges with attached hospitals and hostels. One hospital is described to have 15 beds, a physician, a surgeon, two errand boys and two nurses. It was even equipped with a pharmacy with medicines such as Haritaki, Bilvadighrita, Vajra-kalpa and Kalyanalavana. (Mookerjee, 1960)

Ancient academies of excellence

Apart from temples, there was the ghatika, the agrahara and the mathha. Ghatikas were groups of learned acharyas, which carried out deep discussions on Vedic matters. Ghatikas are said to have played a key part in making Kanchipuram (also called Kanchi) a hub of Vedic studies. They even played a pivotal role in the selection of kings. Numerous poet-scholars and saint-philosophers who produced the finest of Tamil literary works are associated with Kanchi (Rao, 2008). As we have seen earlier, some of the brightest went on to teach in famed universities in other parts of India.
Agraharas were entire settlements of learned Brahmins with their own rules of governance and were funded by generous donors (usually non-Brahmins). Mathhas were also educational institutions and along with Agraharas served like modern academies of excellence (Mookerjee, 1960).
Agraharas were entire settlements of learned Brahmins. Photo courtesy incredibleindiaphotogallery.com
Inscription after inscription in southern India talks of the revenues of villages being entirely allocated for supporting agraharas with Brahmin scholars sometimes numbering 108, sometimes 308. The revenues were to be used in supporting the sacred task of learning and teaching, which included building libraries called “Sarasvati Bhandara” (Mookerjee, 1960). The learned Brahmins, who often held titles such as Chaturvedin,
Trivedin, Somayajin, Shadangavid, Bhatta, Kramavid, Sarvakratuyajin and Vajapeyin, which denoted their specialisation in different texts. Mookerjee puts it eloquently when he says:
“These learned settlements were centres of light and life, showing how theory and practice should go together, how precept should be supported by example, ethics by conduct, learning was to be lived and truth or religion was to be realised in the activities of daily life.”
It is important to highlight the contribution of the Kerala school of mathematics and astronomy (14th to 15th century) in the context of Indian systems of advanced learning. Concentrated in a geographical area around Thrissur in Kerala, a rich tradition of mathematics developed and flourished amongst the Namboodri Brahmins. They discovered the infinite series, which laid the foundation for calculus centuries before Newton. There is strong circumstantial evidence that Jesuit missionaries who visited India in the 15th century carried back mathematical concepts from Kerala to Europe (Joseph, 2000).
The brilliant scholars of Kerala were believed to be mainly motivated by the mysteries of astronomy. However, George Gheverghese Joseph, in his famous book The Crest of the Peacock – The non-European Roots of Mathematics argues that these mathematicians seem to have revelled in their love for pure mathematics. Why else would Madhava (the founder of the Kerala School) indulge in long and tedious calculations of sine tables to 12 decimal places?
Famous names associated with the Kerala School are Parameshvara, Neelakanta Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri and Achyuta Panikkar. GG Joseph points out that some non-Brahmins such as Sankara Variyar and Acyuta Pisarati were also part of the Kerala School and many from “lower” castes, such as carpenters, construction workers and artisans were conversant with precise calculations, indicating that the symbiotic society did not fit into the neat framework of the caste system envisaged by modern researchers.

How Indian scholars transferred knowledge to China

In the first century CE, Chinese emperor Ming-Ti sent 18 persons to study Buddhist doctrines in India. When they returned, they took back many books and also two Buddhist scholars Kasyapa Matanga and Dharmaratna. Kasyapa was in Gandhara, when he was invited by the Chinese envoy. His journey from Gandhara to China was fraught with hardship as he passed through the steep mountains of Chinese Turkestan and the harsh Gobi desert. There was also a language problem. However, the two pioneering scholars persevered and opened up opportunities for hundreds of professors from Indian universities to work in China. A large number of Sanskrit manuscripts were carried to China. Among the well-known Indians who migrated in the first three centuries were Samghavarma, Dharmasatya, Dharmakala, Mahabala, Vighna, Dharmaphala, Kalasivi, Kalaruchi and Lokaraksha (Mookerjee, 1960).
Kashmir, which was a prominent centre of Buddhist learning supplied a steady stream of erudite scholars to China. One such scholar Gunavarman from Kashmir’s royal family first went to Ceylon and Java where he made a name for himself. The Chinese emperor invited him to China, personally received him in Nanking, became his disciple and built a temple for him. A few scholars from southern India also got pulled to China, such as Dharmaruchi who lived in China for 20 years between 693 to 713 CE and translated 53 works into Chinese (Mookerjee, 1960).
Hundreds of Sanskrit works were painstakingly translated into Chinese by the Indian scholars with the help of Chinese intellectuals. It was a mammoth task considering the totally different syntax and structure of the two languages and many scholars even recorded their struggle and discomfort.
The first printed book in China was the Indian treatise Vajjra-Chhedika-Prajna-Paramita Sutra (or the famous Diamond Sutra), which was translated into Chinese by Kumarajiva in 402CE. Kumarajiva was prodigiously talented. He studied in Kashmir, Kashgar and Koutcha, and it is said there was a battle for his services between the King of Koutcha and the Chinese Emperor, whose general imprisoned him. For 12 years, Kumarajiva translated more than 100 Sanskrit works, which are considered masterpieces of Chinese literature! He is also known as the teacher of the famous Chinese traveller Fa-Hien (Mookerjee, 1960).
Statue of Kumarajiva in front of Kizil Caves, Kuqa, Xinjiang, China. Photo Courtesy Yoshi Canopus.
Unlike Kumarajiva, another scholar, Dharmakshema’s life was cut short by an assassin, when two Chinese rulers competed for his services. Reference is also found to a well-travelled and much-in-demand scholar Amoghavajra who earned titles such as Prajna-moksha and Tripitika Bhadanta from a Chinese emperor. The poor man was made to return from the shores of India the very moment he landed back in the year 749 because the Chinese emperor decided there was little time to be lost. It is not just in modern timelines that employees get called back from vacations by hard-hearted bosses. Amoghavajra collected more than 500 texts from different parts of India to take back to China and translated at least 77 works, including Dharanis and Tantras. In China, he is known as the founder of Tantrik Buddhism (Mookerjee, 1960).
Several Indian mathematicians and astronomers from the best universities held high positions in China’s scientific establishments. One Indian scientist called Gautama Siddha (Qutan Xida in Chinese) became the president of China’s official board of astronomy in the 8th century. He translated the Indian navagraha calendar into Chinese. He also introduced Indian numerals into China. The invention of printing is also attributed to Buddhist scholars who went from India to China and printing was used as a means to spread Buddhist thought. (Sen, 2009)

Knowledge transfers from India to Greece, Islamic world and Europe

The antiquity of civilisation and the ecosystems set up for the propagation of knowledge turned India into a veritable garden with exquisite flowers that attracted honeybees. Royle, in an essay on the antiquity of “Hindoo medicine” mentions Barzouyeh, a royal physician in the court of Persian King Khosrau (531-579 CE), who returned from India with medical texts as well as a variety of herbs and who was proficient in Sanskrit (Royle, 1837). There was a thriving trade between India and western Asia in ancient times, which involved not just spices and textiles, but also medicines.
In his talks on the antiquity of Indian medical systems, Raj Vedam, co-founder of Indian History Awareness and Research has laid out the trajectory by which the knowledge of Ayurveda was transmitted from India to Greeks/Romans, the Islamic world and then Europe. He points out how the scientific concepts articulated by the Indian Rishi Kanada (6th Century BCE), for example, were taken up by the Greek philosopher Democritus (4th Century BCE). According to Bertrand Russell, Democritus travelled widely and had visited Egypt and Persia “in search of knowledge”. Hippocrates, considered the father of western medicine was a student of Democritus.
Excerpt from page 62 of JF Royle’s “An Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine Including an Introductory lecture to the Course of Materia Medica and Therapeutics delivered at the King’s College”
Dr Vedam also states that the library of Alexandria played a major role in transmitting texts from the East to the West. It has been well chronicled that the library administrators went to any extent (“buy, borrow or steal”) to get the “most original, most authoritative copies” (Philips, 2010). The Materia Medica compiled by Greek physician Dioscorides during 50 to 70CE, which was used for 16 centuries in Europe, contains a large number of Indian herbs (Vedam, 2016). Another data point offered by Dr Vedam is the fleeing of Nestorians to Persia to escape the persecution of the Christian Church and from there to Kerala in the fifth century that served to transmit Indian medical knowledge back to Syria.
The fifth Abbasid Caliph Haroun Al Rashid had an Indian physician Manka in his court, who translated ancient India’s indispensable medical text – the Sushruta Samhita into Persian. The imprint of Indian scholars on Islamic sciences, not just medicine has been well-acknowledged by the Islamic scholars such as Alberuni themselves. Indian scholars were often invited to Baghdad. The works of Muslim intellectuals such as Al Kindi, Al Farabi, Al Farghani, Al Tabari and Al Khwarizmi played a paramount role in transferring Indic knowledge of mathematics, medicine, astronomy, philosophy, chemistry and even music to the Islamic world (Khan, 2009). While the Islamic scholars often credited their knowledge to Indic sources, the European scholars often plagiarised from Arabic texts without references. The Renaissance was propelled by the works of Arabic scholars, which were passed off as original works by Europeans (Hasse, 2016).
In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators in Spain employed many scholars to translate major Arabic works into Latin (Bronowski, 2011). These translators produced a prolific output and helped to transfer a substantial amount of ancient Indian knowledge to Europe. The transfers continued with even greater intensity during the colonial period from the 14th century onwards when the contents of hundreds and hundreds of Indian books made their way into monographs and books in Europe. A catalogue of the Indian books and manuscripts that were translated into European languages during this period would itself form a bulky book! A case in point is the Bibliotheca Malabarica, a catalogue of over 100 Tamil manuscripts collected by the missionary Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg during his first two years in India (1706–1708).
Garcia D’Orta, Portuguese traveller to India wrote a detailed treatise “Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India” on the medicinal plants of India in 1563. Photo Courtesy Martins Correia.
We have seen how India’s ancient systems of education helped to fuel a knowledge revolution around the world. However, in the 11th century, marauding incursions by Muslim invaders disrupted the idyllic world of university learning in India. This was followed by European colonisation, which led to further erosion and degeneration of India’s traditional learning systems. All this and more will be discussed in the next article, which will conclude this series.
The author would like to acknowledge the valuable inputs of the members of Indian History Awareness and Research (IHAR) and specially thank Kanniks Kannikeswaran for supplying pictures from his personal collection.
Bibliography
Apte, D. Universities in Ancient India.
Bose, M. (1990). A Social and Cultural History of Ancient India. Concept Publishing Company.
Bronowski, J. (2011). The Ascent of Man. BBC Books.
Hasse, D. N. (2016). Success and Suppression: Arabic Sciences and Philiosophy in the Renaissance. Harvard University Press.
Hazra, R. C. (1987). Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs. Motilal Banarsidass.
Joseph, G. G. (2000). Crest of the Peacock, Non-European Roots of Mathematics. Princeton University Press.
Kane, P. (1941). History of Dharmashastras Vol II, Part I. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
Khan, M. (2009). Islamic Jihad – A Legacy of Forced Conversion, Imperialism and Slavery. iUniverse.
Mirashi, V. V. (1996). Bhavabuti. Motilal Banarsidass.
Mookerjee, R. K. (1960). Ancient Indian Education – Brahminical and Buddhist. Motilal Banarsidass.
Muller, M. Lectures on the Science of Knowledge delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in April, May and June 1861, 1868.
Philips, H. (2010). The Great Library of Alexandria?
Puttaswamy, T. (2012). Mathematical Achievements of Pre-Modern Indian Mathematicians. Elsevier.
Rao, P. N. (2008). Kanchipuram: Land of Legends, Saints and Temples. Readworthy Publications.
Royle, J. F. (1837). An Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine Including an Introductory lecture to the Course of Materia Medica and Therapeutics delivered at the King’s College. Allen.
Russell, B. (1972). History of Western Philosophy. Simon & Schuster.
Saraswati, S. D. (2016). Taittiriya Upanishad. Arsha Vidya Research and Publication Trust.
Sen, A. (2009). The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. Allen Lane.
Subramanian, P. (2003). 100 year old, long Tamil inscription found.
Vedam, R. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtoXaR7wgiI. (2016). Lecture on Antiquity of Indian Medical Systems [Youtube Video].

Sahana Singh

Sahana Singh is a writer/editor who specializes in environmental issues, current affairs and Indian history. She is a member of Indian History Awareness and Research (IHAR), a think tank headquartered in Houston.

Sahana Singh @singhsahana

Indology | 18-01-2017

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Tvaṣṭṛ, ākhyāna or narration of itihāsa, history from the Bronze Age Rigveda, sacred text

January 20, 2017, 11:16 pm

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Tvaṣṭṛ, ākhyāna or narration of itihāsa, history from the Bronze Age Rigveda, sacred text

This monograph demonstrates that the Rigveda venerated Tvaṣṭā, Tvaṣṭṛ as the divine ancestor of Meluhha artificers. The narratives of Proto-Indo-European People identified cognate Tuisto, Tuisco as the ancestor of Germanic people. The artificers of ancient times of the Bronze Age are held in high esteem – as creators of artha, wealth’ for the nation. The Rigveda narratives abound in complex metaphors and unravel the contributions made by artisans to the advancement of civilization on the banks of River Sarasvati and contact civilizational areas. A narrative of the cultural framework for the contributions is presented in the following Annexes:

Annex 1 Etyma of Bharata sprachbund Tvaṣṭṛ‘artificer’

Annex 2 RV 10.81, 82 Viśvakarmā

See: Tvaṣṭā, Tvaṣṭṛ ancestor of Meluhha artificers = Tuisco, Tuisto, ancestor of Germanic people. Emerges from Viśvakarma (Purusha suktam) http://tinyurl.com/z4mttc5

The narrative of Tvastar isākhyāna, the itihāsa‘history’ of Bhāratam Janam.

In civilizational or materialistic terms, Tvaṣṭṛ is the heavenly builder, the maker of divine implements such as Vajra of Indra and is the guardian of Soma.

In my view, Tvaṣṭṛ is a hero of Rigveda, the creator of artha, ‘wealth’ from Rigveda times.

Let us listen to theākhyāna(which is narration of itihāsa, history) in Rigveda, sacred text of the Hindus; the narratives bring us as close as possible to the ancient times, as we traverse back through mists of time.

It is apposite to cite a quote from the Art Historian, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy: “Myth embodies the nearest approach to absolute truth that can be stated in words.”

Onākhyāna

Śatapatha BrāhmaṇaŚBr.13.4.3.12 and 13.4.3.13 explain how on the 8^th and 9^th days of aśvamedha, stories from Purāṇa and Veda are narrated as itihāsa, ‘history’. The same practice of narration continues on 36 ten-day periods of yajña.

athāṣṭame’han…matsyaḥ sāmmado rājetyāha tasyodakecarā viśasta ima āsata iti matsyāśca matsyahanaścopasametā bhavanti tānupadiśatītihāso vedaḥ so’yamiti kaṃciditihāsamācakṣīta… (ŚBr.13.4.3.12)

Translation: Now on the eighth day… ‘matsya sāmmada the king (rāja)’, thus he says; ‘of him (matsya rāja), those moving within the waters (udakecarā: fish) are his people and here they are seated;’, thus [he says]. Fish and fish-killers (i.e. fishermen) have come thither: it is them he instructs; ‘the itihāsa is the veda: this it is;’ thus [saying], he says (ācakṣīta: more in the sense of “points out” or “introduces”) some (kiṃcid) itihāsa…

…tārkṣyo vaipaśyato rājetyāha tasya vayāṃsi viśastānīmānyāsata iti vayāṃsi ca vāyovidyikāścopasametā bhavanti tānupadiśati purāṇaṃ vedaḥ so’yamiti kiṃcitpurāṇamācakṣīta…(ŚBr. 13.4.3.13)

Translation: Now on the ninth day… ‘tārkṣya vaipaśyata the king’, thus he says; ‘of him, birds are his people and here they are seated;’, thus [he says]. Birds and fowlers have come thither: it is them he instructs; ‘the purāṇa is the veda: this it is;’ thus [saying], he says some purāṇa…

Tvastar is Hiranyagarbha

Tvaṣṭṛ is the first-born creator of the Universe. In Purusha sukta, according to Yajurveda, Tvaṣṭṛ emerges from Viśvakarma: अ॒द्भ्यःसम्भू॑तःपृथि॒व्यैरसा॓च्च।वि॒श्वक॑र्मणः॒सम॑वर्त॒ताधि॑।तस्य॒त्वष्टा॑वि॒दध॑द्रू॒पमे॑ति।तत्पुरु॑षस्य॒विश्व॒माजा॑न॒मग्रे॓ Yajurveda merges the attributes of Visvakarma described in Rigveda (RV 10.81, 10.82 – See Annex) with the concepts of Hiranyagarbha, Prajapati, Brahma. Tvaṣṭar emerges out of the cosmic egg or from the navel of the unborn Viśvakarman, Tvaṣṭar is Hiranyagarbha or ‘golden womb’

Mentioned 65 times and invoked in Rigveda with reverence, Tvaṣṭṛ is the artificer who forms bodies of men and animals. He is garbha-pati, divinity of the womb. (Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1995). "Abstract Gods". Vedic mythology. Vedas. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 116–118).

Tvaṣṭṛ’s son isViśvarūpa or Triśiras who is killed by Indra, and in revenge, Tvaṣṭṛ creates Vrtra.
Tvaṣṭṛ’s daughter is Saranya (Saraṇyū) also known as Samjñā, who twice bears twins to Surya (RV 10.17.1) – Twins of Yama and Yami and twins called Aśvins. Saranyu is also the mother of Manu (Yaska’s Nirukta calls him Savarni Manu, the progenitor of mankind). See annex for ākhyāna.

A reflected, shadow image of Saranyu is छायाf. a reflected image , reflection RV. v , 44 , 6 ; x , 121 , 2 VS. ii , 8 AV. v , 21 , 8 Pras3nUp. Mn. &c

Surya with consorts Saranyu and Chaya

tváṣṭā duhitré vahatúṃ kṛṇotîtīdáṃ víśvam bhúvanaṃ sám eti

yamásya mātâ paryuhyámānā mahó jāyâ vívasvato nanāśa

ápāgūhann amŕtām mártyebhyaḥ kṛtvî sávarṇām adadur vívasvate

utâśvínāv abharad yát tád âsīd ájahād u dvâ mithunâ saraṇyûḥ

RV 10.017 Tvastar prepares the bridal of his Daughter: all the world hears the tidings and assembles.

But Yama's Mother, Spouse of great Vivasvat, vanished as she was carried to her dwelling.

From mortal men they hid the Immortal Lady, made one like her and gave her to Vivasvat.

Saranyu brought to him the Asvin brothers, and then deserted both twinned pairs of children.

Tvaṣṭṛ is Indra's Father

RV 3.48

1. SOON as the young Bull sprang into existence he longed to taste the pressedout- Somas' liquor.
Drink thou thy fill, according to thy longing, first, of the goodly mixture blent with Soma.

2. That day when thou wast born thou, fain to taste it, drankest the plants' milk which the
mountains nourish.
That milk thy Mother first, the Dame who bare thee, poured for thee in thy mighty Fathers'
dwelling.

3. Desiring food he came unto his Mother, and on her breast beheld the pungent Soma.
Wise, he moved on, keeping aloof the others, and wrought great exploits in his varied aspects.

4. Fierce, quickly conquering, of surpassing vigour, he framed his body even as he listed.
even from his birthtime- Indra conquered Tvastar, bore off the Soma and in beakers drank it.

5. Call we on Maghavan, auspicious Indra, best Hero in the fight where spoil is gathered;
The Strong, who listens, who gives aid in battles, who slays the Vrtras, wins and gathers riches.

Indra conquers his father Tvaṣṭar and carries off Soma.

Tvaṣṭar is Trisiras or Vishwarupa's Father

"Through his wise insight Trita in the cavern, seeking as ever the Chief Sire's intention, Carefully tended in his Parents' bosom, calling the weapons kin, goes forth to combat." (RV 10.8.7)

"Well-skilled to use the weapons of his Father, Āptya, urged on by Indra, fought the battle. Then Trita slew the foe seven-rayed, three-headed, and freed the cattle of the Son of Tvaṣṭar." (RV 10.8.8)

"Lord of the brave, Indra cleft him in pieces who sought to gain much strength and deemed him mighty. He smote his three heads from his body, seizing the cattle of the omniform Son of Tvaṣṭar." (RV 10.8.9)

Indra kills Son of Tvaṣṭar, Trisiras or Vishwarupa.

Tvaṣṭar is the fashioner of Indra's Vajra weapon

"I WILL declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the Thunder-wielder. He slew the Dragon, then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents." (RV 1.32.1)

"He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvaṣṭar fashioned." (RV 1.32.2)

Indra kills Vṛtra with his thunder bolt Vajra weapon fashioned by Tvaṣṭar.10 Rolled in the midst of neverceasing- currents flowing without a rest for ever onward.

The waters bear off Vrtra’s' nameless body: the foe of Indra sank to during darkness.
11 Guarded by Ahi stood the thralls of Dasas, the waters stayed like kine held by the robber.
But he, when he had smitten Vrtra, opened the cave wherein the floods had been imprisoned.
12 A horses' tail wast thou when he, O Indra, smote on thy bolt; thou, God without a second,
Thou hast won back the kine, hast won the Soma; thou hast let loose to flow the Seven Rivers.

Tvaṣṭar is the companion of Angirases, he is the most wealthy

"Since thou, God Tvaṣṭar, hast made beauty perfect, since thou hast been the Aṅgirases' Companion, Willing, most wealthy, Giver of possessions, grant us the Gods’ assembly, thou who knowest." (RV 10.70.9)

Annex 1 Etyma of Bharata sprachbund Tvaṣṭṛ‘artificer’

துவட்டர் tuvaṭṭar , n. < tvaṣṭṛ. Artificers, smiths; சிற்பியர். (சூடா.)துவட்டா tuvaṭṭā , n. < TvaṣṭāTvaṣṭṛ. Višvakarmā, the architect of the gods; தெய்வத்தச்சனாகியவிசுவகருமா. துவட்டாவீன்றதனயன் (திருவிளை. இந்திரன்பழி. 8).

தொட்டா toṭṭā , n. < TvaṣṭāTvaṣṭṛ. One of tuvātacātittar, q.v.; துவாதசாதித்தருள்ஒருவன். நள்ளிருளெறிதொட்டா (கூர்மபு. ஆதவர்சிறப். 2).

త్వష్ట (p. 573) tvaṣṭa tvashṭa. [Skt.] n. A carpenter, వడ్లవాడు. The maker of the universe. విశ్వకర్త. One of the 12 Adityas, ద్వాదశాదిత్యులలోనొకడు.

tvakṣत्वक्ष् 1 P. (त्वक्षति, त्वष्ट) 1 To pare, hew, peel -2 To make thin. -3 To cover.

tvaṣṭaत्वष्ट p. p. Made thin, pared, peeled &c.

tvaṣṭiḥ

त्वष्टिः f. Carpentry; Ms.1.48.

tvāṣṭraत्वाष्ट्र a. Belonging or coming from त्वष्टृ; त्वाष्ट्रंयद्दस्रावपिकक्ष्यंवाम् Rv.1.117.22. -ष्ट्रः Vṛitra; येनावृताइमेलोकास्तमसात्वाष्ट्रमूर्तिना।सवैवृत्रइतिप्रोक्तःपापःपरमदारुणः॥ Bhāg.6.9.18;11.12.5. -ष्ट्री1 The asterism Chitra. -2 A small car. -ष्ट्रम्1 Creative power; तपःसारमयंत्वाष्ट्रंवृत्रोयेनविपाटितः Bhāg.8.11.35. -2 Copper.

tvaṣṭṛ त्वष्टृ m. [त्वक्ष्-तृच्] 1 A carpenter, builder, workman, त्वष्ट्रेवविहितंयन्त्रम् Mb.12.33.22. -2 Viśvakarman, the architect of the gods. [Tvaṣtṛi is the Vulcan of the Hindu mythology. He had a son named Triśiras and a daughter called संज्ञा, who was given in marriage to the sun. But she was unable to bear the severe light of her husband, and therefore Tvaṣtṛi mounted the sun upon his lathe, and carefully trimmed off a part of his bright disc; cf. आरोप्यचक्रभ्रमिमुष्णतेजास्त्वष्ट्रेवयत्नो- ल्लिखितोविभाति R.6.32. The part trimmed off is said to have been used by him in forming the discus of Viṣṇu, the Triśūla of Śiva, and some other weapons of the gods.] पर्वतंचापिजग्राहक्रुद्धस्त्वष्टामहाबलः Mb.1.227. 34. -3 Prajāpati (the creator); यांचकारस्वयंत्वष्टारामस्यमहिषींप्रियाम् Mb.3.274.9. -4 Āditya, a form of the sun; निर्भिन्नेअक्षिणी त्वष्टा लोकपालो$विशद्विभोः Bhāg.3.6.15.

त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ) AV. xii , 3 , 33; " creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/इ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम्अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/अ-रूप &c RV. ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x Hariv. 12146 f. R. ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns RV. AV. &c MBh. iv , 1178 Hariv. 587 ff. Ragh. vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ , सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम्प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i Ka1tyS3r. iii ; supposed author of RV. x , 184 with the epithet गर्भ-पतिRAnukr. ; father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv. ; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv. 545 ff. VP. ; also father of त्रि-शिरस् or विश्वरूप ib. ; overpowered by इन्द्र who recovers the सोम [ RV. iii f. ] concealed by him because इन्द्र had killed his son विश्व-रूप TS. ii S3Br. i , v , xii ; regent of the नक्षत्र चित्रा TBr. S3a1n3khGr2. S3a1ntik. VarBr2S. iic , 4 ; of the 5th cycle of Jupiter viii , 23 ; of an eclipse iii , 6 ; त्वष्टुर्आतिथ्य N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. )

त्वष्टृ of a son of मनस्यु or भौवन , ii , 1 , 40 BhP. v , 15 , 13.

त्वक्ष् [p= 463,2] (= √ तक्ष् and related to 2. त्व्/अच्) cl.1. °क्षति , to create , produce Nir. viii , 13 ; to pare Dha1tup. ; to skin ib. ; to cover ib. ; ([cf. प्र-त्वक्षाण्/अ ; Zd. thwakhsh , ÏÏÎº , ÏÏÏ.])

Taccha1 [Vedic takṣan, cp. taṣṭṛ, to takṣati (see taccheti), Lat. textor, Gr. te/ktwn carpenter (cp. architect), te/xnh art] a carpenter, usually as ˚ka: otherwise only in cpd. ˚sūkara the carpenter -- pig (=a boar, so called from felling trees), title & hero of Jātaka No. 492 (iv.342 sq.). Cp. vaḍḍhakin.

Tacchaka=taccha1. (a) a carpenter Dh 80 (cp. DhA ii.147); Miln 413. magga˚ a road -- builder J vi.348. -- (b)=taccha -- sūkara J iv.350. -- (c) a class of Nāgas D ii.258. -- f. tacchikā a woman of low social standing (=veṇī, bamboo -- worker) J v.306.

Tacchati

Tacchati [fr. taccha1, cp. taccheti] to build, construct; maggaŋ t. to construct or repair a road J vi.348.

Taccheti

Taccheti [probably a denom. fr. taccha1=Lat. texo to weave (orig. to plait, work together, work artistically), cp. Sk. taṣṭṛ architect =Lat. textor; Sk. takṣan, etc., Gr. te/xnhcraft, handiwork (cp. technique), Ohg. dehsa hatchet. Cp. also orig. meaning of karoti & kamma] to do wood -- work, to square, frame, chip J i.201; Miln 372, 383

TAKṢ ʻ hew ʼ: takṣa -- , takṣaṇa -- , tákṣati, tákṣan -- , taṣṭá -- ; úttakṣati, vítakṣati.
Addenda: takrá -- [Cf. Ir. *qraxša -- with the sense ʻ old ʼ in Shgh. ċīx̌, sar. ċex̌, X. Rosh. ċōx̌ ʻ old, skinny, disheveled ʼ; and ʻ bitter ʼ in Shgh. ċīx̌, f. ċāx̌ EVSh 24]

takṣa 5618 takṣa in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ VarBr̥S., vṛkṣa -- takṣaka -- m. ʻ tree -- feller ʼ R. [√takṣ]
Pa. tacchaka -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, taccha -- sūkara -- m. ʻ boar ʼ; Pk. takkha -- , °aya -- m. ʻ carpenter, artisan ʼ; Bshk. sum -- tac̣h ʻ hoe ʼ (< ʻ *earth -- scratcher ʼ), tec̣h ʻ adze ʼ (< *takṣī -- ?); Sh. tac̣i f. ʻ adze ʼ; -- Phal. tērc̣hi ʻ adze ʼ (with "intrusive" r).

takṣaṇa 5619 takṣaṇa n. ʻ cutting, paring ʼ KātyŚr. [√takṣ]
Pa. tacchanī -- f. ʻ hatchet ʼ; Pk. tacchaṇa -- n., °ṇā -- f. ʻ act of cutting or scraping ʼ; Kal. tēčin ʻ chip ʼ (< *takṣaṇī -- ?); K. tȧchyunu (dat. tȧchinis) m. ʻ wood -- shavings ʼ; Ku. gng. taċhaṇ ʻ cutting (of wood) ʼ; M. tāsṇī f. ʻ act of chipping &c., adze ʼ.
Addenda: takṣaṇa -- : Pk. tacchaṇa -- n. ʻ cutting ʼ; Kmd.barg. taċə̃ři ʻ chips (on roof) ʼ GM 22.6.71.

5620 tákṣati (3 pl. tákṣati RV.) ʻ forms by cutting, chisels ʼ MBh. [√takṣ]
Pa. tacchati ʻ builds ʼ, tacchēti ʻ does woodwork, chips ʼ; Pk. takkhaï, tacchaï, cacchaï, caṁchaï ʻ cuts, scrapes, peels ʼ; Gy. pers. tetchkani ʻ knife ʼ, wel. tax -- ʻ to paint ʼ (?); Dm. taċ -- ʻ to cut ʼ (ċ < IE. k̂s NTS xii 128), Kal. tã̄č -- ; Kho. točhik ʻ to cut with an axe ʼ; Phal. tac̣<-> ʻ to cut, chop, whittle ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) thačoiki ʻ to fashion (wood) ʼ; K. tachun ʻ to shave, pare, scratch ʼ, S. tachaṇu; L. tachaṇ ʻ to scrape ʼ, (Ju.) ʻ to rough hew ʼ, P. tacchṇā, ludh. tacchanā ʻ to hew ʼ; Ku. tāchṇo ʻ to square out ʼ; N.tāchnu ʻ to scrape, peel, chip off ʼ (whence tachuwā ʻ chopped square ʼ, tachārnu ʻ to lop, chop ʼ); B. cã̄chā ʻ to scrape ʼ; Or. tã̄chibā, cã̄chibā, chã̄cibā ʻ to scrape off, clip, peel ʼ; Bhoj. cã̄chal ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ; H. cã̄chnā ʻ to scrape up ʼ; G. tāchvũ ʻ to scrape, carve, peel ʼ, M. tāsṇẽ; Si. sahinavā, ha° ʻ to cut with an adze ʼ. <-> Kho. troc̣ik ʻ to hew ʼ with "intrusive" r.
Addenda: tákṣati: Kmd. taċ -- ʻ to cut, pare, clip ʼ GM 22.6.71; A. cã̄ciba (phonet. sãsibɔ) ʻ to scrape ʼ AFD 216, 217, ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ 331.
TAÑC: †takmán -- .

tákṣan 5621 tákṣan (acc. tákṣaṇam RV., takṣāṇam Pāṇ.) m. ʻ carpenter ʼ. [√takṣ]
Pk. takkhāṇa -- m., Paš. ar. tac̣an -- kṓr, weg. taṣāˊn, Kal. kaṭ -- tačon, Kho. (Lor.) tačon, Sh. thac̣&oarcacute;ṇ m., kaṭ -- th°, K. chān m., chöñü f., P. takhāṇ m., °ṇī f., H.takhān m.; Si. sasa ʻ carpenter, wheelwright ʼ < nom. tákṣā. -- With "intrusive" r: Kho. (Lor.) tračon ʻ carpenter ʼ, P. tarkhāṇ m. (→ H. tarkhān m.), WPah. jaun. tarkhāṇ. -- With unexpl. d -- or dh -- (X dāˊru -- ?): S. ḍrakhaṇu m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; L. drakhāṇ, (Ju.) darkhāṇ m. ʻ carpenter ʼ (darkhāṇ pakkhī m. ʻ woodpecker ʼ), mult. dhrikkhāṇ m., dhrikkhaṇī f., awāṇ. dhirkhāṇ m.

5743 taṣṭá ʻ fashioned, formed in mind ʼ RV., ʻ pared ʼ lex. [Cf. *thaṭṭha -- 1, *thaṭṭha -- 2? -- √takṣ]
Pk. taṭṭha -- ʻ pared ʼ; P. ṭhaṭhṇā ʻ to fix, determine ʼ; N. ṭāṭho ʻ intent, keen, intelligent ʼ; H. ṭã̄ṭhā, ṭã̄ṭā ʻ wellknit, firm, stout ʼ; M. tāṭh, thāṭ ʻ tight -- fitting, firm, strong ʼ, tāṭh, tāṭhā m. ʻ firmness, &c. ʼ (not with LM 345 < tr̥ṣṭa -- ). -- N. ṭhã̄ṭ ʻ neatness ʼ or < *thaṭṭha -- 2.
Addenda: taṣṭá -- : WPah.kṭg. ṭhrɔ́ṭṇõ ʻ to put in order ʼ, J. thāṭṇu ʻ to settle, set right, amend ʼ; H. ṭhaṭnā ʻ to settle ʼ; WPah.kṭg. táṭṭh f. (obl. -- i) ʻ bowl for food, a grain measure = 2 seers ʼ (semant. cf. kāṣṭhá -- and drṓṇa -- 1 as measures Him.I 89), A. câṭā (phonet. sɔta) ʻ splinter of bamboo or wood

thaṭṭha 6089 *thaṭṭha1 ʻ framework ʼ. [Poss. < taṣṭá -- , but cf. *traṭṭa -- ]
K. ṭhoṭhu m. ʻ bridge -- pier of logs piled horizontally ʼ, ṭhaṭhur m. ʻ part of a house -- wall made of logs laid horizontally ʼ; P. ṭhaṭh f. ʻ bridge -- pier ʼ; N. ṭhã̄ṭi ʻ inn (lit. shed made of or covered with bamboo matting?) ʼ; B. ṭhāṭ ʻ framework ʼ; Or. thāṭa ʻ framework, skeleton ʼ, ṭhāṭa ʻ bamboo framework for decoration, build of one's body, body ʼ; Mth. ṭhāṭ ʻ bamboo frame of a thatch or of a mat house ʼ; OAw. ṭhāṭa m. ʻ frame of a roof on which thatch is laid ʼ; H. ṭhāṭh m. ʻ frame of a roof ʼ, ṭhāṭar m. ʻ bamboo frame ʼ; G. ṭhāṭhũ n. ʻ framework, body ʼ, ṭhã̄ṭhũ n. ʻ skeleton ʼ, ṭhāṭhṛī f. ʻ bamboo bier ʼ; M. thāṭ, ṭhāṭ m. ʻ frame of a roof ʼ.
Addenda: *thaṭṭha -- 1: WPah.kc. thaṭo m. ʻ projecting part of a verandah ʼ.

thaṭṭha 6090 *thaṭṭha2 ʻ pomp, ceremony ʼ. [Same as *thaṭṭha -- 1 and < taṣṭá -- ??]
Pk. thaṭṭa -- m.n. ʻ pomp, ceremony ʼ; S. ṭhāṭhu m. ʻ pomp ʼ, L. ṭhaṭṭh m., P. ṭhaṭh f.; Ku. ṭhāṭ ʻ pomp, glory, property ʼ; N. ṭhã̄ṭ ʻ fashion ʼ; A. ṭhāṭ ʻ pomp, dignity ʼ; B.ṭhāṭ ʻ affectation ʼ; H. ṭhāṭh m. ʻ pomp, posture, fashion, goods ʼ; M. thaṭṇẽ ʻ to act pompously ʼ.

Taṭṭikā (f.) [cp. kaṭaka] a (straw) mat Vin iv.40 (Bdhgh on this: teṭṭikaŋ (sic) nāma tālapaṇṇehi vā vākehi vā katataṭṭikā, p. 357); J i.141 (v. l. taddhika); Vism 97.

3036 Ta. taṭṭi screen as of cuscuss grass, rattan, etc., tatty; taṭṭu screen folded or plain; taṭukku screen, mat, seat. Ma. taṭṭi screen, tatty, mat used as a door; taṭukku little mat for sitting on, as of school children. Ka. taṭṭi frame of bamboos, etc., a tatti, matting, bamboo mat; taḍaku, taḍike frame of bamboos, straw, leaves, etc., used as a door, blind, screen, etc., tatty; daḍḍi tatty, screen, curtain, what screens or encloses, cage; flat roof of a house. Tu. taṭṭi screen or blind made of split bamboos, cadjan, palm-leaves, etc.; daḍè screen, blind; taḍamè a kind of stile or narrow entrance to a garden. Kor. (O.) taḍambe a gate. Te. taḍaka hurdle or tatty, screen made of bamboos, etc.; daḍi screen of mats, leaves or the like, fence. Kol. (SR.) taḍkā plaited bamboos, thatch; (Kin.) taṛka mat; (W.) daṭam door. Ga. (S.3) taṇḍakabamboo curtain. Go. (SR.) taṭṭi mat; (Ch.) ṭāṭī mat door; (Mu.) ṭaṭṭeh pāka mat-wall bathroom (Voc. 1476). Pe. ṭāṭi mat. Kui taṭi a leaf screen, coarse bamboo screen. Cf. 3031 Ta. taṭu. / Cf. Pali taṭṭikā- palmleaf matting; Pkt. (DNM) ṭaṭṭī- fence; Turner, CDIAL, no. 5990

3039 Ta. taṭṭu (taṭṭi-) to knock, tap, pat, strike against, dash against, strike, beat, hammer, thresh; n. knocking, patting, breaking, striking against, collision; taṭṭamclapping of the hands; taṭṭal knocking, striking, clapping, tapping, beating time; taṭṭāṉ gold or silver smith; fem. taṭṭātti. Ma. taṭṭu a blow, knock; taṭṭuka to tap, dash, hit, strike against, knock; taṭṭān goldsmith; fem. taṭṭātti; taṭṭāran washerman; taṭṭikka to cause to hit; taṭṭippu beating. Ko. taṭ- (tac-) to pat, strike, kill, (curse) affects, sharpen, disregard (words); taṭ a·ṛ- (a·c) to stagger from fatigue. To. toṭ a slap; toṭ- (toṭy-) to strike (with hammer), pat, (sin) strikes; toṛ- (toṭ-) to bump foot; toṭxn, toṭxïn goldsmith; fem. toṭty, toṭxity; toṭk ïn- (ïḏ-) to be tired, exhausted. Ka. taṭṭu to tap, touch, come close, pat, strike, beat, clap, slap, knock, clap on a thing (as cowdung on a wall), drive, beat off or back, remove; n. slap or pat, blow, blow or knock of disease, danger, death, fatigue, exhaustion. Koḍ. taṭṭ- (taṭṭi-) to touch, pat, ward off, strike off, (curse) effects; taṭṭë goldsmith; fem. taṭṭati (Shanmugam). Tu. taṭṭāvuni to cause to hit, strike. Te. taṭṭu to strike, beat, knock, pat, clap, slap; n. stripe, welt; taṭravã̄ḍu goldsmith or silversmith. Kur. taṛnā (taṛcas) to flog, lash, whip. Malt. taṛce to slap. Cf. 3156 Ka. tāṭu. / Cf. Turner, CDIAL, no. 5490, *ṭhaṭṭh- to strike; no. 5493, *ṭhaṭṭhakāra- brassworker; √ taḍ, no. 5748, tāˊḍa- a blow; no. 5752, tāḍáyati strikes.

5490 *ṭhaṭṭh ʻ strike ʼ. [Onom.?]
N. ṭhaṭāunu ʻ to strike, beat ʼ, ṭhaṭāi ʻ striking ʼ, ṭhaṭāk -- ṭhuṭuk ʻ noise of beating ʼ; H. ṭhaṭhānā ʻ to beat ʼ, ṭhaṭhāī f. ʻ noise of beating ʼ.

5493 *ṭhaṭṭhakāra ʻ brass worker ʼ. 2. *ṭhaṭṭhakara -- . [*ṭhaṭṭha -- 1, kāra -- 1]
1. Pk. ṭhaṭṭhāra -- m., K. ṭhö̃ṭhur m., S. ṭhã̄ṭhāro m., P. ṭhaṭhiār, °rā m.
2. P. ludh. ṭhaṭherā m., Ku. ṭhaṭhero m., N. ṭhaṭero, Bi. ṭhaṭherā, Mth. ṭhaṭheri, H. ṭhaṭherā m.

5748 tāˊḍa1 m. ʻ blow ʼ AV., tāla -- m. ʻ clap, rhythm ʼ MBh., ʻ palm of hand ʼ (= °lika -- m.) lex., °kā -- f. Hariv. [ʻ palm ʼ infl. by tala -- n. ʻ id. ʼ? -- √taḍ1]
Pa. tāḷa -- m. ʻ blow ʼ, urat -- tāḷī -- f. striking one's breast ʼ; Pk. tāla -- m. ʻ blow, clapping ʼ; Phal. hate -- tāṛ, -- tōṛo, -- thōṛō ʻ palm of hand ʼ; K. tāl m.f. ʻ clapping the hands in time to music ʼ; S. tāṛa, °ṛī f. ʻ clapping the hands ʼ, L. tāṛī f.; P. tāṛ f. ʻ chastening ʼ, tāl, tār m. ʻ beating time with the hands ʼ, tālī f. ʻ clapping ʼ; WPah.bhal. tām. ʻ side of drum beaten by smaller stick ʼ; Ku. tālī ʻ clapping ʼ, N. tāli, A. tāl, °li; B. tāṛ ʻ a beating ʼ, tāṛā ʻ snub ʼ, tāl, °li ʻ clapping ʼ, Or. tāḷa, °ḷi; H. tāṛī f. ʻ slapping the arms in defiance in wrestling ʼ; G. tāḷī, ṭāḷī f. ʻ clapping ʼ, ṭāl, ṭāḷ, ṭālī f. ʻ cymbals ʼ; M. ṭāḷī f. ʻ clapping ʼ; -- A. tār ʻ lightning ʼ (cf. Sk. taḍít -- , Pk. taḍi -- f.). -- See tāla -- 1.
*kāṁsyatāḍī -- , *ghaṭītāḍa -- , catustāla -- .
Addenda: tāˊḍa -- 1: S.kcch. tāṛī f. ʻ clapping of hands ʼ.

tāḍa 5750 *tāḍa3 ʻ fan -- palm ʼ, tāḍī -- 2 f. in tāḍī -- puṭa -- ʻ palm -- leaf ʼ Kād., tāla -- 2 m. ʻ Borassus flabelliformis ʼ Mn., tālī -- , °lakī -- f. ʻ palm -- wine ʼ W. [Cf. hintāla -- ]
Pa. tāla -- m. ʻ fan -- palm ʼ, Pk. tāḍa -- , tāla -- , tala -- m., tāḍī -- , tālī -- f., K. tāl m., P. tāṛ m., N. tār (tāṛ ← H.), A. tāl, B. tāṛ, Or. tāṛa, tāṛi, tāḷa, Bi. tār, tāṛ, OAw. tāra, H. G. tāṛ m., M. tāḍ m., Si. tala. -- Gy. gr. taró m., tarí f. ʻ rum ʼ, rum. tari ʻ brandy ʼ, pal. tar ʻ date -- spirit ʼ; S. tāṛī f. ʻ juice of the palmyra ʼ; P. tāṛī ʻ the fermented juice ʼ; N. tāṛī ʻ id., yeast ʼ (← H.); A. tāri ʻ the fermented juice ʼ, B. Or. tāṛi, Bi. tārī, tāṛī, Bhoj. tāṛī; H. tāṛī f. ʻ the juice, the fermented juice ʼ; G. tāṛī f. ʻ the juice ʼ, M. tāḍī f. <-> X hintāla -- q.v.
tālavr̥nta -- ; *madatāḍikā -- .
Addenda: tāḍa -- 3: S.kcch. tāṛ m. ʻ palm tree ʼ.
†*tāḍarukṣa -- .

tāḍana 5751 tāḍana n. ʻ beating ʼ Yājñ. [√taḍ1]
Pk. tāḍaṇa -- , tālaṇa -- n., °ṇā -- f. ʻ beating, slap ʼ, NiDoc. taḍ'anae dat. sg.; OA. tāṛana ʻ act of striking ʼ; B. tāṛan, tāṛnā ʻ scourging, reprimand ʼ, tāṛni ʻ whip, goad ʼ; Or. tāṛaṇa ʻ whipping, crowbar ʼ, tāṛaṇa māṛaṇa ʻ kneading of clay ʼ; H. tāṛan, tāṛnā m. ʻ beating, rebuke ʼ; M. tāḍaṇ n. ʻ beating ʼ.

5752 tāḍáyati1 ʻ beats, strikes, punishes ʼ Mn. [√taḍ1]
Pa. tāḷēti ʻ beats ʼ, Pk. tāḍaï, tālēi; NiDoc. taḍ'eti ʻ punishes ʼ; K. (vill.?) tāḍun ʻ to slap, reprove ʼ, P. tāṛnā, Ku. tāṛṇo; A. tāriba ʻ to ram down ʼ; B. tāṛāna ʻ to drive away, drive on ʼ; Or. tāṛibā ʻ to strike, push to one side, uproot ʼ; G. tāṛvũ ʻ to beat ʼ; M. tāḍṇẽ ʻ to beat, punish ʼ; Si. taḷanavā ʻ to flog ʼ.
*tāḍayati2 ʻ thinks ʼ see *taḍati2.
tāḍī -- 1 see tāṭaṅka -- .
tāḍī -- 2 see *tāḍa -- 3.
Addenda: tāḍáyati1: Md. taḷanī ʻ knocks, breaks ʼ, teḷenī ʻ is crushed, quakes, knocks around (intr.) ʼ.

5752a †*tāḍarukṣa -- ʻ palmyra palm ʼ. [tāḍa -- 3, rukṣá -- ]
Md. tāruk ʻ palmyra ʼ.

5632 *taḍati1 ʻ strikes ʼ. [√taḍ1]
S. taṛaṇu ʻ to drive off, expel ʼ; P. taṛṇā ʻ to coop up ʼ; Or. taṛibā ʻ to drive away, attack ʼ; G. taṛvũ ʻ to run to strike, attack, rise in revolt ʼ; -- Paš. taṛka ʻ forcibly ʼ, taṛas -- ʻ to knock ʼ.

5636 *taḍikā ʻ beating ʼ. [taḍít -- f. ʻ stroke ʼ Naigh. -- √taḍ1]
Or. taṛi ʻ stroke, beating ʼ; H. taṛī f. ʻ beating, loss, fraud ʼ; G. taṛī f. ʻ beating ʼ.

3041 Ta. taṭṭumuṭṭu furniture, goods and chattels, utensils, luggage. Ma. taṭṭumuṭṭu kitchen utensils, household stuff. Tu. taṭṭimuṭṭu id.

பஞ்சகம் pañcakam, n. < pañcaka. The five inauspicious periods of time ascertained by the remainders 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8, yielded when the sum of the numbers of titi, vāram, nakṣat- tiramilakkiṉammiruttiyu-pañcakam, akkiṉi-pañcakam, irāca- pañcakam, cōra-pañcakam, rōka-pañcakam; திதிவாரநக்ஷத்திரலக்கினங்களின்எண்ணைக்கூட்டி 9-ஆல்வகுத்தமீதி 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 பஞ்சகம்மாளர்pañca-kammāḷar, n. < pañcantaṭṭāṉ, kaṉṉāṉ, ciṟpaṉ, taccaṉ, kollaṉ; தட்டான், கன்னான், சிற்பன், தச்சன்கொல்லன்என்றஐவகைப்

தெய்வத்தச்சன் teyva-t-taccaṉ, n. < id. +. Višvakarma, as the celestial architect; விசுவகன்மா. தெய்வத்தச்சனைப்புகழ்துமோ (கம்பரா. ஊர்தேடு. 18).

தச்சக்கோல் tacca-k-kōl, n. < தச்சன் +. Carpenter's or mason's cubit = 33 in.; 33-அங்குலமுள்ளதச்சுமுழம். (C. G.)

தச்சச்சி taccacci , n. See தச்சிச்சி. Colloq.

தச்சத்தி taccatti, n. See தச்சிச்சி. (நன். 420, சங்கரந.)

தச்சநூல் tacca-nūl, n. < தச்சன் +. Treatise on carpentry; தச்சத்தொழிலைப்பற்றியசாஸ்திரம்.

தச்சமுழம் tacca-muḻam, n. < தச்சன் +. See தச்சக்கோல்.

தச்சவாடி tacca-vāṭi, n. < id. + vāṭī. Carpenter's yard; தச்சர்வேலைசெய்யும்இடம். (C. E. M.)

தச்சவேலை tacca-vēlai, n. < id. +. Carpentry; தச்சருக்குரியதொழில்.

தச்சன் taccaṉ, n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter; மரத்தில்வேலைசெய்பவன். மரங்கொஃறச்சரும் (மணி. 28, 37). 2. Person of carpenter caste; தச்சுவேலைசெய்யும்சாதியான். 3. The 14th nakṣatra, as pertaining to Višvakarma; [விசுவகர்மாவுக்குரியது] சித்திரைநாள். (பிங்.)

தச்சன்குருவி taccaṉ-kuruvi, n. < தச்சன் +. Wood-pecker. See மரங்கொத்தி. (யாழ். அக.)

தச்சாசாரி taccācāri

, n. < id. +. See தச்சன், 1.

தச்சாசாரியம் taccācāriyam

, n. < id. +. Status or position of a master-carpenter; தச்சத்தலைமை. (S. I. I. ii, 278, 17.)

தச்சி² tacci , n. [T. K. dacci.] A throw in the game of tacci-pārā தச்சிச்சி taccicci

, n. Fem. of தச்சன். Woman of Taccaṉ caste; தச்சச்சாதிப்பெண். (நன். 140, மயிலை.)

தச்சு taccu, n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter's work; தச்சன்றொழில். தச்சுவிடுத்தலும் (திருவாச. 14, 3). 2. Day's work of a carpenter; தச்சனதுஒருநால்வேலையளவு.

தச்சுக்கழித்தல் taccu-k-kaḻittal, n. < தச்சு +. A ceremony performed by carpenters prior to house-warming, with a view to exorcise evil spirits; புதுவீட்டிற்கிருகப்பிரவேசத்திற்குமுன்புபேயோட்டுதற்காகத்தச்சர்கள்செய்யுஞ்சடங்கு. Nāñ.

தச்சுக்கோல் taccu-k-kōl

, n. See தச்சக்கோல். (G. Tn. D. I, 239.)தச்சுமுழம் taccu-muḻam

, n. See தச்சக்கோல். (G. Tn. D. I, 239.)

தச்சுவாடி taccu-vāṭi, n. < தச்சு +. 1. See தச்சவாடி. 2. Stand for hackney carriages; வாடகைவண்டிகள்நிற்கும்இடம். Loc. 3. Fuel- depot; விறகுக்கடை. Loc.

தச்சுவினைமாக்கள்taccu-viṉai-mākkaḷ, n. < id. +. Carpenters; தச்சர். (தொல். பொ. 393, உரை.)

தச்சுவேலை taccu-vēlai, n. < id. +. See தச்சவேலை.

கல்லுளித்தச்சன் kal-l-uḷi-t-taccaṉ, n. < id. +. Sculptor, stone-cutter; கல்வேலைசெய்யுந்தச்சன். (W.)

தட்டல் taṭṭal, n. < தட்டு-. 1. Knocking, striking, clapping, tapping; கைமுதலியவற்றால்தட்டுகை. 2. (Mus.) Beating time; தாளமிடுகை. (திவா.) 3. Checking, obstructing; rejecting; தடுக்கை. (திவா.) 4. Lack, scarcity; முட்டுப்பாடு. சோற்றுக்குத்தட்டலாயிருக்கிறது. 5. Emptying, discharging; ஒன்றிலுள்ளதைவெளியிற்கொட்டுகை. 6. Salver, tray; தாலம். (W.) 7. Five, a slang term; ஐந்துஎன்பதன்குழூஉக்குறி. (J.)

தட்டாக்குடி taṭṭā-k-kuṭi

, n. < தட்டான்¹ +. Goldsmiths' quarters; தட்டார்கள்இருப்பிடம். Loc.

தட்டாத்தி taṭṭātti, n. Fem. of தட்டான்¹. Woman of goldsmith caste; தட்டாரச்சாதிப்பெண்.

தட்டார்பாட்டம் taṭṭār-pāṭṭam, n. < தட்டான்¹ +. Profession tax on goldsmiths; தட்டார்இறுக்கும்அரசிறைவகை. (S. I. I. ii, 117.)

தட்டாரப்பாட்டம் taṭṭāra-p-pāṭṭam, n. < தட்டார் +. See தட்டார்பாட்டம். (S. I. I. iii, 115.)

(Santali)

Annex 2 RV 10.81, 82 Viśvakarmā

RV 10.81, 10.82

Visvakarman. 81

1. HE who sate down as Hotarpriest-, the Rsi, our Father, offering up all things existing,
He, seeking through his wish a great possession, came among men on earth as archetypal.
2 What was the place whereon he took his station? What was it that supported him? How was it?
Whence Visvakarman, seeing all, producing the earth, with mighty power disclosed the heavens.
3 He who hath eyes on all sides round about him, a mouth on all sides, arms and feet on all sides,
He, the Sole God, producing earth and heaven, weldeth them, with his arms as wings, together.
4 What was the tree, what wood in sooth produced it, from which they fashioned out the earth and
heaven?
Ye thoughtful men inquire within your spirit whereon he stood when he established all things.
5 Nine highest, lowest, sacrificial natures, and these thy midmost- here, O Visvakarman,
Teach thou thy friends at sacrifice, O Blessed, and come thyself, exalted, to our worship.
6 Bring thou thyself, exalted with oblation, O Visvakarman, Earth and Heaven to worship.
Let other men around us live in folly here let us have a rich and liberal patron.
7 Let us invoke today-, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thoughtswift- Visvakarman.
May he hear kindly all our invocations who gives all bliss for aid, whose works are righteous.
Visvakarman. 82
1. THE Father of the eye, the Wise in spirit, created both these worlds submerged in fatness.
Then when the eastern ends were firmly fastened, the heavens and the earth were far extended.
2 Mighty in mind and power is Visvakarman, Maker, Disposer, and most lofty Presence.
Their offerings joy in rich juice where they value One, only One, beyond the Seven Rsis.
3 Father who made us, he who, as Disposer, knoweth all races and all things existing,
Even he alone, the Deities' narnegiverhim-, other beings seek for information.
4 To him in sacrifice they offered treasures, Rsis of old, in numerous troops, as singers,
Who, in the distant, near, and lower region, made ready all these things that have existence.
5 That which is earlier than this earth and heaven, before the Asuras and Gods had being,
What was the germ primeval which the waters received where all the Gods were seen together?
6 The waters, they received that germ primeval wherein the Gods were gathefed all together.
It rested set upon the Unborns' navel, that One wherein abide all things existing.
7 Ye will not find him who produced these creatures: another thing hath risen up among you.
Enwrapt in misty cloud, with lips that stammer, hymnchanters- wander and are discontented.

Chhaya

Chhaya or Chaya (Sanskrit: छाया, Chāyā) means shadow or shade. Chhaya is also personified as the goddess of shadow, the consort of Surya, the Hindu sun god.^[1] She is the shadow-image or reflection of Saranyu (Sanjna), the first wife of Surya. Chhaya was born from the shadow of Sanjna and replaced Sanjna in her house, after the latter abandoned her husband.^[2]

Chhaya is usually described as the mother of Shani, the god of the planet Saturn and a feared graha; goddess Tapti, the personification of river Tapti and a son Savarni Manu, who is destined to be the next and eighth Manu (progenitor of mankind) - the ruler of the next Manvantara period.

Early Vedic and epic legends

In the Rigveda (c. 1200-1000 BCE), which is the earliest narrative about the Chhaya-prototype. After the birth of twins to Vivasvan (Surya), his consort Saranyu - the daughter of Vishwakarma - abandons him and flews in form of a mare. The woman the divine Saranyu places in her place is called Savarna ("same-kind"): similar to Saranyu, but mortal. Savarna has no children by Surya. A later (500 BCE) addition to the Rigveda by Yaska in his Nikuta says that Manu (the progenitor of mankind, called Savarni Manu in later Puranic text) was born to Savarna. While the original text says "they" (interpreted as the gods) substituted Savarna for Saranyu, Yaksa's Nikuta tells that Saranyu created Savarna and substituted her. Brhad devata calls the prototype of Chhaya as Sadrisha ("look-alike"), a woman who looked like Saranyu. Sadrsha begot Manu by Surya, who became a royal sage.

By the time of the Harivamsa (c. 5th century CE), an appendix of the epic Mahabharata; Saranyu is called Sanjna and her double is reduced to her shadow or reflection Chhaya. It narrates:^[2] that Sanjna, after giving birth to three children of the Sun, abandons him, and leaves Chhaya to take care of her children. Surya mistakes Chhaya for Sanjna and begets Manu by her. As Manu looked just like his father, he was called Savarni Manu. When Chhaya, also called parthvi ("earthly") Sanjna, became partial to her own son and ignored those of Sanjna, Yama threatens her, and Chhaya casts a curse on Yama. Upon discovery of this, Surya threatens Chhaya, and she discloses the story of her creation; whereafter Surya finds Sanjna and brings her back. The text also states that Shani was a brother of Savarni Manu, though his birth is not explicitly stated.

Puranic legends

The Markandeya Purana tells the tale of Sanjna-Chhaya twice, the tale is similar to that in the Harivamsa, but Sanjna leaves Surya as she is unable to bear his splendour and heat. The curse to Yama is a little different. Yama abuses Chhaya and picks his leg up to kick her. Chhaya curses Yama to have his leg affected with worms and sores. Surya grants Yama, a cock to eat the worms from his leg. In the other telling, the curse is almost same as the Harivamsa. Chhaya also cleverly says that she is Yama's father's wife, but does not say that she is his mother.

The Vishnu Purana also records the legend similar to Markandeya Purana, but has few differences. Unable to bear Surya's intense heat, Sanjna after giving birth to three children - retires to the forest to practise harsh austerities in form of a mare, leaving her shadow-image Chhaya, her handmaid to take her place and tend for her husband and progeny. Surya mistakes Chhaya for Sanjna and fathers three children on her. Chhaya gives birth to Shani, Savarni Manu and Tapti. However, Chhaya became partial to her own children and ignored those of Sanjna. Yama, suspected the behaviour of who he thought was his mother and offended her. Chhaya cast a curse on Yama (the details of the curse are not disclosed), which revealed to Yama and Surya that Chhaya was not the true Sanjna. After the extracting the truth from Chhaya, Surya finds Sanjna and brings her back.

The Matsya Purana also presents a similar account about Chhaya, however the children of Chhaya are named as Savarni Manu a son and two daughters: Tapti and Vishti, who was dark blue colour and a personification of Kala (Time or Death) who dwells in Hell. Chhaya's tale is also found in the 11th century CE Kathasaritsagara. The Markandeya Purana records that Chhaya had three sons: Shani, Savarni Manu and Revanta, the divine master of horses. Kurma Purana describes only Savarni Manu as her son.^[9] While in some versions of the tale, Surya abandons Chhaya after knowing the truth about her, Surya deserts Chhaya before bringing back Sanjna. however a contemporary version tells that Chhaya was forgiven and lived with Surya, Sanjna and their children thereafter.

While most accounts consider Chhaya to be the reflection or shadow of Saranyu (Sanjna) - Surya's first wife; Bhagavata Purana tells that Chhaya was a sister of Sanjna and the daughter of the divine architect Vishwakarma.

Markandeya Purana as well as Vishnudharmottara Purana prescribe that Surya should be depicted in images with Chhaya and his other wives by his sides.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhaya

Viktor Rydberg’s Investigations into Germanic Mythology published in 1886 and 1889 is seen as an account by a Swedish writer of undivided Proto-Indo-European people who ‘created the vessel of their worldview in myths.’ (Jan de Vries, 1961, Forschungsgeschichte der Mythologie, p.250).

Excerpt from 111. The results of the judgement on the Ivaldi sons’ artwork. Parallel myths in Rigveda

[quote]…it has already been shown that the splinters of Proto-IndoEuropean mythology, which Avesta, Zend, and Bundehesh have [658] preserved, speak of a terrible winter, which afflicted the world. To rescue the most noble and the best among plants, animals, and humans from the coming destruction, Yima established an enclosed area in the underworld, inside of which a selection of natural organisms live an uncontaminated life, uninterrupted by the events on earth‘s surface, so that they may populate a more beautiful and a happier earth in the world‘s regeneration. I have shown that the same myth in all important details reappears in the Germanic doctrine about Mimir's grove and the ásmegir living there. The Iranian records inform us that the great winter was the work of the evil spirit, but they do not tell us the particulars of it or the epic causes of the cold‘s devastation. But the Iranian mythology‘s Indian sister informs us of it in Rigveda. Clothed with divine rank, there lives among Rigveda's gods an extraordinary artist, Tvashtar (Tvashtri), often mentioned and addressed in Rigveda's hymns. The word means "the foreman,""the craftsman" (Bergaigne, Relig. Ved., III, 45;[1]Darmesteter, Ormazd, 63, 2; 100).[2]He is the one who forms the organisms in their maternal wombs, the one who prepares and first owns as his secret the strength- and inspiration-endowing soma-juice (Rigv., II. 53, and many other places);[3]it is he that nurtures the generations (Rigv., III. 55, 19).[4]Among the wonderful work he crafted is mentioned a double-bowl or goblet, which is the gods‘ drinking-vessel, and which fills itself with blessings (Rigv., III, 55, 20; X. 53, 9),[5]and Indra's, the Indic Thor's, lightning-wedge, the counterpart to Mjölnir. But among mortals brothers have grown up, themselves mortal, and not of divine rank, but who have educated themselves into artists, whose skill fills the world with astonishment. They are three in number, usually called the Ribhus, but also the Anus and the Ayus, names which perhaps have some ancient fellowship with the Völund names Anund and Ajo. Most daring and enterprising in successful artistic experiments is the youngest of the three (Rigv., IV, 34). They are also soma-brewers, skalds, and heroes (Rigv., IV. 36, 5, 7), and one of them, like [659] Völund's brother Örvandil-Egil, is an unsurpassed archer (Rigv., IV. 36, 6). For their handiwork‘s sake, these mortal artists come in contact with the gods (Rigv., IV, 35), and as Völund and Örvandil-Egil become Thor's friends, allies, war-comrades, and servants, so the Ribhus become Indra's (Rigv., I 51, 2; VII. 37, 7): ―with Indra, the helpful, allied themselves the helpers; with Indra, the nimble Ribhus.‖[6]They forge weapons, armor, and means of transportation, and make noteworthy treasures for the gods. On the earth, they create vegetation in the deserts, and carve out ways for the fertilizing streams (Rigv., V. 42, 12; IV. 33, 7). With Ivaldi's sons, they, therefore, share the qualities of being simultaneously creators of vegetation, and smiths at the hearth, and bestowers of precious gifts to the gods. But some evil tongue persuaded the gods that the Ribhus had uttered something disdainful of the double-bowl or goblet made by Tvashtar. This provoked Tvashtar and he demanded their death. The gods then sent the fire-god Agni to the Ribhus. The Ribhus asked: ―Why has the most excellent, the most youthful come to us? On what mission does he come?‖[7]Agni let them know that they were supposed to have found fault with Tvashtar's goblet; but they assured him that they had not uttered anything derogatory, but only talked about the material of which it was made. Agni, however, presented the gods‘ resolution, which enjoined them to make from Tvashtar's goblet four of the same kind. If they were not able to do this, then the gods would yield to Tvashtar's claim on their lives; but if they could, then they, with the gods, would share the right to receive offerings. Yet, moreover, they were to perform the following master test: they should smithy a living horse, a living vehicle, a living cow, and they should create a means of rejuvenation and demonstrate its efficacy on two beings, advanced in age and powerless. The Ribhus let the gods know that they would comply with the order. So they made the wonderful vehicle or the wagon-ship, which they gave to the Asvins, the beautiful twin-gods, on which they travel through the air and on the sea (Compare Skiðbladnir, Frey's ship, [660] and Hringhorni, Baldur's, and probably also Hödur's means of transportation through the air and on the sea). Of one horse they made two horses, and presented them to Indra. Out of an empty cowhide, they forged a cow (Compare Sindri's piece of art when, from an empty pigskin, he made the boar Sliðrugtanni). They made the requested means of rejuvenation, and tested it successfully on their aged parents. Finally, they even perform the great masterwork of producing from Tvashtar's goblet, four as good. Thereafter they appear before the gods who, "with insight," test their work.[8] Tvashtar himself could not help being astounded over the goblets. But the result of the gods‘ testing and judgment on the Ribhus‘ artwork was quite full of misfortune. Both Tvashtar and the Ribhus were dissatisfied. Tvashtar left the gods and proceeded to the mountains with his dises of vegetation, in whose society he is often mentioned. The Ribhus refused to receive the proffered share in the morning and noon sacrifices from the gods and, after laying curses on their adversaries, they went away on long wandering expeditions, and the gods knew not where to find them (Rigv., I. 161, 1-13; IV. 33, 1-11, and many other places). The result of this breach between the primeval artists themselves, and with the gods, becomes clear from the significance which Tvashtar, he who nourishes the world, and the Ribhus, who adorn the wastes with vegetation and who water the valleys, have as symbols of nature. The beneficent forces of nature, who previously had worked in the gods‘ service, abandon their cause, and over the world spreads that winter of which the Iranian myths speak, that darkness and that reign of giant-monsters which, according to Rigveda, once prevailed, and during which Indra, at the head of the gods, fought valiantly to restore order and to recapture the sun. Here we find remarkable points of contact, or rather contact surfaces, between the Asiatic Aryan and the Germanic mythic cycles. The concern is not similarities in individual details; such [similarities] can be pointed out in nearly all mythic cycles in the world, and, typically one builds altogether too dizzying [661] hypotheses on the weak foundations they offer. The concern here is commonality in great, central, connected complexes of myths: the myth about an original harmony between a divine clan and the subordinate and subservient artists, who forge fertility, ornaments and weapons for the gods, know how to brew the strength-endowing and inspiration-granting mead, and who are closely connected to vegetation-dises, who, as shall be shown later, appear as swanmaidens, not only in the Germanic godsaga but also in the Indic mythology; the myths of how this harmony was destroyed by the verdict of a trial, whose parties are, on the one side, he who forged Indra's thundering wedge in the Indic myths, and Thor's thundering hammer in the Germanic; and on the other side three brothers, of whom one is an excellent archer; the myth about the consequences of the judgment: nature‘s destruction by forces of frost or giant-monsters; the myth (in the earliest Iranian and the Germanic documents) of the subterranean pleasure-garden, in which a selection of creation‘s best beings are protected against annihilation, and survive uncorrupted through centuries; the myth (in the earliest Iranian and the Germanic documents) of these beings‘ destiny, which unites itself with the similarly common myth (in the Iranian and the Germanic mythic cycles) concerning the destruction and the renewal of the world. Common to the 14 IV, 33, 9. Indic and the Germanic mythologies too is that a cunning, spying being, in Rigveda Dadhyak (Dadhyank), in the Icelandic sources Loki, has forfeited his head to the artist who forged the wedge for Indra and the hammer for Thor, but saves it with cunning. An important observation should be pointed out here. A comparison between different passages in Rigveda demonstrates that of all the wonderful artworks that were laid before the gods to examine, there was originally not one of metal. Tvashtar's doublebowl or goblet was not forged of gold, but of fire and water and a third element. Indra's wedge was made of the bones of Dadhyak's horse‘s head, and first became a weapon of bronze in a later tradition. Common to the Aryan-Asiatic and the Germanic mythologies is the primeval artists‘ ability [662] to forge animals from empty animal skins, and to make from one object of art several similar ones (the Ribhus‘ goblet, Sindri's Draupnir). Also, in the Germanic mythology, Thor's hammer was not originally of metal, but of stone, and the other artworks created by Sindri and the Ivaldi sons have probably undergone similar changes in the course of centuries, in regard to their raw materials. It should also be noted that not a trace of a myth comparable to that of Svipdag and the sword of victory is to be found in the Aryan-Asiatic mythic cycle. In the Germanic heroic saga, Geirvandil, the spear-fighter, is the father of Örvandil, the archer, and first born to him is Svipdag, the sword-fighter (compare no. 123). The myth about the sword of victory seems to be purely Germanic, and to have been established during the Bronze or Iron Ages, while the myth concerning the judgment on the primeval artists and of the fimbul-winter which follows must originate from a time when metals were not in use among the Indo-Europeans. Otherwise, it is most incredible to believe that the judgment would concern works of art of which not one originally suggested a metal product.[unquote] Source: Viktor Rydberg's Investigations into Germanic Mythology, Volume I Translated and annotated with modern references by William P. Reaves, 2010

http://www.germanicmythology.com/ugm1/UGM1%20NEW%20TRANSLATION%20110-113.pdf

The narration is specific, detailed in RV. 10.17 and refers to the preparations for a wedding of Tvastar’s daughter.

Griffith’s translation RV 10.17: Various Deities. 17
1.TVASTAR prepares the bridal of his Daughter: all the world hears the tidings and assembles.
But Yamas' Mother, Spouse of great Vivasvan, vanished as she was carried to her dwelling.
2 From mortal men they hid the Immortal Lady, made one like her and gave her to Vivasvan.
Saranyu brought to him the Asvin brothers, and then deserted both twinned pairs of children.
3 Guard of the world, whose cattle Never are injured, may Pusan bear thee hence, for he hath
knowledge.
May he consign thee to these Fathers' keeping, and to the gracious Gods let Agni give thee.
4 May Ayu, giver of all life, protect thee, and bear thee forward on the distant pathway.
Thither let Savitar the God transport thee, where dwell the pious who have passedbefore- thee.
5 Pusan knows all these realms: may he conduct us by ways that are most free from fear and danger.
Giver of blessings, glowing, allheroic-, may he, thewise and watchful, go before us.
6 Pusan was born to move on distant pathways, on the road far from earth and far from heaven.
To both most wonted places of assembly he travels and returns with perfect knowledge.
7 The pious call Sarasvati, they worship Sarasvati while sacrifice proceedeth.
The pious called Sarasvati aforetime. Sarasvati send bliss to him who giveth.
8 Sarasvati, who camest with the Fathers, with them rejoicing thee in our oblations,
Seated upon this sacred grass be joyful, and give us strengthening food that brings no sickness.
9 Thou, called on as Sarasvati by Fathers who come right forward to our solemn service,
Give food and wealth to present sacrificers, a portion, worth a thousand, of refreshment.
10 The Mother Floods shall make us bright and shining, cleansers of holy oil, with oil shall
cleanse us:
For, Goddesses, they bear off all defilement: I, rise up from them purified and brightened.
11 Through days of earliest date the Drop descended on this place and on that which was before it.
I offer up, throughout the seven oblations, the Drop which still to one same place is moving.
12 The Drop that falls, thy stalk which arms have shaken, which from the bosom of the press hath
fallen,
Or from the Adhvaryus' purifying filter, I offer thee with heart and cry of Vasat!
13 That fallen Drop of thine, the stalk which from the ladle fell away,
This present God Brhaspati shall pour it forth to make us rich.
14 The plants of earth are rich in milk, and rich in milk is this my speech;
And rich in milk the essence of the Waters: make me pure therewith.
Wilson’s translation: 10.017.01 Tvas.t.a_ celebrates the marriage of his daughter; therefore, the whole world is assembled; but the mother of Yama, the newly-married wife of the mighty Vivasvat, disappeared. [Deity Saran.yu_: The legend: Saran.yu_, the daughter of Tvas.t.a_, was given in marriage to Vivasvat, and had by him Yama and Yami_. Intimidated by his ardour, she substituted another female, her shadow, Cha_ya_, for herself, and going to Uttarakuru, changed herself to a mare. Vivasvat begot Manu by Cha_ya_, when, finding his error, he set off to look for his wife. Discovering her disguise, he transformed himself to a horse, and had by his wife the two As'vins].
10.017.02 The gods concealing the immortal (Sarn.yu_) for the sake of mortals and having formed her, gave her to Vivasvat. She bore the two As'vins when this had happened and then Saran.yu_ gave birth to two twins. [For the sake of mortals: maryebhyah = manus.yebhyas tadutpattyartham, for men, i.e. that men might be born. Manu was the offspring of Vivasvat and the woman resembling Saran.yu_ and all men are descended from Manu; the two twins: Yama and Yami_, but dva_ mithuna_, may mean two pairs of twins, Yama and Yami_, the first pair and the As'vins the second].
10.017.03 May the discriminating Pu_s.an, whose cattle are never lost, the protector of all beings, transfer you hence (to a better world); may he give you to these Pitr.s; may Agni (give) you to the beneficent gods. [This and the following three r.cas are to be recited at the funeral rites of a man who has been duly initiated, di_ks.ita].
10.017.04 May the all-pervading Va_yu protect you, may Pu_s.an (preserve) you, (going) first on the excellent path (to heaven); may the divine Savita_ place you, where the virtuous abide, whither they have gone. [a_yu = Va_yu].
10.017.05 Pu_s.an knows all these regions severally; met him conduct us by (the path) that is most free from peril; let him precede us, who is the giver of prosperity, endowed with radiance, accompanied by all pious men, ever vigilant, and knowing our (deserts).
10.017.06 Pu_s.an has been born on the best path of paths, on the best path of heaven on the best path of earth, he goes forward and backward over both (worlds), the assemblies longed for by all, discriminating (the merits of the dead). [Pu_s.an has been born: i.e., manifested in order to conduct men after death to their destination, according to their merits; he goes forward: i.e., favourably to the virtuous to show the fruit of good owrks, backward, i.e., he walks adversely to the wicked; discriminating the merits: i.e., he walks adversely to the wicked].
10.017.07 The devout invoke Sarasvati_; they worship Sarasvati_ at the strewn sacrifice; the virtuous call upon Sarasvati_; may Sarasvati_ bestow blessings upon the donor (of the oblation).
10.017.08 Divine Sarasvati_, who rides in the same chariot with the Pitr.s, and delighted (along with them) by the (sacrificial) viands, seated on the sacred grass gratified (by our offering, and grant us wholesome food.
10.017.09 Sarasvati_, whom the Pitr.s invoke when circumambulating sacrifice on the right, bestow upon the worshippers at this sacrifice a portion of food fit for thousands, and increase of riches.
10.017.10 May the maternal waters, purify us; may the shedders of water purify us with the effusion; for the divine (waters) bear away all sin; I come away from them purified (to heaven). [Shedders of water...with effusion: ghr.tena no ghr.tapvah punantu: waters which purify others by water; ghr.ta = effused water; ghr.tapvah = divinities presiding over effused water; or, ghr.ta = oiled butter (Yajus. 4.2); udemi = I go to heaven (S'atapatha Bra_hman.a 3.1.2.11)].
10.017.11 The Soma has risen to the earthly and heavenly (worlds), both this visible world, and that which (existed) before (it); I offer that Soma flowing through the common region (of heaven and earth) after the sacrifice (offered by the) seven (officiating priests). [drapsam = a name of the Sun (S'atapatha Bra_hman.a: 8.4.1.20); hotra_h = ditah, which are seven: zenith, nadir, centre and four cardinal points].
10.017.12 Soma, which escapes (from the hide), your filaments which let fall from the hands (of the priest escape) from the vicinity of the planks (of the press), or (from the hand) of the Adhvaryu, or from the filter; I offer it all with my mind (to Agni) with the word vas.at.
10.017.13 Your juice and your filaments, (Soma), which escape, and which fall from the ladle on this side or on that; may this divine Br.haspati sprinkle it for our enrichment.
10.017.14 (Waters)! the plants flourish by means of water my prayer is effectual through water; the essence of water is vigorous through water; purify me with it. [payasvat = having water; or, sa_ravat, having pith or vigour; being vigorous b\y means of water in the shape of rain].
[quote]Tuisto, Tvastar & Ymir

Connections have been proposed between the 1st century figure of Tuisto and the hermaphroditic primeval being Ymir in later Norse mythology, attested in 13th century sources, based upon etymological and functional similarity. Meyer (1907; loc. cit. North, Richard, 1997, Heathen Gods in Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press, p.269) sees the connection as so strong, that he considers the two to be identical. Lindow (Lindow, John, 2001, Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs, Oxford Univ. Press, p. 296), while mindful of the possible semantic connection between Tuisto and Ymir, notes an essential functional difference: while Ymir is portrayed as an "essentially… negative figure"– Tuisto is described as being "celebrated" (celebrant) by the early Germanic peoples in song, with Tacitus reporting nothing negative about Tuisto.

Jacob (Jacob, Alexander, 2005, Ātman: A Reconstruction of the Solar Cosmology of the Indo-Europeans. Georg Olms Verlag, p.232) attempts to establish a genealogical relationship between Tuisto and Ymir based on etymology and a comparison with (post-)Vedic Indian mythology: as Tvastr, through his daughter Saranyū and her husband Vivaswān, is said to have been the grandfather of the twins Yama and Yami, so Jacob argues that the Germanic Tuisto (assuming a connection with Tvastr) must originally have been the grandfather of Ymir (cognate to Yama). Incidentally, Indian mythology also places Manu (cognate to Germanic Mannus), the Vedic progenitor of mankind, as a son of Vivaswān, thus making him the brother of Yama/Ymir. [unquote]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuisto

[1] Bergaigne defines the name as taksh, charpenter, (carpenter), ouvrer (workman).

[2] Darmesteter defines the name as: le Créateur, (Creator), l’Ordonnateur (Ordainer), le Formateur (Trainer).

[3] This reference is erroneous. Rigveda Book 2 has 43 verses. Rigv. II, 23, 17 may have been intended. It reads: ―For Tvastar, he who knows each sacred song, brought thee to life, preeminent o‘er all the things that be,‖ [Griffith tr.] As Rydberg indicates, the statements are well-supported. For example: Rigv. I, 117, 22: ―sweet Soma, Tvastar‘s secret‖; I, 188, 9: ―Tvastar the Lord hath made all forms and all the cattle of the field.‖; III, 48, 4: ―E'en from his birth-time Indra conquered Tvastar, bore off the Soma and in beakers drank it.‖; IV, 18, 3: ―In Tvastar's dwelling India drank the Soma.‖; X, 10, 5 ―Even in the womb God Tvastar, Vivifier, shaping all forms, Creator, made us consorts.‖; X, 184, 1: ―May Visnu form and mould the womb, may Tvastar duly shape the forms.‖ [Griffith tr.]

[4] Bergaigne, III, p. 40: ―III.55.19: ‗The god Tvastr Savitr who assumes all forms, nourishes the created beings; he engenders them in a large number and all the worlds belong to him.‖ [Paranjpe tr.]; ―Tvasṭar the god, the omniform. Creator, begets and feeds mankind in various manner.‖ [Griffith tr]:.

[5] Rigv. III, 55, 20: ―The two great meeting Bowls hath he united: each of the Pair is laden with his treasure.”; .X, 53, 9: ―Tvastar, most deft of workmen, knew each magic art, bringing most blessed bowls that hold the drink of Gods,‖ [Griffith tr.].

[6] This appears to be the first part of Rigv. I, 51, 2. Alfred Ludwig‘s German translation (1876) begins: ―es verbanden sich mit ihm dem hilfreichen die helfer,‖ [Der Rigveda, no. 966, p. 599]. Ralph Griffith‘s reads: ―As aids the skilful Ṛbhus yearned to Indra strong to save.‖; VII, 37, 7 refers to ―three close friends‖ of Indra‘s without naming the Ribhus.

[7] Rigv. I, 161, 1.

[8] IV, 33, 9.

↧

Tin-bronze alloy Panchala coins (75-50 BCE) with Indus Script hypertext, ranku ayo kammaṭa sippi

January 21, 2017, 7:42 am

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/hmxz7ad

Tin-bronze alloy Panchala coins depict the following three hieroglyphs on the top line, reverse. Bottom line is the name of the king in Brahmi syllables.

I suggest that the three symbols are Indus Script Meluhha hieroglyphs read rebus as a mint metalwork catalogue.

Specifically, the three hypertexts signify that the mint works in tin-bronze alloy metalwork by metal artificers: ranku ayo kammaṭa sippi 'tin, alloy metal mint artificer'.

From l. to r.:

Hypertext 1: ranku'liquid measure' rebus: ranku'tin' PLUS sal'splinter' rebus: sal'workshop'

Hypertext 2: mēḍhā'twist' rebus med 'iron' med 'copper' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul'metal casting' PLUS sippī ʻspathe of date palmʼ Rebus: sippi'artificer, craftsman'.

Hypertext 3: ayo 'fish' PLUS khambhaṛā'fin' rebus: aya'iron'ayas'metal alloy' PLUS kammaTa'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone.rebus: gōṭa'ferrous, laterite ore'khōṭa'ingot, wedge'

dala 'petal' Rebus: ḍhāḷako = a large ingot (G.) ḍhāḷakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (Gujarati)

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2017/01/monetisation-of-hindu-rastram-from.html Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/zztyzkf for a rebus reading of a comparable hypertext on a Taxila coin 185-168 BCE.

Triratna? on Taxila coin 185-168 BCE detail http://www.cngcoins.com

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Triratna_on_Taxila_coin_185-168_BCE_detail.jpg#/media/File:Triratna_on_Taxila_coin_185-168_BCE_detail.jpg

This is an Indus Script hypertext. ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' (Rigveda) khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' Rebus: kammaṭi a coiner (Ka.); kampaṭṭam coinage, coin, mint (Ta.) kammaṭa = mint, gold furnace (Te.) kamaṭa = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Telugu) PLUS gōṭā m A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone Rebus: khoTa 'ingot' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS dala 'petal' Rebus: ḍhāḷako = a large ingot (G.) ḍhāḷakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (Gujarati)

Panchala of Ahichhatra: Indramitra ½ Karshapana ca. 75-50 BCE (MACW-4539/4540)

Obv: Indra standing on pedestal, holding uncertain object in right hand

Rev: Panchala symbols above legend; Brahmi legend - Indramitrasa

http://www.worldofcoins.eu/forum/index.php/topic,21655.0.html

Ancient Coins - India , Kingdom of Panchalas Ahichchhatra , Indramitra. 1 st Century BC Æ ½ Karshapana

OBVERSE: God Indra on pedestal

REVERSE: Incuse Square with the symbols of the Panchala Kingdom and the Kings name

16 mm - 4.5 grams

OBVERSE: Incuse Square with the symbols of the Panchala Kingdom and the Kings name
REVERSE: God Indra on pedestal

16 mm - 4.8 grams

India. Panchalas. Indramitra. 1st cent. BCE. 1/2 karshapana
Ancient Coins - India , Kingdom of Panchalas Ahichchhatra , Indramitra. 1 st Century BC Æ ½ Karshapana

OBVERSE: God Indra on pedestal

REVERSE: Incuse Square with the symbols of the Panchala Kingdom and the Kings name

15 mm - 4.5 grams

MAC 4539

OBVERSE: Incuse Square with the symbols of the Panchala Kingdom and the Kings name
REVERSE: God Indra on pedestal

15 mm - 4.5 grams

MAC 4539

https://www.vcoins.com/en/stores/nemesis_ancients/110/product/india__kingdom_of_panchalas_ahichchhatra__indramitra_1_st_century_bc___karshapana/395388/Default.aspx
https://www.vcoins.com/en/stores/nemesis_ancients/110/product/india__kingdom_of_panchalas_ahichchhatra__indramitra_1_st_century_bc___karshapana/524537/Default.aspx
https://www.vcoins.com/en/stores/nemesis_ancients/110/product/india__kingdom_of_panchalas_ahichchhatra__indramitra_1_st_century_bc___karshapana/395393/Default.aspx

This is a coin of king Bhanumitra. The diameter is 21.5 mm and weight is 13.8 gms. This is a double karshapana and material is a tin-bronze alloy.

Obv. Brahmi legend bhanumitrasa in deep incuse below; above the legend two horizontally placed symbols like modifications of the third Panchala symbol.
Rev: Arch with three dots above on left and railed tree on right

Ref. Pieper 1018

AE-Tin Double Karshapana of Bhanumitra,Panchalas of Ahichhatra :Secondary series

Mitchiner MACW 4549, 26 mm, 10.3 grams. One side shows the Panchala symbols at the top within an incuse frame. There is only one character of the name Bhanumitra preserved at the bottom. The other side shows a radiant sun on a pedestal.
http://www.worldofcoins.eu/forum/index.php?topic=35022.0

Bhanumitra, AE double karshapana, c. 1-20 CE
Weight: 12.94 gm., Diam: ? mm.
Ref: MAC 4549 var. A gorgeous example of a more normal depiction of the radiate sun on a pedestal. (Photo courtesy Girish Sharma.)

.
Bhanumitra, AE double karshapana, c. 1-20 CE
Weight: 12.58 gm., Diam: 25 mm.
Ref: MAC 4549 A very interesting coin, in which Bhanu (the sun) is depicted as a solar disc surrounded by emanating rays and is then garlanded with a pendant necklace ... a beautiful depiction!

Bhumimitra, AE double karshapana, c. 65-80 CE
Weight: 15.52 gm., Diam: 25 mm.Ref: MAC 4549..
Agni is depicted with flaming hair on the obverse.

http://coinindia.com/galleries-panchala-kingdom.html

S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center January 21, 2017

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Shadow men work to remove President Trump -- MD Nalapat. A brlliant political report.

January 21, 2017, 3:41 pm

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Shadow men work to remove President Trump

By MADHAV NALAPAT | NEW DELHI | 22 January, 2017

A plan has been activated to ensure that the 45th President of the United States, Donald John Trump does not last more than a thousand days in office.

f the plans activated since 8 November 2016 by the “Shadow Men” succeed, the 45th President of the United States will not last in office beyond a thousand days from his swearing-in on 20 January 2017. The term “Shadow Men” refers to officials and policymakers operating in a stealthily coordinated manner to ensure the furtherance of specific agendas unrelated to the public interest. These have, since the declaration of the result of the 8 November 2016 US Presidential elections, activated a plan designed to ensure that the 45th President of the United States, Donald John Trump does not last more than a thousand days in office. They represent the hitherto ubiquitous and dominant Wall Street-Atlanticist alliance that has devised and implemented policy in Washington for several decades. These “Shadow Men” form an informal club of intelligence operatives, businesspersons, officials and politicians, whose relevance to policymaking and whose monetary wealth depend on the continuation of policies helpful to the interests they support, even though these may be harmful to the country they belong to.

Individuals with direct knowledge of the “1000-day plan” and who are based in Chicago, Washington, New York and London, warn that 20 January 2017 marked not just Donald J. Trump’s first day in office as the 45th US President, but the acceleration of an ongoing campaign that has been designed to ensure that President Trump “does not continue in the world’s most powerful job for more than a thousand days”. According to individuals revealing details of the 1,000-day ouster plan, “the preferred route is a steady increase in public pressure, which would lead to the 45th President’s impeachment by the US Congress on the basis of presumed misdemeanours. These would be played up by media persons, who regularly get briefed by officials active in the shadow network.” These sources claim that no fewer than three US Senators and 18 members of the House of Representatives belonging to the Republican Party, “have already signed on to the ‘Dump Trump’ plan through prodding by members of their staff”, who are part of the project to ensure a premature and unpleasant finish to the billionaire’s first four-year term in office. The sources claim that “in the case of Speaker Paul Ryan, it is his spouse who has been instrumental in ensuring that he continues on a path designed to trip up the newly elected President, whatever be his public stance on the matter”. Others have been converted to the Dump Trump move by friends and colleagues, “and recruitment is continuing and will go on until a critical mass is reached, hopefully by the end of the year”. It was explained that the “Shadow Men” are apprehensive that the strong-willed billionaire may refuse to get house-trained in the manner that Hillary Clinton so transparently was. In their view, the role of an elected head of state is in many aspects ceremonial, and on matters of national security and strategy, he or she should, in essence, follow the agenda set for him by the interests represented and protected by the “Shadow Men”.

TARGET OF POWERFUL GROUPS

A source based in New York claimed that the focus of the “Shadow Men” until the final months of the US Presidential campaign was to “disable the campaign of Senator Bernie Sanders, as their calculation was that Hillary would easily beat Trump in the 8 November polls”. The sources point to President Trump’s signature for decision-making method of securing inputs from an unusually large variety of sources (mostly outside the government), rather than relying on the guidance proffered by a small coterie of officials the way almost all Trump’s post-World War II predecessors have. They say that the self-confidence and independence of mind of the 45th US President are factors that have made him the target of the powerful groups used to getting their own way in Washington. A few of the individuals giving information about the 1,000-day plan are still in significant positions, and with whom details of the “Dump Trump in 1,000 days” operation have been shared by the perpetrators. These sources have decided to only nominally follow the instructions given to them with reference to the 1,000-day operation. This way, they remain au courant of the tactics and the activities of the “Shadow Men” active in the 1,000-day project, and have decided to give information on the subject on the strict condition of anonymity, as “careers and in some cases even lives would be at risk by those we expose”, a source warned.

REMEMBER KENNEDY?

The whistleblowers claim that the first time a US President was subjected to a secret thousand-day limit on his term was John F. Kennedy, “who by June 1963 had become so wary of the advice he was getting from agencies” in which the Shadow Men held key positions, that he was therefore “increasingly showing an independence of mind and action that was anathema to this invisible pillar of the decision-making establishment in the US”. In Kennedy’s case, it was the 22 November 1963 assassination that caused his exit from the White House. However, the jury is still out on whether the apparent success of this particular “1,000-day Operation” was due to the assassination being masterminded by the “Shadow Men”, or because of circumstances unplanned by them and independently carried out by a single killer, as claimed by the Chief Justice Earl Warren Commission on the murder. “What was obvious to intimates during Kennedy’s last months of life is that the 35th President of the United States had fully understood by then the games being played by the leadership of the intelligence community and other agencies of government in promoting narrow agendas that went against the core interests of the United States”, a New York based source said.

A London-based source claimed that “President Kennedy was moving towards an overhaul of US policy, not only in Vietnam, but elsewhere in Asia and Africa”, towards the visionary equalitarian trajectory first suggested by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in his wartime conversations with UK Prime Minister Winston S. Churchill about the imperative of a speedy declaration by Whitehall that India would be given its freedom, an undertaking Churchill declined to give. According to a Washington-based individual contacted for this report, “Kennedy’s confidants were, by mid-March 1963, in contact with some of Ho Chi Minh’s old associates in Paris, and their input had led the US President to come to the conclusion that greater involvement in that particular theatre (as demanded by the military and the foreign policy establishment) would be a quagmire negative to US interests. They claim that Kennedy would have begun the process of withdrawing US forces from Vietnam by early 1964. However, such a move would have been contrary to the plans of the Europhile lobby in Washington and New York, who saw any defiance of their former colonial masters by underdeveloped countries to be a trend needing to be opposed and reversed. The “Shadow Men” of that period came up with the superficial but politically potent “Domino Theory”, which posited that withdrawal from Vietnam would lead to the collapse of US-friendly governments in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and other locations. In fact, it was increased US intervention in Vietnam that led to the takeover of power in Laos and Cambodia by elements of the communist movement hostile to Washington.

Subsequently, by end-1967, both President Lyndon B. Johnson as well as the Democratic Party candidate for the US Presidency, Hubert H. Humphrey had reached the same conclusion as Kennedy earlier had, that increased military involvement in Vietnam was counter-productive to the overall national interest, even though this served the purposes of the Europhile lobby, which sought to place the US in lockstep with European capitals working to retain their traditional dominance over most parts of Asia. The same “Shadow Men”, who handed over concocted and defamatory material on Donald Trump to his Republican Party detractors (who immediately ensured that they were released into the public domain), warned Republican Party Presidential candidate Richard M. Nixon in 1968 that President Johnson was about to announce a peace agreement with Vietnam that would be certain to put Vice-President Humphrey (who agreed with such a policy) into the White House. According to an individual who gave details of the clandestine machinations, Henry A. Kissinger assured the “Shadow Men” that Nixon was committed to pursuing the Vietnam War for “at least five more years” (beginning 1969) , no matter what his public statements were. The source revealed that subsequently, through “Shadow Men” working within the agencies of the US government, “misleading information was fed to the Hanoi channel that President Johnson was not sincere about his peace overture”. Such reports served to bring to zero the credibility of the US and other intermediaries working on a 1968 ceasefire and consequent stalemate concerning commitments from Hanoi. At the same time, the Saigon government was encouraged to resort to refuse any peace agreement, thereby dooming the Johnson-Humphrey initiative. Nixon kept the promise made of carrying on the war for five more years at the cost of substantial Vietnamese and US lives and treasure.

A blizzard of misleading reports and disinformation has thus far prevented full disclosure of the longstanding (and successful) efforts of the “Shadow Men” to twist US policy in this and other instances into directions adverse to the overall interests of the people of the world’s most consequential country. In most such instances, a cover candidate was publicised by the “Shadow Men” as the perpetrator, so as to cover up their own involvement. In Vietnam during the 1960s, that role was cast on Claire Chennault, who “at no stage was a significant player in the secret diplomacy surrounding the war and the aborted peace overture during that period”. She was, according to these sources, “seen with amusement rather than with respect by the Saigon government”. Interestingly, in the final year of his truncated term in office, President Richard M. Nixon himself became wary of those at the top of the investigative and intelligence agencies supposedly working under his direction, but who, in fact, followed a separate agenda that he was increasingly coming to regard as negative to US national interest.

WEAKEN POLITICALLY

During the 2016 US Presidential campaign, the “Shadow Men” accepted the view of the Clinton campaign headquarters (with whom they were in constant contact) that Donald Trump would be a relatively weak candidate against Hillary. Even after Trump secured the Republican Party nomination without the anticipated large-scale revolt by party seniors, the perception within the Clinton campaign was that his personality would deter enough voters from supporting the Republican nominee to give the Democratic candidate control of the White House during 2017-2021. Through contacts in the media and within the Republican Party, there was a steady flow of negative comments and reports about Trump, mainly focused on his personal and business dealings, and it was a shock when he nevertheless bested Hillary Clinton on 8 November. From then onwards, the emphasis shifted to, (a) ensuring that he would not be in office longer than a thousand days; (b) would daily face fire-fights designed to distract his attention from consequential issues; (c) would face opposition from within the Republican Party; and (d) would within a year lose effective control over his Administration to select Cabinet picks through a preoccupation with (political) survival. Between 11 November and 17 December last year, material seen as damaging to Trump was collated and scheduled for release every week thereafter till his Inauguration, so that he would take office already diminished. “The plan was to ensure that his key Cabinet picks saw him as a liability and distanced themselves from him both personally and in policy formulation”, a source claimed, adding that the “steady release into the public space of toxic information about President Trump would continue until this objective was achieved”, and by which time the billionaire who won the 8 November 2016 Presidential race, would be “too weakened politically to carry forward his own agenda” and would therefore have no recourse but to fall back on the policy basket favoured by the “Shadow Men”.

MAKING OF A FAKE DOSSIER

The sources spoken to claimed that the recently outed fake dossier concerning a visit by Donald Trump to St Petersburg and allegations of unsavoury activities in his hotel room there were incorporated into the “1,000-day plan” by the “Shadow Men”. They used a London-based Russian oligarch to both “produce and procure the contrived evidence” through a private security agency in St Petersburg. “The funding for ensuring that Russian prostitutes gave false depositions implicating (President) Trump came from a Russian oligarch based in London, who passes off as pro-Putin, but who, in fact, has had from the 1990s an active relationship with MI6”. They added that such operations—which involve seeking to compromise a VIP through real or morphed images—often involve large sums of money, “as in some cases, a body double may get used to make the prostitute believe that the meeting was with the VIP in question”. In the case of the dossier handed over to the former MI6 contact, “it was never used in business blackmail, as the Trump organisation refused to do a deal with the Moscow-based businesswoman who was a rival of the businessman who funded the making of the dodgy dossier. Hence there was never any cause to sabotage a deal that never took place” through production of the dossier and thereby poisoning relations between the Trump organisaton and its proposed Russian partner. Through a “Shadow Man”, member of a US Senator’s staff, the cleverly-crafted dossier was handed over to the Senator, “who read it for two hours at a stretch”, before making several phone calls and thereafter taking the material to Washington to be given to an investigative agency, as suggested by a “Shadow Man” staff member of his. There are “Shadow Men” on the staffs of several US lawmakers, and often they have control over much of the agenda of the Senator or Representative in question. “Don’t forget that a primary task of the ‘Shadow Men’ will be to ensure that enough Republican Party lawmakers join with those of the Democratic Party to impeach and remove (President) Trump from office before the 1,000-day deadline passes”, the source repeated.

MONEY TRAPS

The assessment of the “Shadow Men” is that the President’s son Eric is “so fully focused on expanding his business that he may be vulnerable to snares in the future”. The sources say that the other son (Donald Jr) and the daughters (Ivanka and Tiffany) are not as immersed into business” as Eric Trump, while Barron is too young. They add that Ivanka Trump “is now much more concerned about social issues than on making more money and has a strong idealistic, even spiritual bent”, although husband Jared “has up to now been as determined not to let a business opportunity pass” as Eric, and hence may be susceptible to what may be termed “money traps” i.e. ethical and legal traps disguised as business opportunities. Those active in the anti-Trump operation “worry that daughter Ivanka and wife Melania are, in their separate ways, very protective of the tycoon”, and hence that “they may discover traps before they can be sprung shut (on a member of the Trump family)”. Incidentally, the assessment is that “from about Week 4 or 5 of his quest for the Republican Party nomination, Donald Trump himself almost totally shifted his focus from business to politics”. According to a New York-based source, the “Shadow Men calculate that from the time he won his party’s nomination, Donald Trump changed focus from making more money to ensuring a place in history through implementation of an innovative and people-friendly agenda”. This “change in outlook has made his susceptibility to money traps much lower”, a source added, claiming that White House Chief of Staff Reince Priebus and Defense Secretary James Mattis “are among Trump appointees who have views almost identical to us”, although both are seen as loyal to the 45th President for the present. The sources say that “the most loyal individual within (President) Trump’s inner circle is Counsellor Kelley Ann Conway, followed by National Security Advisor Michael Flynn”, after of course President Trump’s family, especially First Daughter Ivanka and First Lady Melania.

INTELLIGENCE

Although media reports claim that US intelligence agencies are hostile to the just sworn-in President, “in actual fact most within the middle layers (of these agencies) are supportive of his (Trump’s) views”, with only the politically-connected higher levels signing on to the 1,000-day agenda now in the process of getting implemented. The sources say that the new head of state of the world’s most powerful country “has an astonishing amount of goodwill within the operational levels of the investigative and intelligence agencies”, in contrast to Presidents Kennedy and Nixon. Although they warn that “efforts have begun from day one of the Trump Presidency to portray the Chief Executive as being a divider and a disruptor”. These will move into high gear “only after 200 days of the new administration”. This would “give time for any reserves of goodwill to dissipate, thereby ensuring a better reception within the public for negative depictions” of the new Chief Executive.

WALL STREET ATLANTICIST ALLIANCE

Given the pervasive influence of businesses dependent on China and the Middle East in Washington, a key objective of the “Shadow Men” is to ensure that the Enemy Number One slot remain with Moscow and its allies such as Iran and not migrate to Beijing or to Saudi Arabia. Another is to ensure that the interests of Wall Street and the Atlantic Alliance continue to be given primacy in US policy. The worry of the “Shadow Men” is that a US President “who has yet to be house trained by the bureaucracy the way Barack Obama was in his very first week as President of the United States, and who has over three decades developed strong and consistent views on geopolitics and on economics over decades” of careful cogitation may succeed in shifting US policy away from the Wall Street-Atlanticist embrace that has been the norm since the 1980s. “Trillions of dollars are at stake, so there is nothing to get surprised about that tens of millions have been spent these past months on ensuring that the agenda of the Wall Street-Atlanticist alliance continues to be official US policy”, a source said, adding that President “Trump represents the most potent threat to such interests in two generations”. It may be mentioned that the “Shadow Men” claim credit for “the implosion of the Bernie Sanders bid for the Democratic Party nomination” as the Senator is “in an entirely different way as big a danger (as President Trump) to Business as Usual and Politics as Usual in Washington”. However, the “Shadow Men” could not prevent Donald John Trump from becoming US President, and it is therefore likely that they may similarly fail in their bid to remove him from office within the 1,000-day limit that they have set for themselves.

http://www.sundayguardianlive.com/news/8132-shadow-men-work-remove-president-trump

↧

Viśvakarman, puruṣasūkta; puruṣa signifies totality of existence. History of artisanal Creativity has yet to be narrated.

January 21, 2017, 8:44 pm

≫ Next: Trump’s Declaration of War -- Paul Craig Roberts

≪ Previous: Shadow men work to remove President Trump -- MD Nalapat. A brlliant political report.

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/hoja98x

Viśvakarman is वाचस्--पति [p= 937,2] m. (वाच्/अस्-) " lord of voice or speech " , N. of a divine being (presiding over human life which lasts as long as there is voice in the body ; applied to सोम , विश्व-कर्मन् , प्रजा-पति , ब्रह्मा &c , but esp. to बृहस्-पति , who is lord of eloquence , preceptor of the gods , and regent of the planet Jupiter) RV. AV. &c.

viśvákarman ʻ creating everything ʼ, m. ʻ the divine creator ʼ RV. [víśva -- , kárman -- 1] Pa. vissakamma -- m. ʻ the architect of the gods ʼ, Pk. vissayamma -- m., Si. vissam (< *visyam).(CDIAL 11963) विश्वकर्मा (p. 446) viśvakarmā m (S) The son of Brahmá and the artist of the gods. 2 Applied, appellatively, to an ingenious mechanic or artist. (Marathi)

See: Tvaṣṭṛ, ākhyāna or narration of itihāsa, from the Bronze Age Rigveda, sacred text http://tinyurl.com/gpayut8

विश्वकर्म्मन् पु० विश्वेषु कर्म व्यापारो यस्य । १ सूर्य्ये २ देवशिल्पिनि अमरः । ३ मुनिभेदे मेदि० ४ परमेश्वरे च । https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम्

विश्वकर्म्मा, [न्] पुं, (विश्वेषु कर्म्म यस्य ।) सूर्य्यः । देवशिल्पी । इत्यमरः । तत्पर्य्यायः । त्वष्टा २ विश्वकृत् ३ देववद्धेकिः ४ । इति हेमचन्द्रः ॥ (यथा, महाभारते । १ । २१२ । १० । “दृष्ट्वा च विश्वकर्म्माणं व्यादिदेश पितामहः ॥”) मुनिभेदः । इति मेदिनी । ने, २४७ ॥ स प्रभासस्य वसोः पुत्त्रः । यथा, -- “विश्वकर्म्मा प्रभासस्य पुत्त्रः शिल्पप्रजापतिः ॥ प्रासादभवनोद्यानप्रतिमाभूषणादिषु ।तडागारामकूपेषु स्मृतः सोऽमरवर्द्धकिः ॥” इति मात्स्ये ५ अध्यायः ॥ * ॥ अन्यच्च । “प्रत्यूषस्य विदुः पुत्त्रमृषिं नाम्ना तु देवलम् । विश्वकर्म्मा प्रभासस्य विख्यातो देववर्द्धकिः ॥” इति गारुडे ६ अध्यायः ॥ * ॥ अपि च । “बृहस्पतेस्तु भगिनी वरस्त्री ब्रह्मचारिणी । योगसिद्धा जगत् कृत्स्नमसक्ता विचरत्युत ॥ प्रभासस्य तु भार्य्या सा वसूनामष्टमस्य तु । विश्वकर्म्मा महाभागस्तस्यां जज्ञे महामतिः ॥ कर्त्ता शिल्पसहस्राणां त्रिदशानाञ्च वर्द्धकिः । भूषणानाञ्च सर्व्वेषां कर्त्ता शिल्पवतां वरः ॥ यः सर्व्वेषां विमानानि देवतानां चकार ह । मनुष्याश्चोपजीवन्ति यस्य शिल्पं महात्मनः ॥” इति विष्णुपुराणे १ अंशे १५ अध्यायः ॥ अन्यच्च । “द्वौ प्रोक्तौ विश्वकर्म्माणो मयस्त्वष्टा च योग- वित् ॥ द्वौ धाता च विधाता च पौराणौ जगतः-पती ॥”इति वह्निपुराणे गणभेदो नामाध्यायः ॥ (चेतनाधातुः । तद्विवृतिर्यथा । “तत्र पूर्व्वं चेतनाधातुः सत्त्वकरणो गुणग्रहणाय प्रवर्त्तते । स हि हेतुः कारणं निमित्तमक्षरं कर्त्ता मन्ता वेदिता बोद्धा द्रष्टा धाता ब्रह्मा विश्वकर्म्मा विश्वरूपः पुरुषः प्रभवोऽव्ययो नित्यो गुणी ग्रहणं प्राधान्यमव्यक्तं जीवोज्ञः प्रतुलश्चेतनावान् विभु- र्भूतात्मा चेन्द्रियात्मा चान्तरात्माचेति ।” इति चरके शारीरस्थाने चतुर्थेऽध्याये ॥)

https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/शब्दकल्पद्रुमः

विश्वकर्मन् ह्रविषा वर्धनेन त्रातारमिन्द्रमकृणोरवध्यम् ।
तस्मै विसः समनमन्त पर्वीरयमुग्रो विह्रव्या यथाSसत् ।।YV 17.24।।

Let us invoke to day, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thought swift

Viśvakarman

May he hear kindly all our invocations, who gives all bliss for aid, whose works are righteous.
Taken upon a base art thou.
For Indra Viśvakarman thee.
This is thy home.
For Indra Viśvakarman thee.

With strengthening libation,Viśvakarman, thou madest Indra an undying guardian.

The people of old time bowed down before him because the Mighty One was meet for worship. Taken upon a base, etc.

विश्वकर्मा ह्राजनिष्ट देव आदिद् गन्धर्वो अभवद् द्वितीयः ।
तृतीयः पिता जानितौषधीनामपां गर्भ व्यदधात्पुरूत्रा ।।YV 17.32।।

First was the God engendered, Viśvakarman: then the Gandharva sprang to life as second.

Third in succession was the plants’ begetter: he laid the waters’ germ in many places.

Puruṣasūkta is repeated with some variations in Taittiriya Aranyaka (3.12,13; 10.11), the Vajasaneyi Samhita (31.1-6), the Sama-veda Samhita (6.4), and the Atharva-veda Samhita (19.6). An explanation of parts of it can also be found in the Shatapatha Brahman (13.6.2.1.1), Taittiriya Brahmana, Pancavims'a Brahmana, 
ShvetashvataraUpanishad, Apastamba Shrauta Sutra (16.28.3; 20.20), 
Vrddhaharita Samhita (5.3.86), Baudhayana Dharma Shastra (4.7.5), Mahanarayana Upanishad,13, Mudgalopanishad gives a summary of the entire Purusha Sukta. The significance is elaborated in Bhagavata Purana (2.5.35 to 2.6.1-29) and in Mahabharata (Mokshadharma Parva 351 and 352).

All forms of existence are grounded in this primordial Yajña of the puruṣa.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-NHJffUIIo&index=2&list=RDrZAsD9KnWhM

Uploaded on Oct 16, 2009

English Translation by Ramesh Krishnakumar, to the invocative rendering by Vedic priests

No Vedic Yagna is performed without the chanting of the Purusha Suktha.

Purusha is the source of all creation. The Suktham describes this form of his, as having countless heads, eyes, legs, manifested everywhere, and beyond the scope of any limited method of comprehension. All creation is but a part of him. The Suktham describes the creative process in the universe and the oneness in all.

Sukla Yajurveda references to Viśvakarman

Griffith's translaion RV 10.90 Purusa. 90
1. A THOUSAND heads hath Purusa, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet.
On every side pervading earth he fills a space ten fingers wide.
2 This Purusa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be;
The Lord of Immortality which waxes greater still by food.
3 So mighty is his greatness; yea, greater than this is Purusa.
All creatures are onefourth- of him, threefourths- eternal life in heaven.
4 With threefourths- Purusa went up: onefourth- of him again was here.
Thence he strode out to every side over what cats not and what cats.
5 From him Viraj was born; again Purusa from Viraj was born.
As soon as he was born he spread eastward and westward over the earth.
6 When Gods prepared the sacrifice with Purusa as their offering,
Its oil was spring, the holy gift was autumn; summer was the wood.
7 They balmed as victim on the grass Purusa born in earliest time.
With him the Deities and all Sadhyas and Rsis sacrificed.
8 From that great general sacrifice the dripping fat was gathered up.
He formed the creatures ofthe- air, and animals both wild and tame.
9 From that great general sacrifice Rcas and Samahymns- were born:
Therefrom were spells and charms produced; the Yajus had its birth from it.
10 From it were horses born, from it all cattle with two rows of teeth:
From it were generated kine, from it the goats and sheep were born.
11 When they divided Purusa how many portions did they make?
What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet?
12 The Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made.
His thighs became the Vaisya, from his feet the Sudra was produced.
13 The Moon was gendered from his mind, and from his eye the Sun had birth;
Indra and Agni from his mouth were born, and Vayu from his breath.
14 Forth from his navel came midair- the sky was fashioned from his head
Earth from his feet, and from his car the regions. Thus they formed the worlds.
15 Seven fencingsticks- had he, thrice seven layers of fuel were prepared,
When the Gods, offering sacrifice, bound, as their victim, Purusa.
16 Gods, sacrificing, sacrificed the victim these were the earliest holy ordinances.
The Mighty Ones attained the height of heaven, there where the Sadhyas, Gods of old, are dwelling.

Puruṣasūkta

dvitIya anuvAkam

Verse 1


adbhyassambhoota: prthivyai rasAcca | vishvakarmaNassamavartatAdhi | 
tasya tvaSHTA vidadhadroopameti | tatpuruSHasya vishvamAjAnamagre || 1 ||

(adbhya:) From the waters and from the (rasAt) elemental essence
of (prthivyai) earth (sambhoota:) was the bramhAnda, the
Universe, born. (vishvakarmaNa:) As vishvakarma, the divine
architect, did puruSHa, who is (adhi) more than that Universe, appear
(samavartata). (tvashTA) As tvashTA, the divine smith he
(vidadhat) establishes (tasya roopam) his form, that includes all the
worlds (eti) and manifests it everywhere. (agre) In the beginning
was (tat puruSHasya) that puruSHa's (vishvam) all, his vishva
roopa, (Ajanam) formed.The waters of destruction are again the waters of creation, and from them does the earth reveal itself after praLaya. From these elemental materials is the universe formed, and into these it dissolves. Ashes to ashes, and dust to dust. tvashTA was the smith who forges Indra's vajra, thunderbolt, from the bones of the RSHi dadeechi. Vishvakarma is the divine architect who planned and built, among other cities, Kubera's Alakaapuri and also Lanka, and Indra's city.

From the waters and earth
Does all appear
As a builder he builds,
As a smith he forges it..
He who was all
Before the all was.

Verse 2

vedAhametam puruSHam mahAntam | AdityavarNam tamasas pArastAt |
tamevam vidhvAnamrta iha bhavati | nAnya: panthA vidhyate ayanAya || 2 ||

(etam) That (mahAntam) glorious (AdityavarNam) sun-brilliant
(puruSHam) puruSHa, (astu) who transcends (pArastAt) all
(tamas) darkness, (aham) I (veda:) know him.(vidvAn) Who
knows (tam) Him (evam) in this manner (bhavati) becomes
(amrta:) immortal (iha) in this very birth. (ayaNaya) To moksha,
liberation (na vidhyate) I know not of (anya:) other (panthA:)
paths.This is a re-working of shlokas 16 and 17 in the first lesson, or pratama anuvAka.

I Know Him,
Glorious,
Bright as the Sun,
Beyond all Darkness.
Who knows him thus
Conquers death now.
I know of no other
Ways, than this.

Verse 3

prajApatischarati garbhe anta: | ajAyamAno bahudhA vijAyate |
tasya dheerA: parijAnanti yonim | mareecheenAm padamiccanti vedhasa: || 3 ||

(prajApati:) As prajApati, Lord of his Subjects, he (carati)
lives (anta:) in (garbhe) the womb. (ajAyamAna: ) Unborn,
(vijAyate) he appears (bahudhA) in many ways. (dheerA:) The
steadfast (parijAnanti) know well (tasya) his (yonim) true form.
Even (vedhasa:) the creators, the knowers (iccanti) desire to the
(padam) positions of (mareechenAm) sages like mareechi, who
worship Him.I must go to sAyaNa for commentary on this rather obtuse verse. What is this womb prajApati resides in ? 'bramhAnda roope garbhe anat madhye prajApatir vigrahavAn bhootva carati'. virAt, the shining universe, the female principle that puruSHa gave birth to, which in turn gave birth to puruSHa has now been formed into the bramhAnda, and is compared to a womb, in which prajApati, Lord of his Subjects, puruSHa manifested as a fertility diety invoked in weddings etc., resides. Purusha does not need to be born to manifest himself as all. That process begins before he appears from, in and as virAt. He encompasses satyam, gnyaanam, anantam - truth, knowledge, and infinity. Since he gives birth to all, he is yoni, themouth of the womb. His form is a yoni, from which all is born. 'tasya prajApater yonim jagatkAraNaroopam vAstavam svaroopam'. Who knows this ? 'dheera dhairyavantA yogena drtendriyA mahAtmAno jAnanti' - the brave, the courageous, those who have made their senses steadfast in yoga, those great ones know this truth. Such is the compulsion of this truth that even the srshtikartA-s of this world, those that puruSHa has manifested himself as in order to create, desire nothing but to worship him as 'tam eva upAsya mareeceenAm mareecyatri-pramukhAnAm' - the sage mareeci, and sages led by mareeci, atri (among the seven RSHis) - as these sages do.

Birthing this word
Himself Unborn
He is known by those
Who yoked their senses..
And even the knowers
Of this world and more
Desire but to adore Him.

Verse 4

yo devebhya Atapati | yo devAnAm purohita: |
poorvo yo devebhyo jAta: | namo rucAya brAhmaye || 4 ||

(nama:) We salute (ya:) who (Atapati) shines as divinity in
(devebhya:) in the Gods, (ya:) who is (purohita:) Brhaspati, priest
to (devAnAm) the Gods, (ya:) who was (jAta:) born (poorva:)
before (devebhya:) the Gods, (rucAya) who brilliant in himself,
(brahmaye) is the parabramham, the supreme all.puruSHa was, 'hiraNyagarbha: samavartatAgre' - before the golden shining womb of all, virAt, was established. He is first of all the Gods, their priest, their guide to immortality, and the essence of their divinity. verily is he worthy of our salutations. This is one answer to the question "kasmai devAya havitA vidhema?" - Which God shall we worship by our offerings ?

Who burns, fire-bright
In the Gods, who is their priest,
Eldest, who is the Essence,
Of what Is,
We worship Him.

Verse 5

rucam brAmham janayanta: | deva agre tadabruvan |
yastvaivam brAhmaNo vidhyAt | tasya deva asan vashe || 5 ||

(deva) The Gods, who (janayanta) send forth the (rucam
brAhmam) essence of the knowledge of Brahman (abruvan) said
this (tat) about that Brahman (agre) in the Beginning : " (yastu)
whoever (brAhmaNa:) has an inclination towards Brahman, if he
(vidhyAt) knows Brahman (evam) thus, (devA:) the Gods (asan)
will be (tasya) in his (vashe) control. "The Gods taste of Brahman.. This "rucam brAmham" is yet another food metaphor for the joining, or the union of the seeker and the sought. Even as he who eats food tastes it, so shall you taste Brahman, and enjoy him. The Gods are in the Brahma- Vidyaa-Sampradaaya, and they are our teachers, our gurus too. They declare this in the beginning, as a sort of 'phalashruti', or list of fruits of knowing the puruSHa thus : Who, with heart steadfast on the puruSHa knows him thus, him even we will serve. Compare the Taittiriya Upanishad, that talks about he who knows Brahman - 'sarve asmai devA balim-Aharanti' - All the Gods bring him offerings.

The Gods who taste
Him, and spread the word
Said this, in the beginning
``Who with his heart
Knows Him, thus,
Him even We will be bound by.''

Verse 6

hreeshca te lakshmeeshca patnyau | ahorAtre pArshve |
nakshatrANi roopam | ashvinau vyAttam |

iSHTam maniSHANa |
amum maniSHANa | 
sarvam maniSHANA ||

(hreeshca) Hree and (lakshmishca) Laskhmi are (patnyau) wives (te)
to you. (aho - rAtre) The day and the night (pArshve) your sides.
(nakshatrANi) the Stars (roopam) your brilliant form. (ashvinau)
the Healing Ashvins (vyAttam) your mouth

(maniSHANa) Grant us (iSHTam) the knowledge that we desire,
(maniSHANa) grant us (amum) happiness in this world,
(maniSHANa) grant us (sarvam) all that is, now and foreverHree is the Goddess that grants Modesty, and Lakshmi she who grants Wealth. ( hreer-lajjAbhimAninee devata , lakshmee- raishvayAbhimAninee devatA - iti sAyaNA) The Day and the Night are even such opposites. Sriman Narayana is the conciliation of all such opposites, even as Sesha, the snake, and garuda, the eagle, worshipping him together signify. He is brilliant as the stars, and healing comes from him.
Asking him to grant as iSHTam, amum, sarvam, is an analogue to asking for sat, Ananda, and chit. All we ask is to know Him.

Hree and Lakshmi
Are your consorts, your
Two sides, Day and Night,
The stars your form,
Healing your words.

Grant us
Our desires,
Our joys,
Your all.

Concluding Invocation


The Purusha Sooktam closes, as it began, with that unique and wonderful invocation to peace. In peace all begins, and in peace all ends. All we work for is so peace may flourish.


[Note: The following is not part of the Purusha Sukta proper. However, it is often chanted at the end and is found in many printed editions.]

tacchamyo-rAvrNeemahe | gAtum yagnyAya |
gAtum yagnyapataye | daivee: svastirastu na: |
svasti mAnushebhya: | oordhvam jigAtu bheSHajam |
sham no astu dvipade | sham chatushpade |
om shAnti: shAnti: shAnti: ||

(AvrNeemahe) We seek (tat) that which (chamyo) gives us peace from sorrows, present and future. We seek (gAtum) growth (yagnyAya) for the rite of sacrifice and (gAtum) growth for (yagnyapataye) patron of the rite, the yajamAna. (daivee: svasti) The grace of the Gods (astu) be (na:) unto us. (svasti) Well being (mAnushebhya:) to all mankind. (bheshajam) May plants, like medicinal herbs (jigAtu) flourish and grow (oordhvam) upwards. (sham) Good (na: astu ) come unto us from (dvipade) creatures that go on two feet (sham) and good from (chatuSHpade) those that go on four feet. (shAnti:) Peace.
Sorrows that are, and sorrows to be We seek that which grants us Peace from these May the rite flourish, And those who keep it.. The grace of the gods Be with all mankind.. May the earth be covered With growing green And good come to us From all creation From beings that go On two feet and four.. May the three-fold peace Embrace the Land..http://www.ramanuja.org/purusha/sukta-6.html

The Yajur Vedins recite six more mantras dealing with the 
Purusha found in TA (3.13) as a continuation of the Purusha Sukta.

Taittiriya recension of Krishna Yajur Veda 

The Taittiriya Aranyaka TA (3.12) has 18 mantras on Purusha; it 
has all the 16 mantras in RV. Moreover the order of the presentation 
of the mantras in TA (3.12) is different from that in RV. The mantras 
TA (3.12.16) and TA (3.12.17) are not in RV. TA (3.12.16) is also in 
Shvetashvatara U.

Shukla Yajur Veda (madhyandina) Vajasaneya Samhita (VS) 

VS has in all 40 adhyayas or chapters. The chapter 31, VS (31) 
dealing with Purusha has 22 mantras. 

The first 16 mantras of VS (31.1-16) are almost same as 16 
mantras of RV, except for the ordering; there could be minor 
variations in a small number of words. The major difference is in VS 
(31.12). The first half is same as RV (10.90. 13), but the second half is 
quite different namely shrotrat vayuh cha pranah cha mukhyat agnir 
ajayata '. 

VS (31) does not have the mantras TA (3.12.16) and TA (3.12.17) 
mantras found in RV (10.90) and two more. 

The remaining 6 mantras in VS(3l) namely (17-22) are same as 
there in TA (3.13), the so-called Uttaranarayana anuvaka

yvs.1	This Viśvakarman.
yvs.8	45 Let us invoke to day, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thought swift Viśvakarman.
yvs.8	For Indra Viśvakarman thee.
yvs.8	For Indra Viśvakarman thee.
yvs.8	46 With strengthening libation, Viśvakarman, thou madest Indra an undying guardian.
yvs.8	Viśvakarman in Consecration.
yvs.13	Thy light bestowing head to heaven thou liftest, making thy tongue the oblation bearer, Agni! 16 Steady art thou, sustainer, laid by Viśvakarman in thy place.
yvs.13	The Rishi Viśvakarman.
yvs.13	By thee, taken by Viśvakarman, I take Speech for people.
yvs.14	Wave and drop of waters art thou; and Viśvakarman is thy Rishi.
yvs.14	Viśvakarman is vital vigour, Parameshthin the metre.
yvs.14	12 On the air s back let Viśvakarman set thee, thee the capacious, thee the far extended.
yvs.14	14 On the air s back may Viśvakarman set thee luminous.
yvs.17	18 What was the place whereon he took his station? What was it that upheld him? What the manner, Whence Viśvakarman, seeing all, producing the earth, with mighty power disclosed the heavens?
yvs.17	21 Thine highest, lowest sacrificial natures, and these thy midmost here, O Viśvakarman, Teach thou thy friends at sacrifice, O Blessed, and come thy self, exalted, to our worship. 22 Bring those, thyself exalted with oblation, O Viśvakarman, Earth and Heaven to worship. Let enemies around us live in folly: here let us have a rich and liberal patron.
yvs.17	26 Mighty in mind and power is Viśvakarman, Maker, Disposer, and most lofty Presence.
yvs.17	32 First was the God engendered, Viśvakarman: then the Gandharva sprang to life as second.
yvs.17	78 I dedicate the thought with mind and butter so that the Gods may come who love oblation, strengthing Law, To Viśvakarman, Lord of all the earth, I offer up day after day the inviolable sacrifice.
yvs.18	65 There where all never failing streams of honey and of butter flow, May Agni, Viśvakarman's own, place us in heaven among the Gods.
yvs.24	17 Called contemporaneous, the dappled belonging to Indra Agni; those with projecting horns to Mahendra; the many coloured to Viśvakarman.
yvs.31	17 In the beginning he was formed, collected from waters, earth, and Viśvakarman's essence.

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center January 22, 2017

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Trump’s Declaration of War -- Paul Craig Roberts

January 21, 2017, 11:51 pm

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≪ Previous: Viśvakarman, puruṣasūkta; puruṣa signifies totality of existence. History of artisanal Creativity has yet to be narrated.

January 20, 2017 | Trump’s Declaration of War

Paul Craig Roberts

President Trump’s brief inaugural speech was a declaration of war against the entirety of the American Ruling Establishment. All of it.

Trump made it abundantly clear that Americans’ enemies are right here at home: globalists, neoliberal economists, neoconservatives and other unilateralists accustomed to imposing the US on the world and involving us in endless and expensive wars, politicians who serve the Ruling Establishment rather than the American people, indeed, the entire canopy of private interests that have run America into the ground while getting rich in the process.

If truth can be said, President Trump has declared a war far more dangerous to himself than if he had declared war against Russia or China.

The interest groups designated by Trump as The Enemy are well entrenched and accustomed to being in charge. Their powerful networks are still in place. Although there are Republican majorities in the House and Senate, most of those in Congress are answerable to the ruling interest groups that provide their campaign funds and not to the American people or to the President. The military/security complex, offshoring corporations, Wall Street and the banks are not going to roll over for Trump. And neither is the presstitute media, which is owned by the interest groups whose power Trump challenges.

Trump made it clear that he stands for every American, black, brown, and white. Little doubt his declaration of inclusiveness will be ignored by the haters on the left who will continue to call him a racist just as the $50 per hour paid protesters are doing as I write.

Indeed, black leadership, for example, is enculturated into the victimization role from which it would be hard for them to escape. How do you pull together people who all their lives have been taught that whites are racists and that they are the victims of racists?

Can it be done? I was just on a program briefly with Press TV in which we were supposed to provide analysis of Trump’s inaugural speech. The other commentator was a black American in Washington, DC. Trump’s inclusiveness speech made no impression on him, and the show host was only interested in showing the hired protesters as a way of discrediting America. So many people have an economic interest in speaking in behalf of victims that inclusiveness puts them out of jobs and causes.

So along with the globalists, the CIA, the offshoring corporations, the armaments industries, the NATO establishment in Europe, and foreign politicians accustomed to being well paid for supporting Washington’s interventionist foreign policy, Trump will have arrayed against him the leaders of the victimized peoples, the blacks, the hispanics, the feminists, the illegals, the homosexuals and transgendered. This long list, of course, includes the white liberals as well, as they are convinced that flyover America is the habitat of white racists, misogynists, homophobes, and gun nuts. As far as they are concerned, this 84% of geographical US should be quarantined or interred.

In other words, does enough good will remain in the population to enable a President to unite the 16% America haters with the 84% America lovers? http://brilliantmaps.com/2016-county-election-map/

Consider the forces that Trump has against him:

Black and hispanic leaders need victimization, because it is what elevates them to power and income. They will turn a jaundiced eye toward Trump’s inclusiveness. Inclusiveness is good for blacks and hispanics, but not for their leaders.

The executives and shareholders of global corporations are enriched by the offshored jobs that Trump says he will bring home. If the jobs come home, their profits, performance bonuses, and capital gains will go away. But the economic security of the American population will return.

The military/security complex has a 1,000 billion annual budget dependent on “the Russian threat” that Trump says he is going to replace with normalized relations. Trump’s assassination cannot be ruled out.

Many Europeans owe their prestige, power, and incomes to the NATO that Trump has called into question.

The financial sector’s profits almost entirely flow from putting Americans into debt bondage and from looting their private and public pensions. The financial sector with their agent, the Federal Reserve, can overwhelm Trump with financial crisis. The New York Federal Reserve Bank has a complete trading desk. It can send any market into turmoil. Or support any market, because there is no limit on its ability to create US dollars.

The entire political edifice in the US has insulated itself from the will, desires, and needs of the people. Now Trump says the politicians will be accountable to the people. This, of course, would mean a big drop in their security in office and in their income and wealth.

There are a large number of groups, funded by we-know-not-who. For example, RootsAction has responded today to Trump’s forceful commitment to stand for all of the people against the Ruling Establishment with a request to “ask Congress to direct the House Judiciary Committee to open an impeachment investigation” and to send money for Trump’s impeachment.

Another hate group, human rights first, attacks Trump’s defense of our borders as closing “a refuge of hope for those fleeing persecution.” Think about this for a minute. According to the liberal-progressive-left and the racial interest group organizations, the US is a racist society and President Trump is a racist. Yet, people subject to American racism are fleeing from persecution to America where they will be racially persecuted? It doesn’t make sense. The illegals come here for work. Ask the construction companies. Ask the chicken and animal slaughter houses. Ask the vacation area cleaning services.

This list of those on whom Trump has declared war is long enough, although there are more that can be added.

We should ask ourselves why a 70 year old billionaire with flourishing businesses, a beautiful wife, and intelligent children is willing to give his final years to the extraordinary stress of being President with the stressful agenda of putting the government back in the hands of the American people. There is no doubt that Trump has made himself a target of assassination. The CIA is not going to give up and go away. Why would a person take on the grand restoration of America that Trump has declared when he could instead spend his remaining years enjoying himself immensely?

Whatever the reason, we should be grateful for it, and if he is sincere we must support him. If he is assassinated, we need to take up our weapons, burn Langley to the ground and kill every one of them.

If he succeeds, he deserves the designation: Trump the Great!

Russia, China, Iran, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, and any other country on the CIA’s hit list should undersand that Trump’s rise is insufficient protection. The CIA is a worldwide organization. Its profitable businesses provide income independent of the US budget. The organization is capable of undertaking operations independently of the President or even of its own Director.

The CIA has had about 70 years to entrench itself. It has not gone away

Dr. Paul Craig Roberts was Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Economic Policy and associate editor of the Wall Street Journal. He was columnist for Business Week, Scripps Howard News Service, and Creators Syndicate. He has had many university appointments. His internet columns have attracted a worldwide following. Roberts' latest books are The Failure of Laissez Faire Capitalism and Economic Dissolution of the West, How America Was Lost, and The Neoconservative Threat to World Order. http://www.paulcraigroberts.org/2017/01/20/trumps-declaration-war/

↧

त्वष्टृ Tvaṣṭṛ 'the heavenly builder' should have been a Divinity Meluhha, he mispronounces इन्द्र-शत्रु indraśatru

January 22, 2017, 5:13 am

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/h778h3s

This monograph argues that त्वष्टृ Tvaṣṭṛ 'the heavenly builder' is a Divinity who is a Meluhha because he mispronounces the expression: इन्द्र-शत्रु indraśatru.

Meluhha is cognate mleccha. Mleccha were island-dwellers (attested in Mahabharata and other ancientIndian sprachbund texts). Their speech did not conform to the rules of grammar (mlecchāḥ mā bhūma iti adhyeyam
vyākaraṇam) and had dialectical variants or unrefined sounds in words (mlecchitavai na apabhāṣitavai) (Patañjali: Mahābhāṣya). Patañjali also refers to a specific instance of mispronunciation of the expression इन्द्र-शत्रु indraśatru which occurs in RV 1.32.6 with semantics, 'Indra's foe'.

RV 1.32.6 He, like a mad weak warrior, challenged Indra, the great impetuous manyslaying- Hero. He, brooking not the clashing of the weapons, crushed, Indras' foe, the shattered forts in falling.

त्वष्टिः f. Carpentry. -m. N. of a mixed tribe (?). त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ) AV. xii , 3 , 33; "creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/इ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम्अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/अ-रूप &c RV. ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x Hariv. 12146 f. R. ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns RV. AV. &c MBh. iv , 1178 Hariv. 587 ff. Ragh. vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ ,

सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम्प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i

Ka1tyS3r. iii ; supposed author of RV. x , 184 with the epithet गर्भ-पति RAnukr. ; father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv. ; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत्

[or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv. 545 ff. VP. ; also father of त्रि-शिरस् or विश्वरूप ib. ; overpowered by इन्द्र who recovers the सोम [ RV. iii f. ] concealed by him because इन्द्र had killed his son विश्व-रूप TS. ii S3Br. i , v , xii ; regent of the नक्षत्र चित्रा TBr. S3a1n3khGr2.

S3a1ntik. VarBr2S. iic , 4 ; of the 5th cycle of Jupiter viii , 23 ; of an eclipse iii , 6 ; त्वष्टुर्आतिथ्य N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. )"Tvashta", who was not well disposed towards Indra, for some reason wanted a son capable of killing Indra. So he performed a Homa [fire-sacrifice] chanting a mantra:'Indrassatrur vardhasva' . As a result of an error in pronunciation , the meaning got topsyturvy and the result was just contrary to what "Tvashta" wanted. His son was killed by Indra.

Written by Sri Swami Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

You must not go wrong either in the enunciation or intonation of a mantra. If you do, not only will you not gain the expected benefits from it, the result might well be contrary to what is intended. So the mantras must be chanted with the utmost care. There is a story told in the Taittiriya Samhita (2.4.12) to underline this. Tvasta wanted to take revenge on Indra for some reason and conducted a sacrifice to beget a son who would slay Indra. When he chanted his mantra, "Indrasatrur varddhasva ", he went wrong in the intonation. He should have voiced "Indra" without raising or lowering the syllables in it and he should have raised the syllables "tru" and "rddha"(that is the two syllables are "udata"). Had he done so the mantra would have meant, "May Tvasta's son grow to be the slayer of Indra". He raised the "dra" in Indra, intoned "satru" as a falling svara and lowered the "rddha" in "varddhasva". So the mantra meant now: "May Indra grow to be the killer of this son (of mine)". The words of the mantra were not changed but, because of the erratic intonation, the result produced was the opposite of what was desired. The father himself thus became the cause of his son's death at the hands of Indra. The gist of this story is contained in this verse which cautions us against erroneous intonation.

Mantrohinah svarato varnato va Mithya prayukto na tamarthamaha Sa vagvajro yajamanam hinasti Yathendrasatruh svarato' paradhat

What was the weapon with which Tvasta’s son was killed? Not Indra's thunderbolt but the father's wrongly chanted mantra.

http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part6/chap9.htm (p.362)

Tvasta wanted to take revenge on Indra for some reason and conducted a sacrifice to beget a son who would slay Indra. When he chanted his mantra,"Indrasatrur varddhasva. . ", he went wrong in the intonation. He should have voiced "Indra" without raising or lowering the syllables in it and he should have raised the syllables "tru" and "rddha"(that is the two syllables are "udata"). Had he done so the mantra would have meant, "May Tvasta's son grow to be the slayer of Indra". He raised the "dra" in Indra, intoned "satru" as a falling svara and lowered the "rddha" in "varddhasva". So the mantra meant now: "May Indra grow to be the killer of this son (of mine)". The words of the mantra were not changed but, because of the erratic intonation, the result produced was the opposite of what was desired. The father himself thus became the cause of his son's death at the hands of Indra.

The gist of this story is contained in this verse which cautions us against erroneous intonation.

If the mantra differs by intonation, letter or another way while chanting, that mantra will become VajrAyudham(thunderbolt) and torment the YajamAnan(performer of sacrifice) who chants the mantra, just as the wrong recital of the 'indrashatru' phrase did.

What was the weapon with which Tvasta 's son was killed? Not Indra's thunderbolt but the father's wrongly chanted mantra.

http://blog.livingspark.net/2010/01/intention-or-intonation.html

Taittiriya Samhita 2.4.12

Vritra enveloped these worlds. Indra feared him. Tvastri dipped his bolt for him; the bolt was fervour; he could not restrain it.
Vritra is the belly; hunger is man's enemy; he who knows this, slays the enemy hunger.

Keith, Arthur Berriedale, tr: The Veda of the Black Yajus School: Entitled Taittiriya Sanhita. Vols. 1 and 2. Cambridge MA: The Harvard University Press, 1914.

ii. 4. 12.

Tvastr, his son slain, offered Soma excluding Indra.
Indra desired an invitation to the rite, but he did not invite him, (saying), Thou hast slain my son.
He made a disturbance of the sacrifice, and forcibly drank the Soma.
The remains of it Tvastr cast upon the Ahavaniya (fire), saying, Hail! wax great, Indra s foe.
While (the fire) was flaming upwards to strike, just then of itself it stayed; whether so much was before [1], or so much was over the fire, be sprang up alive and came into union with Agni and Soma.
He grew on all sides an arrow(shot), he enveloped these worlds.
Because he enveloped these worlds, therefore is Vrtra, Vrtra.
Indra feared him, and Tvastr too; Tvastr dipped his bolt for him; the bolt was fervour; he could not restrain it.
Visnu [2] was another god; he said, Visnu, come hither; we will grasp that by which he is this world.
Visnu deposited himself in three places, a third on the earth, a third in the atmosphere, a third in the sky, for he was afraid of his growth.
By means of the third on earth Indra raised his bolt, aided by Visnu.
He said, Hurl it not at me; there is this [3] strength in me; I will give it to you.
He gave it to him, he accepted it, and (saying), Thou didst further me gave it to Visnu.
Visnu accepted it (saying), Let Indra place power (indriya) in us.
By means of the third in the atmosphere Indra raised his bolt, aided by Visnu.
He said, Hurl it not at me; there is this [4] strength in me; I will give it to you.
He gav it to him; he accepted it, and (saying), Twice hast thou furthered me gave it to Visnu.
Visnu accepted it (saying), Let Indra place power in us.
By means of the third in the sky Indra raised his bolt, aided by Visnu.
He said, Hurl it not at me; I will give to thee that by which I [5] am this world! He said, Yes.
(He replied), Let us make a compact; let me enter thee.
If thou dost enter me, in what way wilt thou enjoy me? I will kindle thee; I will enter thee for thine enjoyment he answered.
Vrtra entered him.
Vrtra is the belly; hunger is man s enemy; he who [6] knows this slays the enemy hunger.
He gave it to him; he accepted it, and (saying), Thrice hast thou furthered me gave it to Visnu.
Visnu accepted it (saying), Let Indra place power in us.
In that thrice he gave and thrice he accepted, that is the reason of the threefold character of the threefold.
In that Visnu aided him and he gave (it) to Visnu, therefore the offering belongs to Indra and Visnu.
Whatever there is here he gave to him, the Rcas, the Samans, the Yajuses.
A thousand he gave to him; therefore there are a thousand gifts.

On “Indrasatrur varddhasva” as faulty utterance, Patañjali's Mahābhāshya pradIpa for paspaśāhnika says it is "indrashatrurvardhasva". The tippaNI says its in Śatapatha 1/6/3.


The following is the relevant portion from pradIpa:


"tatra indrasya shamayitA shAtayitA vA bhava - iti kriyAshabdo atra shatrushabda AshritaH, tadAshrayaNe hi bahuvrIhitatpuruShayoH arthabhedaH. tatra indra-amitratve siddhe sati 'indrasya shatrurbhava' ityatrArthe pratipAdye antodAtte prayoktavye, AdyudAttaH R^itvijA prayuktaH iti - arthAntarAbhi dhAnAt indra eva vR^itrasya shAtayitA saMpannaH."


... indra-shatrur vardhasva (Note indra-shatru in prathamA and vardhasva as in "grow")

The pradIpa says:


In this matter, 'become the quencher or slayer of indra', that is the verb basis of this 'shatru'-word, and it is for that reason that the bahuvrIhi and tatpurushha compounds have different meanings. Given that the enmity to indra is beyond doubt, while wanting to signify that '(grow to) become the slayer of indra', where an udAtta final accent should have been used; the priest used an initial udAtta accent. So - because it carried the other meaning, it was indra that came to be the slayer of vR^itra.

indrḥ इन्द्रः [इन्द्-रन्; इन्दतीति इन्द्रः; इदि ऐश्वर्ये Malli.] 1 The lord of gods.  -शत्रुः 1 an enemy or destroyer of Indra (when the accent is on the last syllable), an epithet of प्रह्लाद; इन्द्रशत्रो विवर्धस्व मा चिरं जहि विद्विषम् Bhāg.6.9.12. बलिप्रदिष्टां श्रियमाददानं त्रैविक्रमं पादमिवेन्द्रशत्रुः R.7.35. -2 [इन्द्रः शत्रुः यस्य] one whose enemy is Indra, an epithet of वृत्र (when the accent is on the first syllable). (This refers to a legend in the Śat. Br., where it is said that Vṛitra's father intended his son to become the destroyer of Indra, and asked him to say इन्द्रशत्रुर्वधस्व &c. but who, through mistake, accented the word on the first syllable, and was killed by Indra; cf. Śikṣā.52; मन्त्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतो$पराधात् ॥ (Apte, p. 386)

इन्द्र--शत्रु [p= 167,1] mfn. (/इन्द्र°) one whose enemy or conqueror is इन्द्र , conquered by इन्द्र RV. i , 32 , 6 TS. S3Br.; m. " इन्द्र's enemy (in this sense the accent is इन्द्र-शत्र्/उ cf. Introd. p. xviii)" , N. of प्रह्लाद Ragh. vii , 32 BhP. vi , 9 , 11 (with both the meanings) (Monier-Williams).

Tvashta was performing a sacrifice to produce a person (or device) capable of killing Indra (in revenge of Indra killing his son). Accordingly 'indrashatruH vardhasva' is a sacrificial pronouncement. The sacrifice was creating indrashatru (device) or indrashatruH (this is more correct since the outcome was vrittra). So Tvashta is just pronouncing 'tvaM vardhasva' or the equivalent 'indrashatruH vardhasva' ='(tvaM) indrashatruH vardhasva' .(also 'v^Ridh' is used only in Atmanepada but with exception can be used as Parasmaipada in the madhyama future, aorist, conditional and desiderative.)

https://www.mail-archive.com/sanskrit@cs.utah.edu/msg00348.html

A quote from H.H. Hock (Hans Henrich Hock, A critical examination of some early Sanskrit, in: Bela Brogyanyi, Reiner Lipp, 1993, Comparative-historical

Linguistics: Indo-European and Finno-Ugric, John Benjamins Publishing, p.222).

Note that Hock correctly notes that त्वष्टृ Tvaṣṭṛ who mispronounces,

is a Divnity -- deva -- and not an Asura:

Excerpts from Eggeling's translation of SBr. 1.6.3:

THIRD BRÂHMANA.

1:6:3:1 1. Tvashtri had a three-headed, six-eyed son. He had three mouths; and because he was thus shaped, his name was Visvarûpa ('All-shape').

1:6:3:2 2. One of his mouths was Soma-drinking, one spirit-drinking, and one for other kinds of food. Indra hated him and cut off those heads of his.

1:6:3:3 3. Now from the one which was Soma-drinking, a hazel-cock (francoline partridge) sprang forth; whence the latter is of brownish colour, for king Soma is brown.

1:6:3:4 4. From the one which was spirit-drinking, further, a sparrow sprang; whence the latter talks as if stammering, for he who has drunk spirits, talks as if he stammered.

1:6:3:5 5. Then from the one which served for other kinds of food, a partridge sprang; whence the latter is much variegated in colour: on its wings, namely, butter-drops, as it were, have dropped in one place and honey- (or mead-) drops in another, for suchlike, as it were, was the food which he consumed with that (mouth).

1:6:3:6 6. Tvashtri was furious: 'Has he indeed slain my son?' he exclaimed. He brought Soma-juice from which Indra was excluded; and just as the Soma-juice on being produced had Indra excluded from it (apendra), so it remained (when it was offered up).

1:6:3:7 7. Indra thought with himself, 'They are now excluding me from Soma!' and though uninvited, he consumed what pure (Soma) there was in the tub, even as the stronger (consumes) that of a weaker. That (Soma) however, injured him; it flowed in all directions from (the openings of) his vital airs; from his mouth alone it did not flow, but from all the other (openings of the) vital airs it flowed; hence (was instituted) at that time the ishti, called Sautrâmanî: on the occasion of that (ceremony) it is explained how the gods healed him 1.

1:6:3:8 8. Tvashtri was furious, and exclaimed, 'Has he indeed consumed my Soma uninvited?' However, he himself desecrated the sacrifice, for what pure (Soma) there was left in the tub he let flow (into the fire), saying, 'Grow thou, having Indra for thy foe 2!' The moment it reached the fire, it developed (into human shape), or, as some say, it so developed whilst on its way (to the fire). It became possessed of 1 Agni and Soma, of all sciences, all glory, all nourishment, all prosperity.

1:6:3:9 9. And since it so developed whilst rolling onwards (vrit), it became Vritra; and since he sprang forth footless, therefore he was a serpent. Danu and Danâyû received him like mother and father 2, whence they call him Dânava.

1:6:3:10 10. And because he (Tvashtri) said, 'Grow thou, having Indra for thy foe!' therefore Indra slew him (Vritra). Had he said, 'Grow thou, the foe (slayer) of Indra!' he (Vritra) would certainly have forthwith slain Indra.

1:6:3:11 11. And because he (Tvashtri) said, 'Grow thou!' therefore he (Vritra) grew an arrow's range sideways and an arrow's range forward: he forced back both the western ocean and the eastern one; and in proportion as he extended did he devour the food.

1:6:3:12 12. In the fore-noon the gods offered him food, at mid-day the men, and in the after-noon the Fathers.

1:6:3:1313. Now while Indra was thus moving on (in pursuit of Vritra), he addressed Agni and Soma, 'Ye belong to me and I belong to you! That one is nothing to you: why then do ye support that Dasyu against me? Come over to me!'

1:6:3:14 14. They replied, 'What is to be our reward in that case?' He offered them that Agni-Soma cake on eleven potsherds: this is the reason why there is a cake on eleven potsherds for Agni and Soma.

1:6:3:15 15. They went over to him, and after them went forth 1 all the gods, all the sciences, all glory, all nourishment, all prosperity: thus by offering that (cake to Agni and Soma) Indra became what Indra now is. Such then is the significance of the full-moon offering; and he who, knowing this, performs the full-moon offering in this wise, attains to the same state of prosperity, becomes thus endowed with glory, becomes such a consumer of food (as Vritra).

1:6:3:16 16. Now Vritra, on being struck, lay contracted like a leather bottle drained of its contents, like a skin bag with the barley-meal shaken out. Indra rushed at him, meaning to slay him.

1:6:3:17 17. He said, 'Do not hurl (thy thunderbolt) at me! thou art now what I (was before) Only cut me in twain; but do not let me be annihilated!' He (Indra) said, 'Thou shalt be my food!' He replied, 'So be it!' He accordingly cut him in twain; and from that (part) of his which was of the Soma nature 2, he made the moon, and that which was demoniacal (asurya) he made enter these creatures as their belly; hence people say 3: 'Vritra was then a consumer of food, and Vritra is so now.' For even now, whenever that one (the moon) waxes fuller, it fills itself out of this world 4; and whenever these creatures crave for food, they pay tribute to this Vritra, the belly. Whosoever knows that Vritra as a consumer of food, becomes himself a consumer of food.

http://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe12/sbe1228.htm

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

January 22, 2017

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Itihāsa pariplava darśana narratives in Aśvamedha, mission of sovereignty, wealth acquisition

January 22, 2017, 8:45 pm

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Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa details the activities of 36 ten-day cycles of aśvamedha yajña performance.

This shows that the specified yajña is conducted round-the-year.

The suffix -medhā in the expression signifies 'dhanam, wealth'. मेधा f. mental vigour or power , intelligence , prudence , wisdom (pl. products of intelligence , thoughts , opinions) RV. &c; = धन Naigh. ii , 10 (Monier-Williams).

Aśvamedha, is an ancient, recurrent, cyclical mission of sovereignty, wealth creation/acquisition, reiteration of a dharma social order.

Dayananda Sarasvati considers this to be an allegory connected to the "inner Sun", Prāṇa. "As a bahuvrihi, saptāśva "having seven horses" is another name of the Sun, referring to the horses of his chariot... glosses 'ashva' as "the symbol of mobility, valour and strength" and 'medha' as "the symbol of supreme wisdom and intelligence", yielding a meaning of 'ashvamedha' of "the combination of the valour and strength and illumined power of intellect."

[quote]The earliest recorded criticism of the ritual comes from the Cārvāka, an atheistic school of Indian philosophy that assumed various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. A quotation of the Cārvāka from Madhavacharya's Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha states: "The three authors of the Vedas were buffoons, knaves, and demons. All the well-known formulae of the pandits, jarphari, turphari, etc. and all the obscene rites for the queen commanded in Aswamedha, these were invented by buffoons, and so all the various kinds of presents to the priests, while the eating of flesh was similarly commanded by night-prowling demons." (Madhavacarya, Sarvadarsana-sangraha, English translation by E. B. Cowell and A. E. Gough, 1904 quoted in Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (ed.), Carvaka/Lokayata: An Anthology of Source Materials and Some Recent Studies (New Delhi: Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 1990.)[unquote]

"According to Dayananda, no horse was actually to be slaughtered in the ritual as per the Yajurveda. Following Dayananda, the Arya Samaj disputes the very existence of the pre-Vedantic ritual; thus Swami Satya Prakash Saraswati claims that

the word in the sense of the Horse Sacrifice does not occur in the Samhitas [...] In the terms of cosmic analogy, ashva s the Sun. In respect to the adhyatma paksha, the Prajapati-Agni, or the Purusha, the Creator, is the Ashva; He is the same as the Varuna, the Most Supreme. The word medha stands for homage; it later on became synonymous with oblations in rituology, since oblations are offered, dedicated to the one whom we pay homage. The word deteriorated further when it came to mean 'slaughter' or 'sacrifice'.

He argues that the animals listed as sacrificial victims are just as symbolic as the list of human victims listed in the Purushamedha. (which is generally accepted as a purely symbolic sacrifice already in Rigvedic times)." (The Critical and Cultural Study of the Shatapatha Brahmana by Swami Satya Prakash Saraswati, p. 415; 476). loc.cit. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashvamedha

The expression aśvamedha yajña is a metaphor for the reiteration of the sovereignty of the state. This is clarified in the detailed account of the narratives presented on each-day of the ten-day cycle (36 such ten-day cycles are held in a year) of Rajarshi, the philosopher-kings' valour, the battles they fought and won in ancient times. It is a declaration of undisputed sovereignty. A horse accompanied by the king's warriors is released to wander for a period of one year. In the territory traversed by the horse, any rival could dispute the king's authority by challenging the warriors accompanying it.

The narration of itihāsa by Adhvaryu is called pariplava'revolving, recurrent, or cyclic legend,' so called because it is renewed every ten days during the year.

An Aśvamedha coin of Kumaragupta, who performed the sacrifice in 5th century CE

A 19th century painting, depicting the preparation of army to follow the sacrificial horse. Probably from a picture story depicting Kannada writer of 16th century, Lakshmisha's Jaimini Bharata.

Aśvamedha parva of Lakshmisha's Kannada epic Jaimini Bharata

The coverage in itihāsa pariplava narrative in Aśvamedha is comprehensive: "he (adhvaryu) tells of all royalties, all regions, all Vedas, all gods, all beings..."

अध्वर्यु [p= 24,1] m. one who institutes an अध्वर any officiating priest a priest of a particular class (as distinguished from the होतृ , the उद्गातृ , and the ब्रह्मन् classes. The अध्वर्यु priests " had to measure the ground , to build the altar , to prepare the sacrificial vessels , to fetch wood and water , to light the fire , to bring the animal and immolate it " ; whilst engaged in these duties , they had to repeat the hymns of the यजुर्-वेद , hence that वेद itself is also called अध्वर्यु). Adhvara is a Soma yajña.

Seating arrangements: Yajamana sits on a gold stool on the right of Hotr. Next to him sit Brahman and Udgatr priests on cushions of gold. In front of these three people, Adhvaryu sits on a slab of gold.

Masters of the lute players sing and play their musical instruments before each legend starts with prakrama oblations done by the Adhvaryu. Each legend refers to an ancestor ruler, so that the lute players 'share the same world with the righteous kings of yore.'

Each lute player sings three stanzas composed by himself related to the topic selected for each day. There are 3 topics for each stanza: for e.g., Prithu, Bharata, Bhagîratha, Yudhishthira &c. The topic covers how the battle was waged and won: "i.e. surrounded by heroic warriors, fighting on elephants, steeds, chariots, and on foot, with bows and arrows, spears, swords, &c.) didst thou battle, thus didst thou fight such and such battle (i.e. like Yudhishthira, Dushyanta, &c., having engaged in a battle attended by thousands of great heroes, thou, armed only with thy sharp sword, didst slay the king of Kashmir, Magadha, Pundra, &c., comm.)."

Itihâsam is a darśana

Itihâsa (cosmogonic account) and Purâna (ancient legend), according to SBr. 11.5.6.8, are traditional narratives and the Narāśaṁsa Gathas are precepts, sciences, dialogues offerings, are honey-offerings to the divinities and Fathers, ancestors. 'Itihâsam âkakshîta, itihâsavedasya prithagbhâvena darsanât,' comm. on Sâṅkh. S.

Narāśaṁsa, a manifestation of Agni

Of the ten Aprisuktas mentioned in Gargya Narayana's commentary, I.13 and I.142 both invoke the Narāśaṁsa and Tanūnapāt manifestations of Agni, I.188, III.4, IX.5 and X.110 invoke only the Tanūnapāt manifestation and II.3, V.5, VII.2 and X.70 invoke only the Narāśaṁsa manifestation.

Unfathomable are the mysteries communicated as metaphors in mantras of Rigveda āprī suktas which manifest an extraordinary cosmogonic framework of itihāsa pariplava darśana narratives:

Apri (āprī) in Sanskrit means "conciliation, propitiation" and refers to special invocations spoken previous to the offering of oblations.

आ- √ प्री 1 [p= 144,2] P. (-प्रीणाति AitBr. ii , 4 ; aor. Subj. 2. sg. -पिप्र्/अयस् RV. ii , 6 , 8) to satisfy , conciliate , propitiate , please RV. TS. S3Br. ;to address or invoke with the आप्री (» below) verses AitBr. S3Br. : A1. (impf.

आ*प्रीणीत) to amuse one's self , be delighted or pleased TS. La1t2y.; f. pl. (-प्र्/इयस् [ AV. xi , 7 , 19] and -प्र्यस् [नारायण]) N. of particular invocations spoken previous to the offering of oblations (according to A1s3vS3r. iii , 2 , 5 seqq. they are different in different schools ; e.g. स्/अमिद्धो अग्न्/इर् RV. v , 28 , 1, in the school of शुनक ; जुष्/अस्व नः RV. vii , 2 , 1, in that of वसिष्ठ ; स्/अमिद्धो अद्य्/अ RV. x , 110 , 1, in that of others ; नारायण on this passage gives ten hymns belonging to different schools ; » also Sa1y. on RV. i , 13 [स्/उसमिद्धो न /आ वह , the आप्री-hymn of the school of कण्व] , who enumerates twelve आप्रीs and explains that twelve deities are propitiated ; those deities are personified objects belonging to the fire-sacrifice , viz. the fuel , the sacred grass , the enclosure , &c , all regarded as different forms of अग्नि ; hence the objects are also called आप्रीs , or , according to others , the objects are the real आप्रीs , whence the hymns received their names) AV. TS. A1s3vS3r. &c.

Āprīsūkta	Ṛṣi	Gotra
1.13	Medhātithi Kāṇva	Kāṇva
1.142	Dīrghatamā Aucathya	Āngirasa
1.188	Agastya MaitrāvaruṇI	Agastya
2.3	Gṛtsamada Śaunahotra	Śaunaka
3.4	Viśvāmitra Gāthina	Kauśika
5.5	Vasuśruta Ātreya	Ātreya
7.2	Vasiṣṭha MaitrāvaruṇI	Vāsiṣṭha
9.5	Asita or Devala Kāśypa	Kāśypa
10.70	Sumitra Vādhryaśva	Bharata
10.110	Rāma Jāmadagnya or Jamadagni	Bhārgava

Vaivasvata Manu, also known as manuśraddhādeva is the son of Vivasvan and Saranyu (Saṃjñā), is the progenitor of mankind. We are now in the seventh manvantara of the kalpa -- manu vaivasvata. See:

Tvaṣṭṛ, ākhyāna or narration of itihāsa, history from the Bronze Age Rigveda, sacred text http://tinyurl.com/gpayut8

Day	Râjarshi ‘royal sage’	People/Audience	Topics
1	King Manu Vaivasvata	Householders (Grihamedhinah) who perform 5 domestic mahâyagña	Wars waged, battles won
2	King Yama Vaivasvata	Fathers, elders	Yajus
3	King Varuna Aditya	Gandharva, youth	Atharvan
4	King Soma Vaishnava	Apsaras, handsome maidens	Angiras
5	King Arbuda Kadraveya	Snakes, snake-charmers	Sarpavidya, selaga maddened by a snake, senyâgâyanyah, including nishada and mlechâh.
6	King Kubera Vaiśravana	Rakshas	Devaganavidya, science, or knowledge of the divine (or supernatural) beings
7	King Asita Dhanva	Asura	Magic ‘bheshajam (medicine)’, magic powers of herbs Atharvanikas. Asura vidya includes association of black art with usurer or money-lender (kusidin)
8	King Matsya Sammada	Water-dwellers, fish, fishermen	Ghora, special work Atharvans (magic spell or operation)
9	King Tarkshya Vaipasyata	Birds, bird-catchers	Men acquainted with the science of birds (Vayovidyika), brahmakarinah ‘religious students’ Vayupurana legends
10	King Dharma Indra	Gods (Deva), srotriya (theologians) who accept no gifts	Saman chants

Notes on these 10 Rajarshis:

King Yama Vaivasvata in the list relates to the narrative which narrates that: Tvaṣṭṛ’s son is Viśvarūpa or Triśiras who is killed by Indra, and in revenge, Tvaṣṭṛ creates Vrtra. Tvaṣṭṛ’s daughter is Saranya (Saraṇyū) also known as Samjñā, who twice bears twins to Surya (RV 10.17.1) – Twins of Yama and Yami and twins called Aśvins. Saranyu is also the mother of Manu (Yaska’s Nirukta calls him Savarni Manu, the progenitor of mankind).

On King Varuna Aditya, see the following:Varuna with Varunani. Statue carved out of basalt, dates back to 8th century CE, discovered in Karnataka. On display at the P rince of Wales museum, Mumbai. Same as Proto-Indo-European theonym as Greek Ouranos ?

Soma Vaishnava is associated with Angiras as the topic of a narrative in SBr.

Atharvaveda is attributed to Atharvangirasah.

RV 3.31.7 Longing for friendship came the noblest singer: the hill poured forth its treasure for the pious. The Hero, with young followers fought and conquered, and straightway Angiras was singing praises. Seen as a parallel in Zoroastrian Angra Mainyu.

Many hymns of the Rigveda credit Angiras and his students as their authors. For example:
Hymns 1.101 through 1.115 dedicated to Agni, Indra, Ribhus, Asvins, Dawn, Rudra and Surya were authored by Kutsa Angirasa.
Hymn 2.1 dedicated to Agni was originally authored by Angirasa Saunahotra.
Hymns 5.35 and 5.36 dedicated to Indra were authored by Prabhuvasu Angirasa.
Hymns 8.2 (first 40 verses) to Indra were authored by Priyamedha Angirasa.
Hymns 9.97 (last 14 verses), 9.108, 9.112 to Soma were authored by Kutsa Angirasa, Uru Angirasa, Urdhvasadman Angirasa, Krtayasas Angirasa and Sisu Angirasa.
Hymns in mandala 10, on Indra, Agni, Brihaspati, Wisdom, Surya, Vaisvanara, Horses, Dawn, ritual of Royal consecration, and others were authored by various Angirasas. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiras_(sage)

अङ्गिरस् पु० अङ्गति अगि--गतौ असि इरुट् । ब्रह्मणोमानस-पुत्रे स्वनामख्याते मुनिभेदे । भारते वन० मार्क०“ब्रह्मणो मानसाः पुत्त्रा विदिताः षण्महर्षयः मरीचि-रत्र्यङ्गिसौ पुलस्त्यः पुलहः क्रतुः” इति“त्वमग्ने प्रथमोऽङ्गिरा ऋषिर्देवानामिति” श्रुतौ अग्ने-रङ्गिरस्त्वमुक्तं तत्कथा भारते वन० मार्क० ।“यदा क्रुद्वो हुतवहस्तपस्तप्तुं वनं गतः ॥ तदा चभगवानग्निः स्वयमेवाङ्गिराभवत् । सन्तापयंश्च प्रभया नाशयंस्तिमिराणि च ॥ पुराङ्गिरा महावाहो! चचार तप उत्त-मम् । आश्रमस्थो महाभागो हव्यवाहं विशेषयन् ।तथा स भूत्वा तु तदा जगत् सर्व्वं व्यकाशयत् ॥ तपश्चरं-स्तु हुतभुक् सन्तप्तस्तस्य तेजसा । भृशं ग्लानश्च तेजस्वीन स किञ्चित् प्रजज्ञिवान् ॥ अथ सञ्चिन्तयामासभगवान् हव्यवाहनः । अन्योऽग्निरिह लोकानां ब्रह्मणासंप्रकल्पितः ॥ अग्नित्व विप्रनष्ट हि तम्पमानस्य मेतपः । कथमग्निः पुनरहं भवेयमिति चिन्त्य सः ।अपश्यदग्निवल्लोकांस्तापयन्त महामुनिम् ॥ सोऽपासर्प-च्छनैर्भीतस्तमुवाच तदाङ्गिराः । शीघ्रमेव भवस्याग्निस्त्वंपुनर्लोकभावनः । विज्ञातश्चासि लोकेषु त्रिषु संस्थान-चारिषु ॥ त्वमग्निः प्रथमं सृष्टो ब्रह्मणा तिमिरापहः ।स्वस्थानं प्रतिपद्यस्व शीघ्रमेव तमोनुद! ॥ अग्निरुवाच ।नष्टकीर्त्तिरहं लोके भवान् जातो हुताशनः । भवन्त-मेव ज्ञास्यन्ति पावकं न तु मां जनाः ॥ निक्षिपाम्यह-मग्नित्वं त्वमग्निः प्रथमो भव । भविष्यामि द्वितीयोऽहंप्रजापत्यक एव च ॥ अङ्गिरा उवाच । कुरु पुण्यंप्रजासर्गं भवाग्निस्तिमिरापहः । माञ्च देव! कुरुष्वाग्ने!प्रथमं पुत्त्रमञ्जसा ॥ मार्कण्डेय उवाच । तच्छुत्वाङ्गिरसोवाक्यं जातवेदास्तथाकरोत् । राजन् वृहस्पतिर्नामतस्याप्यङ्गिरसः सुतः इति” ॥तस्य च यथा अग्निपुत्त्रत्वं येन येन रूपेण च आविर्भाव-स्तथोक्तमग्निशब्दे । अग्नौ च । “शिवो भव प्राजापत्योमानुषीभ्यामङ्गिरः इति य० अङ्गिरोमिः ऋषिभिः

सम्पादितत्वात् अङ्गसौष्ठवाद्वा अङ्गिरा अग्निरूपःहे अङ्गिरः! अग्निरूपेति” वेददीपः । अङ्गिरसः गोत्रा-पत्यम् शिवा० अण् । आङ्गिरसः बहुषु लुक् ।अङ्गिरसस्तद्गोत्रापत्ये ब० व० । “सर्व्वे सान्ता अदन्ताःस्युः” इत्युक्तेः पृ० सलोपे अङ्गिरशब्दोऽप्यत्र,“येनानवग्वे अङ्गिरे” इति वेदः । मन्वत्रिविष्णुहारीतयाज्ञवल्क्योशनोऽङ्गिरा इति याज्ञ्य० “एवं त्यक्त्वा शरीरंतु परमे तपसि स्थितः । भृग्वङ्गिरादिभिर्भूयस्तप-साप्यायितस्तदेति” भार० ।अङ्गिरस्वत् पु० अङ्गिरा अग्निः सहायत्वेन विद्यतेऽस्य मतुप्मस्य वः सान्तत्वात् न पदत्वम् । वायौ “यमाय त्वाङ्गिर-स्वते पितृमाते स्वाहेति” यजुः । “अङ्गिरोयुक्ताय वाता-येति” वेददीपः । https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम्

अङ्गिरा, [स्] पुं, (अङ्गति ब्रह्मणो मुखान्निःसरति अगि गतौ + अस् इरस् च) मुनिविशेषः । स च ब्रह्मणो मुखाज्जातः । तस्य भार्य्या कर्द्दममुनि- कन्या श्रद्धा । पुत्त्रः उतथ्यः १ वृहस्पतिः २ । कन्या सिनीवाली १ कुहूः २ राका ३ अनु- मतिः । ४ । इति श्रीभागवतं ॥ https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/शब्दकल्पद्रुमः

अङ्गिरः aṅgirḥ अङ्गिरस् aṅgiras

अङ्गिरः अङ्गिरस् m. [अङ्गति-अङ्ग् गतौ असि इरुट्; Uṇ 4. 235; according to Ait. Br. अङ्गिरस् is from अङ्गार; ये अङ्गारा आसंस्ते$ङ्गिरसो$भवन्; so Nir.; अङ्गारेषु यो बभूव सो$ङ्गिराः] N. of a celebrated sage to whom many hymns of the Rigveda (ix) are ascribed. Etymologically Aṅgira is connected with the word Agni and is often regarded as its synonym (शिवो भव प्रजाभ्यो मानुषीभ्यस्त्व- मङ्गिरः; अङ्गिरोभिः ऋषिभिः संपादितत्वात् अङ्गसौष्ठवाद्वा अङ्गिरा अग्निरूपः) According to Bhārata he was son of Agni. When Agni began to practise penance, Aṅgiras him- self became Agni and surpassed him in power and lustre, seeing which Agni came to the sage and said:- निक्षिपाम्यहमग्नित्वं त्वमग्निः प्रथमो भव । भविष्यामि द्वितीयो$हं प्राजा- पत्यक एव च ॥ Aṅgiras said :- कुरु पुण्यं प्रजासर्गं भवाग्निस्तिमि- रापहः । मां च देव कुरुष्वाग्ने प्रथमं पुत्रमञ्जसा ॥ तत्श्रुत्वाङ्गिरसो वाक्यं जातवेदास्तथा$करोत्. He was one of the 1 mind-born sons of Brahmā. His wife was Śraddhā, daughter of Kardama and bore him three sons, Bṛhaspati, Uta- thya and Saṁvarta, and 4 daughters Kuhū, Sinīvālī, Rākā and Anumati. The Matsya Purāṇa says that Aṅgiras was one of the three sages produced from the sacrifice of Varuṇa and that he was adopted by Agni as his son and acted for some time as his regent. Another account, however, makes him father of Agni. He was one of the seven great sages and also one of the 1 Prajāpatis or progenitors of mankind. In latter times Aṅgiras was one of the inspired lawgivers, and also a writer on Astronomy. As an astronomical personification he is Bṛhaspati, regent of Jupiter or Jupiter itself. शिष्यैरुपेता आजग्मु: कश्यपाङ्गिरसादयः (Bhāg. 1.9.8.) He is also regarded as the priest of the gods and the lord of sacrifices. Besides Śraddhā his wives were Smṛti, two daughters of Maitreya, some daughters of Dakṣa, Svadhā and Satī. He is also regarded as teacher of Brahmavidyā. The Vedic hymns are also said to be his daughters. According to the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Aṅgiras begot sons possessing Brahmanical glory on the wife of Rāthītara, a Kṣatriya who was childless and these persons were afterwards called descendants of Aṅgiras. The prin- cipal authors of vedic hymns in the family of Aṅgi- ras were 33. His family has three distinct branches केवलाङ्गिरस, गौतमाङ्गिरस and भारद्वाजाङ्गिरस each branch having a number of subdivisions. - (pl.) 1 Descendants of Aṅgiras, [Aṅgiras being father of Agni they are considered as descendants of Agni himself who is called the first of the Aṅgirasas. Like Aṅgiras they occur in hymns addressed to luminous objects, and at a later period they became for the most part personi- fications of light, of luminous bodies, of divisions of time, celestial phenomena and fires adapted to pecu- liar occasions, as the full moon and change of the moon, or to particular rites, as the अश्वमेध, राजसूय &c.] -2 Hymns of the Atharvaveda. -3 Priests, who, by using magical formulas of the Atharvaveda, pro- tect the sacrifice against the effects of inauspicious accidents. (Apte.Lexicon)

काद्रवेयः, पुं, (कद्रोरपत्यं पुमान् । कद्रु + “शुभ्रादि-भ्यश्च” । ४ । १ । १२३ । इति ढक् । “ढे लोपो-ऽकाद्व्राः” । ६ । ४ । १४ । इति न लोपः ।) कद्रु-सन्तानः । नागः । इत्यमरः । १ । ८ । ४ ॥(यथा, महाभारते १ । ६५ । ४१ ।“शेषोऽनन्तो वासुकिश्च तक्षकश्च भुजङ्गमः ।कूर्म्मश्च कुलिकश्चैव काद्रवेयाः प्रकीर्त्तिताः” ॥)https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/शब्दकल्पद्रुमः/

काद्रवेय पुंस्त्री कद्र्वाः अपत्यम् शुभा० ढक् । फणालाङ्गूलवति सरीसृपभेदे नागे, सर्पे । स्त्रियां जातित्वात् ङीष् । “काद्रवेयाश्च बलिनः सहस्रममितौजसः । सुपर्ण्ण- वशगाः नागा जज्ञिरेऽ नेकमस्तकाः” हरिवं० ३ अ० काश्यपपत्नीभेदक द्रुपुत्रवर्ण्णने https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम्/

वैश्रवण [p= 1026,3] m. (fr. वि-श्रवण ; cf. g. शिवा*दि) a patr. (esp. of कुबेर and रावण) AV. &c

(in astron.) N. of the 14th मुहूर्त mf(ई)n. relating or belonging to कुबेर MBh.

Tamonten statue at Tōdai-ji, Nara

Vaiśravaṇa as Seal of Udon Thani Province, Thailand

Vaiśravaṇa (Sanskrit) or Vessavaṇa (Pali; Tibetan: རྣམ་ཐོས་སྲས་, Lhasa dialect IPA: [Namtösé],

Bishamonten (毘沙門天^?)), is the name of one of the Four Heavenly Kings. "In the Pāli Canon of Theravāda Buddhism, Vaiśravaṇa is called Vessavaṇa. Vessavaṇa is one of the Cātummahārājāno or "Four Great Kings", each of whom rules over a specific direction. Vessavaṇa's realm is the northern quadrant of the world, including the land of Uttarakuru. According to some suttas, he takes his name from a region there called Visāṇa; he also has a city there called Ālakamandā which is a byword for wealth. Vessavaṇa governs the yakkhas – beings with a nature between 'fairy' and 'ogre'." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vai%C5%9Brava%E1%B9%87a

9.24 (736) prá sómāso adhanviṣuḥ

9.69 (781) íṣur ná dhánvan práti dhīyate matír

9.109 (821) pári prá dhanva índrāya soma

9.109 (822) pári ū ṣú prá dhanva vâjasātaye

"The ninth Mandala of the Rigveda, also called the Soma Mandala, has 114 hymns, entirely (although Griffith marks 9.5 as dedicated to the Apris) devoted to Sóma Pávamāna, "Purifying Soma", the sacred potion of the Vedic religion. Similar to Mandala 8, it cannot be dated within the relative chronology of the Rigveda as a whole; dealing with the Soma cult, a practice reaching back into Proto-Indo-Iranian times (late 3rd millennium BC), some of its hymns may contain the very oldest parts of the Rigveda, while other hymns may be rather recent relative to the other books."

9.1 (713) svâdiṣṭhayā mádiṣṭhayā
9.2 (714) pávasva devavîr áti
9.3 (715) eṣá devó ámartiyaḥ
9.4 (716) sánā ca soma jéṣi ca
9.5 (717) sámiddho viśvátas pátiḥ
9.6 (718) mandráyā soma dhârayā
9.7 (719) ásṛgram índavaḥ pathâ
9.8 (720) eté sómā abhí priyám
9.9 (721) pári priyâ diváḥ kavír
9.10 (722) prá svānâso ráthā iva
9.11 (723) úpāsmai gāyatā naraḥ
9.12 (724) sómā asṛgram índavaḥ
9.13 (725) sómaḥ punānó arṣati
9.14 (726) pári prâsiṣyadat kavíḥ
9.15 (727) eṣá dhiyâ yāty áṇviyā
9.16 (728) prá te sotâra oṇíyo
9.17 (729) prá nimnéneva síndhavo
9.18 (730) pári svānó * giriṣṭh~âḥ
9.19 (731) yát soma citrám ukthíyaṃ
9.20 (732) prá kavír devávītaye
9.21 (733) eté dhāvanti índavaḥ
9.22 (734) eté sómāsa āśávo
9.23 (735) sómā asṛgram āśávo
9.24 (736) prá sómāso adhanviṣuḥ
9.25 (737) pávasva dakṣasâdhano
9.26 (738) tám amṛkṣanta vājínam
9.27 (739) eṣá kavír abhíṣṭutaḥ
9.28 (740) eṣá vājî hitó nŕbhir
9.29 (741) prá asya dhârā akṣaran
9.30 (742) prá dhârā asya śuṣmíṇo
9.31 (743) prá sómāsaḥ suādhíyaḥ
9.32 (744) prá sómāso madacyútaḥ
9.33 (745) prá sómāso vipaścíto
9.34 (746) [Some Pavamana.] prá svānó * dhârayā tánā
9.35 (747) â naḥ pavasva dhârayā
9.36 (748) ásarji ráthiyo yathā
9.37 (749) sá sutáḥ pītáye vŕṣā
9.38 (750) eṣá u syá vŕṣā rátho
9.39 (751) āśúr arṣa bṛhanmate
9.40 (752) punānó akramīd abhí
9.41 (753) prá yé gâvo ná bhûrṇayas
9.42 (754) janáyan rocanâ divó
9.43 (755) yó átya iva mṛjyáte
9.44 (756) prá ṇa indo mahé tána
9.45 (757) sá pavasva mádāya káṃ
9.46 (758) ásṛgran devávītaye
9.47 (759) ayâ sómaḥ sukṛtyáyā
9.48 (760) táṃ tvā nṛmṇâni bíbhrataṃ
9.49 (761) pávasva vṛṣṭím â sú no
9.50 (762) út te śúṣmāsa īrate
9.51 (763) ádhvaryo ádribhiḥ sutáṃ
9.52 (764) pári dyukṣáḥ sanádrayir
9.53 (765) út te śúṣmāso asthū
9.54 (766) asyá pratnâm ánu dyútaṃ
9.55 (767) yávaṃ-yavaṃ no ándhasā
9.56 (768) pári sóma ṛtám bṛhád
9.57 (769) prá te dhârā asaścáto
9.58 (770) tárat sá mandî dhāvati
9.59 (771) pávasva gojíd aśvajíd
9.60 (772) prá gāyatréṇa gāyata
9.61 (773) ayâ vītî pári srava
9.62 (774) eté asṛgram índavas
9.63 (775) [Soma Pavanana.] â pavasva sahasríṇaṃ
9.64 (776) vŕṣā soma dyumâṁ asi
9.65 (777) hinvánti sûram úsrayaḥ
9.66 (778) pávasva viśvacarṣaṇe
9.67 (779) [Soma and Others.] tuváṃ somāsi dhārayúr
9.68 (780) prá devám áchā mádhumanta índavo
9.69 (781) íṣur ná dhánvan práti dhīyate matír
9.70 (782) trír asmai saptá dhenávo duduhre
9.71 (783) â dákṣiṇā sṛjyate śuṣmî āsádaṃ
9.72 (784) hárim mṛjanti aruṣó ná yujyate
9.73 (785) srákve drapsásya dhámataḥ sám asvarann
9.74 (786) śíśur ná jātó áva cakradad váne
9.75 (787) abhí priyâṇi pavate cánohito
9.76 (788) dhartâ diváḥ pavate kŕtviyo ráso
9.77 (789) eṣá prá kóśe mádhumāṁ acikradad
9.78 (790) prá râjā vâcaṃ janáyann asiṣyadad
9.79 (791) acodáso no dhanuvantu índavaḥ
9.80 (792) sómasya dhârā pavate nṛcákṣasa
9.81 (793) prá sómasya pávamānasya ūrmáya
9.82 (794) ásāvi sómo aruṣó vŕṣā hárī
9.83 (795) pavítraṃ te vítatam brahmaṇas pate
9.84 (796) pávasva devamâdano vícarṣaṇir
9.85 (797) índrāya soma súṣutaḥ pári srava
9.86 (798) prá ta āśávaḥ pavamāna dhījávo
9.87 (799) prá tú drava pári kóśaṃ ní ṣīda
9.88 (800) ayáṃ sóma indara túbhya * sunve
9.89 (801) prá ū syá váhniḥ pathíyābhir asyān
9.90 (802) prá hinvānó janitâ ródasīyo
9.91 (803) ásarji vákvā ráthiye yáthājaú
9.92 (804) pári svānó * hárir aṃśúḥ pavítre
9.93 (805) sākamúkṣo marjayanta svásāro
9.94 (806) ádhi yád asmin vājínīva śúbha
9.95 (807) kánikranti hárir â sṛjyámānaḥ
9.96 (808) prá senānîḥ śûro ágre ráthānāṃ
9.97 (809) asyá preṣâ hemánā pūyámāno
9.98 (810) abhí no vājasâtamaṃ
9.99 (811) â haryatâya dhṛṣṇáve
9.100 (812) abhî navante adrúhaḥ
9.101 (813) purójitī vo ándhasaḥ
9.102 (814) krāṇâ śíśur mahîn~āṃ
9.103 (815) prá punānâya vedháse
9.104 (816) sákhāya â ní ṣīdata
9.105 (817) táṃ vaḥ sakhāyo mádāya
9.106 (818) índram ácha sutâ imé
9.107 (819) párītó ṣiñcatā sutáṃ
9.108 (820) pávasva mádhumattama
9.109 (821) pári prá dhanva índrāya soma
9.110 (822) pári ū ṣú prá dhanva vâjasātaye
9.111 (823) ayâ rucâ háriṇiyā punānó
9.112 (824) nānānáṃ vâ u no dhíyo
9.113 (825) śaryaṇâvati sómam
9.114 (826) yá índoḥ pávamānasya

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandala_9
Asita is mentioned in conjunction with Gaya (1.114.4) or with Jamadagni (6.137.1) in Atharva Veda. He appears as Daivala or Devala in Pancavims'a Brahmana (14.11.18.19) and Kathaka samhita (22.11). असित m. of a descendant of कश्यप (composer of RV. ix , 5-24), named also देवल ([ RAnukr. ]) or असित देवल ([ MBh. Hariv. ])

साम्मद [p= 1207,1] m. (fr. सम्-मद) patr. of मत्स्य (king of the aquatic animals) S3Br. A1s3vS3r.of the author of RV. viii , 67 Anukr.

तार्क्ष्य [p= 444,3] m. N. of a mythical being (originally described as a horse with the epithet /अरिष्ट-नेमि [ RV. i , 89 , 6 ; x , 178 , 1Naigh. i , 14 Kaus3. 73] , later on taken to be a bird [ RV. v , 51 , interpol. A1s3vS3r. x , 7] and identified with गरुड [MBh. Hariv. &c ] or called his elder brother [ L. ] or father [ BhP. vi , 6 , 2 and 21 ; » also -पुत्र] ; mentioned with अरिष्ट-नेमि VS. xv , 18 ; with अरिष्ट-नेमि , गरुड , अरुण and आरुणि as offspring of कश्यप by विनता MBh. i , 2548 and 4830 Hariv. 12468 and 14175 ; called a यक्ष VP. ii , 10 , 13 ; a मुनि with the N. अरिष्ट-नेमि MBh. iii , 12660 and 12665 ; xii , 10615 ;pl. a class of demi-gods grouped with the गन्धर्वs , यक्षs , and चारणs R. i , 16 , 9); N. of the hymn RV. x , 178 (ascribed to तार्क्ष्य अरिष्टनेमि) A1s3vS3r. ix S3a1n3khS3r. xi f. La1t2y. i gold L.तक्ष्य [p= 431,3] mfn. to be formed RV. viii , 102 , 8. वैपश्यत [p= 1023,3]mf(ई)n. (fr. वि-पश्यत्) belonging or peculiar to a wise man Hcar.m. patr. of तार्क्ष्य S3Br. S3a1n3khS3r.

Dharma Indra is an epithet of Yama. dharmḥ धर्मः [ध्रियते लोको$नेन, धरति लोकं वा धृ-मन्; cf. Uṇ 1. 137] 1 Religion; the customary observances of a caste, sect, &c. -इन्द्रः, -ईशः an epithet of Yama; पितॄणामिव धर्मेन्द्रः Mb.7.6.6. (Apte. Lexicon)

"According to the Vishnu Purana, his parents are the sun-god Surya and Sandhya, the daughter of Vishvakarma. Yama is the brother of Sraddhadeva Manu and of his older sister Yami, which Horace Hayman Wilson indicates to mean the Yamuna...Mentioned in the Pāli Canon of Theravada Buddhism, Yama subsequently entered Buddhist mythology in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism as a dharmapala under various transliterations. He is otherwise also called as "Dharmaraja"...In a disputable etymology, W. Meid (1992) has linked the names Yama (reconstructed in Proto-Indo-European as *yemos) and the name of the primeval Norse frost giant Ymir, which can be reconstructed in Proto-Germanic as *umijaz or *jumijaz, in the latter case possibly deriving from PIE

ym̥yos, from the root yem "twin". In his myth, however, Ymir is not a twin, and only shares with Yama the characteristics of being primeval and mortal. However, Ymir is a hermaphrodite and engenders the race of giants." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yama

Google translation (unedited):
Original giant "Yama / Yima" in the Rig Veda

In the Rig Veda called the original giant "Yama" or sometimes "Yamaraja" (King Yama). In the here developed Avesta called the original giant of Avesta-Persian "Yima Xšaēta" from which there is no linguistic far to "Ymir". In China he phonetic "yan".

"Yama" is in the Rig Veda "the first dead" and therefore in philosophy identical to "Ymir".

The language linking "Yama / Yami" to "Ymir" tried W. Meid in "Die Germanische Religion im Zeugnis there Sprache. In Beck et al., Germanische Religionsgeschichte - Quellen und Quellenprobleme "(1992, p. 486-507). He believes it is as follows:

Yama / Yima → "* yemos" (Indo-European)
Ymir → "* umijaz" or "* jumijaz" (Old Norse) → "* ymyos" (Indo-European)
Both words originating from the Indo-European "Yem" (twin), which in philosophy necessarily how everything has its beginning ( "twin" can in philosophy rendered as "hermaphrodite"). In Portuguese called a "twin" for "gêmeo" and in Spanish "gemelo" and both pronounced "jæmeo, jæmelo", like the star sign "Gemini" (twins) is from the Latin "geminus".

Yama found in:

Rig Veda (Book 1: CLXIII - The Horse) where he, as urjætte is tamer of the first wild horse.
Rig Veda (Book 10: X - Yama. Yami) where we hear of his sister Yami
Rig Veda (Book 10: XIV - Yama) where he, as urjætte, has tamed the big dog, and are among the ancestors in Valhalla (see "Burial - cremation of the ship")

Rig Veda (Book 10: XIV - Yama: 1-2):

".... Yama, Vivasvan's son 1, which gathered the people ...."

"... Yama the first that took us a settlement;
this pasture never taken from us can ... ".

1 "Vivasvan" is a Heite for "male" in the sun. Rig Veda (Book 10: XVII: 1-2) shows us that "female" in the sun, and Yama's mother, described as "Vivasvan's wife", which again is identical to Gerdur (Helen), all places bruderøves.

We see the Egyptian understanding of the Rig Veda, and in Old Norse philosophy to Ymir must be both males as females. This is due to philosophical problem of describing the "chicken and egg" 1. The Old Person's first offspring may biologically be created by a woman and a man, but we can not philosophically say about the very first device was a woman or a man. Therefore made Ymir, Yama, Yima all tve-sex.

1 The use of "chicken and egg" is here a bad kenning, because we know that the egg must have come before the chicken as lizards and birds under the group of "dinosaur" laid eggs. The chicken had natural laws not yet invented.

http://www.verasir.dk/show.php?file=chap8.html

Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa Third Brāhmaṇa 13.4.3.1 to 13.4.3.15

1. Having set free the horse, he (the Adhvaryu) spreads a cushion wrought of gold (threads) south of the Vedi: thereon the Hotri seats himself. On the right (south) of the Hotri, the Sacrificer on a gold stool 2; on the right of him, the Brahman and Udgâtri on cushions wrought of gold; in front of them, with his face to the west, the Adhvaryu on a gold stool, or a slab of gold.

13:4:3:2
2. When they are seated together, the Adhvaryu calls upon (the Hotri), saying, 'Hotri, recount the beings: raise thou this Sacrificer above the beings 1!' Thus called upon, the Hotri, being about to tell the Pâriplava 2 Legend, addresses (the Adhvaryu), 'Adhvaryu!'--'Havai 3 hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.

13:4:3:3
3. 'King Manu Vaivasvata,' he says;--'his people are Men, and they are staying here 4;'- householders, unlearned in the scriptures, have come thither 1: it is these he instructs;--'The Rik (verses) are the Veda 2: this it is;' thus saying, let him go over a hymn of the Rik, as if reciting it 3. Masters of lute-players have come thither: these he calls upon, 'Masters of lute-players,' he says, 'sing ye of this Sacrificer along with righteous kings of yore 1!' and they accordingly sing of him; and in thus singing of him, they make him share the same world with the righteous kings of yore.

13:4:3:4
4. Having called (on the masters of lute-players), the Adhvaryu performs the Prakrama oblations 2, either on the southern fire, or on a footprint of the horse, after drawing lines round it--whichever is the practice there; but the former 3 is the established rule.

13:4:3:5
5. Prior to the (first) offering to Savitri he offers, once only, the (oblations relating to the) Forms 1 in the Âhavanîya fire, whilst going rapidly over (the formulas). And in the evening, whilst the Dhritis 2 (oblations for the safe keeping of the horse) are being offered, a Râganya lute-player, striking up the uttaramandrâ (tune) south (of the vedi), sings three stanzas composed by himself (on topics 3 such as), 'Such war he waged,--Such battle he won:' the meaning of this has been explained.

13:4:3:6
6. And on the morrow, the second day, after those (three) offerings to Savitri have been performed in the same way, there is that same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Yama Vaivasvata 1,' he (the Hotri) says, 'his people are the Fathers, and they are staying here;'--old men have come thither: it is these he instructs;--'The Yagus-formulas are the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him go over a chapter (anuvâka) of the Yagus 2, as if reciting it. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:7
7. And on the third day, after those (three) offerings have been performed in the same way, there is that same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Varuna Âditya,' he says; 'his people are the Gandharvas, and they are staying here;'--handsome youths have come thither: it is these he instructs;--'The Atharvans are the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him go over one section (parvan) of the Atharvan 3, as if reciting it. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:8
8. And on the fourth day, after those (three) offerings have been performed in the same way, there is the same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Soma Vaishnava 1,' he says; 'his people are the Apsaras, and they are staying here;'--handsome maidens have come thither: it is these he instructs 2;--'The Aṅgiras are the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him go over one section of the Aṅgiras 3, as if reciting it. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:9
9. And on the fifth day, after those (three) offerings have been performed in the same way, there is the same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Arbuda Kâdraveya 1,' he says; 'his people are the Snakes, and they are staying here;'--both snakes and snake-charmers 2 have come thither: it is these he instructs--'The Sarpavidyâ (science of snakes) is the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him go over one section of the Sarpavidyâ 3 as if reciting it. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:10
10. And on the sixth day, after those (three) offerings have been performed in the same way, there is the same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Kubera Vaisravana,' he says; 'his people are the Rakshas, and they are staying here;'--evil-doers, robbers 4, have come thither: it is these he instructs;--'The Devaganavidyâ 1 (demonology) is the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him go over one section of the Devaganavidyâ, as if he were reciting it. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:11
11. And on the seventh day, after those (three) offerings have been performed in the same way, there is the same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Asita Dhânva 2,' he says; 'his people are the Asura; and they are staying here;'--usurers have come thither: it is these he instructs;--'Magic 3 is the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him perform some magic trick. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:12
12. And on the eighth day, after those (three) offerings have been performed in the same way, there is the same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Matsya Sâmmada 1,' he says; 'his people are the water-dwellers, and they are staying here;'--both fish and fishermen 2 have come thither: it is these he instructs;--'the Itihâsa 3 is the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him tell some Itihâsa. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:13
13. And on the ninth day, after those (three) offerings have been performed in the same way, there is the same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Târkshya Vaipasyata 4,' he says; 'his people are the Birds, and they are staying here;'--both birds and bird-catchers 5 have come thither: it is these he instructs;--'the Purâna 3 is the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him tell some Purâna 6. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:14
14. And on the tenth day, after those (three) offerings have been performed in the same way, there is the same course of procedure. 'Adhvaryu!' he (the Hotri) says.--'Havai hotar!' replies the Adhvaryu.--'King Dharma Indra 1,' he says, 'his people are the Gods, and they are staying here;'--learned srotriyas (theologians), accepting no gifts 2, have come thither: it is these he instructs; 'the Sâman (chant-texts) are the Veda: this it is;' thus saying, let him repeat 3 a decade of the Sâman. The Adhvaryu calls in the same way (on the masters of lute-players), but does not perform the Prakrama oblations.

13:4:3:15
15. [In telling] this revolving (legend), he tells all royalties, all regions, all Vedas, all gods, all beings; and, verily, for whomsoever the Hotri, knowing this, tells this revolving legend, or whosoever even knows this, attains to fellowship and communion with these royalties, gains the sovereign rule and lordship over all people, secures for himself all the Vedas, and, by gratifying the gods, finally establishes himself on all beings. This very same legend revolves again and again for a year; and. inasmuch as it revolves again and again, therefore it is (called) the revolving (legend). For thirty-six ten-days’ periods he tells it,--the Brihatî (metre) consists of thirty-six syllables, and cattle are related to the Brihatî metre: by means of the Brihatî he thus secures cattle for him.

Footnotes

360:2 At XI, 5, 3, 4; 7 'kûrka' seems to mean a bunch or pad of grass, used as a seat. In the present instance it is explained as p. 361 a seat with feet (sapâdam âsanam, Schol. on Kâty. XX, 2, 19), or as a seat or stool which has the appearance of a pad (pîtham kûrkâkriti,? i.e. with a pad on it). According to Âsv. Sr. X, 6, 19) the king is surrounded by his sons and ministers.

361:1 Or, perhaps, 'raise this Sacrificer above (or, up to) the things of the past;' but see paragraph 15.

361:2 That is, the 'revolving, recurrent, or cyclic legend,' so called because it is renewed every ten days during the year.

361:3 Harisvâmin explains this interjection, as if it were 'hvayai' = pratihvayai, 'I will respond, I am ready to respond;' and, though this is probably a fanciful explanation, the arrangements made on this occasion are clearly such as to suggest a studied resemblance to the call and counter-call of the two priests on all occasions of a solemn utterance of sacrificial formulas, or the recitation of hymns, as at the Prâtaranuvâka (part ii, p. 226 seqq.). Kâty. XX, 3, 2, accordingly, calls it the Adhvaryu's 'pratigara,' or response. Âsv. Sr. X, 6, 13 makes the Adhvaryu's answer 'ho hotar'; and Sâṅkh. Sr. XVI, 1 'hoyi hotar.'

361:4 The Hotri's utterances on the ten days of the revolving period (as set forth in passages 2-14) occur also, with some variations of detail, in the manuals defining the Hotri's duties, viz. the Âsvalâyana (X, 7) and Sâṅkhâyana (XVI, 2) Sûtras (whilst the works of the Taittirîyakas seem to have nothing corresponding to this performance). Both Sûtras omit 'râgâ' each time. Âsvalâyana, moreover, omits also the 'iti' along with it, because he does not interrupt the formula by an insertion, as is done here (ity âha) p. 362 and in the Sâṅkh. S. (iti prathame, &c.). Gârgya Nârâyana, on Âsv. X, 7, 1, takes the opening words 'prathame (&c.) ऽhani' to form part of the formulas:--'on the first day Manu Vaivasvata (is king); but it is clear from the other two authorities that this cannot have been intended by the author of that Sûtra.--The commentator on Sâṅkh. S. XVI, 2 remarks, 'Manur Vaivasvato râgety-evam-âdikam âkhyânam pariplavâkhyam prathamâhany âkashte . . . tasya râgño manushyâ visah pragâs ta ima âsateऽdyâpi svadharmân na kalanti,' thus apparently taking 'râgâ' to form part of the formula, or rather of the topic of which the legend to be recited was to treat. This commentary thus apparently assumes that the legend begins with 'Manur Vaivasvato râgâ'; and that the subsequent clause leads on to the recitation of the Vedic text that is to follow (cf. note on paragraph 8);--though. possibly this latter clause (as Professor M. Müller seems to take it) may only be an argumentative one, giving the reason why the householders are to be instructed. Cf. M. Müller, Hist. of Anc. Sansk. Lit., p. 37 seqq.

362:1 'Householders should be brought thither' (i.e. should be made to join this performance); Âsv.-sûtra. Sâṅkh. has merely 'thereby he instructs householders.' Grihamedhinah are those who regularly perform the five great domestic sacrifices (mahâyagña).

362:2 Or, more closely, the Veda is the, or consists of, Rik (verses). Sâṅkh. S. reads 'riko vedah' (the Veda of the Rik, gen. sing.) instead of 'rikah' (nom. pl.), and in the subsequent paragraph also, it repeats the word 'veda' (Yagurveda, Atharvaveda, Aṅgiraso vedah).

362:3 That is, as would seem,--as if he were to recite it (or, as when he recites it) in the course of the ordinary sacrificial performance--as in Sastras, the Prâtaranuvâka, &c. The text would, however, also admit of the translation--'thus saying, let him go over (the legend) as if he were reciting a hymn of the Rik,' but it is not quite easy to see how a similar interpretation would suit subsequent paragraphs (11-14). Moreover, both Âsv. and Sâṅkh. omit 'vyâkakshâna iti,' and read 'nigadet,''let him recite (a hymn),' instead of 'anudravet (let him run, or go, over = anupûrvam ukkârayet, Harisv.).' Yet, the commentary on Sâṅkh. supplies the 'iva,' explaining as he does, 'sûktam kimkid âkakshâna ivânuvadet;' from which (if it is not simply quoted from our Brâhmana) it would almost seem as if he, too, thought of the legend rather than a hymn of the Rik. The verb 'vyâ-kaksh,' as against 'ni-gad,' seems to imply a clear articulation--perhaps even with all the stops or pauses, at the end of every half-verse, or pâda, as the case might be. Sâyana (on Taitt. Br. II, 2, 1, 4; 2, 6) explains 'vyâkakshîta' by 'vispashtam ukkârayet (or, pathet).' The available MS. of Harisvâmin's commentary on our text is, as usual, incorrect, but as far as it goes, it seems to favour the recitation of the legend at this place,--'vyâkakshâna iti vâkyasas kidan (r. khindan) agais kâbhidad (?) ity arthah,'--which I take to mean that he is to pause after each sentence, as he would do when reciting a hymn.

363:1 That is, according to Harisvâmin,--'Compare this Sacrificer in song with the old righteous kings.' Katy. XX, 3, 8 refers to these latter as 'râgarshis,' or royal sages--in which case the recitation of the legend itself would only come in here.

363:2 For the formulas used with this series of forty-nine oblations, see XIII, 1, 3, 5 with notes thereon.

363:3 That is to say, according to Harisvâmin, the course of procedure laid down in XIII, 1, 3, 7, according to which these oblations are to be made on the Âhavanîya, and not either on the southern fire, or on a footprint of the horse.

364:1 That is to say, the Prakramas which are only performed on the first day of the year, whilst the three oblations to Savitri are repeated each day.

364:2 See XIII, 1, 4, 3; 6, 2. These oblations are made just prior to the evening performance of the Agnihotra, when the Âhavanîya has been got ready for the latter. The Taittirîyakas seem to make these four oblations on the horse's feet at the place where the keepers pass the night (viz. the carpenter's house) during the greater part of the year; and only in the last month, when a stable of Asvattha wood has been put up for the horse near (or on) the offering-ground, these oblations take place on the Âhavanîya. See comm. on Taitt. Br. III, 8, 12 (p. 609; cp. p. 700). At III, 9, 14 (p. 703), on the other hand, it is stated that the Râganya's singing is to take place in the evening at the time of the Dhriti-homas.

364:3 Taitt. Br. III, 9, 54, 4, again mentions three topics, one for each stanza--viz. 'thus (i.e. in the same way as Prithu, Bharata, Bhagîratha, Yudhishthira &c., comm.) didst thou overpower (the enemies), thus (i.e. surrounded by heroic warriors, fighting on elephants, steeds, chariots, and on foot, with bows and arrows, spears, swords, &c.) didst thou battle, thus didst thou fight such and such battle (i.e. like Yudhishthira, Dushyanta, &c., having engaged in a battle attended by thousands of great heroes, thou, armed only with thy sharp sword, didst slay the king of Kashmir, Magadha, Pundra, &c., comm.).'

365:1 When the comm. on Sâṅkh. S. remarks, 'Yamo Vaivasvato râgety âheti divitîya evâhani Satapathe darsanât,' this would seem to refer to the addition of either 'râgâ,' or 'ahani,' but not to any legend of Y. V., since such a one does not occur in this work; though various passages in the Rik might no doubt have sufficed to construct some such legend as would have served on this occasion.

365:2 The same commentator refers to the 'Âsvamedhika' as the section to be recited,--'prakaranât,' because of the treatment (therein of this subject).

365:3 Instead of 'atharvanâm ekam parva,' the Sâṅkh. S. has 'bheshagam (medicine),' which the commentator--against the opinion of those who take it to mean the hymn Rig-veda X, 97 (treating of the magic powers of herbs)--makes a special work of the Âtharvanikas; whilst the Âsv. S. reads 'yad bheshagam nisântam p. 366 syât tan nigadet'--'let him tell some approved medicine (i. e: some specific, or charm against disease).'

366:1 The comm. on Sâṅkh. S. remarks, 'Somo Vaishnava iti katurthe; Somo Vaishnavo râgeti Satapathasruteh; pratîkagrahanâny etâni.' This seems to show clearly that he takes this as merely the opening words of the legend. Here, again, his words can hardly be taken to refer to a legend regarding Soma in the Satapatha-Brâhmana.

366:2 'Yuvatîh sobhanâ upadisati, tasyaitâh (? tasyaitâbhyah) sabhâyâm anyâsâm apravesât,' comm. on Sâṅkh. S., --? because no other (Apsaras) but these come to his court.

366:3 The Sâṅkh. S. has 'let him recite the Ghora'--which the commentator again takes to be the title of a special work of the Atharvans--whilst the Âsv. S. reads 'let him recite some approved ghora (magic spell or operation).'

367:1 'Arbudah Kâdraveyo râgety âheti sruteh (thus also on the name of the next king),' comm. on Sâṅkh. S.

367:2 Lit. '(men) knowing about snakes'--which the comm. on Âsv. S. explains by 'those knowing the Kâsyapîya and other treatises (tantra) on venoms.' Instead of the conjunctive double 'ka,' the Sâṅkh. S. has a single 'vâ'--the snakes, or (rather) snake-charmers--and Âsv. S. an explanatory 'iti'--the snakes, i.e. snake-charmers.

367:3 The Sâṅkh. S. has, 'let hire recite the Sarpavidyâ' (i.e. either the Gârudâ or Kaṅkaniyâ sarpavidyâ, as the comm. explains); the Âsv. S. 'let him recite the Vishavidyâ (science of venoms).'

367:4 The etymology and exact meaning of 'selaga' is doubtful:--here, again, whilst 'pâpakritah' is added either appositionally, or attributively (wicked selagas), the Sâṅkh. S. adds it by means of 'vâ,' and the Âsv. S. by 'iti'--both apparently meant in an explanatory sense. The Ait. Br., on the other hand, has VII, 1, 'selagâ vâ pâpakrito vâ;' and VIII, 11, 'nishâdâ vâ selagâ vâ pâpakrito vâ.' The comm. on Âsv. S. explains 'selaga' by 'maddened by a snake;' the comm. on Sâṅkh. S. by 'selagâh senyâgâyanyah (?) pâpakrito vâ mlekhâh.'

368:1 That is, the science, or knowledge of the divine (or supernatural) beings. The Sâṅkh. S. has, 'the Rakshovidyâ is the Veda, . . . let him recite the Rakshovidyâ'--on which the commentator remarks 'prasiddhaiva kuhukurûpâ rakshovidyeti.' (? = 'kuhakarûpâ,' cheats, or deceitful imps). Âsv. S. has 'yat kimkit pisâkasamyuktam nisântam,''some approved (spell or operation?) connected with the Pisâcas, or demons.'

368:2 Sâṅkh. S. has 'Asita Dhânvana.'

368:3 The two Sûtras read 'Asuravidyâ'--asuravidyendragâlâdinâ tannirdesân mâyâm api kâmkit kuryâd aṅgulinyâsarûpâm ('a trick by sleight of hand,' M. Müller), comm. on Sâṅkh. S. On 'indragâlavidyâ' ('magic art, trickery'), cf. Dasakum., p. 25, 1. 12. The association of the black art with the usurer or money-lender (kusîdin) is rather curious.

369:1 'Matsyah Sâmmada ity ashtame, Matsyah Sâmmado râgeti sruteh pratîkagrahanam etat,' comm. on Sâṅkh. S.

369:2 'Gâtisambandhena matsyavido vâ, mainikân pâthînâdiviseshavikalpân vidanti ye tan vâ,' comm. on Sâṅkh. S.

369:3 Regarding the Itihâsa (cosmogonic account) and Purâna (ancient legend), see p. 98, note 4. The Âsv. S. connects the Itihâsa with the ninth, and the Purâna with the eighth day. 'Itihâsam âkakshîta, itihâsavedasya prithagbhâvena darsanât,' comm. on Sâṅkh. S.

369:4 Âsv. S. has Târkshya Vaipaskita.--'Târkshyo Vaipasyato râgety âheti pratîka(m) sruteh,' comm. on Sâṅkh. S.

369:5 Lit., men acquainted with the science of birds (vâyovidyika). The two Sûtras, on the other hand, here identify the birds with 'brahmakârinah,' or religious students.

369:6 According to the comm. on Sâṅkh. S., it is the Vâyupurâna (purânam vâyuproktam) that is to be recited (from), and not the hymn Rig-veda X, 130 ('tasya vedaikadesatvât'). This hymn is probably referred to in this connection chiefly on account of the passage 'yagñe gâte purâne' in verse 6.

370:1 'Dharma Indra iti dasame, Dharma Indro râgety âheti Satapathe pratikadarsanât,' comm. on Sâṅkh. S.

370:2 The two Sûtras still further qualify them as 'young srotriyas who accept no gifts,''manu(shya)devâ hi ta ity abhiprâyât,' comm. on Saab.; cp. Sat. Br. II, 2, 2, 6, 'ye brâhmanâhsusruvâmsoऽnûkânâs te manushyadevâh.'

370:3 The text has 'brûyât,''let him say;' whilst the two Sûtras read 'sâma gâyât,''let him sing a Sâman' ('yat kimkid anindyam evâsvâmedhikam vâ prakaranât,' comm. on Sâṅkh. S.).

http://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe44/sbe44104.htm Satapatha Brahmana Part V (SBE44), Julius Eggeling tr. [1900], at sacred-texts.com (pp. 361 to 371)

The historical performances of Ashvamedha include:

Monarch	Reign	Dynasty
Pushyamitra Shunga	185-149 BCE	Shunga
Satakarni I	1st or 2nd century CE	Satavahana
Vasishthiputra Sri Santamula or Chantamula	3rd century CE	Andhra Ikshvaku
Vijayadevavarman	300-350 CE	Shalankayana
Bhavanaga	305-320 CE	Nagas of Padmavati
Samudragupta	355-375 CE	Gupta
Shivakanda Varman	4th century CE	Early Pallava
Kumaragupta I	414 – 455 CE	Gupta
Madhava Varmana	440-460 CE	Vishnukundina
Pravarasena II	5th century CE	Vakataka
Dharasena	5th century CE	Traikutaka
Krishnavarman	5th century CE	Kadamba
Narayanavarman	494–518 CE	Varman
Bhutivarman	518–542 CE	Varman
Pulakeshin I	543–566	Chalukyas of Vatapi
Sthitavarman	565–585 CE	Varman
Pulakeshin II	610–642 CE	Chalukyas of Vatapi
Rajadhiraja Chola	1044-1052 CE	Chola
Jai Singh II	1699-1743 CE	Kachwahas of Jaipur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashvamedha

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The non-argumentative Indian -- Sanjaya Baru

January 22, 2017, 11:23 pm

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Sanjaya Baru The non-argumentative Indian

What is the most interesting aspect of the unprecedented experiment in demonetisation? In my view it has been the incredible patience of ordinary Indians.

In an earlier column, I had asked the question whether people across the subcontinent would be willing to “queue up for country” in order to allow the prime minister to attain whatever policy and political objective he may have had in mind when he withdrew over four-fifths of the cash from the economy.

I guess the simple answer to that question, with whatever caveats one may wish to add, is ‘yes’. Recent opinion polls have shown that a large majority of Indians, over two-thirds of those polled, did say that they had been inconvenienced, that they had problems accessing cash, that they had found the going tough, and yet, an equal number also said that they thought demonetisation was a good idea. The support for the initiative has been overwhelming. No wonder the opposition parties have been unable to mobilise public frustration and anger against the government.

This is neither to suggest that people did not face problems nor to suggest that the exchange of cash was handled well. If you have stood in any of those ATM or bank queues you would know that the frustration and anger was palpable. Most people did get tired of standing, of filling forms, and so on. Yet, we have not had any significant reporting of violence, much less mob violence, of buses being burnt, banks being stoned, dharnas being staged, rasta-roko and the lot.

Illustration: Bhaskaran

Sharad Pawar came up with a spurious explanation for this. He likened the silence of the people and their general acquiescence in the move to what happened after the imposition of the Emergency by Indira Gandhi in June 1975. It took the citizen two years to react and when she did, Indira was voted out, he said. He forgot to mention that Indira had put the entire leadership of all opposition political parties, save the CPI, in jail. Anyone who tried to mobilise against the government was jailed. This time round, all opposition leaders have been on television and in Parliament, protesting. They failed to make an impact.

So what explains this stoicism of the patient Indian? Economists have all been busy holding forth on the pros and cons of demonetisation without making us any wiser, for the move was political and deserves sociological analysis. Much of what economists have been saying is neither based on experience, since there is no precedent to what has been done, nor based on any theory for there is very little to go by. An important source for much theorising in economics is an understanding of human psychology—the response of homo economics to losing or gaining income.

The phenomenon of the citizen’s response to demonetisation ought to be the subject matter of research for sociologists, political scientists, behaviouralists and psychologists. Why were a visibly inconvenienced people so patient? What does it tell us about the psyche of the common citizen?

Addressing a media event in March 2007, Manmohan Singh made an interesting observation, ticking off his friend and former colleague, the economist Amartya Sen, on his views about the ‘Argumentative Indian’. Differing with Sen, Singh said, “It is not the argumentative nature that we must celebrate, but our assimilative nature, our consensual nature, our accommodative nature.” Singh would often draw attention to the incredible patience of ordinary Indians and their willingness to accept difficulties and seek consensual outcomes if they believed this was in the national interest.

It is that non-argumentative Indian who has stood patiently in queues to collect what is rightfully her’s—cash well-earned from hard work—in the hope that those who had not worked enough to deserve their ill-gotten wealth would in fact be punished.

http://www.theweek.in/columns/Sanjaya-Baru/the-non-argumentative-indian.html

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3.02 crore humans in record chain

January 22, 2017, 11:33 pm

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Bihar breaks world record with 11,000-km human chain – but India's English media barely reported it

| Monday , January 23 , 2017 |

3.02 crore humans in record chain

Dev Raj

Patna, Jan. 22: Over 3.02 crore people participated in yesterday's 11,477km-long human chain in support of prohibition, the government said today.
Of the total length, 3,433km was on main routes including national highways and the rest was on sub-routes.

Patna led with a 277km chain on main routes, followed by 205km in East Champaran and 200km in Gopalganj. On sub-routes, West Champaran came first with 394km.

Muzaffarpur district had the maximum turnout with 14.09 lakh people taking part, followed by East Champaran with 13.56 lakh and Gaya with 12.76 lakh. Purnea district took pole position in the maximum number of people - 6.85 lakh - forming the human chain on main routes, while Gaya was number one in participation on sub-routes with 9.87 lakh persons.

Yesterday's human chain was longer than the 1,155km human chain made by 15 lakh people in Nepal on October 1, 2015 during the Madhesi movement, and the 1,050km human chain made in Bangladesh on December 11, 2004, making it almost certain that Bihar's effort will make it to the Limca Book of Records whose representative was present at Gandhi Maidan in Patna.

A total of 1.67 crore school students, 70 lakh women from self-help groups and 1.7 lakh anganwadi workers took part.

https://www.telegraphindia.com/1170123/jsp/frontpage/story_131828.jsp#.WIWxafl97IU

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The Sinister Agenda Behind the Washington War On Cash -- F. William Engdahl. Fake currency!!!

January 23, 2017, 8:10 pm

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21.01.2017 Author: F. William Engdahl

The Sinister Agenda Behind the Washington War On Cash

It’s kinda sneaking up on us like an East Texas copperhead pit viper. It began to get some wide attention in 2016, with prominent economists and financial media suddenly talking about the wonderful benefits of a “cashless society.” Then the government of Narenda Modi completely surprised his citizens by suddenly announcing withdrawal of larger denomination currency notes from circulation, forcing Indians to put their cash into banks or lose it. Now, everywhere we turn, it seems, someone is arguing the Nirvana benefits of a cashless, “digital” money world. It reminds me in an eerie way of a statement attributed to then US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger in the 1970’s. He reportedly stated, “If you control oil, you control entire nations; if you control food, you control the people; if you control money, you control the entire world.” Consider the following in this regard.

Modi and a USAID ‘Catalyst’

On November 8, 2016 in a surprise televised address, Indian Prime Minister Narenda Modi announced that, within a deadline of days, all Indian currency notes of 500 and 1,000 Rupees must be put in a bank account and exchanged for smaller denomination notes. At today’s exchange rate 1,000 Rs is roughly equal to $15. This would perhaps be equivalent to the US Treasury outlawing all cash notes larger than a $10 bill.

Overnight, Modi’s government de facto outlawed an estimated 86 percent of all cash in circulation by value. People had 50 days to hand in the notes or they become worthless. Yet the government, despite stating it would issue new, more secure 500Rs and 1000Rs bills, had nowhere near the equivalent value of new notes ready for replacement. They say it may take up to a year to print enough, which means confiscation, de facto. Faked opinion polls with slanted questions done only via smart phone apps of which only 17% of the population has access, claimed that “90% of Indians approve” the demonetization.

Yet it’s far worse. India is an underdeveloped country, the largest in the world in population terms with more than 1.3 billion people. By demanding Indians turn in all 500Rs and 1,000Rs bills to banks, Modi is forcing major change in how Indians control their money in a country high on the corruption scale where few trust government let alone private banks, and prefer to deal strictly in cash or hoard gold for value. Nearly half the population, some 600 million Indians, do not hold a bank account and half of those, some 300 million Indians, lack a government identification, necessary to open an account.

When he presented his shock announcement, Modi pitched it in terms of going after India’s black economy. Soon he shifted gears and was praising the benefits of a “cash-less society” to enable Indians to enter the digital age, appealing to younger Indians, savvy in smart phones and digital networks, to convince the older of the benefits of online banking and consuming. The drastic demonetization declaration was planned by Modi and five other inner-circle ministers in complete secrecy. Not even the banks were told before. The question is what is behind, or rather who is behind this drastic form of monetary shock therapy?

Beyond Cash

The answer is as sinister as it is suggestive of a larger global agenda by what I call in one of my books the Wall Street “Gods of Money.” The Modi cash-less India operation is a project of the US National Security Council, US State Department and Office of the President administered through its US Agency for International Development (USAID). Little surprise, then, that the US State Department spokesman, Mark Toner in a December 1, 2016 press briefing praised the Modi demonetization move stating, “…this was, we believe, an important and necessary step to crack down on illegal actions…a necessary one to address the corruption.”

Keep in mind that USAID today has little to do with aiding poorer countries. By law it must follow the foreign policy agenda of the President’s National Security Council and State Department. It’s widely known as a conduit for CIA money to execute their dirty agendas abroad in places such as Georgia. Notably, the present head of the USAID, Gayle Smith, came to head USAID from her post as Senior Director at the US National Security Council.

German economist and blogger, Norbert Haering, in an extensive, well-documented investigation into the background of the bizarre Modi move to a cash-less India, found not only USAID as the key financial source of the project. He also uncovered a snake-pit of organizational vipers being funded by USAID to design and implement the India shock therapy.

USAID negotiated a co-operation with the Modi Indian Ministry of Finance. In October, 2016 in a press release USAID announced it had created and funded something it named Project Catalyst. The title of their report was, “Catalyst: Inclusive Cashless Payment Partnership.” Its stated goal it said was to bring about a “quantum leap” in cashless payment in India.

They certainly did that. Maybe two quantum leaps and some.

If we dig a bit deeper we find that in January, 2016, USAID presented the Indian Finance Ministry a report titled, Beyond Cash: Why India loves cash and why that matters for financial inclusion. Financial “inclusion” for them means getting all Indians into the digital banking system where their every payment can be electronically tracked and given to the tax authorities or to whomever the government sees fit.

Astonishingly, the report, prepared for USAID by something called the Global Innovation Exchange, admitted that “97% of retail transactions in India are conducted in cash or check; Few consumers use digital payments. Only 11% used debit cards for payments last year. Only 6% of Indian merchants accept digital payments…Only 29 percent of bank accounts in India have been used in the last three months.” The US and Indian governments knew very well what shock they were detonating in India.

The Global Innovation Exchange includes such dubious member organizations as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, a major donor to the Modi war on cash initiative of USAID. It also includes USAID itself, several UN agencies including UNICEF, UNDP, UNHCR. And it includes the US Department of Commerce and a spooky Maclean, Virginia military contractor called MITRE Corporation whose chairman is former CIA Director, James Rodney Schlesinger, a close associate of Henry Kissinger.

The USAID Project Catalyst in partnership with the Indian Finance Ministry was done, according to the USAID press statement, with a sinister-sounding organization called CashlessCatalyst.org. Among the 35 members of CashlessCatalyst.org are USAID, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, VISA, MasterCard, Omidyar Network of eBay billionaire founder Pierre Omidyar, the World Economic Forum-center of the globalization annual Alpine meetings.

War on Cash

However, a most interesting member of the USAID Project Catalyst together with the Indian Ministry of Finance is something called Better Than Cash Alliance. In point of fact the US-government-finance Project Catalyst grew out of a longer cooperation between USAID, the Washington-based Better Than Cash Alliance and the Indian Ministry of Finance. It appers to be the core public driver pushing the agenda of the global “war on cash.”

India and the reckless (or corrupt) Modi government implementing the USAID-Better Than Cash Alliance agenda is clearly serving as a guinea pig in a mass social experiment about how to push the cash war in other countries. The Better Than Cash Alliance is described by the UNCDF, which is its Secretariat, as “a US $38 million global alliance of governments, private sector and development organizations committed to accelerating the shift from cash to electronic payments.”

The Better Than Cash Alliance website announces that the alliance, created in 2012, is a “partnership of governments, companies, and international organizations that accelerates the transition from cash to digital payments in order to reduce poverty and drive inclusive growth.” It’s housed at the UN Capital Development Fund (UNCDF) in New York whose major donors, in turn, surprise, surprise, are the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and MasterCard Foundation. Among the Better Than Cash Alliance’s 50 members are, in addition to the Gates Foundation, Citi Foundation (Citigroup), Ford Foundation, MasterCard, Omidyar Network, United States Agency for International Development, and Visa Inc.

Recently the European Central Bank, which has held negative interest rates for more than a year, allegedly to stimulate growth in the Eurozone amid the long-duration banking and economic crisis of almost nine years, announced that it will stop printing the €500 note. They claim it’s connected with money laundering and terror financing, though it ominously echoes the Modi India war on cash. Former US Treasury Secretary Larry Summers, whose shady role in the 1990’s rape of Russia through his Harvard cronies has been documented elsewhere, is calling for eliminating the US $100 bill. These are first steps to future bolder moves to the desired Cash-less society of Gates, Citigroup, Visa et al.

US Dual Standard: Follow the money…

The move to a purely digital money system would be Big Brother on steroids. It would allow the relevant governments to monitor our every money move with a digital trail, to confiscate deposits in what now are legal bank “bail-ins” as was done in Cyprus in 2013. If central banks move interest rates into negative, something the Bank of Japan and ECB in Frankfurt are already doing, citizens have no choice than to spend the bank money or lose. It is hailed as a way to end tax avoidance but it is far, far more sinister.

As Norbert Haering notes, “the status of the dollar as the world’s currency of reference and the dominance of US companies in international finance provide the US government with tremendous power over all participants in the formal non-cash financial system. It can make everybody conform to American law rather than to their local or international rules.” He adds, referring to the recent US Government demand that Germany’s largest bank, Deutsche Bank pay an astonishing and unprecedented $14 billion fine, “Every internationally active bank can be blackmailed by the US government into following their orders, since revoking their license to do business in the US or in dollar basically amounts to shutting them down.”

We should add to this “benevolent concern” of the US Government to stimulate a War on Cash in India and elsewhere the fact that while Washington has been the most aggressive demanding that banks in other countries enact measures for full disclosure of details of Swiss or Panama or other “offshore” secret account holders or US nationals holding money in foreign banks, the USA itself has scrupulously avoided demanding the same of its domestic banks. The result, as Bloomberg noted following the suspiciously-timed Panama Papers offshore “leaks” of May, 2016, is that the United States is rapidly becoming the world’s leading tax and secrecy haven for rich foreigners.

Perversely enough, in 2010 the US passed a law, the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act, or FACTA, that requires financial firms to disclose foreign accounts held by US citizens and report them to the US IRS tax office or the foreign banks face steep penalties. The EU signed on to the intrusive FACTA despite strong resistance. Then, using FACTA as the model, the Paris-based OECD drafted an even tougher version of FACTA in 2014 to allegedly go after tax avoiders. To date 97 countries have agreed to the tough OECD bank disclosure rules. Very few have refused. The refusers include Bahrain, Nauru, Vanuatu—and…the United States.

World’s Biggest Tax Haven

You don’t have to be a rocket scientist, a financial wizard or a Meyer Lansky to see a pattern. Washington forces disclosure of secret bank accounts of its citizens or companies abroad, while at the same time lifting control or disclosure inside the United States of private banking accounts. No surprise that such experienced private bankers as London’s Rothschild & Co. have opened offices in Reno Nevada a stone’s throw from Harrah’s and other casinos, and according to Bloomberg, is doing a booming business moving the fortunes of wealthy foreign clients out of offshore havens such as Bermuda, or Switzerland which are subject to the new OECD international disclosure requirements, into Rothschild-run trusts in Nevada, which are exempt from those disclosure rules.

Rothschild & Co. Director, Andrew Penney noted that as a result, the United States today, “is effectively the biggest tax haven in the world.” Today Nevada, Meyer Lansky’s money laundering project of the 1930’s with established legalized gambling, is becoming the “new Switzerland.” Wyoming and South Dakota are close on the heels.

One area where America’s institutions are still world class is in devising complex instruments of financial control, asset theft and cyber warfare. The US War on Cash, combined with the US Treasury and IRS war on offshore banking is their latest model. As Washington’s War on Terror had a sinister, hidden agenda, so too does Washington’s War on Cash. It’s something to be avoided at all costs if we human beings are to retain any vestige of sovereignty or autonomy. It will be interesting to see how vigorously Casino mogul Trump moves to close the US tax haven status. What do you bet he doesn’t?

F. William Engdahl is strategic risk consultant and lecturer, he holds a degree in politics from Princeton University and is a best-selling author on oil and geopolitics, exclusively for the online magazine “New Eastern Outlook.”

http://journal-neo.org/2017/01/21/the-sinister-agenda-behind-the-washington-war-on-cash/

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Nasty, brutish, short -- About Trump's 15 min. inaugural address

January 24, 2017, 5:12 am

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How a rhetoric professor assesses President Trump's inaugural address

By Cody Boteler 5:30 pm EST January 23, 2017

Donald Trump delivering his inaugural address on Jan. 20, 2017. (Photo: Alex Wong, Getty Images)

When Donald Trump was inaugurated as the 45th president of the United States, some outlets and commentators were quick to comment that his speech felt a little … different.

The swift reaction online — and especially the dark tone that so many were saying Trump’s speech took — left us at USA TODAY College wondering: Was his speech actually that different from other inaugural addresses?

Richard Vatz, a professor of rhetoric at Towson University, said that Trump’s speech was shorter than most.

But, he said, that’s not what was most interesting about the speech.

“The most fascinating point was that President Trump complimented Barack Obama during the transition,” Vatz told USA TODAY College in an interview. “But after he did that, he then gave a couple of offensives that you could put in a category of ‘our long national nightmare is over,'” which, Vatz said, was similar to President Gerald Ford’s inaugural speech after the presidency of Richard Nixon.

(Fun fact: “Obama” was one of the four most-used words in Trump’s inaugural address.)

And, while Vatz said that it’s not unusual to have an inaugural address without many policy specifics, there were some policy elements that are still disquieting.

“Inaugural speeches are usually not specific,” Vatz said. “[But] you should be, even in generalities, you should be clear on positions you’re taking. But his foreign policy remains a big concern for many of us.”

Vatz said he was concerned about Trump’s views on foreign policy, in part because there haven’t been many hints as to what Trump’s positions may be.

Vatz would not say whether or not his speech was more “grim” than previous inaugural addresses, calling it a “political dispute.”

“I call it over-promising,” Vatz said. “Because he says we have these terrible problems, but he’s saying, ‘Boy you’re lucky because I’m president now.’”

But, Vatz said, because Trump’s personality is so polarizing, there’s no way that he won’t let down a large population.

“With his personality, and his personal attacks on people, and his resentment, there’s just no way that he’s going to be a generally approved presidency,” Vatz said.

Several inaugural addresses came with memorable phrases. For example:

“Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country, ” John F. Kennedy, 1961.
“Let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself,” Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1933.
“With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations,” Abraham Lincoln, 1865.

As for President Donald Trump?

“The phrase of Trump is, ‘We will make America great again,’” Vatz said. Which could backfire.

“After four years, I guarantee you the Democratic argument will be that [Trump] didn’t make America great again,” Vatz said.

Cody Boteler is a Towson University student and a USA TODAY College correspondent.

http://college.usatoday.com/2017/01/23/how-a-rhetoric-professor-assesses-president-trumps-inaugural-address/

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Artificers, Višvakarman of the world, unite! Baṛhai (Garhwālī), Baḍagi (Kannada), Vaḍlavāḍu (Telugu), Tuisco, Tuisto (Germans), Tarkhan (Turkic), Dhiman are Proto-Indo-European divine artificers

January 25, 2017, 12:10 am

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/zxxlwuz

Artificers,Viśvakarman of the world, unite!

This monograph demonstrates that Baṛhai (Garhwālī), Baḍagi (Kannada), Vaḍlavāḍu (Telugu),Tuisco,Tuisto (Germans), Tarkhan (Turkic), Dhiman are Proto-Indo-European divine artificers,, emphatically attested in Bhāratiya samskṛti (culture), language, religion, art, music, poetry and Itihāsa traditions.

Baṛhai (Garhwālī), Baḍagi (Kannada), Vaḍlavāḍu (Telugu),Tuisco, Tuisto(Germans), Tarkhan (Turkic), Dhiman are in Brahman, Viśvakarman, 'cosmic creator' lineage.

The veneration of the artificers as divine is a millennial cultural phenomenon which is identified with Proto-Indo-European people. It is a false dichotomy to separate these people from Dravidian or Austro-asiatic groups of speakers because Bharat has been and continues to be a sprachbund (linguistic area), a language union with dialects and languages sharing common features and absorbing many linguistic features as their own. This has been demonstrated in the rebus Meluhha readings of thousands of inscriptions of Indus Script Corpora as metalwork, artificer catalogues.

Artificers have only false subaltern imagined identities (foisted by motivated academics, leftist liberals in particular) such as dalit, SC/ST/OBC to lose.

A recent book, [Christina Lee (German) and Nicola McLelland (Englidh)(Co-eds.), 2013, Germania Remembered 1500-2009, Commemorating and Inventing a Germanic Past, ACMRS Publications]

"examines how German, English and Scandinavianscholars, writers and artists have invoked the remote history of Germany in order to bolster their ideas about what it meant to be German (or Germanic)...(essays) show how various aspects of ancient Germanic society — its language, religion, laws, music, poetry, and historical figures, such as Hermann/Arminius — have been reimagined in Germany and beyond, in areas ranging from theatre and art to history, from musical theory to regional culture, philology to popular literature. There is much to educate but also to entertain here: from the use of Danish cave paintings as evidence that the Germanic tribes invented polyphonic music, to the seventeenth-century belief that all properly Germanic words have only one syllable, to the tracing of English democracy to Germanic origins."

http://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/clas/files/2013/07/Germania-cover-image-jpg-by-NM.jpg

The book shows the following figure:

Figure 1: Tuisco

It is a collection of 17 essays. Year 2009 in the title of the book is a marker for the 2000^th anniversary of the Battle of Teutoburg Forest which narrates how Germans under Hermann’s leadership repelled the Romans. The background in the figure shows the Tower of Babel.

Tuisco from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum cf. Proto-Indo-European Society of ca. 2000 BCE (Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall.Dictionary of Northern Mythology

. D.S. Brewer )

Mitanni Storm Divinity, Teshub has axe (paras'u) in his upraised right hand and a vajra (thunderbolt) in his left hand. The trident is also pictured in Mitanni seals. He wears a short fringed tunic with a wide belt. His horned helmet is reminiscent of the bull figures often associated with him. Teshub was the divinity of the sky, weather and storms (Hurrian). These narratives are recollected memories of how Tvaṣṭr̥ armourer, forged discus of Viṣṇu, Triśūla of Śiva and other weapons of divinities from solar disc, Sun divinity. cf. ترکانړ tarkāṟṟṉ, s.m. (5th) A carpenter. Pl. ترکانړان tarkāṟṟṉān. (Panjābī); darūz-gar دروزګر darūz-gar, s.m. (5th) A carpenter, a joiner. Pl. دروزګران darūzgarān (corrup. of P درود گر).(Pashto)

Cognate "Tarkhan (Old Turkic Tarqan; Mongolian: Darqan or Darkhan;Persian:

ترخان‎‎; Chinese: 達干; Arabic: طرخان‎‎; alternative spellings Tarkan, Tarkhaan,

Tarqan, Tarchan, Turxan, Tarcan, Tárkány, Tarján, Torgyán or Turgan) is an ancient Central Asian title used by various Turkic peoples, Indo-Europeans (i.e. Iranian, Tokharian, Punjabi), and by the proto-Mongols, Hungarians and Mongols. Its use was common among the successors of the Mongol Empire... one of the Magyar (Hungarian) tribes was called Tarjan (Ταριάνου) according to Constantin VII's De Administrando Imperio, dated centuries earlier. Also this name is commonly used for settlements throughout Hungary, and used as a family name. A. Alemany gives the additional elaboration that the related East Iranian Scythian (and Alanic) word *tarxan still survives in Ossetic tærxon ("argument, trial") and tærxon kænyn ("to judge"). Harold Walter Bailey also proposes an Iranian (Khotanese Saka) root for the word, L. Rogers bears in mind that the word may have originated among the Xiongnu and Huns where it was associated with a title for nobility. Edwin G. Pulleyblank also suggests that both, Turkic tarqan and Mongolian darxan/daruyu, may preserve an original Hunnic word. The word was borrowed by many languages, including Armenian tʿarxan, Georgian t’arxani and Russian тархан through the Mongolian conquests...A tarkhan established the Tarkhan dynasty, which ruled North India from 1554-91. All craftsmen held the status of darkhan and were immune to occasional requisitions levied incessantly by passing imperial envoys.^[17] From then on, the word referred to craftsmen or blacksmiths^[18] in the Mongolian language now and is still used in Mongolia as privilege.^[19] People who served the Khagan's orda were granted the title of darkhan and their descendants are known as the darkhad in Ordos City, Inner Mongolia."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkhan

"The Tarkhan dynasty (Urdu: سلسله ترخان‎), or Turkhan dynasty, was established by Turkic Tarkhan and ruled Sindh, Pakistan from 1554 to 1591 AD. General Mirza Isa Beg founded the Tarkhan dynasty in Sindh after the death of Shah Husayn Arghun of the Arghun dynasty. Mughal emperor Akbar annexed Sindh after defeating the last Tarkhan ruler."

After civil war in Sindh between the King Shah Husayn Arghun and his nobles under Mirza Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan the Tarkhan dynasty was victorious and began to rule over Sindh.
Mirza میرزا	Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan محمد عیسیٰ ترخان	1554–1567 AD
Mirza میرزا	Muhammad Baqi Tarkhan محمد بقی ترخان	1567–1585 AD
Mirza میرزا	Jani Beg Tarkhan جانی بیگ ترخان	1585–1599 AD
Mirza میرزا	Ghazi Beg Tarkhan غازی بیگ ترخان	1599–1612 AD
Mirza میرزا	Abul-Qasim Sultan Tarkhan ابوالقاسم سلطان ترخان	1612–? AD
Sindh was conquered by the Mughal Empire in 1591 AD. by the general Abdul-Rahim Khan better known as Khan-e-Khanan (Khan of Khans). The green rows signify Mughal Rule.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkhan_dynasty

Khati or Tarkhan, carpenter caste of the Panjab. Man sawing a plank.Tarkhan, carpenter caste of the Panjab - Tashrih al-aqvam (1825). Image taken from Tashrih al-aqvam, an account of origins and occupations of some of the sects, castes and tribes of India. Originally written at Hansi Cantonment, Hissar District, eighty-five miles north-west of Delhi, for Colonel James Skinner, 1825. Khati or Tarkhan, carpenter caste of the Panjab - Tashrih al-aqvam (1825), f.287v.

[quote] The Tarkhan is a kin-based group commonly found in the Punjab regions of India and Pakistan. They are traditionally carpenters by occupation. (McLeod, W. H. (2000). Exploring Sikhism: Aspects of Sikh Identity, Culture and Thought. Oxford University Press. p. 214.)

The Hindu Tarkhans are generally identified as Khatis or Suthar, following the Vishwakarma community of India. (Atal, Yogesh. Sociology: A Study of the Social Sphere. Pearson Education India. p. 242.)

The Tarkhan Sikhs were said to be much more advanced than the Muslim and Hindu Tarkhans.( King, Noel Quinton. Perspectives on the Sikh Tradition. p. 303.) They were known to have owned large areas of land and in some cases, villages. ( Sharma, Subash Chander. Punjab, the Crucial Decade. PA (1987). p. 114.) Tarkhan Sikhs are among those groups identified as Ramgarhias, after the Misl leader Jassa Singh Ramgarhia. Despite Sikhism generally rejecting the caste system, it does have its own hierarchy and in that the Ramgarhias, of which the Tarkhans are a part, rank second to the none in Punjab. (Childs, Peter. Encyclopaedia of Contemporary British Culture. p. 270; Judge, Paramjit S.; Bal, Gurpreet. Strategies of Social Change in India. p. 54; Cole, W. Owen (2005). A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy. p. 70.)

During the British rule in Africa a large number of Sikhs were taken to East Africa, for cheap labour, over 90 percent of whom were Ramgarhia Sikh, due to their skills in carpentry. (Light, Ivan Hubert; Bhachu, Parminder. Immigration and Entrepreneurship: Culture, Capital, and Ethnic Networks. p. 172.) [unquote]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkhan_(Punjab)

I suggest that the word 'tarkhan' is related to the Proto-Indo-European (Meluhha) glosses, which are cognate with the Proto-Indo-European root: तक्ष 1 [p= 431,3]mfn. " cutting through " » तपस्-m. ifc. = °क्षन् VarBr2S. lxxxvii , 20 and 24 (cf. कौट- , ग्राम-); m. N. of a नाग (cf. °क्षक) Kaus3.m. of a son [of भरत R. vii , 100 f. Ragh. xv , 89 BhP. ix , 11 , 12 ; (also °क्षक) ; of वृक , 24 , 42].in comp. for °क्षन् ,(Monier-Williams)

A remarkable entry in Apte lexicon specifies that a takSA is a kAru, 'artisan, artificer': kāru

कारु a. (-रू f.) [कृ-उण् Uṇ.1.1] An artisan, mechanic, artist; कारुभिः कारितं तेन कृत्रिमं स्वप्नहेतवे Vb.1.13; इति स्म सा कारुतरेण लेखितं नलस्य च स्वस्य च सख्यमीक्षते N.1.38; Y.2.249,1.187; Ms.5.129;1.12. (They are :-- तक्षा च तन्त्रवायश्च नापितो रजकस्तथा । पञ्चमश्चर्मकारश्च कारवः शिल्पिनो मताः ॥) -रुः 1 An epithet of विश्वकर्मन् the architect of the gods. -2 An art, a science. -Comp. -जः1 a piece of mechanism, any product of manufacture. -2 a young elephant. -3 a hillock, an ant-hill. -4 froth. -5 sesamum growing spontaneously. -6 red orpiment. -शिल्पिगणः a. corporation of artisens and handi- craftsmen; Kau. A.2.6. -हस्तः the hand of an artisan; नित्यं शुद्धः कारुहस्तः Ms.5.129. That the takSA is a carpenter is clear from: takṣ तक्ष् a. (At the end of comp.) Paring, cutting &c.; also तक्ष; Bṛi. S.87.2,24; also तक्षक q. v.; R.15.89; takṣakḥ तक्षकः [तक्ष् ण्वुल्] 1 A carpenter, wood-cutter (whether by caste or profession). -2 The chief actor in the prelude of a drama (i. e. the सूत्रधार). -3 N. of the architect of the gods. -4 N. of one of the principal Nāgas or serpents of the Pātāla, son of Kaśyapa and Kadru (saved at the intercession of the sage Āstika from being burnt down in the serpent-sacrifice performed by king Janamejaya, in which many others of his race were burnt down to ashes). takṣaṇam तक्षणम् (तक्ष् भावे-ल्युट्] Paring, cutting; दारवाणां च तक्षणम् Ms.5.115; Y.1 185. -णी A carpenter's adze. takṣan तक्षन् m. [तक्ष्-कनिन्] 1 A carpenter, wood-cutter (whether by caste or profession); तक्षा रिष्टं रुतं भिषग् Rv.9.112.1; तक्षाणः पलगण्डाश्च ... Śiva. B.31.18; अताक्षा तक्षा K. P. 'one not a तक्षन् by caste is called तक्षन् when he acts like or follows the profession of a तक्षन् (carpenter); Śi.12.25. -2 N. of the architect of the gods.(Apte)

तक्षण [p= 431,3] m. a cutter , abrader W.n. cutting , paring , peeling , abrading Ka1tyS3r. xxii , 6 Gaut. i , 29 Mn. v , 115 &c; n. (N. of a कला) Va1tsya1y. i , 3 , 17; तक्षणी f. an instrument for cutting or paring L.(Monier-Williams)

S. ḍrakhaṇu m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; L. drakhāṇ, (Ju.) darkhāṇ m. ʻ carpenter ʼ (darkhāṇ pakkhī m. ʻ woodpecker ʼ), mult. dhrikkhāṇ m., dhrikkhaṇī f., awāṇ. dhirkhāṇ m.(CDIAL 5621).

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvastr-meluhha-of-bharatam-janam.html?view=timeslide

Imagining of German divinity Tuisco is concordant with the cognate with Tvaṣṭr̥, artificer divinity in Rigveda (and also, TakSa with etyma related to carpenters as artificers). Deutsch, then Teutsch, the word for German language of 17^thcentury is said to be rooted in this divinity. The Roman historian, Tacitus’ account which names Tuisto/Tuisco as the Father/Founder of the Germanic Peoples, is the framework for tracing the origins of German language and Germanic people.

http://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/clas/files/2013/07/Germania-cover-image-jpg-by-NM.jpg

This monograph establishes the trace of Tvaṣṭr̥ in the Itihāsa of Bhāratam Janam in the language, ancient texts, poetry, religion, sculptures and Indus Script Corpora of Bharat, The lineage is also tracked into historical figures and narratives such as बढ़ई जाति and the Varāha metaphor which is central to the Hindu narratives, from the days of Rigveda. वराह [p= 923,2] m. (derivation doubtful) a boar , hog , pig , wild boar RV. &c (ifc. it denotes , " superiority , pre-eminence " ; » g.व्याघ्रा*दि); N. of a दैत्य MBh.; of the son of a guardian of a temple Ra1jat.; f one of the 18 द्वीपs L. पोत्रम् pōtramपोत्रम् [पू-त्र] 1 The snout of a hog; धृतविधुरधरं महा- वराहं गिरिगुरुपोत्रमपीहितैर्जयन्तम् Bk.1.6; Ki.13.53.-2 A boat, ship.-3 A plough share.-4 The thunderbolt. -5 A garment.-6 The office of the Potṛi.-Comp. -आयुधः a hog,; vārāha

वाराह a. (-ही f.) [वराहस्येदं प्रियत्वात् अण्] Relating to a boar; वाराहीमात्मयोनेस्तनुमवनविधावास्थितस्यानुरूपाम् Mu.7. 19; Y.1.259; शक्तिः साप्याययौ तत्र वाराहीं विभ्रती तनुम् Devīmāhātmya. -हः 1 A boar ; vārāhī

वाराही 1 A sow. -2 The earth. -3 The Śakti of Viṣṇu in the form of a boar; varāhḥ

वराहः [वराय अभीष्टाय मुस्तादिलाभाय आहन्ति भूमिम् आ-हन्-ड Tv.] 1 A boar, hog; विस्रब्धं क्रियतां वराहततिभिर्मुस्ताक्षतिः पल्वले Ś.2.6. ; -अवतारः the boar or third incarnation of Viṣṇu. -कल्पः the period of the boar incarnation, the period during which Viṣṇu assumed the form of a boar.

caṣālḥ चषालः 1 A wooden ring on the top of a sacrificial post; चषालं ये अश्वयूपाय तक्षति Rv.1.162.6; चषालयूपत- च्छन्नो हिरण्यरशनं विभुः Bhāg.4.19.19. -2 An iron ring at the base of the post. -3 A hive.(Apte) चषाल [p= 391,2] mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि) a wooden ring on the top of a sacrificial post RV. i , 162 , 6 TS. vi Ka1t2h. xxvi , 4 (चशाल) S3Br. &c; a hive; n. the snout of a hog MaitrS. i , 6 , 3. (These semantics explain why Sarasvati Devi is shown on the snout of the Varaha sculpture of Khajuraho -- to signify the knowledge system related to the processes of the Soma samsthā Yāga).

Evidence for such a caṣālḥ चषालः which is described in SBr. to be atop an octagonal yupa (pillar) has been found in Binjor (4MSR) on the banks of Vedic River Sarasvati.

Binjor Yajnakunda with octagonal pillar.

The abiding Varāha metaphor is a celebration of the artificers who created the wealth of the nation. This nation is celebrated by Devi Sarasvati as Vāgvedi in Rigveda Sukta (RV 10.125).

In RV 10.125.2 she says: I cherish and sustain highswelling- Soma, and Tvastar I support, Pusan, and Bhaga.

RV 10.125.3 ahaM rAShTrI saMgamanI vasUnAM Trans. I am the mover of wealth, I am rāṣṭrī

Barhai (or Baḍhai or Baḍhaee)(बढ़ई जाति) is the largest sub-caste of the Indian caste [6% population in Bharat]]. The Barhai are known by different names in varying regions of India:

South India

Achari
Acharya
Badhaee
Badhai
Sharma
Badhai
Carpenter

North India

Badhaee
Badhai
Badhi
Dhiman
Jangra
Kalsi
Malik
Mistry
Nagi
Panchal
Ramgarhia
Sharma
Tarkhan
Rana
Carpenter

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barhai The artificer as divinity is signified with extraordinary splendour on Varaha representations on an Indus Script anthropomoph and on scores of Varaha sculptures in Bharat.

In dus Script ताण्डव नृत्यम् baḍhia, বরাহ barāha 'boar' baḍhi, bāṛaï 'carpenter', vāḍhī, baṛi, baṛea 'merchant' bārakaśa 'seafaring vessel'

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/04/indus-script-badhia-baraha-boar-badhi.html
Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/j8hh4q2

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/09/tvasta-rigveda-is-worstar-craftsman.html

त्वष्टा tvaṣṭā (Rigveda) is θwōrəštar- “craftsman” (Avestan), Tuisto (German) links with Indus Script Corpora as catalogus catalogorum of metalwork

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/q2h4k7t Teutsch, Deutsch, Tyr (Norse), Teshub (Hurrian),Tuisco, Tuisto, Tvastr, Taksa armourer -- out of Tower of Babel

Varaha hypertext. Indus Script narrative as anthropomorph

Varaha in sculpture

Sarasvati on cashAla of varaha, Khajuraho

Vedic divinities (765 figures) on body of Varaha, Khajuraho. See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/07/varaha-veda-purusha-knowledge-of.html Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/z2mgy7h

Santali glosses

*varddhr̥ ʻ cutter, knife ʼ. [√vardh]
*varddhrī -- : N. bāṛ ʻ blade of khukri ʼ; Bi. bāṛh ʻ bookbinder's papercutter ʼ; H. bāṛh, bāṛ f. ʻ edge of knife ʼ, G. vāḍh f.; -- P. vāḍh, bāḍh f. ʻ cutting edge ʼ poss. < *vārddhrī -- .
*vardharī -- , *vardhā̆ra -- : Bi. badhrī, °riyā, °rā, badhārū ʻ knife with a heavy blade for reaping with ʼ; <-> WPah.bhad. bardhāṇū ʻ to shear sheep ʼ < *badhār -- ṇū?(CDIAL 11371)vardha1 m. ʻ a cutting ʼ W. [√vardh]
S. vaḍhu m. ʻ a cut ʼ; L. vaḍḍh m. ʻ ears of corn remaining in a field after sheaves have been removed ʼ; P. vaḍḍh, ba° m. ʻ a cut in a piece of wood, chip, stubble of grain (wheat, maize, &c.) ʼ, vaḍḍhā, ba° m. ʻ cut, mark ʼ; G. vāḍh m. ʻ cut, wound, reaping a field ʼ; Si. vaḍa -- ya ʻ act of cutting off ʼ; -- K. broḍu m. ʻ septum of nose ʼ? (CDIAL 11372) vardhaka 11374 vardhaka in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ R. [√vardh] Pa. cīvara -- vaḍḍhaka -- m. ʻ tailor ʼ; Kho. bardog, °ox ʻ axe ʼ (early → Kal. wadók before v -- > b -- in Kho.); <-> Wg. wāṭ ʻ axe ʼ, Paš.dar. wāˊṭak (ṭ?). vardhaki 11375 vardhaki m. ʻ carpenter ʼ MBh. [√vardh] Pa. vaḍḍhaki -- m. ʻ carpenter, building mason ʼ; Pk. vaḍḍhaï -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, °aïa -- m. ʻ shoemaker ʼ; WPah. jaun. bāḍhōī ʻ carpenter ʼ, (Joshi) bāḍhi m., N. baṛhaï, baṛahi, A. bārai, B. bāṛaï, °ṛui, Or. baṛhaï, °ṛhāi, (Gaṛjād) bāṛhoi, Bi. baṛahī, Bhoj. H. baṛhaī m., M. vāḍhāyā m., Si. vaḍu -- vā. *vārdhaka -- .Addenda: vardhaki -- : WPah.kṭg. báḍḍhi m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; kṭg. bəṛhe\i, báṛhi, kc. baṛhe ← H. beside genuine báḍḍhi Him.I 135), J. bāḍhi, Garh. baṛhai, A. also bāṛhai AFD 94; Md. vaḍīn, vaḍin pl. †*vardhakikarman -- . 11375a †*vardhakikarman -- ʻ carpentry ʼ. [vardhaki -- , kár- man -- ] Md. vaḍām ʻ carpentry ʼ.(CDIAL 11374, 11375)

TAKṢ ʻ hew ʼ: takṣa -- , takṣaṇa -- , tákṣati, tákṣan -- , taṣṭá -- ; úttakṣati, vítakṣati.
Addenda: takrá -- [Cf. Ir. *qraxša -- with the sense ʻ old ʼ in Shgh. ċīx̌, sar. ċex̌, X. Rosh. ċōx̌ ʻ old, skinny, disheveled ʼ; and ʻ bitter ʼ in Shgh. ċīx̌, f. ċāx̌ EVSh 24]

takṣa in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ VarBr̥S., vṛkṣa -- takṣaka -- m. ʻ tree -- feller ʼ R. [√takṣ]
Pa. tacchaka -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, taccha -- sūkara -- m. ʻ boar ʼ; Pk. takkha -- , °aya -- m. ʻ carpenter, artisan ʼ; Bshk. sum -- tac̣h ʻ hoe ʼ (< ʻ *earth -- scratcher ʼ), tec̣h ʻ adze ʼ (< *takṣī -- ?); Sh. tac̣i f. ʻ adze ʼ; -- Phal. tērc̣hi ʻ adze ʼ (with "intrusive" r).

takṣaṇa n. ʻ cutting, paring ʼ KātyŚr. [√takṣ]
Pa. tacchanī -- f. ʻ hatchet ʼ; Pk. tacchaṇa -- n., °ṇā -- f. ʻ act of cutting or scraping ʼ; Kal. tēčin ʻ chip ʼ (< *takṣaṇī -- ?); K. tȧchyunu (dat. tȧchinis) m. ʻ wood -- shavings ʼ; Ku. gng. taċhaṇ ʻ cutting (of wood) ʼ; M. tāsṇī f. ʻ act of chipping &c., adze ʼ.
Addenda: takṣaṇa -- : Pk. tacchaṇa -- n. ʻ cutting ʼ; Kmd.barg. taċə̃ři ʻ chips (on roof) ʼ GM 22.6.71.

tákṣati (3 pl. tákṣati RV.) ʻ forms by cutting, chisels ʼ MBh. [√takṣ]
Pa. tacchati ʻ builds ʼ, tacchēti ʻ does woodwork, chips ʼ; Pk. takkhaï, tacchaï, cacchaï, caṁchaï ʻ cuts, scrapes, peels ʼ; Gy. pers. tetchkani ʻ knife ʼ, wel. tax -- ʻ to paint ʼ (?); Dm. taċ -- ʻ to cut ʼ (ċ < IE. k̂s NTS xii 128), Kal. tã̄č -- ; Kho. točhik ʻ to cut with an axe ʼ; Phal. tac̣<-> ʻ to cut, chop, whittle ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) thačoiki ʻ to fashion (wood) ʼ; K. tachun ʻ to shave, pare, scratch ʼ, S. tachaṇu; L. tachaṇ ʻ to scrape ʼ, (Ju.) ʻ to rough hew ʼ, P. tacchṇā, ludh. tacchanā ʻ to hew ʼ; Ku. tāchṇo ʻ to square out ʼ; N. tāchnu ʻ to scrape, peel, chip off ʼ (whence tachuwā ʻ chopped square ʼ, tachārnu ʻ to lop, chop ʼ); B. cã̄chā ʻ to scrape ʼ; Or. tã̄chibā, cã̄chibā, chã̄cibā ʻ to scrape off, clip, peel ʼ; Bhoj. cã̄chal ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ; H. cã̄chnā ʻ to scrape up ʼ; G. tāchvũ ʻ to scrape, carve, peel ʼ, M. tāsṇẽ; Si. sahinavā, ha° ʻ to cut with an adze ʼ. <-> Kho. troc̣ik ʻ to hew ʼ with "intrusive" r.
Addenda: tákṣati: Kmd. taċ -- ʻ to cut, pare, clip ʼ GM 22.6.71; A. cã̄ciba (phonet. sãsibɔ) ʻ to scrape ʼ AFD 216, 217, ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ tákṣan (acc. tákṣaṇam RV., takṣāṇam Pāṇ.) m. ʻ carpenter ʼ. [√takṣ] Pk. takkhāṇa -- m., Paš. ar. tac̣an -- kṓr, weg. taṣāˊn, Kal. kaṭ -- tačon, Kho. (Lor.) tačon, Sh. thac̣&oarcacute;ṇ m., kaṭ -- th°, K. chān m., chöñü f., P. takhāṇ m., °ṇī f., H. takhān m.; Si. sasa ʻ carpenter, wheelwright ʼ < nom. tákṣā. -- With "intrusive" r: Kho. (Lor.) tračon ʻ carpenter ʼ, P. tarkhāṇ m. (→ H. tarkhān m.), WPah. jaun. tarkhāṇ. -- With unexpl. d -- or dh -- (X dāˊru -- ?): S. ḍrakhaṇu m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; L. drakhāṇ, (Ju.) darkhāṇ m. ʻ carpenter ʼ (darkhāṇ pakkhī m. ʻ woodpecker ʼ), mult. dhrikkhāṇ m., dhrikkhaṇī f., awāṇ. dhirkhāṇ m. (CDIAL 5618 to 5621)

தக்ஷகன் takṣakaṉ , n. < takṣaka. 1. A divine serpent. See தக்கன்². 2. Artificer, carpenter; தச்சன். பணிக்கன் paṇikkaṉ , n. < பணி³. 1. Teacher; ஆசாரியன். (பிங்.) 2. [M. paṇikkan.] Fencing master, one who teaches the use of arms; படைக்கலம் பயிற்றுவோன். பண்புடையா னொரு பணிக்கன் றோன்றி (திருவாலவா. 35, 1). 3. Director or manager of a play; instructor, as of actors; dancing master; கூத்துப்பயில்விப்போன். 4. [M. paṇikkan.] Master builder; தலைமைக் கொற்றன். (W.) 5. Carpenter; தச்சன். (திரு வாலவா. அரும்.) 6. Mahout, elephant driver; யானைப்பாகன். (W.) 7. Headman of the barber caste; நாவிதர் தலைவன். (W.) 8. Physician for snake-bite; viஷவைத்தியன் 9. One who distils arrack; சாராயம் காய்ச்சுவோன். (W.) 10. A caste-title; ஒரு சாதிப்பெயர். Nāñ. 11. A labouring class; வெல்லங்காய்ச்சுதல் முதலிய செய் யும் ஒருசாதி. 12. A sub-division of the Paḷḷar caste; பள்ளர்சாதி வகையான். (G. Tj. D. I, 90.) மயன்¹ mayaṉ , n. < Maya. 1. A Daitya, the architect of the Asuras; அசுரத்தச்சன். மயன் விதித்தன்ன மணிக்கா லமளிமிசை (சிலப். 2, 12). 2. Carpenter; தச்சன். (சூடா.) 3. Artificer, architect; சிற்பி. (W.) மரத்தச்சர் mara-t-taccar , n. < மரம் +. Carpenter; , n. < id. [M. mucci- yan.] 1. Carpenter, cabinet-maker; தச்சன். (J.) ரதகாரன் rata-kāraṉ , n. < ratha-kāra. Carpenter, coach-builder; தச்சன். (I. M. P. Tp. 715.)

தக்கன்¹ takkaṉ , n. < Dakṣa. 1. Dakṣa, a progenitor of the human race, one of nine piracāpati, q.v.; பிரசாபதிகளில் ஒருவன். தக்கன் பெருவேள்வி தன்னில் (தேவா. 468, 2).

நவப்பிரமர் nava-p-piramar , n. < navan +. The nine creators, viz., Marīci, Piruku, Aṅkirā, Kiratu, Pulakaṉ, Pulattiyaṉ, Takkaṉ, Vaciṭṭaṉ, Attiri; மரீசி, பிருகு, அங்கிரா, கிரது, புல கன், புலத்தியன், தக்கன், வசிட்டன், அத்திரி என்ற சிருட்டிகர்த்தாக்க��் ஒன்பதின்மர்.

ஓடாவி ōṭāvi , n. prob. ஓடம்¹ + ஆள்வி. 1. Shipwright, boat builder; மரக்கலஞ்செய்வோன். (W.) 2. Carpenter; தச்சன்.காட்டாசாரி kāṭṭācāri , n. < id. + ஆசாரி. Carpenter; தச்சன். (W.) சித்திரன் cittiraṉ , n. < citra. (சூடா.) 1. Painter, artist; ஓவியன். 2. Carpenter; தச்சன். சூத்திரன்² cūttiraṉ , n. < sūtra. Carpenter; தச்சன். (அக. நி.)தச்சக்கோல் tacca-k-kōl , n. < தச்சன் +. Carpenter's or mason's cubit = 33 in.; 33-அங் குலமுள்ள தச்சுமுழம். (C. G.) தச்சச்சி taccacci , n. See தச்சிச்சி. Colloq.
தச்சத்தி taccatti , n. See தச்சிச்சி. (நன். 420, சங்கரந.) தச்சநூல் tacca-nūl, n. < தச்சன் +. Treatise on carpentry; தச்சத்தொழிலைப்பற்றிய சாஸ்திரம்.தச்சமுழம் tacca-muḻam , n. < தச்சன் +. See தச்சக்கோல். தச்சவாடி tacca-vāṭi , n. < id. + vāṭī. Carpenter's yard; தச்சர்வேலைசெய்யும் இடம். (C. E. M.) தச்சவேலை tacca-vēlai , n. < id. +. Carpentry; தச்சருக்குரிய தொழில். தச்சன் taccaṉ , n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter; மரத்தில் வேலை செய்பவன். மரங்கொஃ றச்சரும் (மணி. 28, 37). 2. Person of carpenter caste; தச்சுவேலைசெய்யும் சாதியான். 3. The 14th nakṣatra, as pertaining to Višvakarma; [விசுவ கர்மாவுக் குரியது] சித்திரை நாள். (பிங்.) தச்சன்குருவி taccaṉ-kuruvi , n. < தச்சன் +. Wood-pecker. See மரங்கொத்தி. (யாழ். அக.) தச்சாசாரி taccācāri , n. < id. +. See தச்சன், 1. தச்சாசாரியம் taccācāriyam,n. < id. +. Status or position of a master-carpenter;

தச் சத் தலைமை. (S. I. I. ii, 278, 17.)தச்சு taccu , n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter's work; தச்சன்றொழில். தச்சு விடுத்தலும் (திருவாச. 14, 3). 2. Day's work of a carpenter; தச்சனது ஒருநால் வேலையளவு. தச்சுக்கழித்தல் taccu-k-kaḻittal , n. < தச்சு +. A ceremony performed by carpenters prior to house-warming, with a view to exorcise evil spirits; புதுவீட்டிற் கிருகப்பிரவேசத்திற்கு முன்பு பேயோட்டுதற்காகத் தச்சர்கள் செய்யுஞ் சடங்கு. Nāñ. தச்சுக்கோல் taccu-k-kōl

, n. See தச்சக் கோல். (G. Tn. D. I, 239.) தச்சுமுழம் taccu-muḻam

, n. See தச்சக் கோல். (G. Tn. D. I, 239.) தச்சுவாடி taccu-vāṭi

, n. < தச்சு +. 1. See தச்சவாடி. 2. Stand for hackney carriages; வாடகைவண்டிகள் நிற்கும் இடம். Loc. 3. Fuel- depot; விறகுக்கடை. Loc.

தச்சுவினைமாக்கள் taccu-viṉai-mākkaḷ , n. < id. +. Carpenters; தச்சர். (தொல். பொ. 393, உரை.)
தச்சுவேலை taccu-vēlai

, n. < id. +. See தச்சவேலை.

వర్ధకి (p. 1135) vardhaki vardhaki. [Skt.] n. A carpenter. వడ్లవాడు. తక్షకుడు (p. 500) takṣakuḍu takshakuḍu. [Skt.] n. The name of mythological serpent ఒక సర్పరాజు. The name of a race of men called Takshakas. A carpenter వడ్లవాడు.

బాడిస (p. 876) bāḍisa or బాడిసె bāḍisa. [Tel.] n. A carpenter's adze. వడ్రంగి, వడ్లంగి, వడ్లవాడు (p. 1126) vaḍraṅgi, vaḍlaṅgi, vaḍlavāḍu or వడ్లబత్తుడు vaḍrangi. [Tel.] n. A carpenter. వడ్రంగము, వడ్లపని, వడ్రము or వడ్లంగితనము vaḍrangamu. n. The trade of a carpenter. వడ్లవానివృత్తి. వడ్రంగిపని. వడ్రంగిపిట్ట or వడ్లంగిపిట్ట vaḍrangi-piṭṭa. n. A woodpecker. దార్వాఘాటము. వడ్లకంకణము vaḍla-kankaṇamu. n. A curlew. ఉల్లంకులలో భేదము. వడ్లత or వడ్లది vaḍlata. n. A woman of the carpenter caste.

A mud jar sealing indicating that the contents came from the estate of the pharaoh Narmer. Late Naqada III period, circa 3100 B.C., from Tarkhan.
Seal impression with the name of Narmer from Tarkhan

Contents of tomb 99. 1st century CE. From tomb 99 at Tarkhan (Kafr Ammar), Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London

Necklaces with different types of beads. Carnelian, coral, and garnet. 1st Dynasty, c. 3000 BCE. From the Tomb of Mena, Naqada or Abydos Cemetery B, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London. The presence of carnelian links the site to Meluhha (Gujarat), as a possible contact region.

Pottery jar, drab ware. The original loop slip is still present. Ptolemaic period. From Tarkhan (Kafr Ammar), Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London

Piece of waste limestone. Accounts, in black ink, by workmen of the number of stone blocks delivered for the Meidum Pyramid. 4th Dynasty. From Pyramid waste, mastaba 17 at Meidum, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London

Mastaba in Arabic means a 'stone bench or bench of mud'. Mastabas pre-date the pyramids. Mastaba "or "pr-djt" (meaning "house for eternity" or "eternal house" in Ancient Egyptian), is a type of ancient Egyptian tomb in the form of a flat-roofed, rectangular structure with inward sloping sides, constructed out of mud-bricks (from the Nile River) or stone...Mastabas evolved over early dynastic period. During the 1st Dynasty (3218-3035 BCE), a mastaba was constructed simulating house plans of several rooms, a central one containing the sarcophagus and others surrounding it to receive the abundant funerary offerings." (Dee, M.; Wengrow, D.; Shortland, A.; Stevenson, A.; Brock, F.; Girdland Flink, L.; Bronk Ramsey, C. (4 September 2013). "An absolute chronology for early Egypt using radiocarbon dating and Bayesian statistical modelling". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 469 (2159): 20130395–20130395. loc.cit. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastaba)

Example of a mastaba

"Tarkhan is an Ancient Egyptian necropolis, located around 50 km south of Cairo on the west bank of the Nile. The cemetery was excavated in two seasons by Flinders Petrie. Tombs of almost all periods were found, but most importantly many belonging to the time of Egyptian state formation, the Early Dynastic period around 3100 BC. Petrie found more than 2,000 tombs, most of them simple holes in the ground belonging to common people. However, there were also several mastabas of the First Dynasty, decorated with a palace facade.The most important finds include a tomb with many seal impressions belonging to king Narmer and one of the oldest dresses found in Egypt. The cemeteries of the later periods are called Kafr Ammar, although lying side by side with the earlier tombs. From a Roman period tomb came a Fayum portrait."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkhan_(Egypt)

Tarkhan dress
The Tarkhan Dress (courtesy Petrie Museum/UCL)

The Tarkhan Dress (courtesy Petrie Museum/UCL) "The V-neck dress is on view at the University College London (UCL) Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, with its flax fiber linen stitched carefully over a modern silk shirt, so as to exhibit it in its intended dimensions...An over-5,000-year-old linen dress was recently confirmed as the world’s oldest woven garment. The Tarkhan Dress, named for the Tarkhan cemetery south of Cairo in Egypt where it was excavated, had a long road to its title, from its use as clothing and then a shroud, and later being lost amidst a grimy bundle of overlooked textile...University of Oxford affirms, with 95% accuracy, that the dress dates from between 3482 and 3102 BCE. Alice Stevenson, curator at the Petrie Museum, and Michael W. Dee, who led the Oxford testing, published their study in the Antiquity review, writing that due “to its association with a First Dynasty tomb, as well as Naqada IIIC1-type stone vessels, the Tarkhan Dress (as it became known) has been claimed to be Egypt’s oldest garment and the oldest extant woven garment in the world. In the absence of a secure context, however, its date has been contentious.”
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums/petrie/about/collections/objects/tarkhan-dress
http://hyperallergic.com/279242/a-5000-year-old-linen-dress-is-the-worlds-oldest-woven-garment/

The Ramgarhia are a community of Sikhs from the Punjab region of northwestern India. Sikh carpenters use Ramgarhia as a surname whereas Hindu carpenters use Dhiman. (Paramjit S. Judge, Gurpreet Bal, 1996, Strategies of Social Change in India. M. D. Publications. p. 54.)

A 1780 map of the Punjab Region shows the relative positions of the Sikh Misls and other states. Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799)
Phulkian Misl · Ahluwalia Misl · Bhangi Misl · Kanheya Misl · Ramgarhia Misl · Singhpuria Misl · Panjgarhia Misl · Nishanwalia Misl ·Sukerchakia Misl · Dallewalia Misl · Nakai Misl · Shaheedan Misl

Jassa Singh Ramgarhia (1723–1803) was a prominent Sikh leader during the period of the Sikh Confederacy. He was the Commander of the Ramgarhia Misl (or Confederacy).

The traditional occupation of the Tarkhan people was that of carpentry.(Singha, H. S. (2005) [2000]. The Encyclopaedia of Sikhism (2nd ed.). Hemkunt. p. 111.)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramgarhia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhiman_Sikh

Hiraṇya-garbha is Viśwákarma, artificer, works with hirañña-suvaṇṇaŋ gold & money

hiraṇya-garbha is Brahma, the creator. He is Viśwákarma. An early inquiry into this phenomenon of gold as a metal links it to a divine phenomenon of creation which has resulted in the creation of this metal as a unique material qualities of least reactive (resistant to most acids) chemical element -- symbol Au (from Latin: aurum). The Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning "glow". "This word is derived from the same root (Proto-Indo-European *h₂u̯es- "to dawn") as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word Aurora, 'dawn'." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold

సహిరణ్యోదకదానము is a Telugu expression: 'non-retractable gift of money & water'

The hiraṇya-garbha expression in Rigveda signifies Brahma, the creator of cosmos.

arandhanam अरन्धनम् Absence of cooking (as on सिंह and कन्या संक्रान्ति). On KanyaSankranti day, Vis'vakarma Puja is performed.

"Lord Krishna in the Golden City from the Harivamsha (Geneology of Vishnu) Opaque watercolor and gold on paper H: 34.9 W: 23.2 cm India The painting represents the mythical city of Dwarka, where the blue-skinned Krishna, an incarnation of the Hindu God Vishnu, is enthroned on a golden palace and surrounded by his kinsmen. A pastoral scene in the foreground evokes a familiar village setting and a sense that the gods are present in everyday life. This manuscript was painted for the Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) who was quite interested in other religions. Akbar had translations made of major Hindu texts, including the Sanskrit epic the Mahabharata(Great Story of the Bharatas), known in its Persian translation as Razmnama (Book of Wars). This page is from a section appended to the Razmnama known as the Harivamsa (Genealogy of Vishnu), which narrates of the life of Krishna." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dwarka.jpg

Hindu lohar are Vis'vakarma, Muslim lohar are Saifi.

A lohar is a metalworker, a blacksmith.

Loha (nt.) [Cp. Vedic loha, of Idg. *(e)reudh "red"; see also rohita & lohita] metal, esp. copper, brass or bronze. It is often used as a general term & the individual application is not always sharply defined. Its comprehensiveness is evident from the classification of loha at VbhA 63, where it is said lohan ti jātilohaŋ, vijāti˚, kittima˚, pisāca˚ or natural metal, produced metal, artificial (i. e. alloys), & metal from the Pisāca district. Each is subdivided as follows: jāti˚=ayo, sajjhaŋ, suvaṇṇaŋ, tipu, sīsaŋ, tambalohaŋ, vekantakalohaŋ; vijāti˚=nāga -- nāsika˚; kittima˚=kaŋsalohaŋ, vaṭṭa˚, ārakūṭaŋ; pisāca˚=morakkhakaŋ, puthukaŋ, malinakaŋ, capalakaŋ, selakaŋ, āṭakaŋ, bhallakaŋ, dūsilohaŋ. The description ends "Tesu pañca jātilohāni pāḷiyaŋ visuŋ vuttān' eva (i. e. the first category are severally spoken of in the Canon). Tambalohaŋ vekantakan ti imehi pana dvīhi jātilohehi saddhiŋ sesaŋ sabbam pi idha lohan ti veditabbaŋ." -- On loha in similes see J.P.T.S. 1907, 131. Cp. A iii.16=S v.92 (five alloys of gold: ayo, loha, tipu, sīsaŋ, sajjhaŋ); J v.45 (asi˚); Miln 161 (suvaṇṇam pi jātivantaŋ lohena bhijjati); PvA 44, 95 (tamba˚=loha), 221 (tatta -- loha -- secanaŋ pouring out of boiling metal, one of the five ordeals in Niraya). -- kaṭāha a copper (brass) receptacle Vin ii.170. -- kāra a metal worker, coppersmith, blacksmith Miln 331. -- kumbhī an iron cauldron Vin ii.170. Also N. of a purgatory J iii.22, 43; iv.493; v.268; SnA 59, 480; Sdhp 195. -- guḷa an iron (or metal) ball A iv.131; Dh 371 (mā ˚ŋ gilī pamatto; cp. DhA iv.109). -- jāla a copper (i. e. wire) netting PvA 153. -- thālaka a copper bowl Nd1 226. -- thāli a bronze kettle DhA i.126. -- pāsāda "copper terrace," brazen palace, N. of a famous monastery at Anurādhapura in Ceylon Vism 97; DA i.131; Mhvs passim. -- piṇḍa an iron ball SnA 225. -- bhaṇḍa copper (brass) ware Vin ii.135. -- maya made of copper, brazen Sn 670; Pv ii.64. -- māsa a copper bean Nd1 448 (suvaṇṇa -- channa). -- māsaka a small copper coin KhA 37 (jatu -- māsaka, dāru -- māsaka+); DhsA 318. -- rūpa a bronze statue Mhvs 36, 31. -- salākā a bronze gong -- stick Vism 283.Lohatā (f.) [abstr. fr. loha] being a metal, in (suvaṇṇassa) aggalohatā the fact of gold being the best metal VvA 13. लोह [p= 908,3] mfn. (prob. fr. a √ रुह् for a lost √ रुध् , " to be red " ; cf. रोहि , रोहिण &c ) red , reddish , copper-coloured S3rS. MBh.;made of copper S3Br. (Sch.); made of iron Kaus3.m. n. red metal , copper VS. &c; m. (in later language) iron (either crude or wrought) or steel or gold or any metal; m. a weapon L.

"Gold often occurs in free elemental (native) form, as nuggets or grains, in rocks, in veins, and in alluvial deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with the native element silver (as electrum) and also naturally alloyed with copper and palladium. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium (gold tellurides)...Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which dissolves silver and base metals, a property that has long been used to refine gold and to confirm the presenc Until 1930, gold was the standard for currency systems of the world. A total of 186,700 tonnes of gold is in existence above ground, as of 2015.

*இரணியசிராத்தம் iraṇiya-cirāttam , n. < id. +. Ceremony in honour of a deceased ancestor in which the offering consists only of money; பொன் கொடுத்துச் செய்யுஞ் சிராத்தம்.
*இரணியதானம் iraṇiya-tāṉam , n. < id. + dāna. Distribution of gold; சுவர்ணக்கொடை.
*இரணியநேரம் iraṇiya-nēram , n. < id. +. Evening twilight, the time when Hiraṇyāsura was slain by Viṣṇu in His man-lion incarnation; அந்திநேரம். *இரணியம் iraṇiyam , n. < hiraṇya. 1. Gold; பொன். இரணியவரைக்கண் (கந்தபு. திருவி. 92). 2. Money, coin; பணம். *இரணியவருடம் iraṇiya-varuṭam , n. < id. +. A division of the earth; one of nava-varuṭam, q.v.; நவ வருடத்தொன்று. சிருங்க முதற் சுவேதமட்டும் நீதியிரணியவருடம் (கந்தபு. அண் டகோ. 36). *இரணியவேளை iraṇiya-vēḷai , n. < id. +. See இரணியநேரம். *இரணியன் iraṇiyaṉ , n. < Hiraṇya. 1. Name of an Acuraṉ. See இரணியகசிபு. (சீவக. 1813.) 2. A sun-god; one of the tuvātacātittar, q.v.; துவாதசாதித்தரு ளொருவன். *இரணியாக்கதன் iraṇiyākkataṉ , n. < Hiraṇyākṣa. The golden-eyed twin brother of Hiraṇya-kašipu, killed by Viṣṇu in His boar incarnation; இரணியகசிபுவோடு இரட்டையாகப் பிறந்தவன். (அறப். சத. 98.)

వానికి కొంచెము హిరణ్య శ్రాద్ధముచేస్తేనే గాని ఆ పని అనుకూలపడేటట్టు ఉండలేదు unless you grease his palm, I think that business will not be settled in our favour. శ్రాద్ధదేవుడు ṣrāddha-dēvuḍu. n. Yama, the god of death. యముడు. హిరణ్యము (p. 1389) hiraṇyamu hiraṇyamu. [Skt.] n. Gold. Wealth, money. బంగారు, సొత్తు, ధనము, రూకలు. సహిరణ్యోదకదానము a gift of land, &c., with some money and water given to signify that the gift is not retractable. హిరణ్మయము hiraṇ-mayamu. adj. Golden, made of gold. స్వర్ణమయమైన. హిరణ్యగర్భుడు hiraṇya-garbhuḍu. n. An epithet of Brahma. బ్రహ్మ.

kupyam कुप्यम् 1 A base metal. -2 Any metal but silver and gold; Ki.1.35; Ms.7.96;1.113; cf. स्यात् कोशश्च हिरण्यं च हेमरूप्ये कृता$कृते । ताभ्यां यदन्यत् तत् कुप्यम् ... Nm. रत्नान्नपानकुप्यानामाटतुर्नष्टसंस्मती । Bk.6.59. कुप्यप्रदिष्टानां च द्रव्याणामेकैकशो वा वनं निवेशयेत् Kau. A.2.2. -Comp. -धौतम् silver. -शाला a braziery. vīryam वीर्यम् Gold (हिरण्य); अन्नं वीर्यं ग्रहीतव्यं प्रेतकर्मण्य- पातिते Mb.12.165.39. (Apte)

hiraṇam हिरणम् [हृ-ल्युट् नि˚] 1 Gold. -2 Semen. -3 A cowrie; hiraṇmaya हिरण्मय a. (-यी f.) Made of gold, golden; हिरण्मयी सीतायाः प्रतिकृतिः U.2; R.15.61. -यः The god Brahman. -यम् One of the nine divisions of the world. hiraṇyam हिरण्यम् [हिरणमेव स्वार्थे यत्] 1 Gold; Ms.2.246. -2 Any vessel of gold; मन्त्रवत् प्राशनं चास्य हिरण्यमधुसर्पिषाम् Ms.2.29 (some take in the first sense). -3 Silver; (ददौ) हिरण्यस्य सुवर्णस्य मुक्तानां विद्रुमस्य च Rām.1.74.5; Mb. 13.57.34. -4 Any precious metal. -5 Wealth, property; अपदेश्यैश्च संन्यस्य हिरण्यं तस्य तत्त्वतः Ms.8.182. -6 Semen virile. -7 A cowrie. -8 particular measure. -9 A substance. -1 The thorn-apple (धत्तूर). -ण्या One of the seven tongues of fire. -Comp. -अक्षः N. of a celebrated demon, twin brother of Hiraṇyakaśipu; अंशे हिरण्याक्षरिपोः स जाते हिरण्यनाभे तनवे नयज्ञः R.18.25. [On the strength of a boon from Brahman, he became insolent and oppressive, seized upon the earth, and carried it with him into the depths of the ocean. Viṣṇu therefore became incarnate as a boar, killed the demon and lifted up the earth.] -कक्ष a. wearing a golden girdle. -कर्तृ m. goldsmith; यथा हिरण्यकर्ता वै रूप्यमग्नौ विशोधयेत् Mb.12.28.11. -कवच a. having golden armour (said of Śiva). -कशिपुः N. of a cele- brated king of demons. [He was a son of Kaśyapa and Diti, and by virtue of a boon from Brahman, he became so powerful that he usurped the sovereignty of Indra and oppressed the three worlds. He freely blasphemed the great god and subjected his son Pra- hrāda to untold cruelties for acknowledging Viṣṇu as the Supreme deity. But he was eventually torn to pieces by Viṣṇu in the form of Narasimha; see प्रह्लाद]. -कारः a goldsmith. -केशी a branch (शाखा) of Yajur- veda. -कोशः gold and silver (whether wrought or unwrought). -गर्भः 1 N. of Brahman (as born from a golden-egg). -2 N. of Viṣṇu. -3 the soul invested by the subtile body or सूक्ष्मशरीर q. v. -द a. giving or granting gold; भूमिदो भूमिमाप्नोति दीर्घमायुर्हिरण्यदः Ms.4.23. (-दः) the ocean. (-दा) the earth. -नाभः 1 the mountain Maināka. -2 N. of Viṣṇu. (-भम्) a building having three halls (towards east, west and south). -बाहुः 1 an epithet of Śiva. -2 the river Śoṇa. -बिन्दुः fire. -रेतस् m. 1 fire; द्विषामसह्यः सुतरां तरूणां हिरण्यरेता इव सानिलो$भूत् R.18.25. -2 the sun. -3 N. of Śiva. -4 the Chitraka or Arka plant. -वर्चस् a. shining with golden lustre. -वर्णा a river. -वाहः 1 the river Śoṇa. -2 N. of Śiva. hiraṇyakḥ हिरण्यकः Eagerness for gold. hiraṇyaya हिरण्यय a. (-यी f.) Golden. hiraṇyavḥ हिरण्यवः 1 A divine treasure. -2 Golden ornament. hiraṇyinīहिरण्यिनी A gold-mine.(Apte)

aṣṭan अष्टन् -देहाः (पिण्डब्रह्माण्डात्मकाः) Gross and subtle bodies; स्थूल, सूक्ष्म, कारण, महाकारण, विराट्, हिरण्य, अव्याकृत, मूलप्रकृति. -द्रव्यम् the eight materials of a sacrifice; अश्वत्थोदुम्बुरप्लक्षन्यग्रोधसमिधस्तिलाः । सिद्धार्थपायसाज्यानि द्रव्याण्यष्टौ विदुर्बुधाः ॥ -धातुः the eight metals taken collectively; स्वर्णं रूप्यं च ताम्रं च रङ्गं यशदमेव च । शीसं लौहं रसश्चेति धातवो$ष्टौ प्रकीर्किताः ॥
Hirañña (nt.) [Vedic hiraṇya; see etym. under hari & cp. Av. ƶaranya gold] gold Vin i.245, 276; ii.159; A iv.393; Sn 285, 307, 769; Nd2 11; gold -- piece S i.89; J i.92. Often together with suvaṇṇa Vin i.150; D ii.179; h˚ -- suvaṇṇaŋ gold & money M iii.175; J i.341. ˚olokana ( -- kamma) valuation of gold J ii.272. (Pali) híraṇya n. ʻ gold ʼ RV. [hári -- ] Pa. hirañña -- n. ʻ gold ʼ, Aś.shah. man. hiraña -- , kāl. hilaṁna -- , gir. hiraṁna -- , Pk. hiraṇṇa -- n., Si. haraṇa, araṇa, raṇa, ran. hiraṇyamáya -- , híraṇyavarṇa -- . Md. ran ʻ gold ʼ; -- Garh. hiraṇ ʻ piece of gold put in mouth of the dying ʼ ← Sk.(CDIAL 14110) hiraṇyamáya ʻ made of gold ʼ ŚBr., hiraṇmáya -- TS. [híraṇya -- , maya -- ]Si. ranmaya, ranmuvā ʻ golden, made of gold ʼ.(CDIAL 14111) híraṇyavarṇa ʻ golden ʼ RV. [híraṇya -- , várṇa -- 1]Si. ranvan ʻ golden -- coloured ʼ(CDIAL 14112)

हिरण्या f. one of the seven tongues of fire L.

हिरण्य [p= 1299,3] n. (ifc. f(आ). ; prob. connected with हरि , हरित् , हिरि) gold (orig. " uncoined gold or other precious metal " ; in later language " coined gold " -or " money ") RV. &c; any vessel or ornament made of gold (as " a golden spoon " Mn. ii , 29) RV. AV. VS. Kaus3.; a gold piece or coin (generally with सुव्/अर्ण as opp. to base metal) Br.; mfn. golden , made of gold Mn. MBh.; substance , imperishable matter L.; a cowry L.

त्वष्टृ Tvaṣṭṛ 'the heavenly builder' should have been a Divinity Meluhha, he mispronounces इन्द्र-शत्रु indraśatru

RV 1.32.6 He, like a mad weak warrior, challenged Indra, the great impetuous manyslaying- Hero. He, brooking not the clashing of the weapons, crushed, Indras' foe, the shattered forts in falling.

त्वष्टिः f. Carpentry. -m. N. of a mixed tribe (?). त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ) AV. xii , 3 , 33; "creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/इ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम् अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/अ-रूप &c RV. ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x Hariv. 12146 f. R. ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns RV. AV. &c MBh. iv , 1178 Hariv. 587 ff. Ragh. vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ ,

सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम् प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i

Written by Sri Swami Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

Mantrohinah svarato varnato va Mithya prayukto na tamarthamaha Sa vagvajro yajamanam hinasti Yathendrasatruh svarato' paradhat

What was the weapon with which Tvasta’s son was killed? Not Indra's thunderbolt but the father's wrongly chanted mantra.

http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part6/chap9.htm (p.362)

The gist of this story is contained in this verse which cautions us against erroneous intonation.

What was the weapon with which Tvasta 's son was killed? Not Indra's thunderbolt but the father's wrongly chanted mantra.

http://blog.livingspark.net/2010/01/intention-or-intonation.html

Taittiriya Samhita 2.4.12

Keith, Arthur Berriedale, tr: The Veda of the Black Yajus School: Entitled Taittiriya Sanhita. Vols. 1 and 2. Cambridge MA: The Harvard University Press, 1914.

ii. 4. 12.


The following is the relevant portion from pradIpa:


"tatra indrasya shamayitA shAtayitA vA bhava - iti kriyAshabdo atra shatrushabda AshritaH, tadAshrayaNe hi bahuvrIhitatpuruShayoH arthabhedaH. tatra indra-amitratve siddhe sati 'indrasya shatrurbhava' ityatrArthe pratipAdye antodAtte prayoktavye, AdyudAttaH R^itvijA prayuktaH iti - arthAntarAbhi dhAnAt indra eva vR^itrasya shAtayitA saMpannaH."


... indra-shatrur vardhasva (Note indra-shatru in prathamA and vardhasva as in "grow")

The pradIpa says:


In this matter, 'become the quencher or slayer of indra', that is the verb basis of this 'shatru'-word, and it is for that reason that the bahuvrIhi and tatpurushha compounds have different meanings. Given that the enmity to indra is beyond doubt, while wanting to signify that '(grow to) become the slayer of indra', where an udAtta final accent should have been used; the priest used an initial udAtta accent. So - because it carried the other meaning, it was indra that came to be the slayer of vR^itra.

indrḥ इन्द्रः [इन्द्-रन्; इन्दतीति इन्द्रः; इदि ऐश्वर्ये Malli.] 1 The lord of gods.  -शत्रुः 1 an enemy or destroyer of Indra (when the accent is on the last syllable), an epithet of प्रह्लाद; इन्द्रशत्रो विवर्धस्व मा चिरं जहि विद्विषम् Bhāg.6.9.12. बलिप्रदिष्टां श्रियमाददानं त्रैविक्रमं पादमिवेन्द्रशत्रुः R.7.35. -2 [इन्द्रः शत्रुः यस्य] one whose enemy is Indra, an epithet of वृत्र (when the accent is on the first syllable). (This refers to a legend in the Śat. Br., where it is said that Vṛitra's father intended his son to become the destroyer of Indra, and asked him to say इन्द्रशत्रुर्वधस्व &c. but who, through mistake, accented the word on the first syllable, and was killed by Indra; cf. Śikṣā.52; मन्त्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतो$पराधात् ॥ (Apte, p. 386)

इन्द्र--शत्रु [p= 167,1] mfn. (/इन्द्र°) one whose enemy or conqueror is इन्द्र , conquered by इन्द्र RV. i , 32 , 6 TS. S3Br.; m. " इन्द्र's enemy (in this sense the accent is इन्द्र-शत्र्/उ cf. Introd. p. xviii)" , N. of प्रह्लाद Ragh. vii , 32 BhP. vi , 9 , 11 (with both the meanings) (Monier-Williams).

Tvashta was performing a sacrifice to produce a person (or device) capable of killing Indra (in revenge of Indra killing his son). Accordingly 'indrashatruH vardhasva' is a sacrificial pronouncement. The sacrifice was creating indrashatru (device) or indrashatruH (this is more correct since the outcome was vrittra). So Tvashta is just pronouncing 'tvaM vardhasva' or the equivalent 'indrashatruH vardhasva' ='(tvaM) indrashatruH vardhasva' .(also 'v^Ridh' is used only in Atmanepada but with exception can be used as Parasmaipada in the madhyama future, aorist, conditional and desiderative.)

https://www.mail-archive.com/sanskrit@cs.utah.edu/msg00348.html

A quote from H.H. Hock (Hans Henrich Hock, A critical examination of some early Sanskrit, in: Bela Brogyanyi, Reiner Lipp, 1993, Comparative-historical

Linguistics: Indo-European and Finno-Ugric, John Benjamins Publishing, p.222).

Note that Hock correctly notes that त्वष्टृ Tvaṣṭṛ who mispronounces,

is a Divnity -- deva -- and not an Asura:

Excerpts from Eggeling's translation of SBr. 1.6.3:

THIRD BRÂHMANA.

1:6:3:1 1. Tvashtri had a three-headed, six-eyed son. He had three mouths; and because he was thus shaped, his name was Visvarûpa ('All-shape').

1:6:3:2 2. One of his mouths was Soma-drinking, one spirit-drinking, and one for other kinds of food. Indra hated him and cut off those heads of his.

1:6:3:3 3. Now from the one which was Soma-drinking, a hazel-cock (francoline partridge) sprang forth; whence the latter is of brownish colour, for king Soma is brown.

1:6:3:4 4. From the one which was spirit-drinking, further, a sparrow sprang; whence the latter talks as if stammering, for he who has drunk spirits, talks as if he stammered.

1:6:3:12 12. In the fore-noon the gods offered him food, at mid-day the men, and in the after-noon the Fathers.

1:6:3:16 16. Now Vritra, on being struck, lay contracted like a leather bottle drained of its contents, like a skin bag with the barley-meal shaken out. Indra rushed at him, meaning to slay him.

http://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe12/sbe1228.htm

See: https://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2017/01/tvasta-tvastr-ancestor-of-meluhha.html



Tvaṣṭā, Tvaṣṭṛ ancestor of Meluhha artificers = Tuisco, Tuisto, ancestor of Germanic people. Emerges from Viśvakarma (Purusha suktam) 












Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/z4mttc5





Tvaṣṭā, Tvaṣṭṛ, ancestor of Meluhha artificers = Tuisco, Tuisto, ancestor of Germanic people. Emerges from Viśvakarma (Puruṣa sūktam)





This concordance may explain the presence of Proto-Indo-European words in Meluhha speech. A Meluhha speaker is signified on an Akkadian cylinder seal of Shu-ilishu, interpreter.








Akkadian. Cylinder seal Impression. Inscription records that it belongs to ‘S’u-ilis’u, Meluhha interpreter’, i.e., translator of the Meluhhan language (EME.BAL.ME.LUH.HA.KI) The Meluhhan being introduced carries an goat on his arm. Musee du Louvre. Ao 22 310, Collection De Clercq 3^rd millennium BCE. The Meluhhan is accompanied by a lady carrying a kamaṇḍalu.







tvakṣ त्वक्ष् 1 P. (त्वक्षति, त्वष्ट) 1 To pare, hew, peel -2 To make thin. -3 To cover. tvakṣas त्वक्षस् a. Strength, might, power; उदावता त्वक्षसा पन्यसा च Rv.6.18.9. tvaṣṭa त्वष्ट p. p. Made thin, pared, peeled &c.त्वष्टिः tvaṣṭiḥ त्वष्टिः f. Carpentry. -m. N. of a mixed tribe (?).त्वाष्ट्र tvāṣṭra त्वाष्ट्र a. [त्वष्टा देवता अस्य अण्] Belonging to Tvaṣṭṛi; U.6.3. (v. l.). -ष्ट्री 1 The asterism चित्रा. -2 A small car. -ष्ट्रम् The creative power. त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ) AV. xii , 3 , 33; 



" creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/इ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम् अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/अ-रूप &c RV. ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x Hariv. 12146 f. R. ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns RV. AV. &c MBh. iv , 1178 Hariv. 587 ff. Ragh. vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ , सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम् प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i Ka1tyS3r. iii ; supposed author of RV. x , 184 with the epithet गर्भ-पति RAnukr. ; father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv. ; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv. 545 ff. VP. ; also father of त्रि-शिरस् or विश्वरूप ib. ; overpowered by इन्द्र who recovers the सोम [ RV. iii f. ] concealed by him because इन्द्र had killed his son विश्व-रूप TS. ii S3Br. i , v , xii ; regent of the नक्षत्रचित्रा TBr. S3a1n3khGr2. S3a1ntik. VarBr2S. iic , 4 ; of the 5th cycle of Jupiter viii , 23 ; of an eclipse iii , 6 ; त्वष्टुर् आतिथ्य N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. ); a form of the sun MBh. iii , 46 Hariv. 13143 BhP. iii , 6 , 15
त्वक्ष् [p= 463,2](= √ तक्ष् and related to 2. त्व्/अच्) cl.1. °क्षति , to create , produce Nir. viii , 13  ; 
to pare Dha1tup.  ; to skin ib.  ; to cover ib.  ; ([cf. प्र-त्वक्षाण्/अ ; Zd. thwakhsh , ÏÏÎº , ÏÏÏ.])








About Germanic tribes, Tacitus (56-120 CE), senator and historian of Roman Empire, wrote in Germania (in De origine et situ Germanorum): 



The Germans themselves I should regard as aboriginal, and not mixed at all with other races through immigration or intercourse. For, in former times, it was not by land but on shipboard that those who sought to emigrate would arrive; and the boundless and, so to speak, hostile ocean beyond us, is seldom entered by a sail from our world. And, beside the perils of rough and unknown seas, who would leave Asia, or Africa, or Italy for Germany, with its wild country, its inclement skies, its sullen manners and aspect, unless indeed it were his home?In their ancient songs, their only way of remembering or recording the past, they celebrate an earth-born god, Tuisco, and his son Mannus, as the origin of their race, as their founders. To Mannus they assign three sons, from whose names, they say, the coast tribes are called Ingævones; those of the interior, Herminones; all the rest, Istævones. (Complete Works of Tacitus. Tacitus. Alfred John Church. William Jackson Brodribb. Lisa Cerrato. edited for Perseus. New York. : Random House, Inc. Random House, Inc. reprinted 1942, p.2). http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text 




"In ancient days, their only type of historical tradition, they celebrate Tuisto, a god brought forth from the earth. They attribute to him a son, Mannus, the source and founder of their people, and to Mannus three sons, from whose names those nearest the Ocean are called Ingvaeones, those in the middle Herminones, and the rest Istvaeones. Some people, inasmuch as antiquity gives free rein to speculation, maintain that there were more sons born from the god and hence more tribal designations—Marsi, Gambrivii, Suebi, and Vandilii—and that those names are genuine and ancient." (Germania, chapter 2;Tales of the Barbarians: Ethnography and Empire in the Roman West, p. 40, Greg Woolf, John Wiley & Sons; loc. cit. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannus).

Tuesday (n.) third day of the week, Old English tiwesdæg, from Tiwes, genitive of Tiw "Tiu," from Proto-Germanic *Tiwaz "god of the sky," the original supreme deity of ancient Germanic mythology, differentiated specifically as Tiu, ancient Germanic god of war, from PIE *deiwos "god," from root *dyeu- "to shine" (see diurnal). Compare Old Frisian tiesdei, Old Norse tysdagr, Swedish tisdag, Old High German ziestag. http://etymonline.com/index.php

It is significant that, according to Tacitus, the Germanic peoples celebrate the earth-born god, Tuisco (variant Tuisto), a name derived from Rigveda, Tvaṣṭā, Tvaṣṭṛ, the divine artificer, born of  Viśvakarma, the divine architect, artisan.


Tuisco e Moni (divinità germaniche) From Manusk, 1774 book.

Tuisco from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum cf. Proto-Indo-European Society of ca. 2000 BCE (Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer)



Tuiscon (Tuisto) as depicted in a German broadside by Nikolaus Stör c. 1543, with a caption by Burkard Waldis. 


Tuisto. First German. Ancestor of Germanic People. God. Tuisco Tuesday After Figure 1 shows a seventeenth-century imagining of the Germanic god Tuisco. Many in the seventeenth century believed that the Germans and their language (Deutsch, then often spelled Teutsch) were named after this supposed Germanic god. Tower of Babel in the background.  https://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/clas/2013/08/16/germania-remembered/   Germania Remembered 1500–2009. Commemorating and Inventing a Germanic Past, co-edited byDr Nicola McLelland (German) and Dr Christina Lee (English)Narrating the history of events in an extensive area of Eurasia ca. 3rd millennium BCE is a challenge. Many words undergo phonetic changes, e.g. Tvastr, Taksa as Tyr, Teshub, Tuisco, Tuisto. The narratives related to such persons however is related to their contributions in metallurgy and making of armour of the Bronze Age. It is possible to reasonably reconstruct the narrative out of the Tower of Babel thanks to decipherment of Indus Script Corpora as catalogus catalogorum of metalwork.Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/q2h4k7t "The Sanskrit Manu (both the name and the common noun for "man"), has given, in particular, the Germanic Mannus (-nn- from *-nw- regularly), mythical ancestor of the Germans." (Georges Dumézil, 1939, Mitra-Varuna, An Essay on Two Indo-European Representations of Sovereignty, New York, Zone books, p. 87; 1988 edition. Translated by Derek Coltman).


https://archive.org/details/Mitra-varunaAnEssayOnTwoIndo-europeanRepresentationsOfSovereignty
























Visvakarman. 81


1. HE who sate down as Hotarpriest-, the Rsi, our Father, offering up all things existing,
He, seeking through his wish a great possession, came among men on earth as archetypal.
2 What was the place whereon he took his station? What was it that supported him? How was it?
Whence Visvakarman, seeing all, producing the earth, with mighty power disclosed the heavens.
3 He who hath eyes on all sides round about him, a mouth on all sides, arms and feet on all sides,
He, the Sole God, producing earth and heaven, weldeth them, with his arms as wings, together.
4 What was the tree, what wood in sooth produced it, from which they fashioned out the earth and
heaven?
Ye thoughtful men inquire within your spirit whereon he stood when he established all things.
5 Nine highest, lowest, sacrificial natures, and these thy midmost- here, O Visvakarman,
Teach thou thy friends at sacrifice, O Blessed, and come thyself, exalted, to our worship.
6 Bring thou thyself, exalted with oblation, O Visvakarman, Earth and Heaven to worship.
Let other men around us live in folly here let us have a rich and liberal patron.
7 Let us invoke today-, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thoughtswift- Visvakarman.
May he hear kindly all our invocations who gives all bliss for aid, whose works are righteous.





 Visvakarman. 82


1. THE Father of the eye, the Wise in spirit, created both these worlds submerged in fatness.
Then when the eastern ends were firmly fastened, the heavens and the earth were far extended.
2 Mighty in mind and power is Visvakarman, Maker, Disposer, and most lofty Presence.
Their offerings joy in rich juice where they value One, only One, beyond the Seven Rsis.
3 Father who made us, he who, as Disposer, knoweth all races and all things existing,
Even he alone, the Deities' narnegiverhim-, other beings seek for information.
4 To him in sacrifice they offered treasures, Rsis of old, in numerous troops, as singers,
Who, in the distant, near, and lower region, made ready all these things that have existence.
5 That which is earlier than this earth and heaven, before the Asuras and Gods had being,
What was the germ primeval which the waters received where all the Gods were seen together?
6 The waters, they received that germ primeval wherein the Gods were gathefed all together.
It rested set upon the Unborns' navel, that One wherein abide all things existing.
7 Ye will not find him who produced these creatures: another thing hath risen up among you.
Enwrapt in misty cloud, with lips that stammer, hymnchanters- wander and are discontented.


rvs.10.81


Whence Visvakarman, seeing all, producing the earth, with mighty power disclosed the heavens.


rvs.10.81


5 Nine highest, lowest, sacrificial natures, and these thy midmost- here, O Visvakarman,


rvs.10.81


6 Bring thou thyself, exalted with oblation, O Visvakarman, Earth and Heaven to worship.


rvs.10.81


7 Let us invoke today-, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thoughtswift- Visvakarman.


rvs.10.82


HYMN LXXXII. Visvakarman. 82


rvs.10.82


2 Mighty in mind and power is Visvakarman, Maker, Disposer, and most lofty Presence.








Tvastar


rvs.1.1310 Tvastar I call, the earliest born, the wearer of all forms at will:


rvs.1.22And Tvastar, to the Soma draught. 


rvs.1.322 He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvastar fashioned.rvs.1.52Tvastar gave yet more force to thine appropriate strength, and forged thy thunderbolt of





rvs.1.616 Even for him hath Tvastar forged the thunder, most deftly wrought, celestial, for the battle,rvs.1.80even Tvastar trembled at thy wrath and quaked with fear because of thee, lauding thine own


rvs.1.859 When Tvastar deft of hand had turned the thunderbolt, golden, with thousand edges, fashionedrvs.1.14210 May Tvastar send us genial dew abundant, wondrous, rich in gifts,


rvs.1.142For increase and for growth of wealth, Tvastar our kinsman and our Friend.rvs.1.161Then Tvastar, when he viewed the four wrought chalices, concealed himself among the Consorts of


rvs.1.1615 As Tvastar thus had spoken, Let us slay these men who have reviled the chalice, drinkingcup- ofrvs.1.162While Tvastar sends him forward with the Charger, acceptable for sacrifice, to glory.


rvs.1.1866 Moreover Tvastar also shall approach us, oneminded- with the princes at his visit.


rvs.1.1889 Tvastar the Lord hath made all forms and all the cattle of the fieldrvs.2.15 Thou givest strength, as Tvastar, to the worshipper: thou wielding Mitras' power hast kinship


rvs.2.3May Tvastar lengthen our line and kindred, and may they reach the place which Gods inhabit.rvs.2.2317 For Tvastar, he who knows each sacred song, brought thee to life, preeminent over all the


rvs.2.314 Or may this Tvastar, God who rules the world with power, oneminded- with the Goddesses speedrvs.2.36And, Tvastar, wellcontent- be joyful in the juice with Gods and Goddesses in gladsome company.


rvs.3.49 Well pleased with us do thou O God, O Tvastar, give ready issue to our procreant vigour,rvs.3.74 Strengthgiving- streams bear hither him eternal, fain to support the mighty work. of Tvastar.


rvs.3.48even from his birthtime- Indra conquered Tvastar, bore off the Soma and in beakers drank it.rvs.3.5412 Deft worker, skifulhanded-, helpful, holy, may Tvastar, God, give us these things to aid us,


rvs.3.5519 Tvastar the God, the omniform. Creator, begets and feeds mankind in various manner.


rvs.4.33Four beakers let us make, thus spoke the youngest. Tvastar approved this rede of yours, O Rbhus.rvs.4.33And Tvastar, when he looked on the four beakers resplendent as the day, was moved with envy.


rvs.4.42These the two worldhalves- have I, even as Tvastar knowing all beings, joined and held together.rvs.5.59 Rich in all plenty, Tvastar, come auspicious of thine own accord


rvs.5.314. Anus have wrought a chariot for thy Courser, and Tvastar, Muchinvoked-! thy bolt that glitters.


rvs.5.418 You I extol, the nourishers of heroes bringing you gifts, Vastospati and Tvastar-


rvs.5.46And may the Rbhus and the Asvins, Tvastar and Vibhvan remember us so that we may have wealth.rvs.6.1710 Yea, Strong One! Tvastar turned for thee, the Mighty, the bolt with thousand spikes and hundred


rvs.6.4719 Here Tvastar, yoking to the car the Bay Steeds, hath extended sway.


rvs.6.499 May Herald Agni, fulgent, bring for worship Tvastar adored, in homes and swift to listen,rvs.6.50And, with the Gods and Dames accordant, Tvastar; Dyaus with the Gods and Prthivi with oceans.


rvs.6.5211 May Indra, with the Marut host, with Tvastar, Mitra, Aryaman,


rvs.7.29 Well pleased with us do thou, O God, O Tvastar, give ready issue to our procreant vigour,


rvs.7.3420 What time our wives draw near to us, may he, lefthanded- Tvastar, give us hero sons.


rvs.7.3421 May Tvastar find our hymn acceptable, and may Aramati, seeking wealth, be ours.


rvs.7.34May he, with the Varutris, be our refuge, may bountiful Tvastar give us store of riches.


rvs.7.35Kind, with the Rudras, be the Healer Rudra, and, with the Dames, may Tvastar kindly listen.


rvs.8.918 That through this famed Ones' power, he may stand by us even as Tvastar comes


rvs.9.59 1 summon Tvastar hither, our protector, champion, earliestborn-,


rvs.9.81The Maruts, Asvins, Vayu, and Brhaspati, Savitar, Tvastar, tractable Sarasvati.


rvs.10.27 Thou whom the Heaven and Earth, thou whom the Waters, and Tvastar, maker of fair things, created,


rvs.10.8Then Trita slew the foe sevenrayed-, threeheaded-, and freed the cattle of the Son of Tvastar.rvs.10.8He smote his three heads from his body, seizing the cattle of the oniniform Son of Tvastar.


rvs.10.105 Even in the womb God Tvastar, Vivifier, shaping all forms, Creator, made us consorts.


rvs.10.18May Tvastar, maker of fair things, be gracious and lengthen out the days of your existence.rvs.10.469 That Agni, him whom Heaven and Earth engendered, the Waters. Tvastar, and with might, the Bhrgus,


rvs.10.483 For me hath Tvastar forged the iron thunderbolt: in me the Gods have centred intellectual power.


rvs.10.539 Tvastar, most deft of workmen, knew each magic art, bringing most blessed bowls that hold thervs.10.6410 And let Brhaddiva, the Mother, hear our call, and Tvastar, Father, with the Goddesses and Dames.


rvs.10.6510 Tvastar and Vayu, those who count as Rbhus, both celestial Hotarpriests-, and Dawn for


rvs.10.66May the God Rudra with the Rudras favour us, and Tvastar with the Dames further us to success.rvs.10.709 Since thou, God Tvastar, hast made beauty perfect, since hou hast been the Angirases' Companion,


rvs.10.92God Tvastar Wealthbestower-, the Rbhuksanas, Rodasi, Maruts, Visnu, claim and merit praise.rvs.10.1109 Hotar more skilled in sacrifice, bring hither with speed today- God Tvastar, thou who knowest.


rvs.10.1252 I cherish and sustain highswelling- Soma, and Tvastar I support, Pusan, and Bhaga.


rvs.10.1841. MAY Visnu form and mould the womb, may Tvastar duly shape the forms,







Griffith translation: Visvakarman. 82



1. THE Father of the eye, the Wise in spirit, created both these worlds submerged in fatness.
Then when the eastern ends were firmly fastened, the heavens and the earth were far extended.
2 Mighty in mind and power is Visvakarman, Maker, Disposer, and most lofty Presence.
Their offerings joy in rich juice where they value One, only One, beyond the Seven Rsis.
3 Father who made us, he who, as Disposer, knoweth all races and all things existing,
Even he alone, the Deities' narnegiverhim-, other beings seek for information.
4 To him in sacrifice they offered treasures, Rsis of old, in numerous troops, as singers,
Who, in the distant, near, and lower region, made ready all these things that have existence.
5 That which is earlier than this earth and heaven, before the Asuras and Gods had being,
What was the germ primeval which the waters received where all the Gods were seen together?
6 The waters, they received that germ primeval wherein the Gods were gathefed all together.
It rested set upon the Unborns' navel, that One wherein abide all things existing.
7 Ye will not find him who produced these creatures: another thing hath risen up among you.
Enwrapt in misty cloud, with lips that stammer, hymnchanters- wander and are discontented.




Tvaṣṭā, is the heavenly builder, the maker of divine implements, especially Indra's Vajra and the guardian of Soma. 


Tvaṣṭṛ is mentioned 65 times in the Ṛgveda


Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1995). "Abstract Gods". Vedic mythology. Vedas. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 116–118.
























Map showing the approximate locations of the major Germanic tribes in and around the geographical region of Germania as mentioned in Tacitus' work, the Germania. Tuisto (Tuisco) is the ancestor of the Germanic People according to Tacitus (98 CE).


Tuisco from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum


Celestial Creator in Art Thought and Literature





By Choodamani Nandagopal


















“Visvakarma, the Lord of the arts, master of a thousand handicrafts,


carpenter of the gods and builder of their palaces divine, fashioner


of every jewel, first of craftsmen, by whose art men live, and whom,


a great and deathless god, they continually worship.”


– Mahabharata


Rig Veda, tenth Mandalasuktas 81 and 82[i] RV carries two suktas in the name of Vishvakarma so also of Indra, Agni and Maruts. The citation goes as Rishi Vishvakarma Bhauvana, the Creator Vishvakarma, the maker of all that exist in the world manifested, who executes the process of creation on the earth and heaven as a Designer. Vishvakarma in sukta 82 is addressed as the father of vision, wise in spirit, originator of the two worlds, rich in light, having the comprehensive mind. He is the Disposer, Ordained and the highest Seer. He knows all the worlds and domains and He alone assigns the names to the Gods.


[i]R.L.Kashyap,Rig Veda Samhita Mandala 10, Sri Aurobindo Kapali Shastry Institute of Vedic Culture,


2012, p 254 to 259










Portrayal of Vishvakarma in Vedas


Lord Sri Vishvakarma is the origin of all sculptures, the creator of the varied architecture of this universe and the source of all forms, names and actions. He existed even before creation and is the cause of not only the cycle of creation, sustenance and destruction but even the condemnation and grace later on.Hekeeps Mother Gayatriin his heart and has provided refuge at His feet for Saraswati, the Goddess of Knowledge. Preoccupied with the dharma of their duties, Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and other Gods rely on Him for their powers and are His instruments.


He is beyond description (nirguna) and formless (niraakaara). He is as high as the Meru Mountain and is seated on an effulgent seat. He is adorned with bracelet, armlet, gem-studded garlands, a crown decked with divine gems, earrings and yellow clothing. He shines like lightning and dazzles all the eyes that try to see Him. He is also known as Prajapati and Hiranyagarbha. The clouds are his vehicle.


Through a yajna he created the universe and is the first yajnakartru.He is like the divine kalpavriksha and fulfils the desires of devotees who surrender unto Him.He is everlasting and is the ultimate truth.He is called the Lord of speech by Vedarshis. He is the ocean of origin for all the vedaagamas. He is said to be equally versatile in jnana and karma yogas and can be considered to be the tattvic origin of all divine forms.He is the priest who makes offerings to the sacrificial fire, the father who created everything and the one who protects and nurtures everything. He is the cause for all the worlds to be glowing with prosperity and the one in whom all the worlds converge just the way all the spokes of a chariot wheel converge at the centre. The closing of His eyelids signify the end of the world and His auspicious glance is the cause of creation.


The SvayambhuVishvakarma is honoured not only for creation of the universe but also for having initiated sacrifice and then given the example by sacrificing himself.  In later times when he assumes the form of Tvastra Brahma, and in this new position of hierarchy his role is relegated to an architect of the gods. He built the heavens and palaces to gods, such as Indra’s Vyjayanta, Kubera’s and then Ravana’s  Lanka, Pandavas palace at Indraprastha. As Tvashtri, he created many of the chariots, including that of Pushpaka of Kubera. He takes pride in preparing suitable and appropriate weapons to gods that included the thunderbolt of Indra, the lance of Kartikeya, the trident of Siva and the discus of Vishnu. It is believed that when the part of Surya’s substance fell blazing, Vishvakarma put on the lathe and created the strongest weapon synonyms to the power of these gods. Varahamihira, in Brhat Samhita, while introducing a chapter on architecture mentions about the thee architects namely, Visvakarma, Maya and Kama, who have given the architectural vision of dwelling places for gods, kings, Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Shudras. The temple is built in the likeness of universe and is reduced image. The architect of this world image, the temple, is looked upon as descended from, and in his sphere alike to,


Further, Stella Kramrisch adds, that ‘with regard to the making of universe, Visvakarma is the working, Brahma the thinking aspect of the Supreme Principle’. Varahamihira in the chapter on the Glory of Indra’s Banner, describes the jewels offered by the Gods to decorate the Indra Dhvaja. Amongst all the gods, the first to offer an ornament red like the Asoka flowers and of quadrangular form was  Visvakarma, the celestial architect and followed by Siva, Indra, Yama, Varuna, Vayu, Skanda, Agni, Surya, Tvasta, Visve-Devas, Guru, Shukra and other sages. These ornaments are taken as the celestials are presided before the Indra-Dhvaja.  This establishes the supreme place of Visvakarma in the order and cadre of the deities worshipped in any of the auspicious occasions or temple festivals.


Veronica Ions, Indian Mythology,Newnes Books, 1983  P 83


M. Ramakrishna Bhat, Varahamihira’s  Brhat SamhitaChapter LIII – p460 – 470


Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple VolI, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, p 11







There are quite a number of historical inscriptions in the temples, where the mentioning of the historical architect in comparison with the celestial architect Visvakarma. One such inscription found on the mantapa of the Purana Mahadeo Temple, Sikar Rajputana states, “The architect (Sutradhara) of this temple of Siva (Sankarabhavana) was Candasiva, the famed son of Virabhadra, omniscient like Visvakarman in the science of architecture” The Visvakarma tradition in temple building is of greater significance and many of the texts have been compiled and working manuals were created from time to time by the master artisans on the basis of the science and art of architecture and iconography of the Visvakarma lineage. The icon of Visvakarma Panchami Brahma has the five faces representing Sadyojaata, Vaamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha, Eeshaana aspects and ten hands holding on right side trishula, chakra, bana, sarpa and akshamala, while on left side holding dhamaru, sankha, dhanus, vina and kumuda pushpa, signifying the attributes of the trimurti namely, Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesha.




The Dhyanashlokas to be meditated on the different forms of Vishvakarma with reference to the Kashyapa Shilpa text:




श्रीवाण्याश्रित पादपद्म युगळम् विद्युत्प्रभा भासुरम्



गायत्रीयुतमव्ययम् दशभुजम् मेर्वग्र पीठोज्ज्वलम्


देवर्षिस्तुत पञ्चवक्त्रमभवम् मन्दस्मितास्यम् शिवम्


वन्दे शिल्पसहस्र मूलपुरुषम् श्री विश्वकर्म प्रभुम् ||1||


केयूरैः कटकैर्विभूषितकरम् हारावळी सम्युतम्


दीव्यद्रत्न किरीटकुण्डलधरम् पीताम्बरालङ्कृतम्


सृष्ट्यादि त्रय हेतुमूलवपुषम् मेघाधिरूढोज्ज्वलम्


सर्वाभीष्ट वर प्रदायकमहम् वन्दे तमीशम् सदा ||2||


येन च होत्रा पित्रा भर्त्रा विलसन्ति सकल भुवनानि


यन्नाभा वरपटलम् तम् वन्दे विश्वकर्माणम् ||4||


यस्य निमेषः प्रळयो जगतामुदयश्च यच्छुभोन्मेषः


यद्रूपम् जगदखिलम् तम् वन्दे विश्वकर्माणम् ||5||


हरिहर हिरण्यगर्भ प्रमुखादेवा स्वकर्म परतन्त्राः


अङ्गानि यस्य महसस्तम् वन्दे विश्वकर्माणम् ||6||





1. Lord Sri Vishvakarma, who is the origin of all sculptures, the creator of the varied architecture of this universe, the source of all forms, names and actions, has provided refuge at His feet for Saraswati, the Goddess of Knowledge and is called the Lord of speech by Vedarshis. He is the ocean of origin for all the vedaagamas, shines like lightning and is dazzling all the eyes that try to see Him. He, who is nurturing all creatures by keeping Mother Gayatri, protective armour of the whole of creation, in his heart, who is as high as the Meru Mountain, is seated on an effulgent seat and fulfils the desires of devotees who surrender unto Him, like the divine kalpavriksh



2. I salute the Lord of the world, Sri Vishvakarma, who is the cause of not only the cycle of creation, sustenance and destruction but even the condemnation and grace later on, who is adorned with bracelet, armlet, stone-studded garlands, a crown decked with divine gems, earrings, yellow cloth and having the clouds as vehicle and who fulfils the wishes of His devotees.


4. I bow to Lord Vishvakarma who is the priest who makes offerings to the sacrificial fire, the father who created everything, the one who protects and nurtures everything, the cause for all the worlds to be glowing with prosperity and the one in whom all the worlds converge just the way all the spokes of a chariot wheel converge at the centre.


5. I prostrate to Lord Vishvakarma, the closing of whose eyelids signify the end of the world and whose auspicious glance is the cause of creation.


6. I bow to Lord Vishvakarma in whom, preoccupied with the dharma of their duties, Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and other Gods rely on for their powers and whose instruments they are.





Pancha Brahmas



Vishvakarma has the form of Shuddha (pure) Brahma and is effulgent with five faces. These five faces are called Sadyojaata, Vaamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha, Eeshaana. The five Vedas originate from these five faces. The five Brahmas namely Saanaga, Sanaatana, Ahabhoovana, Pratna and Suparna were born from these five faces.





श्री पञ्चास्य विराजितम् तदुदय तत्पञ्च वेद प्रभुम्



पञ्चब्रह्म निदानमाद्यमलम् तद्विश्वकर्मात्मकम्


शुद्ध ब्रह्म समप्रपञ्चक जनिस्थित्यन्त हेतुम् विभुम्


स्वान्ते नित्यमुपास्महेति सकलाभिष्टार्थ संसिद्धये ||3||



1. I constantly prostrate to the Shuddha (pure) Brahma, the form of Vishvakarma, who is effulgent with five faces, who is the reason for the five Vedas originating from these five faces, who effected the birth of the five Brahmas namely Saanaga, Sanaatana, Ahabhoovana, Pratna, Suparna, who existed even before creation and is the reason for creation, sustenance, destruction and the condemnation and grace later on, is everlasting and is the ultimate truth, for the fulfilment of all my desires.




Manu Brahma- Lord of iron sculpture Lord of Rock Sculpture emerged from the Sadyojata face of Vishvakarma



The first among the pancha brahmas was born out of the face Sadyojaata and is called Manu Brahma. He has the colour of a pure Sphatika flower (white). He is companion to Adishakti and is the epitome of peace. He is the lord of the Rigveda and is the founder of Rig shaakha. He is also known as Saanaga and Rudra and is the lord of the sacrificial altar having three corners. He is the founder of iron sculpture. Dark clouds are his vehicle. He is the lord of the eastern direction.


.


सद्योजात मुखाज्जातम् शुद्ध स्फटिक सन्निभम्


आदिशक्तियुतम् शान्तम् ऋग्वेदस्याधिनायकम्


त्रिकोणकुण्ड होतारम् कालमेघोपरिस्थितम्


लोहकृन्मूल पुरुषम् मनुम् ध्यात्वाऽर्चयाम्यहम् ||10||



Lord Vishvakarma has five faces called Sadyojaata, Vaamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha, Eeshaana. The one who was born out of the face Sadyojaata was the first among the pancha brahmas and is called Manu Brahma. He has the colour of a pure Sphatika flower (white), is companion to Adishakti and is the epitome of peace. He is the lord of the Rigveda and is the founder of Rig shaakha. He is also known as Saanaga and Rudra and is the lord of the sacrificial altar having three corners. He is the founder of iron sculpture, the first of the five brahmas and has dark clouds as his vehicle. He is the lord of the East. I meditate upon and worship Him.




Maya Brahma- Lord of sculpture in wood and boat-making



The second among the five brahmas, Maya Brahma, was born out of the face Vaamadeva. He is blue in colour. He is one with Paraashakti and is protecting and nurturing all the worlds. He has given rise to Yajurveda and is its founder. He is the lord of sacrifices in the four-cornered sacrificial altar. He is also called Sanaatana and Vishnu. He is the founder of Daarushilpa (sculpture in wood) and Naukaashilpa (Dheemaan). He is the lord of the southern direction.





वामदेव मुखोद्भूतः मेघवर्णो महाद्युतिः



पराशक्तियुतो देवो यजुर्वेदाधिनायकः


धीमान् चतुष्कोणकुण्ड होता नीलाभ्रवाहनः


दारुकृन्मूल पुरुषः पातुमाम् सर्वदा मयः ||11||


The second among the five brahmas, Maya Brahma, born out of the face Vaamadeva is blue in colour, one with Paraashakti and is nurturing all the worlds. He has given us the Yajurveda and is its founder. He is the lord of sacrifices in the four-cornered sacrificial altar. He is also called Sanaatana and Vishnu. He is the founder of Daarushilpa (sculpture in wood) and Naukaashilpa (Dheemaan) and is protecting all the worlds. He is the lord of the southern direction. May He protect us always





Tvashtru Brahma- Lord of Brass and Bronze Sculpture



The third among the five brahmas is Tvashtru Brahma. He was born out of the Aghora face of Lord Vishvakarma. He is blood-red in colour and is the lord of Saama Veda. He is the lord of the circular sacrificial altar. He is the consociate of Icchaashakti. He is also called Ahabhoona and Brahma. He is the lord of the western direction. He has given birth to Saamaveda and is its founder. He is the founder of Kaamsya (brass) and Taamra (bronze) forms of sculpture.





अघोर मुख सञ्जातम् महामाणिक्य सन्निभम्



इच्छाशक्तियुतम् वृत्तकुण्ड होतारमव्ययम्


सामवेदाधिपम् रक्त मेघवाहन सम्स्थितम्


ताम्रकृन्मूल पुरुषम् त्वष्टारम् पूजयाम्यहम् ||12||


The third among the five brahmas is Tvashtru Brahma. He was born out of the Aghora face of Lord Vishvakarma. He is blood-red in colour and is the lord of Saama Veda. He is the lord of the circular sacrificial altar and is one with Icchaashakti. He is also called Ahabhoona and Brahma. He is the lord of the western direction. He has given the Saamaveda and is its founder. He is the founder of Kaamsya (brass) and Taamra (bronze) forms of sculpture. I meditate upon and worship Him.



Shilpi Brahma- emerged from the Tatpurusha face of Vishvakarma




Shilpi Brahma was born from the Tatpurusha face of Vishvakarma and is the fourth of the pancha brahmas. He is of the colour of smoke and is also called Pratna and Indra. He is the lord of the sacrificial altar with six corners and is associated with Kriyaashakti. He is the lord of the northern direction. He is the founder of Atharva Veda and rock sculpture.





तत्पुरुष मुखज्जातम् श्याम वर्णम् महौजसम्



षट्कोणकुण्ड होतारम् क्रियाशक्तियुत प्रभुम्


अथर्वाम्नाय नेतारम् श्वेतमेघोपरिस्थितम्


शिलाकृन्मूल पुरुषम् शिल्पिनम् प्रणमाम्यहम् ||13||



Shilpi Brahma was born from the Tatpurusha face of Vishvakarma and is the fourth of the pancha brahmas. He is of the colour of smoke and is also called Pratna and Indra. He is the lord of the sacrificial altar with six corners and is associated with Kriyaashakti. He is the lord of the northern direction. He is the founder of Atharva Veda and rock sculpture. I salute Him.


Vishvajna Brahma emerged from the Eeshana face of Vishvakarma




Vishvajna Brahma is the fifth among the five brahmas and was born from the Eeshaana face of Vishvakarma. He glows with the colour of gold. He is the lord of the upward direction and is also known as Suparna and Soorya. He is seated on a yellow cloud and has brought Pranava Veda. He is the companion of Jnaanashakti and is the lord of the sacrificial altar with eight corners. He is the founder of sculpture in gold (svarna shilpa).





ईशानमुख सञ्जातः तप्तकाञ्चन सन्निभः



ज्ञानशक्तियुतः पीत मेघ पृष्ठो परिस्थितः


प्रणव शृतीशाष्टास्र कुण्ड होता महामतिः


स्वर्णकृन्मूल पुरुषो विश्वज्ञः पातु माम् सदा ||14||



Vishvajna Brahma was born from the Eeshaana face of Vishvakarma, is the fifth among the five brahmas and glows with the colour of gold. He is the lord of the upward direction and is also known as Suparna and Soorya. He is seated on a yellow cloud and has brought Pranava Veda. He is the companion of Jnaanashakti and is the lord of the sacrificial altar with eight corners. May he, the founder of sculpture in gold (svarna shilpa), protect us always.




Conclusion:



Vishvakarma, the Celestial architect is not just a mythical persona but the legendary figure of a living tradition of Indian art and architecture. The traditional craftsmen and artists were come to be designated as the Vishvakarma Brahmins in course of time and they considered themselves as analogy of the divine architect Vishvakarma. The Rigveda, Mandala ten two sets of suktas are chants describing the creative power of Vishvakarma. The ancient text Vishvakarmiyam is believed to be the direct form of science and art of vastushilpa rendered by Vishvakarma. In some of the regions the vishvakarma tradition of iconography and iconometry are followed even today and the traditional sculptors of Karnataka are the true representatives of the cultural heritage of vishvakarma .



I acknowledge the support of Mr. Naresh, master craftsperson, Artisan Centre, Canara Bank Bidadi for the drawings of Vishvakarma and Sanskrit rendering Miss. Madhuvanti, Research Scholar Jain University. Sources for writing this part of text- Jnanananda, G. Kashyapa Shilpa Shastra (Uttarardha). Karnataka Shilpakala Academy. 1998:Bangalore.


http://ancientindianwisdom.com/culture-overview/lord-vishvakarma










Cave 10 Visvakarma cave, Ellora




Two views of Mitanni Storm Divinity, Teshub. Axe (paras'u) in his upraised right hand and a vajra (thunderbolt) in his left hand. The trident is also pictured in Mitanni seals. He wears a short fringed tunic with a wide belt. His horned helmet is reminiscent of the bull figures often associated with him. The photo on the left is from the Hittite capital in Turkey. 

Teshub was the divinity of the sky, weather and storms (Hurrian).
















Invocation to Tvaṣṭr̥.







RV 1.113.10 I invoke the chief and multiform Tvas.t.r. (= Vis'vakarma_); may he be solely ours. Sayana explains: Tvas.t.a_ = Vis'vakarma_, artificer of the gods, the fabricator of the original sacrificial vase or ladle. tvas.t.a_ vai pas'u_na_m mithuna_na_m ru_kakr.t---iti s'ruteh (Taittiri_ya.Sam.hita_ 6.1.8.5): Tvas.t.a_ forms in animals in pairs. This remarkable elucidation seems to anticipate the characteristic hieroglyphic multiplex forms -- particularly antithetical, pairs -- of composite animals used repeatedly in Indus Script Corpora. This characteristic pairing seems to be reflected in the explanation for the cognate word Tuisto in Germania -- as derived from tvai 'two':


Tvastar, Tuisto, Ymir. According to Tacitus's Germania (98 CE), Tuisto is the divine ancestor of the Germanic peoples...Tuisto, is commonly connected to the Proto-Germanic root tvai ("two") and its derivative tvis ("twice"; "doubled")...Jacob argues that the Germanic Tuisto (assuming a connection with Tvastr) must originally have been the grandfather of Ymir (cognate to Yama). Incidentally, Indian mythology also places Manu (cognate to Germanic Mannus), the Vedic progenitor of mankind, as a son of Vivaswān, thus making him the brother of Yama/Ymir.(Jacob, Alexander (2005). Ātman: A Reconstruction of the Solar Cosmology of the Indo-Europeans. Georg Olms Verlag., p.232)...According to Rives (1999), the fact that the ancient Germanic peoples claimed descent from an earth-born god was used by Tacitus to support his contention that they were an indigenous population: the Latin word indigena was often used in the same sense as the Greek autochthonos, meaning literally '[born from] the earth itself' (from χθών – chthōn "earth").(Rives, J. B. (1999) (Trans.) Tacitus' Germania. Oxford University Press, pp. 111-112.) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuisto Surya with consorts Saranyu (Sanjna) and Chhaya. Saranyu is the daughter of Tvastar





Saranya (Saraṇyū) or Saraniya (also known as Saranya, Sanjna, or Sangya) is the consort of Surya, and the divinity of clouds in Hindu tradition. She marries Vivasvat and is mother of Revanta, the twin Asvins, Manu, the twins Yama and Yami. Saraṇyū is the female form of the adjective saraṇyú, meaning "quick, fleet, nimble", used for rivers and wind in the Rigveda. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saranyu





RV 10.17.1-2: 
Tvastar prepares the bridal of his Daughter: all the world hears the tidings and assembles.
But Yama's Mother, Spouse of great Vivasvat, vanished as she was carried to her dwelling.
From mortal men they hid the Immortal Lady, made one like her and gave her to Vivasvat.
Saranyu brought to him the Asvin brothers, and then deserted both twinned pairs of children.






10.017.01 Tvas.t.a_ celebrates the marriage of his daughter; therefore, the whole world is assembled; but the mother of Yama, the newly-married wife of the mighty Vivasvat, disappeared. [Deity Saran.yu_: The legend: Saran.yu_, the daughter of Tvas.t.a_, was given in marriage to Vivasvat, and had by him Yama and Yami_. Intimidated by his ardour, she substituted another female, her shadow, Cha_ya_, for herself, and going to Uttarakuru, changed herself to a mare. Vivasvat begot Manu by Cha_ya_, when, finding his error, he set off to look for his wife. Discovering her disguise, he transformed himself to a horse, and had by his wife the two As'vins].
10.017.02 The gods concealing the immortal (Sarn.yu_) for th esake of mortals and having formed her, gave her to Vivasvat. She bore the two As'vins when this had happened and then Saran.yu_ gave birth to two twins. [For the sake of mortals: maryebhyah = manus.yebhyas tadutpattyartham, for men, i.e. that men might be born. Manu was the offspring of Vivasvat and the woman resembling Saran.yu_ and all men are descended from Manu; the two twins: Yama and Yami_, but dva_ mithuna_, may mean two pairs of twins, Yama and Yami_,  the first pair and the As'vins the second].
10.017.03 May the discriminating Pu_s.an, whose cattle are never lost, the protector of all beings, transfer you hence (to a better world); may he give you to these Pitr.s; may Agni (give) you to the beneficent gods. [This and the following three r.cas are to be recited at the funeral rites of a man who has been duly initiated, di_ks.ita].
10.017.04 May the all-pervading Va_yu protect you, may Pu_s.an (preserve) you, (going) first on the excellent path (to heaven); may the divine Savita_ place you, where the virtuous abide, whither they have gone. [a_yu = Va_yu].
10.017.05 Pu_s.an knows all these regions severally; met him conduct us by (the path) that is most free from peril; let him precede us, who is the giver of prosperity, endowed with radiance, accompanied by all pious men, ever vigilant, and knowing our (deserts).
10.017.06 Pu_s.an has been born on the best path of paths, on the best path of heaven on the best path of earth, he goes forward and backward over both (worlds), the assemblies longed for by all, discriminating (the merits of the dead). [Pu_s.an has been born: i.e., manifested in order to conduct men after death to their destination, according to their merits; he goes forward: i.e., favourably to the virtuous to show the fruit of good owrks, backward, i.e., he walks adversely to the wicked; discriminating the merits: i.e., he walks adversely to the wicked].
10.017.07 The devout invoke Sarasvati_; they worship Sarasvati_ at the strewn sacrifice; the virtuous call upon Sarasvati_; may Sarasvati_ bestow blessings upon the donor (of the oblation).
10.017.08 Divine Sarasvati_, who rides in the same chariot with the Pitr.s, and delighted (along with them) by the (sacrificial) viands, seated on the sacred grass gratified (by our offering, and grant us wholesome food.
10.017.09 Sarasvati_, whom the Pitr.s invoke when circumambulating sacrifice on the right, bestow upon the worshippers at this sacrifice a portion of food fit for thousands, and increase of riches.
10.017.10 May the maternal waters, purify us; may the shedders of water purify us with the effusion; for the divine (waters) bear away all sin; I come away from them purified (to heaven).  [Shedders of water...with effusion: ghr.tena no ghr.tapvah punantu: waters which purify others by water; ghr.ta = effused water; ghr.tapvah = divinities presiding over effused water; or, ghr.ta = oiled butter (Yajus. 4.2); udemi = I go to heaven (S'atapatha Bra_hman.a 3.1.2.11)].
10.017.11 The Soma has risen to the earthly and heavenly (worlds), both this visible world, and that which (existed) before (it); I offer that Soma flowing through the common region (of heaven and earth) after the sacrifice (offered by the) seven (officiating priests). [drapsam = a name of the Sun (S'atapatha Bra_hman.a: 8.4.1.20); hotra_h = ditah, which are seven: zenith, nadir, centre and four cardinal points].
10.017.12 Soma, which escapes (from the hide), your filaments which let fall from the hands (of the priest escape) from the vicinity of the planks (of the press), or (from the hand) of the Adhvaryu, or from the filter; I offer it all with my mind (to Agni) with the word vas.at.
10.017.13 Your juice and your filaments, (Soma), which escape, and which fall from the ladle on this side or on that; may this divine Br.haspati sprinkle it for our enrichment.
10.017.14 (Waters)! the plants flourish by means of water my prayer is effectual through water; the essence of water is vigorous through water; purify me with it. [payasvat = having water; or, sa_ravat, having pith or vigour; being vigorous b\y means of water in the shape of rain].








 List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts 

 

c. 2900 BC Sumerian "proto-literate" period from about 3500 BC 


c. 2700 BC Egyptian "proto-hieroglyphic" from about 3300 BC (2nd Dynasty, Narmer Palette)


c. 2400 BC Akkadian from about 2800 BC.[probably the 1st extensive use of writing]


c. 2400 BC Eblaite - They love not commenting this 1. [Proto-Ugaric, Hittite, Canaanite-ish]


c. 2250 BC Elamite - [Most closely related to Indo-Iranian group, developed east of mesopotamia in Susa] 


c. 2000 BC Hurrian - fragmentary, known only from a few glosses in Hittite texts


c. 1800 BC Luwian - hieroglyphs [closely tied to Hittite]


c. 1700's BC Minoan archival documents written in Cretan hieroglyphs c. 1625 BC: 


c. 1650 BC Hittite Various cuneiform texts and Palace Chronicles written during the reign of Hattusili I


c. 1500 BC Canaanite-Proto-Sinaitic alphabet



Map of the Near East ca. 1400 BCE showing the Mitanni kingdom at its greatest extent https://en.wiki2.org/wiki/Mitanni


Meyer considers Tuisto and  Tvaṣṭṛ  of Rigveda to be identical. [Meyer (1907) sees the connection as so strong, that he considers the two to be identical.( Meyer (1907): referenced in : North, Richard (1997). Heathen Gods in Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press.(p.269)] Tuisto is described as being "celebrated" (celebrant) by the early Germanic peoples in song, with Tacitus reporting nothing negative about Tuisto. (Lindow, John. (2001) Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs, p. 296).



Tacitus' reference to Mannus as the son of Tuisto is instructive and jibes with the Indian tradition of Manu as a form of Tvasta together with Maya, Silpi and Visvajna. Vishvakarma [ God ] created five prajapathies — from his five faces such as Sadyojāta,Vāmadeva, Aghora,Tatpuruṣha,Īsāna.[11] They are Manu, Maya, Tvasta, Silpi, Visvajna. These memories among the people is so strong that the narrative of Tacitus about Tuisto may indeed be a recollected memory of  Tvaṣṭṛ and also Visvakarma of Rigveda  It is no mere accident that both  Tvaṣṭṛ and Visvakarma of Rigveda are related as the divinities venerated by artisans, artificers, smiths who make vajra, the thunderbolt and other weapons and metal implements.

These narratives are  evidence validating Indus Script Corpora as catalogus catalogorumof metalwork, together with archaeometallurgical evidences, say, recovered from Chanhu-daro.

These narratives together with the evidence of Gundestrup Cauldron with Indus Script hieroglyphs may be evidence of migrations of Bharatam Janam into Europe establishing contacts with Germanic peoples described in Tacitus'Germania.

The links of Mleccha (Meluhha) with Germanic people of Germania date to ca. 3rd millennium BCE.
A ‘Sheffield of Ancient India’: Chanhu-Daro’s Metal working Industry. Illustrated London News 1936 – November 21^st, p.909. 10 x photos of copper knives, spears , razors, axes and dishes..http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvastr-as-visvakarma-karu-smith-cire_17.html

Tuisto was Tvaṣṭṛ of Rigveda who produced the metal weapon: vajra, the thunderbolt. The divinity Tvaṣṭṛ is mentioned in the Mitanni treaty, which establishes him as a Proto-Indo-Iranian divinity. Tvaṣṭr is Śukrācārya's son, Śukrācārya (the weapons' mentor of the asura) is Bhṛgu's grandson and Vāruṇibhṛgu's son. Tvaṣṭr is the father of ViŚvarupa.

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvasta-metal-artificer-was-meluhha.html This includes RV 10.90  which identifies Tvaṣṭṛ (Sanskrit: त्वष्टृ) is the first born creator of the universe. Also included is RV 10.82 which venerates Visvakarman n associations with Vr̥tra and Dadhici, episodes later elaborated in Bhagavata Purana. See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2015/06/tvastr-is-metaphor-for-veneration-of.html Tvaṣṭr̥ is a metaphor for veneration of metalwork artificers, Bhāratam Janam, in Rigveda. RV 1.80.16 refers to Dadhyanc, son of Atharvan; RV 1.80.1 refers to Indra wielding the metal vajra thunderbolt weapon against VRtra. RV 1.85.9 refers to Indra slaying VRtra using the vajra made by TvaSTA and releasing the water of oceans. RV 1.32.1, RV 1.32.5 to 14, RV 1.52.2 to 15, RV 1.61.6 to 12, RV 1.80.3 to 5, RV 1.80, 3 to 13, RV 1.85.9, RV 1.86.6, RV 2.1.11, RV 3.54.15, RV 4.42.7, RV 6.47.2, RV 10.48.8, RV 10.65.2, RV 10.65.10, RV 10.66.8 also refers to Indra's battle against VRtra and as the slayer of VRtra. The gloss vRTrhA of RV 2.1.11 is also explained by Sayana as 'destroyer of sin'.



These references reinforce the role of Tvaṣṭā as a metal artificer who made metallic weapons. This gets elaborated in a narrative in the Bhagavata Purana related to a son of Tvaṣṭā called Vis'varupa who was killed in battle. 





There is a remarkable episode of mispronunciation by Tvaṣṭā, making him a mleccha. This mispronunciation with a wrong accent on the phrase: Indra-śatro resulted in the birth of Vr̥tra who, instead of becoming a slayer of Indra, gets killed in battle by Indra.


"The sagas, which are the sole record of their past history, say that the God Tuisto (Or Tuisco, the deity that gives its name to Tuesday)sprang from the earth, and that he and his son Mannus were the authors and founders of the race. To Mannus they ascribe three sons, whose names are borne respectively by the Ingaevones ["Grimm's identification of the Ingaevones with the Saxons, of the Iscaevones with the Franks, and of the Herminones with the Thuringians is convenient " (Stubbs, Const. Hist., i. 38]next to the ocean, the Herminones in the middle of the countiy, and the Iscaevones in the rest of it. Others, with true mythological license, give the deity several more sons, from whom are derived more tribal names, such as Marsians, Gambrivians, Suabians, and Vandals ; and these names are both genuine and ancient. The name Germany, however, is new and of recent application, owing to the fact that the first of these peoples to cross the Rhine and dispossess the Gauls, a tribe now known as the Tungrians, then got the name of "Germans". Thus what was originally a name given to a tribe and not that of a race gradually came to be accepted, so that all men of the race were called Germans, by the victorious tribe first as a name of fear, and by themselves afterwards when the name  had once been coined. "(The Agricola and Germania of Tacitus, 1894, Tr. KB Townshend, Methuen & CO.Aberdeen Univ. Press,pp.54-55) https://archive.org/stream/tacitusagricolag00taciiala/tacitusagricolag00taciiala_djvu.txt


Srimad Bhagavatam 6.9.11







http://vedabase.net/sb/6/9/11/en2 


http://prabhupadabooks.com/pdf/SB6.2.pdf


"While the gods Indra and Agni stood for Power and Wisdom, the gods PUSan and Bhaga, Rbhus, TvaSTA and Vis'vakarman presided over the economic activities of the people. The technical and the ritual aspects of productive activity were closely united just as the forms of wealth were conceived in close connection with the favour of the gods...All rUpas are of TvaSTA (the divine fashioner). TvaSTA inherited them from Agni or, as Aitareya has it, TvaSTA is nothing but speech. In other words, all forms are originally contained in divine wisdom, the ultimate illuminer. It is from there that the artificing and fashioning mind derives them. Reality is conceived as a luminous powere which creates things or forms out of itself. The human mind is capable of responding to the Light and apperceiving the forms in which it expresses itself. The forms which man perceives, thus, are not phantasms produced by the senses or the mind but created things rooted in reality."(Pande, GC, 1990, Foundations of Indian culture: spiritual vision and symbolic forms, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, p.61, p.344)




"According to the Bhagavat Purana, he chanted: “Indra-satro vivardhasva ma ciram jahi vidvisam” (“O enemy of Indra, flourish to kill your enemy without delay”). (Bhagavat Purana 6.9.11). Tvasta intended to chant the word indra-satro, meaning, “O enemy of Indra.” Instead of chanting those words short, Tvasta chanted it long, and its meaning changed from “the enemy of Indra” to “Indra, who is an enemy.” Consequently, instead of a son who would kill the king of the gods, he had a son who would die at Indra’s hands. The smallest mistake in pronunciation led to his plans being foiled." -- Nimai Agarwalhttp://kidspiritonline.com/2014/12/the-power-of-words-in-my-tradition/


[quote]hata-putras tatas tvasta 

juhdvendraya satrave 
indra-satro vivardhasva 
ma ciramjahi vidvisam 

TRANSLATION 

After Visvarupa was killed, his father, Tvasta, performed ritualistic ceremonies to kill Indra. He offered oblations in the sacrificial fire, saying, "O enemy of Indra, flourish to kill your enemy without delay."

PURPORT 

There was some defect in Tvasta's chanting of the mantra because he chanted it long instead of short, and therefore the meaning changed. Tvasta intended to chant the word indra-satro, meaning, "O enemy of Indra." In this mantra, the word indra is in the possessive case (sasthi), and the word indra-satro is called a tat-purusa compound (tatpurusa-samasa) . Unfortunately, instead of chanting the mantra short, Tvasta chanted it long, and its meaning changed from "the enemy of Indra" to "Indra, who is an enemy." Consequently instead of an enemy of Indra's, there emerged the body of Vrtrasura, of whom Indra was the enemy. 

Bhag. 6.9.11 

In the compound word indra-satro, the ending of the word satro is uttered short when it is in the possessive case (sasthi) and long when it is in the vocative case (sambodhana) . Tvasta mistakenly uttered it long. He expected "Indra's killer" to be born from the sacrifice, but the mantra he uttered meant "Indra is the killer of the person to be born."

In the above scenario, "long" and "short" do not denote dirgha and hrasva (see section 2.4.2 on vowels), but long (udatta) and short (anudatta) pitch accents on vowels (also in 2.4.2). Tvasta spoke Vedic Sanskrit (vaidika bhasa or vaidika samskrta), in which the word meaning can change depending on the pitch in which a vowel is accented. Vedic Sanskrit occurs only in the sruti-sastra, the four Vedas, and it is also called srauta bhasa. The rest of Sanskrit literature is written in classical Sanskrit (laukika bhasa or laukika samskrta), which is not altered by vowel pitch accents. 

The commentaries by Sridhara Svami and Varhsidhara on Bhagavatam 6.9.11 explain this incident in more detail. They say that the version of the mantra given in 6.9.11 is different from the mantra used by Tvasta. The mantra given in the Vedas and described by Sridhara Svami and Vamsidhar was indra-satrur vardhasva, and their explanations of the mistake are based on this. It was customary to change a Vedic mantra a bit when mentioning sruti texts in writing because the audience did not necessarily have qualifications (adhikara) in sruti. Hence the mantra from the Veda was changed in 6.9.11. Or it was changed owing to considerations of the verse meter. Hence we see that there is no actual vocative in the Vedic mantra. Sridhara Svami mentions that the mistake was in the svaras, vowel pitch accents. As far as the letters were concerned, they were accurately chanted. The mistake in the svaras (vowel pitch accents) was that he chanted "indra" with the udatta accent, which changed it from what was intended (a tatpurusa meaning "Indra's enemy") to something else (a bahuvrihi) meaning  Tndra is the killer of the person to be born." [unquote] 
https://archive.org/stream/Samskrtoccharanam.LS/samskrtoccharanam.%20LS_djvu.txt
Vritra is also mentioned in the Rig Veda, where he is the demon of drought, who imprisons all the strom clouds and causes drought. Indra slays him with his thunder-bolt (Vajra) and frees the strom-clouds, bring bountiful rain to end the famine.
Slaying of Vritra
This story is taken from B.P. and Bhagavata Purana (Canto 6, Chapter 7-13).Brihaspati was the Guru of the Devas. He was very learned and was first among the Brahmanas. Everyone used to respect him. It so happened, that when he visited the court of Indra, the King of the Gods was busy watching his beautiful Apsaras sing and dance, saw his Guru arrive. However, in his arrogance, he did not rise from his throne, nor did he utter the customary words of welcome and worship.The sage felt insulted. He resolved that he will no longer grace the councils of the Devas, and went away to perform penance. Too late, Indra realized his mistake. H searched high and low for his perceptor, but could not find him. Without their Guru to guide them, the Devas could not survive for long. Besides, their traditional foes, the Asuras, will seek to exploit this opportunity to and cash in on their weakened state.Acting on the advice of Lord Brahma, the Devas installed Vishwarupa, the son of the God Tvashta as their new Guru. He was also a Brahmana renowned for his learning and yogic power. As time progressed, Vishwarupa started to notice that Indra and the Devas spent an inordinate amount of time in pursuit of pleasure. Besides, his mother was aAsura woman, and his loyalty was divided. Secretly, he started giving a portion of the sacrificial oblations (Havis) to the Asuras. As a result, their strength increased.When Indra came to know of this treachery, he became very angry. Without pausing to think the consequences of his actions, he struck off the three heads of Vishwarupa. The first head, that was used for drinking Soma, became a francolin partridge, the second head, used for drinking wine turned into a sparrow and the third, used for eating, turned into a partridge. the head of his teacher with his sword. Since he had killed a Brahmana, that too his Guru, he became guilty of the sin of Brahma-Hatya. However, he escaped his punishment by distributing the sin among the land, water, and women. (Other accounts say that his lusture diminished and he had to regain it by doing penance, during which time he was exiled from heaven.) In return for ridding Indra of the sin, earth got water to fill its empty holes, trees got re-growth of cut branches, waters became purifying, and women obtained undiminished sexual desire. As a result of their share of the sin, earth has wastelands, trees have sap, waters have froth, and women have menstruation.Now, Tvashta wanted revenge for the murder of his son. He began arrangements for a sacrifice that would give him a son who could slay Indra. The sacrifice was duly performed, but there was a small problem. When it was time for the final incantations, Tvashta ought to have said, "May this son of mine be the slayer of Indra", but he stressed the wrong syllables in the Mantra, and the meaning changed to "May Indra be the slayer of this son of mine."From the sacrificial fire, there rose a terrible Asura. He was named Vritra, 'the encloser'. He immediately grew immensely big and was as large as the largest mountain. His hair was like molten copper, he had a mustache and beard of the same color and had eyes blazing like the midday sun. He was armed with a magical trident. He derived his immense strength from the incantations chanted at the sacrifice. His father then ordered him to go and slayIndra. Obedient to the command, the demon began to seek the slayer of his elder brother.Some time before this, the Asuras had been thoroughly defeated by the Devas in battle. Peace reigned for a while. The Devas needed a place to store their weapons safely, for they feared treachery. They then remembered that the Asuras dared not approach the hermitage of the sage Dadhichi, such was the yogic power of the hermit. They entrusted all their weapons to his safekeeping.When Dadhichi's wife Lopamudra came to know about this, she was not pleased. She said to her husband, "An ascetic should not take sides in a war. Now the Asuras will think that you are their enemy and seek to harm you. Besides, the Gods have not mentioned how long you are to take care of their weapons. If something were to happen to them in your custody, will they not blame you. We have renounced all worldly possessions and attachments, you were wrong to have taken this responsibility."Dadhichi saw the force of her arguments. He said, "What you say certainly makes sense. However, I have given my word. It is important to stand by ones promise. Besides, the Asuras were always the enemies of us sages, so the question of neutrality does not arise. What is fated will happen, and no one prevent it."Years passed, and Dadhichi was alarmed to note that the lusture of the divine weapons was beginning to diminish. Their power was slowly dissolving in air. The sage then used his yogic power to dissolve all the weapons in water and then he drank it all up. Their power was then lodged in his bones.Now, with Vritra threatening at their doorsteps, the Devas wanted their weapons back. Dadhichi said, "I have bad news for you. Your weapons are no longer there. Their power now resides in my bones. I shall give up my life. You can then have new weapons made from my bones."The Gods naturally balked at the thought of the Rishi's death. However, no other choice was available, for they needed the weapons to battle Vritra. Dadhichi gave up his life. Vishwakarma made Indra the weapon Vajra from the back bone of the hermit. This weapon was the most powerful weapon of all.The armies of the Devas and Asuras met in the battlefield. From the furious onslaught of the Asura army, theDevas were initially driven back, but they redoubled their efforts and slowly gained the upper hand.Seeing his forces retreating, Vritra was extremely angry. He charged ahead and stopped the advance of the Devas single-handedly. He let out a mighty roar, which caused many of the Devas to faint. Under his purposeful tread, the heavens began to shake. He picked up his immense mace and struck Iyravata with it. Indra revived his mount with a touch of Amrit.At this point, angry words were exchanged between Vritra and Indra. The Asura taunted Indra for having slain his brother, a defenseless Brahmana. Angered, Indra struck off one hand of Vritra with his sword. In retaliation, theAsura made his mouth immensely huge and swallowed Indra whole.Though he was swallowed by the Asura, Indra did not die, for he was protected by the grace of Vishnu. He judged it to be time to use his Vajra. He used the great weapon and sliced open the abdomen of the demon, and emerged victorious.However, having slain the creature emerged from a holy sacrifice, he was once again weighed down with sin. Unlike before, he could not get rid of it easily. He retired to the banks of Manasarovar and performed a penance for thousand years to expiate his sins and to regain his lusture.http://web.archive.org/web/20070105054802/http://members.cox.net/apamnapat/articles/SlayingOfVritra.html
Portrait of Tuisco (or Tuisto), identified by Tacitus as the ancestor of the Germans, after an illustration in Wolfgang Lazius' De aliquot gentium migrationibus.https://www.flickr.com/photos/58558794@N07/7725732342
Tacitus wrote:"In ancient lays, their only type of historical tradition, they celebrate Tuisto, a god brought forth from the earth. They attribute to him a son, Mannus, the source and founder of their people, and to Mannus three sons, from whose names those nearest the Ocean are called Ingvaeones, those in the middle Herminones, and the rest Istvaeones. Some people, inasmuch as antiquity gives free reign to speculation, maintain that there were more sons born from the god and hence more tribal designations- Marsi, Gambrivii, Suebi, and Vandilii- and that those names are genuine and ancient." (2.2) loc. cit. http://celto-germanic.blogspot.in/2014/04/tuisto-god-tiwaz.html
Richard North notes that tuisto may be 'two-standing' or 'standing twice'. Mannu is the son of Tuisto who is 'born from the earth'. (North, Richard, 1997, Heathen gods in old English literature, Cambridge University Press, pp.27, 270). 
Týr (/ˈtɪr/; Old Norse: Týr [tyːr]) is a god associated with law and heroic glory in Norse mythology... If a warrior carved the rune Tîwaz on his weapon he would be dedicating it to Týr and strengthen the outcome of a battle to be in his favor. After a warrior has dedicated his weapon to Týr he should not lose it or break it.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BDr
Bas-relief of Phnom Kulen in Cambodia, IX century.Indra holds double-vajra, seated on a column.
The fashioner of the vajra, thunderbolt weapon, is the artificer, Tvaṣṭā.
Yamantaka, Fear-Striking Vajra, Lord of Death (Tibetan: Gshin-rje-gshed), multiheaded, holding vajra, rope, dagger, riding a water buffalo, statue of a guardian, enormous strength, Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism, Art Institute, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
See: https://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2017/01/visvakarman-purusasukta-purusa.html
Viśvakarman, puruṣasūkta; puruṣa signifies totality of existence. History of artisanal Creativity has yet to be narrated. 
Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/hoja98x
Viśvakarman is वाचस्--पति [p= 937,2] m. (वाच्/अस्-) " lord of voice or speech " , N. of a divine being (presiding over human life which lasts as long as there is voice in the body ; applied to सोम , विश्व-कर्मन् , प्रजा-पति , ब्रह्मा &c , but esp. to बृहस्-पति , who is lord of eloquence , preceptor of the gods , and regent of the planet Jupiter) RV. AV. &c. 
viśvákarman ʻ creating everything ʼ, m. ʻ the divine creator ʼ RV. [víśva -- , kárman -- 1] Pa. vissakamma -- m. ʻ the architect of the gods ʼ, Pk. vissayamma -- m., Si. vissam (< *visyam).(CDIAL 11963) विश्वकर्मा (p. 446) viśvakarmā m (S) The son of Brahmá and the artist of the gods. 2 Applied, appellatively, to an ingenious mechanic or artist. (Marathi)
See: Tvaṣṭṛ, ākhyāna or narration of itihāsa, from the Bronze Age Rigveda, sacred text http://tinyurl.com/gpayut8
विश्वकर्म्मन् पु० विश्वेषु कर्म व्यापारो यस्य । १ सूर्य्ये २ देवशिल्पिनि अमरः । ३ मुनिभेदे मेदि० ४ परमेश्वरे च । https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम्
विश्वकर्म्मा, [न्] पुं, (विश्वेषु कर्म्म यस्य ।) सूर्य्यः । देवशिल्पी । इत्यमरः । तत्पर्य्यायः । त्वष्टा २ विश्वकृत् ३ देववद्धेकिः ४ । इति हेमचन्द्रः ॥ (यथा, महाभारते । १ । २१२ । १० । “दृष्ट्वा च विश्वकर्म्माणं व्यादिदेश पितामहः ॥”) मुनिभेदः । इति मेदिनी । ने, २४७ ॥ स प्रभासस्य वसोः पुत्त्रः । यथा, -- “विश्वकर्म्मा प्रभासस्य पुत्त्रः शिल्पप्रजापतिः ॥ प्रासादभवनोद्यानप्रतिमाभूषणादिषु ।तडागारामकूपेषु स्मृतः सोऽमरवर्द्धकिः ॥” इति मात्स्ये ५ अध्यायः ॥ * ॥ अन्यच्च । “प्रत्यूषस्य विदुः पुत्त्रमृषिं नाम्ना तु देवलम् । विश्वकर्म्मा प्रभासस्य विख्यातो देववर्द्धकिः ॥” इति गारुडे ६ अध्यायः ॥ * ॥ अपि च । “बृहस्पतेस्तु भगिनी वरस्त्री ब्रह्मचारिणी । योगसिद्धा जगत् कृत्स्नमसक्ता विचरत्युत ॥ प्रभासस्य तु भार्य्या सा वसूनामष्टमस्य तु । विश्वकर्म्मा महाभागस्तस्यां जज्ञे महामतिः ॥ कर्त्ता शिल्पसहस्राणां त्रिदशानाञ्च वर्द्धकिः । भूषणानाञ्च सर्व्वेषां कर्त्ता शिल्पवतां वरः ॥ यः सर्व्वेषां विमानानि देवतानां चकार ह । मनुष्याश्चोपजीवन्ति यस्य शिल्पं महात्मनः ॥” इति विष्णुपुराणे १ अंशे १५ अध्यायः ॥ अन्यच्च । “द्वौ प्रोक्तौ विश्वकर्म्माणो मयस्त्वष्टा च योग- वित् ॥ द्वौ धाता च विधाता च पौराणौ जगतः-पती ॥”इति वह्निपुराणे गणभेदो नामाध्यायः ॥ (चेतनाधातुः । तद्विवृतिर्यथा । “तत्र पूर्व्वं चेतनाधातुः सत्त्वकरणो गुणग्रहणाय प्रवर्त्तते । स हि हेतुः कारणं निमित्तमक्षरं कर्त्ता मन्ता वेदिता बोद्धा द्रष्टा धाता ब्रह्मा विश्वकर्म्मा विश्वरूपः पुरुषः प्रभवोऽव्ययो नित्यो गुणी ग्रहणं प्राधान्यमव्यक्तं जीवोज्ञः प्रतुलश्चेतनावान् विभु- र्भूतात्मा चेन्द्रियात्मा चान्तरात्माचेति ।” इति चरके शारीरस्थाने चतुर्थेऽध्याये ॥)
https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/शब्दकल्पद्रुमः
विश्वकर्मन् ह्रविषा वर्धनेन त्रातारमिन्द्रमकृणोरवध्यम् ।
तस्मै विसः समनमन्त पर्वीरयमुग्रो विह्रव्या यथाSसत् ।।YV 17.24।।


Let us invoke to day, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thought swift 
Viśvakarman
May he hear kindly all our invocations, who gives all bliss for aid, whose works are righteous. Taken upon a base art thou. For Indra Viśvakarman thee. This is thy home. For Indra Viśvakarman thee.
With strengthening libation,Viśvakarman, thou madest Indra an undying guardian.
The people of old time bowed down before him because the Mighty One was meet for worship. Taken upon a base, etc. 
विश्वकर्मा ह्राजनिष्ट देव आदिद् गन्धर्वो अभवद् द्वितीयः ।
तृतीयः पिता जानितौषधीनामपां गर्भ व्यदधात्पुरूत्रा ।।YV 17.32।।
First was the God engendered, Viśvakarman: then the Gandharva sprang to life as second.
Third in succession was the plants’ begetter: he laid the waters’ germ in many places.
Puruṣasūkta is repeated with some variations in Taittiriya Aranyaka (3.12,13; 10.11), the Vajasaneyi Samhita (31.1-6), the Sama-veda Samhita (6.4), and the Atharva-veda Samhita (19.6). An explanation of parts of it can also be found in the Shatapatha Brahman (13.6.2.1.1), Taittiriya Brahmana, Pancavims'a Brahmana, 
ShvetashvataraUpanishad, Apastamba Shrauta Sutra (16.28.3; 20.20), 
Vrddhaharita Samhita (5.3.86), Baudhayana Dharma Shastra (4.7.5), Mahanarayana Upanishad,13, Mudgalopanishad gives a summary of the entire Purusha Sukta. The significance is elaborated in Bhagavata Purana (2.5.35 to 2.6.1-29) and in Mahabharata (Mokshadharma Parva 351 and 352).
All forms of existence are grounded in this primordial Yajña of the puruṣa.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-NHJffUIIo&index=2&list=RDrZAsD9KnWhM
Uploaded on Oct 16, 2009
English Translation by Ramesh Krishnakumar, to the invocative rendering by Vedic priests   No Vedic Yagna is performed without the chanting of the Purusha Suktha.
Purusha is the source of all creation. The Suktham describes this form of his, as having countless heads, eyes, legs, manifested everywhere, and beyond the scope of any limited method of comprehension. All creation is but a part of him. The Suktham describes the creative process in the universe and the oneness in all.
Sukla Yajurveda references to Viśvakarman
Griffith's translaion RV 10.90 Purusa. 90 1. A THOUSAND heads hath Purusa, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet. On every side pervading earth he fills a space ten fingers wide. 2 This Purusa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be; The Lord of Immortality which waxes greater still by food. 3 So mighty is his greatness; yea, greater than this is Purusa. All creatures are onefourth- of him, threefourths- eternal life in heaven. 4 With threefourths- Purusa went up: onefourth- of him again was here. Thence he strode out to every side over what cats not and what cats. 5 From him Viraj was born; again Purusa from Viraj was born. As soon as he was born he spread eastward and westward over the earth. 6 When Gods prepared the sacrifice with Purusa as their offering, Its oil was spring, the holy gift was autumn; summer was the wood. 7 They balmed as victim on the grass Purusa born in earliest time. With him the Deities and all Sadhyas and Rsis sacrificed. 8 From that great general sacrifice the dripping fat was gathered up. He formed the creatures ofthe- air, and animals both wild and tame. 9 From that great general sacrifice Rcas and Samahymns- were born: Therefrom were spells and charms produced; the Yajus had its birth from it. 10 From it were horses born, from it all cattle with two rows of teeth: From it were generated kine, from it the goats and sheep were born. 11 When they divided Purusa how many portions did they make? What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet? 12 The Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made. His thighs became the Vaisya, from his feet the Sudra was produced. 13 The Moon was gendered from his mind, and from his eye the Sun had birth; Indra and Agni from his mouth were born, and Vayu from his breath. 14 Forth from his navel came midair- the sky was fashioned from his head Earth from his feet, and from his car the regions. Thus they formed the worlds. 15 Seven fencingsticks- had he, thrice seven layers of fuel were prepared, When the Gods, offering sacrifice, bound, as their victim, Purusa. 16 Gods, sacrificing, sacrificed the victim these were the earliest holy ordinances. The Mighty Ones attained the height of heaven, there where the Sadhyas, Gods of old, are dwelling.  Puruṣasūkta 
dvitIya anuvAkamVerse 1
adbhyassambhoota: prthivyai rasAcca | vishvakarmaNassamavartatAdhi | 
tasya tvaSHTA vidadhadroopameti | tatpuruSHasya vishvamAjAnamagre || 1 ||
(adbhya:) From the waters and from the (rasAt) elemental essence of (prthivyai) earth (sambhoota:) was the bramhAnda, the Universe, born. (vishvakarmaNa:) As vishvakarma, the divine architect, did puruSHa, who is (adhi) more than that Universe, appear (samavartata). (tvashTA) As tvashTA, the divine smith he (vidadhat) establishes (tasya roopam) his form, that includes all the worlds (eti) and manifests it everywhere. (agre) In the beginning was (tat puruSHasya) that puruSHa's (vishvam) all, his vishva roopa, (Ajanam) formed.The waters of destruction are again the waters of creation, and from them does the earth reveal itself after praLaya. From these elemental materials is the universe formed, and into these it dissolves. Ashes to ashes, and dust to dust. tvashTA was the smith who forges Indra's vajra, thunderbolt, from the bones of the RSHi dadeechi. Vishvakarma is the divine architect who planned and built, among other cities, Kubera's Alakaapuri and also Lanka, and Indra's city.  From the waters and earth Does all appear As a builder he builds, As a smith he forges it.. He who was all Before the all was.
Verse 2
vedAhametam puruSHam mahAntam | AdityavarNam tamasas pArastAt |
tamevam vidhvAnamrta iha bhavati | nAnya: panthA vidhyate ayanAya || 2 ||
(etam) That (mahAntam) glorious (AdityavarNam) sun-brilliant (puruSHam) puruSHa, (astu) who transcends (pArastAt) all (tamas) darkness, (aham) I (veda:) know him.(vidvAn) Who knows (tam) Him (evam) in this manner (bhavati) becomes (amrta:) immortal (iha) in this very birth. (ayaNaya) To moksha, liberation (na vidhyate) I know not of (anya:) other (panthA:) paths.This is a re-working of shlokas 16 and 17 in the first lesson, or pratama anuvAka.  I Know Him, Glorious, Bright as the Sun, Beyond all Darkness. Who knows him thus Conquers death now. I know of no other Ways, than this.
Verse 3
prajApatischarati garbhe anta: | ajAyamAno bahudhA vijAyate |
tasya dheerA: parijAnanti yonim | mareecheenAm padamiccanti vedhasa: || 3 ||
(prajApati:) As prajApati, Lord of his Subjects, he (carati) lives (anta:) in (garbhe) the womb. (ajAyamAna: ) Unborn, (vijAyate) he appears (bahudhA) in many ways. (dheerA:) The steadfast (parijAnanti) know well (tasya) his (yonim) true form. Even (vedhasa:) the creators, the knowers (iccanti) desire to the (padam) positions of (mareechenAm) sages like mareechi, who worship Him.I must go to sAyaNa for commentary on this rather obtuse verse. What is this womb prajApati resides in ? 'bramhAnda roope garbhe anat madhye prajApatir vigrahavAn bhootva carati'. virAt, the shining universe, the female principle that puruSHa gave birth to, which in turn gave birth to puruSHa has now been formed into the bramhAnda, and is compared to a womb, in which prajApati, Lord of his Subjects, puruSHa manifested as a fertility diety invoked in weddings etc., resides. Purusha does not need to be born to manifest himself as all. That process begins before he appears from, in and as virAt. He encompasses satyam, gnyaanam, anantam - truth, knowledge, and infinity. Since he gives birth to all, he is yoni, themouth of the womb. His form is a yoni, from which all is born. 'tasya prajApater yonim jagatkAraNaroopam vAstavam svaroopam'. Who knows this ? 'dheera dhairyavantA yogena drtendriyA mahAtmAno jAnanti' - the brave, the courageous, those who have made their senses steadfast in yoga, those great ones know this truth. Such is the compulsion of this truth that even the srshtikartA-s of this world, those that puruSHa has manifested himself as in order to create, desire nothing but to worship him as 'tam eva upAsya mareeceenAm mareecyatri-pramukhAnAm' - the sage mareeci, and sages led by mareeci, atri (among the seven RSHis) - as these sages do.  Birthing this word Himself Unborn He is known by those Who yoked their senses.. And even the knowers Of this world and more Desire but to adore Him.
Verse 4
yo devebhya Atapati | yo devAnAm purohita: |
poorvo yo devebhyo jAta: | namo rucAya brAhmaye || 4 ||
(nama:) We salute (ya:) who (Atapati) shines as divinity in (devebhya:) in the Gods, (ya:) who is (purohita:) Brhaspati, priest to (devAnAm) the Gods, (ya:) who was (jAta:) born (poorva:) before (devebhya:) the Gods, (rucAya) who brilliant in himself, (brahmaye) is the parabramham, the supreme all.puruSHa was, 'hiraNyagarbha: samavartatAgre' - before the golden shining womb of all, virAt, was established. He is first of all the Gods, their priest, their guide to immortality, and the essence of their divinity. verily is he worthy of our salutations. This is one answer to the question "kasmai devAya havitA vidhema?" - Which God shall we worship by our offerings ?  Who burns, fire-bright In the Gods, who is their priest, Eldest, who is the Essence, Of what Is, We worship Him.
Verse 5
rucam brAmham janayanta: | deva agre tadabruvan |
yastvaivam brAhmaNo vidhyAt | tasya deva asan vashe || 5 ||
(deva) The Gods, who (janayanta) send forth the (rucam brAhmam) essence of the knowledge of Brahman (abruvan) said this (tat) about that Brahman (agre) in the Beginning : " (yastu) whoever (brAhmaNa:) has an inclination towards Brahman, if he (vidhyAt) knows Brahman (evam) thus, (devA:) the Gods (asan) will be (tasya) in his (vashe) control. "The Gods taste of Brahman.. This "rucam brAmham" is yet another food metaphor for the joining, or the union of the seeker and the sought. Even as he who eats food tastes it, so shall you taste Brahman, and enjoy him. The Gods are in the Brahma- Vidyaa-Sampradaaya, and they are our teachers, our gurus too. They declare this in the beginning, as a sort of 'phalashruti', or list of fruits of knowing the puruSHa thus : Who, with heart steadfast on the puruSHa knows him thus, him even we will serve. Compare the Taittiriya Upanishad, that talks about he who knows Brahman - 'sarve asmai devA balim-Aharanti' - All the Gods bring him offerings.  The Gods who taste Him, and spread the word Said this, in the beginning ``Who with his heart Knows Him, thus, Him even We will be bound by.''
Verse 6
hreeshca te lakshmeeshca patnyau | ahorAtre pArshve |
nakshatrANi roopam | ashvinau vyAttam |

iSHTam maniSHANa |
amum maniSHANa | 
sarvam maniSHANA ||
(hreeshca) Hree and (lakshmishca) Laskhmi are (patnyau) wives (te) to you. (aho - rAtre) The day and the night (pArshve) your sides. (nakshatrANi) the Stars (roopam) your brilliant form. (ashvinau) the Healing Ashvins (vyAttam) your mouth  (maniSHANa) Grant us (iSHTam) the knowledge that we desire, (maniSHANa) grant us (amum) happiness in this world, (maniSHANa) grant us (sarvam) all that is, now and foreverHree is the Goddess that grants Modesty, and Lakshmi she who grants Wealth. ( hreer-lajjAbhimAninee devata , lakshmee- raishvayAbhimAninee devatA - iti sAyaNA) The Day and the Night are even such opposites. Sriman Narayana is the conciliation of all such opposites, even as Sesha, the snake, and garuda, the eagle, worshipping him together signify. He is brilliant as the stars, and healing comes from him. Asking him to grant as iSHTam, amum, sarvam, is an analogue to asking for sat, Ananda, and chit. All we ask is to know Him. Hree and Lakshmi Are your consorts, your Two sides, Day and Night, The stars your form, Healing your words.Grant us Our desires, Our joys, Your all.  Concluding Invocation

The Purusha Sooktam closes, as it began, with that unique and wonderful invocation to peace. In peace all begins, and in peace all ends. All we work for is so peace may flourish.


[Note: The following is not part of the Purusha Sukta proper. However, it is often chanted at the end and is found in many printed editions.]



tacchamyo-rAvrNeemahe | gAtum yagnyAya |
gAtum yagnyapataye | daivee: svastirastu na: |
svasti mAnushebhya: | oordhvam jigAtu bheSHajam |
sham no astu dvipade | sham chatushpade |
om shAnti: shAnti: shAnti: ||

(AvrNeemahe) We seek (tat) that which (chamyo) gives  us peace from sorrows, present and future. We seek (gAtum) growth (yagnyAya) for the rite of sacrifice and (gAtum) growth for (yagnyapataye) patron of the rite, the yajamAna. (daivee: svasti) The grace of the Gods (astu) be (na:) unto us. (svasti) Well being (mAnushebhya:) to all mankind. (bheshajam) May plants, like medicinal herbs (jigAtu) flourish and grow (oordhvam) upwards. (sham)  Good (na: astu ) come unto us from (dvipade) creatures that go on two feet (sham) and good from (chatuSHpade) those that go on four feet. (shAnti:) Peace. Sorrows that are, and sorrows to be We seek that which grants us Peace from these May the rite flourish, And those who keep it.. The grace of the gods Be with all mankind.. May the earth be covered With growing green And good come to us From all creation From beings that go On two feet and four.. May the three-fold peace Embrace the Land.http://www.ramanuja.org/purusha/sukta-6.htmlThe Yajur Vedins recite six more mantras dealing with the 
Purusha found in TA (3.13) as a continuation of the Purusha Sukta. 
Taittiriya recension of Krishna Yajur Veda 

The Taittiriya Aranyaka TA (3.12) has 18 mantras on Purusha; it 
has all the 16 mantras in RV. Moreover the order of the presentation 
of the mantras in TA (3.12) is different from that in RV. The mantras 
TA (3.12.16) and TA (3.12.17) are not in RV. TA (3.12.16) is also in 
Shvetashvatara U. 
Shukla Yajur Veda (madhyandina) Vajasaneya Samhita (VS) 

VS has in all 40 adhyayas or chapters. The chapter 31, VS (31) 
dealing with Purusha has 22 mantras. 

The first 16 mantras of VS (31.1-16) are almost same as 16 
mantras of RV, except for the ordering; there could be minor 
variations in a small number of words. The major difference is in VS 
(31.12). The first half is same as RV (10.90. 13), but the second half is 
quite different namely shrotrat vayuh cha pranah cha mukhyat agnir 
ajayata '. 

VS (31) does not have the mantras TA (3.12.16) and TA (3.12.17) 
mantras found in RV (10.90) and two more. 

The remaining 6 mantras in VS(3l) namely (17-22) are same as 
there in TA (3.13), the so-called Uttaranarayana anuvaka






















yvs.1 This Viśvakarman.
yvs.8 45 Let us invoke to day, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thought swift Viśvakarman.
yvs.8 For Indra Viśvakarman thee.
yvs.8 For Indra Viśvakarman thee.
yvs.8 46 With strengthening libation, Viśvakarman, thou madest Indra an undying guardian.
yvs.8 Viśvakarman in Consecration.
yvs.13 Thy light bestowing head to heaven thou liftest, making thy tongue the oblation bearer, Agni! 16 Steady art thou, sustainer, laid by Viśvakarman in thy place.
yvs.13 The Rishi Viśvakarman.
yvs.13 By thee, taken by Viśvakarman, I take Speech for people.
yvs.14 Wave and drop of waters art thou; and Viśvakarman is thy Rishi.
yvs.14 Viśvakarman is vital vigour, Parameshthin the metre.
yvs.14 12 On the air s back let Viśvakarman set thee, thee the capacious, thee the far extended.
yvs.14 14 On the air s back may Viśvakarman set thee luminous.
yvs.17 18 What was the place whereon he took his station? What was it that upheld him? What the manner, Whence Viśvakarman, seeing all, producing the earth, with mighty power disclosed the heavens?
yvs.17 21 Thine highest, lowest sacrificial natures, and these thy midmost here, O Viśvakarman, Teach thou thy friends at sacrifice, O Blessed, and come thy self, exalted, to our worship. 22 Bring those, thyself exalted with oblation, O Viśvakarman, Earth and Heaven to worship. Let enemies around us live in folly: here let us have a rich and liberal patron.
yvs.17 26 Mighty in mind and power is Viśvakarman, Maker, Disposer, and most lofty Presence.
yvs.17 32 First was the God engendered, Viśvakarman: then the Gandharva sprang to life as second.
yvs.17 78 I dedicate the thought with mind and butter so that the Gods may come who love oblation, strengthing Law, To Viśvakarman, Lord of all the earth, I offer up day after day the inviolable sacrifice.
yvs.18 65 There where all never failing streams of honey and of butter flow, May Agni, Viśvakarman's own, place us in heaven among the Gods.
yvs.24 17 Called contemporaneous, the dappled belonging to Indra Agni; those with projecting horns to Mahendra; the many coloured to Viśvakarman.
yvs.31 17 In the beginning he was formed, collected from waters, earth, and Viśvakarman's essence.


See: https://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2017/01/tvastr-akhyana-or-narration-of-itihasa.html
Tvaṣṭṛ, ākhyāna or narration of itihāsa, history from the Bronze Age Rigveda, sacred text 
Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/gpayut8Tvaṣṭṛ, ākhyāna or narration of itihāsa, history from the Bronze Age Rigveda, sacred text
This monograph demonstrates that the Rigveda venerated Tvaṣṭā, Tvaṣṭṛ as the divine ancestor of Meluhha artificers. The narratives of Proto-Indo-European People identified cognate Tuisto, Tuisco as the ancestor of Germanic people. The artificers of ancient times of the Bronze Age are held in high esteem – as creators of artha, wealth’ for the nation. The Rigveda narratives abound in complex metaphors and unravel the contributions made by artisans to the advancement of civilization on the banks of River Sarasvati and contact civilizational areas. A narrative of the cultural framework for the contributions is presented in the following Annexes:
Annex 1 Etyma of Bharata sprachbund  Tvaṣṭṛ ‘artificer’
Annex 2 RV 10.81, 82 Viśvakarmā
See: Tvaṣṭā, Tvaṣṭṛ ancestor of Meluhha artificers = Tuisco, Tuisto, ancestor of Germanic people. Emerges from Viśvakarma (Purusha suktam) http://tinyurl.com/z4mttc5
 The narrative of Tvastar is ākhyāna, itihāsa ‘cosmological narrative’ of Bhāratam Janam.
In civilizational or materialistic terms, Tvaṣṭṛ is the heavenly builder, the maker of divine implements such as Vajra of Indra and is the guardian of Soma.
In my view, Tvaṣṭṛ (and hence, cognate identities such as Tuisto, Tuisco, Tarkhan, Dhiman) is a hero of Rigveda, the creator of artha, ‘wealth’ from Rigveda times.
Let us listen to the ākhyāna (which is narration of itihāsa, history) in Rigveda, sacred text of the Hindus; the narratives bring us as close as possible to the ancient times, as we traverse back through mists of time.
It is apposite to cite a quote from the Art Historian, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy: “Myth embodies the nearest approach to absolute truth that can be stated in words.” 
On ākhyāna
Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa ŚBr.13.4.3.12 and 13.4.3.13 explain how on the 8^th and 9^th days of aśvamedha, stories fromPurāṇa and Veda are narrated as itihāsa, ‘history’. The same practice of narration continues on 36 ten-day periods of yajña.
athāṣṭame’han…matsyaḥ sāmmado rājetyāha tasyodakecarā viśasta ima āsata iti         matsyāśca matsyahanaścopasametā bhavanti tānupadiśatītihāso vedaḥ so’yamiti kaṃciditihāsamācakṣīta… (ŚBr.13.4.3.12)
Translation: Now on the eighth day… ‘matsya sāmmada the king (rāja)’, thus he says; ‘of him (matsya rāja), those moving within the waters (udakecarā: fish) are his people and here they are seated;’, thus [he says]. Fish and fish-killers (i.e. fishermen) have come thither: it is them he instructs; ‘the itihāsa is the veda: this it is;’ thus [saying], he says (ācakṣīta: more in the sense of “points out” or “introduces”) some (kiṃcid) itihāsa…
…tārkṣyo vaipaśyato rājetyāha tasya vayāṃsi viśastānīmānyāsata iti                                     vayāṃsi ca vāyovidyikāścopasametā bhavanti tānupadiśati purāṇaṃ vedaḥ so’yamiti kiṃcitpurāṇamācakṣīta…(ŚBr. 13.4.3.13)
Translation: Now on the ninth day… ‘tārkṣya vaipaśyata the king’, thus he says; ‘of him, birds are his people and here they are seated;’, thus [he says]. Birds and fowlers have come thither: it is them he instructs; ‘the purāṇa is the veda: this it is;’ thus [saying], he says some purāṇa…
Tvastar is Hiranyagarbha
Tvaṣṭṛ is the first-born creator of the Universe. In Purusha sukta, according to Yajurveda, Tvaṣṭṛ emerges from Viśvakarma: अ॒द्भ्यः सम्भू॑तः पृथि॒व्यै रसा॓च्च । वि॒श्वक॑र्मणः॒ सम॑वर्त॒ताधि॑ । तस्य॒ त्वष्टा॑ वि॒दध॑द्रू॒पमे॑ति । तत्पुरु॑षस्य॒विश्व॒माजा॑न॒मग्रे॓ Yajurveda merges the attributes of Visvakarma described in Rigveda (RV 10.81, 10.82 – See Annex 2) with the concepts of Hiranyagarbha, Prajapati, Brahma. Tvaṣṭar emerges out of the cosmic egg or from the navel of the unborn Viśvakarman, Tvaṣṭar is Hiranyagarbha or ‘golden womb’
Mentioned 65 times and invoked in Rigveda with reverence, Tvaṣṭṛ is the artificer who forms bodies of men and animals. He is garbha-pati, divinity of the womb. (Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1995). "Abstract Gods". Vedic mythology. Vedas. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 116–118).
Tvaṣṭṛ’s son is Viśvarūpa or Triśiras who is killed by Indra, and in revenge, Tvaṣṭṛ creates Vrtra.Tvaṣṭṛ’s daughter is Saranya (Saraṇyū) also known as Samjñā, who twice bears twins to Surya (RV 10.17.1) – Twins of Yama and Yami and twins called Aśvins. Saranyu is also the mother of Manu (Yaska’s Nirukta calls him Savarni Manu, the progenitor of mankind). See annex for ākhyāna.A reflected, shadow image of Saranyu is छाया f. a reflected image , reflection  v , 44 , 6 ; x , 121 , 2  ii , 8  v , 21 , 8   &c
Surya with consorts Saranyu and Chaya
tváṣṭā duhitré vahatúṃ kṛṇotîtīdáṃ víśvam bhúvanaṃ sám eti
yamásya mātâ paryuhyámānā mahó jāyâ vívasvato nanāśa
ápāgūhann amŕtām mártyebhyaḥ kṛtvî sávarṇām adadur vívasvate
utâśvínāv abharad yát tád âsīd ájahād u dvâ mithunâ saraṇyûḥ
RV 10.017 Tvastar prepares the bridal of his Daughter: all the world hears the tidings and assembles.
But Yama's Mother, Spouse of great Vivasvat, vanished as she was carried to her dwelling.
From mortal men they hid the Immortal Lady, made one like her and gave her to Vivasvat.
Saranyu brought to him the Asvin brothers, and then deserted both twinned pairs of children.
Tvaṣṭṛ is Indra's Father
RV 3.481.    SOON as the young Bull sprang into existence he longed to taste the pressedout- Somas' liquor. Drink thou thy fill, according to thy longing, first, of the goodly mixture blent with Soma.
2.    That day when thou wast born thou, fain to taste it, drankest the plants' milk which the mountains nourish. That milk thy Mother first, the Dame who bare thee, poured for thee in thy mighty Fathers' dwelling.
3.    Desiring food he came unto his Mother, and on her breast beheld the pungent Soma. Wise, he moved on, keeping aloof the others, and wrought great exploits in his varied aspects.
4.    Fierce, quickly conquering, of surpassing vigour, he framed his body even as he listed. even from his birthtime- Indra conquered Tvastar, bore off the Soma and in beakers drank it.
5.    Call we on Maghavan, auspicious Indra, best Hero in the fight where spoil is gathered; The Strong, who listens, who gives aid in battles, who slays the Vrtras, wins and gathers riches.
Indra conquers his father Tvaṣṭar and carries off Soma.
Tvaṣṭar is Trisiras or Vishwarupa's Father"Through his wise insight Trita in the cavern, seeking as ever the Chief Sire's intention, Carefully tended in his Parents' bosom, calling the weapons kin, goes forth to combat." (RV 10.8.7)  "Well-skilled to use the weapons of his Father, Āptya, urged on by Indra, fought the battle. Then Trita slew the foe seven-rayed, three-headed, and freed the cattle of the Son of Tvaṣṭar." (RV 10.8.8)  "Lord of the brave, Indra cleft him in pieces who sought to gain much strength and deemed him mighty. He smote his three heads from his body, seizing the cattle of the omniform Son of Tvaṣṭar." (RV 10.8.9)  Indra kills Son of Tvaṣṭar, Trisiras or Vishwarupa. Tvaṣṭar is the fashioner of Indra's Vajra weapon
"I WILL declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the Thunder-wielder.  He slew the Dragon, then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents." (RV 1.32.1)  "He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvaṣṭar fashioned." (RV 1.32.2)  Indra kills Vṛtra with his thunder bolt Vajra weapon fashioned by Tvaṣṭar.10 Rolled in the midst of neverceasing- currents flowing without a rest for ever onward.
The waters bear off Vrtra’s' nameless body: the foe of Indra sank to during darkness.
11 Guarded by Ahi stood the thralls of Dasas, the waters stayed like kine held by the robber. But he, when he had smitten Vrtra, opened the cave wherein the floods had been imprisoned. 12 A horses' tail wast thou when he, O Indra, smote on thy bolt; thou, God without a second, Thou hast won back the kine, hast won the Soma; thou hast let loose to flow the Seven Rivers.
Tvaṣṭar is the companion of Angirases, he is the most wealthy"Since thou, God Tvaṣṭar, hast made beauty perfect, since thou hast been the Aṅgirases' Companion, Willing, most wealthy, Giver of possessions, grant us the Gods’ assembly, thou who knowest." (RV 10.70.9) 
Annex 1 Etyma of Bharata sprachbund  Tvaṣṭṛ ‘artificer’
துவட்டர் tuvaṭṭar , n. < tvaṣṭṛ. Artificers, smiths; சிற்பியர். (சூடா.) துவட்டா tuvaṭṭā , n. < TvaṣṭāTvaṣṭṛ. Višvakarmā, the architect of the gods; தெய்வத்தச்சனாகிய விசுவகருமா. துவட்டா வீன்ற தனயன்(திருவிளை. இந்திரன்பழி. 8).
தொட்டா toṭṭā , n. < TvaṣṭāTvaṣṭṛ. One of tuvātacātittar, q.v.; துவாத சாதித்தருள் ஒருவன். நள்ளிருளெறிதொட்டா (கூர்மபு. ஆதவர்சிறப். 2).
త్వష్ట (p. 573) tvaṣṭa tvashṭa. [Skt.] n. A carpenter, వడ్లవాడు. The maker of the universe. విశ్వకర్త. One of the 12 Adityas, ద్వాదశాదిత్యులలో నొకడు. 
tvakṣत्वक्ष् 1 P. (त्वक्षति, त्वष्ट) 1 To pare, hew, peel -2 To make thin. -3 To cover.
tvaṣṭaत्वष्ट p. p. Made thin, pared, peeled &c.
tvaṣṭiḥ
त्वष्टिः f. Carpentry; Ms.1.48.
 tvāṣṭraत्वाष्ट्र a. Belonging or coming from त्वष्टृ; त्वाष्ट्रं यद् दस्रावपिकक्ष्यं वाम् Rv.1.117.22. -ष्ट्रः Vṛitra; येनावृता इमेलोकास्तमसा त्वाष्ट्रमूर्तिना । स वै वृत्र इति प्रोक्तः पापः परमदारुणः ॥ Bhāg.6.9.18;11.12.5. -ष्ट्री 1 The asterism Chitra. -2 A small car. -ष्ट्रम् 1 Creative power; तपःसारमयं त्वाष्ट्रं वृत्रो येन विपाटितः Bhāg.8.11.35. -2 Copper.
 tvaṣṭṛ त्वष्टृ m. [त्वक्ष्-तृच्] 1 A carpenter, builder, workman, त्वष्ट्रेव विहितं यन्त्रम् Mb.12.33.22. -2 Viśvakarman, the architect of the gods. [Tvaṣtṛi is the Vulcan of the Hindu mythology. He had a son named Triśiras and a daughter called संज्ञा, who was given in marriage to the sun. But she was unable to bear the severe light of her husband, and therefore Tvaṣtṛi mounted the sun upon his lathe, and carefully trimmed off a part of his bright disc; cf. आरोप्यचक्रभ्रमिमुष्णतेजास्त्वष्ट्रेव यत्नो- ल्लिखितो विभाति R.6.32. The part trimmed off is said to have been used by him in forming the discus of Viṣṇu, the Triśūla of Śiva, and some other weapons of the gods.] पर्वतं चापि जग्राह क्रुद्धस्त्वष्टामहाबलः Mb.1.227. 34. -3 Prajāpati (the creator); यां चकार स्वयं त्वष्टा रामस्य महिषीं प्रियाम् Mb.3.274.9. -4 Āditya, a form of the sun; निर्भिन्ने अक्षिणी त्वष्टा लोकपालो$विशद्विभोः Bhāg.3.6.15.
त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ)  xii , 3 , 33; " creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/इ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम् अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/अ-रूप &c  ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x  12146 f.  ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns   &c  iv , 1178  587 ff.  vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ , सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम् प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy   i  iii ; supposed author of  x , 184 with the epithet गर्भ-पति ; father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु  ; स्व-रेणु  ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ?  viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f.  xii , 10   545 ff.  ; also father of त्रि-शिरस् or विश्वरूप ib. ; overpowered by इन्द्र who recovers the सोम [ RV. iii f. ] concealed by him because इन्द्र had killed his son विश्व-रूप  ii  i , v , xii ; regent of the नक्षत्र चित्रा     iic , 4 ; of the 5th cycle of Jupiter viii , 23 ; of an eclipse iii , 6 ; त्वष्टुर् आतिथ्य N. of a सामन्  )
त्वष्टृ  of a son of मनस्यु or भौवन , ii , 1 , 40  v , 15 , 13.
त्वक्ष् [p= 463,2] (= √ तक्ष् and related to 2. त्व्/अच्) cl.1. °क्षति , to create , produce Nir. viii , 13  ; to pare Dha1tup.  ; to skin ib.  ; to cover ib.  ; ([cf. प्र-त्वक्षाण्/अ ; Zd. thwakhsh , ÏÏÎº , ÏÏÏ.])
Taccha1 [Vedic takṣan, cp. taṣṭṛ, to takṣati (see taccheti), Lat. textor, Gr. te/ktwn carpenter (cp. architect), te/xnh art] a carpenter, usually as ˚ka: otherwise only in cpd. ˚sūkara the carpenter -- pig (=a boar, so called from felling trees), title & hero of Jātaka No. 492 (iv.342 sq.). Cp. vaḍḍhakin.
Tacchaka=taccha1. (a) a carpenter Dh 80 (cp. DhA ii.147); Miln 413. magga˚ a road -- builder J vi.348. -- (b)=taccha -- sūkara J iv.350. -- (c) a class of Nāgas D ii.258. -- f. tacchikā a woman of low social standing (=veṇī, bamboo -- worker) J v.306.
Tacchati
Tacchati [fr. taccha1, cp. taccheti] to build, construct; maggaŋ t. to construct or repair a road J vi.348.
Taccheti
Taccheti [probably a denom. fr. taccha1=Lat. texo to weave (orig. to plait, work together, work artistically), cp. Sk. taṣṭṛ architect =Lat. textor; Sk. takṣan, etc., Gr. te/xnhcraft, handiwork (cp. technique), Ohg. dehsa hatchet. Cp. also orig. meaning of karoti & kamma]  to do wood -- work, to square, frame, chip J i.201; Miln 372, 383
TAKṢ ʻ hew ʼ: takṣa -- , takṣaṇa -- , tákṣati, tákṣan -- , taṣṭá -- ; úttakṣati, vítakṣati. Addenda: takrá -- [Cf. Ir. *qraxša -- with the sense ʻ old ʼ in Shgh. ċīx̌, sar. ċex̌, X. Rosh. ċōx̌ ʻ old, skinny, disheveled ʼ; and ʻ bitter ʼ in Shgh. ċīx̌, f. ċāx̌ EVSh 24]
takṣa 5618 takṣa in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ VarBr̥S., vṛkṣa -- takṣaka -- m. ʻ tree -- feller ʼ R. [√takṣ] Pa. tacchaka -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, taccha -- sūkara -- m. ʻ boar ʼ; Pk. takkha -- , °aya -- m. ʻ carpenter, artisan ʼ; Bshk. sum -- tac̣h ʻ hoe ʼ (< ʻ *earth -- scratcher ʼ), tec̣h ʻ adze ʼ (< *takṣī -- ?); Sh. tac̣i f. ʻ adze ʼ; -- Phal. tērc̣hi ʻ adze ʼ (with "intrusive" r).
takṣaṇa 5619 takṣaṇa n. ʻ cutting, paring ʼ KātyŚr. [√takṣ] Pa. tacchanī -- f. ʻ hatchet ʼ; Pk. tacchaṇa -- n., °ṇā -- f. ʻ act of cutting or scraping ʼ; Kal. tēčin ʻ chip ʼ (< *takṣaṇī -- ?); K. tȧchyunu (dat. tȧchinis) m. ʻ wood -- shavings ʼ; Ku. gng. taċhaṇ ʻ cutting (of wood) ʼ; M. tāsṇī f. ʻ act of chipping &c., adze ʼ. Addenda: takṣaṇa -- : Pk. tacchaṇa -- n. ʻ cutting ʼ; Kmd.barg. taċə̃ři ʻ chips (on roof) ʼ GM 22.6.71.
5620 tákṣati (3 pl. tákṣati RV.) ʻ forms by cutting, chisels ʼ MBh. [√takṣ] Pa. tacchati ʻ builds ʼ, tacchēti ʻ does woodwork, chips ʼ; Pk. takkhaï, tacchaï, cacchaï, caṁchaï ʻ cuts, scrapes, peels ʼ; Gy. pers. tetchkani ʻ knife ʼ, wel. tax -- ʻ to paint ʼ (?); Dm. taċ -- ʻ to cut ʼ (ċ < IE. k̂s NTS xii 128), Kal. tã̄č -- ; Kho. točhik ʻ to cut with an axe ʼ; Phal. tac̣<-> ʻ to cut, chop, whittle ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) thačoiki ʻ to fashion (wood) ʼ; K. tachun ʻ to shave, pare, scratch ʼ, S. tachaṇu; L. tachaṇ ʻ to scrape ʼ, (Ju.) ʻ to rough hew ʼ, P. tacchṇā, ludh. tacchanā ʻ to hew ʼ; Ku. tāchṇo ʻ to square out ʼ; N.tāchnu ʻ to scrape, peel, chip off ʼ (whence tachuwā ʻ chopped square ʼ, tachārnu ʻ to lop, chop ʼ); B. cã̄chā ʻ to scrape ʼ; Or. tã̄chibā, cã̄chibā, chã̄cibā ʻ to scrape off, clip, peel ʼ; Bhoj. cã̄chal ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ; H. cã̄chnā ʻ to scrape up ʼ; G. tāchvũ ʻ to scrape, carve, peel ʼ, M. tāsṇẽ; Si. sahinavā, ha° ʻ to cut with an adze ʼ. <-> Kho. troc̣ik ʻ to hew ʼ with "intrusive" r.Addenda: tákṣati: Kmd. taċ -- ʻ to cut, pare, clip ʼ GM 22.6.71; A. cã̄ciba (phonet. sãsibɔ) ʻ to scrape ʼ AFD 216, 217, ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ 331. TAÑC: †takmán -- .
tákṣan 5621 tákṣan (acc. tákṣaṇam RV., takṣāṇam Pāṇ.) m. ʻ carpenter ʼ. [√takṣ] Pk. takkhāṇa -- m., Paš. ar. tac̣an -- kṓr, weg. taṣāˊn, Kal. kaṭ -- tačon, Kho. (Lor.) tačon, Sh. thac̣&oarcacute;ṇ m., kaṭ -- th°, K. chān m., chöñü f., P. takhāṇ m., °ṇī f., H.takhān m.; Si. sasa ʻ carpenter, wheelwright ʼ < nom. tákṣā. -- With "intrusive" r: Kho. (Lor.) tračon ʻ carpenter ʼ, P. tarkhāṇ m. (→ H. tarkhān m.), WPah. jaun. tarkhāṇ. -- With unexpl. d -- or dh -- (X dāˊru -- ?): S. ḍrakhaṇu m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; L. drakhāṇ, (Ju.) darkhāṇ m. ʻ carpenter ʼ (darkhāṇ pakkhī m. ʻ woodpecker ʼ), mult. dhrikkhāṇ m., dhrikkhaṇī f., awāṇ. dhirkhāṇ m.
5743 taṣṭá ʻ fashioned, formed in mind ʼ RV., ʻ pared ʼ lex. [Cf. *thaṭṭha -- 1, *thaṭṭha -- 2? -- √takṣ]Pk. taṭṭha -- ʻ pared ʼ; P. ṭhaṭhṇā ʻ to fix, determine ʼ; N. ṭāṭho ʻ intent, keen, intelligent ʼ; H. ṭã̄ṭhā, ṭã̄ṭā ʻ wellknit, firm, stout ʼ; M. tāṭh, thāṭ ʻ tight -- fitting, firm, strong ʼ, tāṭh, tāṭhā m. ʻ firmness, &c. ʼ (not with LM 345 < tr̥ṣṭa -- ). -- N. ṭhã̄ṭ ʻ neatness ʼ or < *thaṭṭha -- 2.Addenda: taṣṭá -- : WPah.kṭg. ṭhrɔ́ṭṇõ ʻ to put in order ʼ, J. thāṭṇu ʻ to settle, set right, amend ʼ; H. ṭhaṭnā ʻ to settle ʼ; WPah.kṭg. táṭṭh f. (obl. -- i) ʻ bowl for food, a grain measure = 2 seers ʼ (semant. cf. kāṣṭhá -- and drṓṇa -- 1 as measures Him.I 89), A. câṭā (phonet. sɔta) ʻ splinter of bamboo or wood 
thaṭṭha 6089 *thaṭṭha1 ʻ framework ʼ. [Poss. < taṣṭá -- , but cf. *traṭṭa -- ] K. ṭhoṭhu m. ʻ bridge -- pier of logs piled horizontally ʼ, ṭhaṭhur m. ʻ part of a house -- wall made of logs laid horizontally ʼ; P. ṭhaṭh f. ʻ bridge -- pier ʼ; N. ṭhã̄ṭi ʻ inn (lit. shed made of or covered with bamboo matting?) ʼ; B. ṭhāṭ ʻ framework ʼ; Or. thāṭa ʻ framework, skeleton ʼ, ṭhāṭa ʻ bamboo framework for decoration, build of one's body, body ʼ; Mth. ṭhāṭ ʻ bamboo frame of a thatch or of a mat house ʼ; OAw. ṭhāṭa m. ʻ frame of a roof on which thatch is laid ʼ; H. ṭhāṭh m. ʻ frame of a roof ʼ, ṭhāṭar m. ʻ bamboo frame ʼ; G. ṭhāṭhũ n. ʻ framework, body ʼ, ṭhã̄ṭhũ n. ʻ skeleton ʼ, ṭhāṭhṛī f. ʻ bamboo bier ʼ; M. thāṭ, ṭhāṭ m. ʻ frame of a roof ʼ. Addenda: *thaṭṭha -- 1: WPah.kc. thaṭo m. ʻ projecting part of a verandah ʼ.
thaṭṭha 6090 *thaṭṭha2 ʻ pomp, ceremony ʼ. [Same as *thaṭṭha -- 1 and < taṣṭá -- ??] Pk. thaṭṭa -- m.n. ʻ pomp, ceremony ʼ; S. ṭhāṭhu m. ʻ pomp ʼ, L. ṭhaṭṭh m., P. ṭhaṭh f.; Ku. ṭhāṭ ʻ pomp, glory, property ʼ; N. ṭhã̄ṭ ʻ fashion ʼ; A. ṭhāṭ ʻ pomp, dignity ʼ; B.ṭhāṭ ʻ affectation ʼ; H. ṭhāṭh m. ʻ pomp, posture, fashion, goods ʼ; M. thaṭṇẽ ʻ to act pompously ʼ.
Taṭṭikā (f.) [cp. kaṭaka] a (straw) mat Vin iv.40 (Bdhgh on this: teṭṭikaŋ (sic) nāma tālapaṇṇehi vā vākehi vā katataṭṭikā, p. 357); J i.141 (v. l. taddhika); Vism 97.
3036 Ta. taṭṭi screen as of cuscuss grass, rattan, etc., tatty; taṭṭu screen folded or plain; taṭukku screen, mat, seat. Ma. taṭṭi screen, tatty, mat used as a door; taṭukku little mat for sitting on, as of school children. Ka. taṭṭi frame of bamboos, etc., a tatti, matting, bamboo mat; taḍaku, taḍike frame of bamboos, straw, leaves, etc., used as a door, blind, screen, etc., tatty; daḍḍi tatty, screen, curtain, what screens or encloses, cage; flat roof of a house. Tu. taṭṭi screen or blind made of split bamboos, cadjan, palm-leaves, etc.; daḍè screen, blind; taḍamè a kind of stile or narrow entrance to a garden. Kor. (O.) taḍambe a gate. Te. taḍaka hurdle or tatty, screen made of bamboos, etc.; daḍi screen of mats, leaves or the like, fence. Kol. (SR.) taḍkā plaited bamboos, thatch; (Kin.) taṛka mat; (W.) daṭam door. Ga. (S.3) taṇḍakabamboo curtain. Go. (SR.) taṭṭi mat; (Ch.) ṭāṭī mat door; (Mu.) ṭaṭṭeh pāka mat-wall bathroom (Voc. 1476). Pe. ṭāṭi mat. Kui taṭi a leaf screen, coarse bamboo screen. Cf. 3031 Ta. taṭu. / Cf. Pali taṭṭikā- palmleaf matting; Pkt. (DNM) ṭaṭṭī- fence; Turner, CDIAL, no. 5990
3039 Ta. taṭṭu (taṭṭi-) to knock, tap, pat, strike against, dash against, strike, beat, hammer, thresh; n. knocking, patting, breaking, striking against, collision; taṭṭamclapping  of the hands; taṭṭal knocking, striking, clapping, tapping, beating time; taṭṭāṉ gold or silver smith; fem. taṭṭātti. Ma. taṭṭu a blow, knock; taṭṭuka to tap, dash, hit, strike against, knock; taṭṭān goldsmith; fem. taṭṭātti; taṭṭāran washerman; taṭṭikka to cause to hit; taṭṭippu beating. Ko. taṭ- (tac-) to pat, strike, kill, (curse) affects, sharpen, disregard (words); taṭ a·ṛ- (a·c) to stagger from fatigue. To. toṭ a slap; toṭ- (toṭy-) to strike (with hammer), pat, (sin) strikes; toṛ- (toṭ-) to bump foot; toṭxn, toṭxïn goldsmith; fem. toṭty, toṭxity; toṭk ïn- (ïḏ-) to be tired, exhausted. Ka. taṭṭu to tap, touch, come close, pat, strike, beat, clap, slap, knock, clap on a thing (as cowdung on a wall), drive, beat off or back, remove; n. slap or pat, blow, blow or knock of disease, danger, death, fatigue, exhaustion. Koḍ. taṭṭ- (taṭṭi-) to touch, pat, ward off, strike off, (curse) effects; taṭṭë goldsmith; fem. taṭṭati (Shanmugam). Tu. taṭṭāvuni to cause to hit, strike. Te. taṭṭu to strike, beat, knock, pat, clap, slap; n. stripe, welt; taṭravã̄ḍu goldsmith or silversmith. Kur. taṛnā (taṛcas) to flog, lash, whip. Malt. taṛce to slap. Cf. 3156 Ka. tāṭu. / Cf. Turner, CDIAL, no. 5490, *ṭhaṭṭh- to strike; no. 5493, *ṭhaṭṭhakāra- brassworker; √ taḍ, no. 5748, tāˊḍa- a blow; no. 5752, tāḍáyati strikes. 
5490 *ṭhaṭṭh ʻ strike ʼ. [Onom.?]N. ṭhaṭāunu ʻ to strike, beat ʼ, ṭhaṭāi ʻ striking ʼ, ṭhaṭāk -- ṭhuṭuk ʻ noise of beating ʼ; H. ṭhaṭhānā ʻ to beat ʼ, ṭhaṭhāī f. ʻ noise of beating ʼ.
5493 *ṭhaṭṭhakāra ʻ brass worker ʼ. 2. *ṭhaṭṭhakara -- . [*ṭhaṭṭha -- 1, kāra -- 1]1. Pk. ṭhaṭṭhāra -- m., K. ṭhö̃ṭhur m., S. ṭhã̄ṭhāro m., P. ṭhaṭhiār, °rā m.2. P. ludh. ṭhaṭherā m., Ku. ṭhaṭhero m., N. ṭhaṭero, Bi. ṭhaṭherā, Mth. ṭhaṭheri, H. ṭhaṭherā m.
5748 tāˊḍa1 m. ʻ blow ʼ AV., tāla -- m. ʻ clap, rhythm ʼ MBh., ʻ palm of hand ʼ (= °lika -- m.) lex., °kā -- f. Hariv. [ʻ palm ʼ infl. by tala -- n. ʻ id. ʼ? -- √taḍ1]Pa. tāḷa -- m. ʻ blow ʼ, urat -- tāḷī -- f. striking one's breast ʼ; Pk. tāla -- m. ʻ blow, clapping ʼ; Phal. hate -- tāṛ, -- tōṛo, -- thōṛō ʻ palm of hand ʼ; K. tāl m.f. ʻ clapping the hands in time to music ʼ; S. tāṛa, °ṛī f. ʻ clapping the hands ʼ, L. tāṛī f.; P. tāṛ f. ʻ chastening ʼ, tāl, tār m. ʻ beating time with the hands ʼ, tālī f. ʻ clapping ʼ; WPah.bhal. tām.  ʻ side of drum beaten by smaller stick ʼ; Ku. tālī ʻ clapping ʼ, N. tāli, A. tāl, °li; B. tāṛ ʻ a beating ʼ, tāṛā ʻ snub ʼ, tāl, °li ʻ clapping ʼ, Or. tāḷa, °ḷi; H. tāṛī f. ʻ slapping the arms in defiance in wrestling ʼ; G. tāḷī, ṭāḷī f. ʻ clapping ʼ, ṭāl, ṭāḷ, ṭālī f. ʻ cymbals ʼ; M. ṭāḷī f. ʻ clapping ʼ; -- A. tār ʻ lightning ʼ (cf. Sk. taḍít -- , Pk. taḍi -- f.). -- See tāla -- 1.*kāṁsyatāḍī -- , *ghaṭītāḍa -- , catustāla -- .Addenda: tāˊḍa -- 1: S.kcch. tāṛī f. ʻ clapping of hands ʼ.
tāḍa 5750 *tāḍa3 ʻ fan -- palm ʼ, tāḍī -- 2 f. in tāḍī -- puṭa -- ʻ palm -- leaf ʼ Kād., tāla -- 2 m. ʻ Borassus flabelliformis ʼ Mn., tālī -- , °lakī -- f. ʻ palm -- wine ʼ W. [Cf. hintāla -- ] Pa. tāla -- m. ʻ fan -- palm ʼ, Pk. tāḍa -- , tāla -- , tala -- m., tāḍī -- , tālī -- f., K. tāl m., P. tāṛ m., N. tār (tāṛ ← H.), A. tāl, B. tāṛ, Or. tāṛa, tāṛi, tāḷa, Bi. tār, tāṛ, OAw. tāra, H. G. tāṛ m., M. tāḍ m., Si. tala. -- Gy. gr. taró m., tarí f. ʻ rum ʼ, rum. tari ʻ brandy ʼ, pal. tar ʻ date -- spirit ʼ; S. tāṛī f. ʻ juice of the palmyra ʼ; P. tāṛī ʻ the fermented juice ʼ; N. tāṛī ʻ id., yeast ʼ (← H.); A. tāri ʻ the fermented juice ʼ, B. Or. tāṛi, Bi. tārī, tāṛī, Bhoj. tāṛī; H. tāṛī f. ʻ the juice, the fermented juice ʼ; G. tāṛī f. ʻ the juice ʼ, M. tāḍī f. <-> X hintāla -- q.v. tālavr̥nta -- ; *madatāḍikā -- . Addenda: tāḍa -- 3: S.kcch. tāṛ m. ʻ palm tree ʼ. †*tāḍarukṣa -- .
tāḍana 5751 tāḍana n. ʻ beating ʼ Yājñ. [√taḍ1] Pk. tāḍaṇa -- , tālaṇa -- n., °ṇā -- f. ʻ beating, slap ʼ, NiDoc. taḍ'anae dat. sg.; OA. tāṛana ʻ act of striking ʼ; B. tāṛan, tāṛnā ʻ scourging, reprimand ʼ, tāṛni ʻ whip, goad ʼ; Or. tāṛaṇa ʻ whipping, crowbar ʼ, tāṛaṇa māṛaṇa ʻ kneading of clay ʼ; H. tāṛan, tāṛnā m. ʻ beating, rebuke ʼ; M. tāḍaṇ n. ʻ beating ʼ.
5752 tāḍáyati1 ʻ beats, strikes, punishes ʼ Mn. [√taḍ1] Pa. tāḷēti ʻ beats ʼ, Pk. tāḍaï, tālēi; NiDoc. taḍ'eti ʻ punishes ʼ; K. (vill.?) tāḍun ʻ to slap, reprove ʼ, P. tāṛnā, Ku. tāṛṇo; A. tāriba ʻ to ram down ʼ; B. tāṛāna ʻ to drive away, drive on ʼ; Or. tāṛibā ʻ to strike, push to one side, uproot ʼ; G. tāṛvũ ʻ to beat ʼ; M. tāḍṇẽ ʻ to beat, punish ʼ; Si. taḷanavā ʻ to flog ʼ. *tāḍayati2 ʻ thinks ʼ see *taḍati2. tāḍī -- 1 see tāṭaṅka -- . tāḍī -- 2 see *tāḍa -- 3. Addenda: tāḍáyati1: Md. taḷanī ʻ knocks, breaks ʼ, teḷenī ʻ is crushed, quakes, knocks around (intr.) ʼ.
5752a †*tāḍarukṣa -- ʻ palmyra palm ʼ. [tāḍa -- 3, rukṣá -- ] Md. tāruk ʻ palmyra ʼ.
5632 *taḍati1 ʻ strikes ʼ. [√taḍ1]S. taṛaṇu ʻ to drive off, expel ʼ; P. taṛṇā ʻ to coop up ʼ; Or. taṛibā ʻ to drive away, attack ʼ; G. taṛvũ ʻ to run to strike, attack, rise in revolt ʼ; -- Paš. taṛka ʻ forcibly ʼ, taṛas -- ʻ to knock ʼ.
5636 *taḍikā ʻ beating ʼ. [taḍít -- f. ʻ stroke ʼ Naigh. -- √taḍ1]Or. taṛi ʻ stroke, beating ʼ; H. taṛī f. ʻ beating, loss, fraud ʼ; G. taṛī f. ʻ beating ʼ.
3041 Ta. taṭṭumuṭṭu furniture, goods and chattels, utensils, luggage. Ma. taṭṭumuṭṭu kitchen utensils, household stuff. Tu. taṭṭimuṭṭu id.
பஞ்சகம் pañcakam, n. < pañcaka. The five inauspicious periods of time ascertained by the remainders 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8, yielded when the sum of the numbers of titi, vāram, nakṣat- tiramilakkiṉammiruttiyu-pañcakam, akkiṉi-pañcakam, irāca- pañcakam, cōra-pañcakam, rōka-pañcakam; திதி வார நக்ஷத்திர லக்கினங்களின்எண்ணைக்கூட்டி 9-ஆல் வகுத்த மீதி 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 பஞ்சகம்மாளர் pañca-kammāḷar, n. < pañcantaṭṭāṉ, kaṉṉāṉ, ciṟpaṉ, taccaṉ, kollaṉ; தட்டான், கன்னான், சிற்பன், தச்சன் கொல்லன் என்ற ஐவகைப்
தெய்வத்தச்சன் teyva-t-taccaṉ, n. < id. +. Višvakarma, as the celestial architect; விசுவகன்மா.தெய்வத்தச்சனைப் புகழ்துமோ (கம்பரா. ஊர்தேடு. 18).
தச்சக்கோல் tacca-k-kōl, n. < தச்சன் +. Carpenter's or mason's cubit = 33 in.; 33-அங் குலமுள்ளதச்சுமுழம். (C. G.)
தச்சச்சி taccacci , n. See தச்சிச்சி. Colloq.
தச்சத்தி taccatti, n. See தச்சிச்சி. (நன். 420, சங்கரந.)
தச்சநூல் tacca-nūl, n. < தச்சன் +. Treatise on carpentry; தச்சத்தொழிலைப்பற்றிய சாஸ்திரம்.
தச்சமுழம் tacca-muḻam, n. < தச்சன் +. See தச்சக்கோல்.
தச்சவாடி tacca-vāṭi, n. < id. + vāṭī. Carpenter's yard; தச்சர்வேலைசெய்யும் இடம். (C. E. M.)
தச்சவேலை tacca-vēlai, n. < id. +. Carpentry; தச்சருக்குரிய தொழில்.
தச்சன் taccaṉ, n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter; மரத்தில் வேலை செய்பவன். மரங்கொஃ றச்சரும் (மணி. 28, 37). 2. Person of carpenter caste; தச்சுவேலைசெய்யும் சாதியான். 3. The 14th nakṣatra, as pertaining to Višvakarma; [விசுவ கர்மாவுக் குரியது] சித்திரை நாள். (பிங்.)
தச்சன்குருவி taccaṉ-kuruvi, n. < தச்சன் +. Wood-pecker. See மரங்கொத்தி. (யாழ். அக.)
தச்சாசாரி taccācāri
, n. < id. +. See தச்சன், 1.
தச்சாசாரியம் taccācāriyam
, n. < id. +. Status or position of a master-carpenter; தச் சத் தலைமை. (S. I. I. ii, 278, 17.)
தச்சி² tacci , n. [T. K. dacci.] A throw in the game of tacci-pārā தச்சிச்சி taccicci
, n. Fem. of தச்சன். Woman of Taccaṉ caste; தச்சச்சாதிப்பெண். (நன். 140, மயிலை.)
தச்சு taccu, n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter's work; தச்சன்றொழில். தச்சு விடுத்தலும் (திருவாச. 14, 3). 2. Day's work of a carpenter; தச்சனது ஒருநால் வேலையளவு.
தச்சுக்கழித்தல் taccu-k-kaḻittal, n. < தச்சு +. A ceremony performed by carpenters prior to house-warming, with a view to exorcise evil spirits; புதுவீட்டிற் கிருகப்பிரவேசத்திற்கு முன்புபேயோட்டுதற்காகத் தச்சர்கள் செய்யுஞ் சடங்கு. Nāñ.
தச்சுக்கோல் taccu-k-kōl
, n. See தச்சக் கோல். (G. Tn. D. I, 239.)தச்சுமுழம் taccu-muḻam
, n. See தச்சக் கோல். (G. Tn. D. I, 239.)
தச்சுவாடி taccu-vāṭi, n. < தச்சு +. 1. See தச்சவாடி. 2. Stand for hackney carriages;வாடகைவண்டிகள் நிற்கும் இடம். Loc. 3. Fuel- depot; விறகுக்கடை. Loc.
தச்சுவினைமாக்கள் taccu-viṉai-mākkaḷ, n. < id. +. Carpenters; தச்சர். (தொல். பொ. 393, உரை.)
தச்சுவேலை taccu-vēlai, n. < id. +. See தச்சவேலை.
கல்லுளித்தச்சன் kal-l-uḷi-t-taccaṉ, n. < id. +. Sculptor, stone-cutter; கல்வேலை செய் யுந் தச்சன். (W.)
தட்டல் taṭṭal, n. < தட்டு-. 1. Knocking, striking, clapping, tapping; கை முதலியவற்றால் தட்டுகை. 2. (Mus.) Beating time; தாளமிடுகை. (திவா.) 3. Checking, obstructing; rejecting; தடுக்கை. (திவா.) 4. Lack, scarcity; முட்டுப்பாடு. சோற்றுக்குத் தட்டலாயிருக்கிறது. 5. Emptying, discharging;ஒன்றிலுள்ளதை வெளியிற்கொட்டுகை. 6. Salver, tray; தாலம். (W.) 7. Five, a slang term; ஐந்துஎன்பதன் குழூஉக்குறி. (J.)
தட்டாக்குடி taṭṭā-k-kuṭi
, n. < தட்டான்¹ +. Goldsmiths' quarters; தட்டார்கள் இருப்பிடம். Loc.
தட்டாத்தி taṭṭātti, n. Fem. of தட்டான்¹. Woman of goldsmith caste; தட்டாரச்சாதிப் பெண்.
தட்டார்பாட்டம் taṭṭār-pāṭṭam, n. < தட் டான்¹ +. Profession tax on goldsmiths; தட்டார் இறுக்கும்அரசிறைவகை. (S. I. I. ii, 117.)
தட்டாரப்பாட்டம் taṭṭāra-p-pāṭṭam, n. < தட்டார் +. See தட்டார்பாட்டம். (S. I. I. iii, 115.)
(Santali)
How Tvaṣṭr̥ armourer, forged discus of Viṣṇu, Triśūla of Śiva and other weapons of divinities from solar disc, Sun divinity. 
Viśvakarman, the architect of the gods.  takṣan तक्षन् m. [तक्ष्-कनिन्] is N. of the architect of the gods (Apte).
Links with metalwork are clear from the meanings provided in Samskritam which extend from workman to copper to creative power:  tvāṣṭra त्वाष्ट्र a. Belonging or coming from त्वष्टृ; त्वाष्ट्रं यद् दस्रावपिकक्ष्यं वाम् Rv.1.117.22. -ष्ट्रः Vṛitra; येनावृता इमे लोकास्तमसा त्वाष्ट्रमूर्तिना । स वै वृत्र इति प्रोक्तः पापः परमदारुणः ॥ Bhāg.6.9.18;11.12.5. -ष्ट्री 1 The asterism Chitra. -2 A small car. -ष्ट्रम् 1 Creative power; तपःसारमयं त्वाष्ट्रं वृत्रो येन विपाटितः Bhāg.8.11.35. -2 Copper. tvaṣṭṛ त्वष्टृ m. [त्वक्ष्-तृच्] 1 A carpenter, builder, workman, त्वष्ट्रेव विहितं यन्त्रम् Mb.12.33.22. -2 Viśvakarman, the architect of the gods. [Tvaṣtṛi is the Vulcan of the Hindu mythology. He had a son named Triśiras and a daughter called संज्ञा, who was given in marriage to the sun. But she was unable to bear the severe light of her husband, and therefore Tvaṣtṛi mounted the sun upon his lathe, and carefully trimmed off a part of his bright disc; cf. आरोप्य चक्रभ्रमिमुष्णतेजास्त्वष्ट्रेव यत्नो- ल्लिखितो विभाति R.6.32. The part trimmed off is said to have been used by him in forming the discus of Viṣṇu, the Triśūla of Śiva, and some other weapons of the gods.] पर्वतं चापि जग्राह क्रुद्धस्त्वष्टा महाबलः Mb.1.227. 34. -3 Prajāpati (the creator); यां चकार स्वयं त्वष्टा रामस्य महिषीं प्रियाम् Mb.3.274.9. -4 Āditya, a form of the sun; निर्भिन्ने अक्षिणी त्वष्टा लोकपालो$विशद्विभोः Bhāg.3.6.15. आदित्य a. [अदितेरपत्यं ण्य P.IV.1.85.] A son of Aditi; a god, divinity in general. (The number of Ādityas appears to have been originally seven, of whom Varuṇa is the head, and the name Āditya was restricted to them (देवा आदित्या ये सप्त Rv.9.114.3.). In the time of the Brāhmaṇas, however, the number of Ādityas rose to 12, representing the sun in the 12 months of the year; धाता मित्रो$र्यमा रुद्रो वरुणः सूर्य एव च । भगो विवस्वान् पूषा च सविता दशमः स्मृतः ॥ एकादशस्तथा त्वष्टा विष्णुर्द्वादश उच्यते ।); आदित्यानामहं विष्णुः Bg.1.21; Ku. 2.24. (These 12 suns are supposed to shine only at the destruction of the universe; cf. Ve.3.8; दग्धुं विश्वं दहनकिरणैर्नोदिता द्वादशार्काः).(Samskritam. Apte)
"King Shaushtatar (ruled c. 1430) extended the boundaries of Mitanni through the conquest of Alalakh, Nuzi, Assur, and Kizzuwatna. Egypt, under Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 BCE), defeated the Mitanni at Aleppo after a long period of contention over control of the region of Syria. Later Egyptian dynasties entered into pacts and treaties with Mitanni and the daughter of the Mitanni King Tushratta, the princess Taduhepa, was given in marriage to Amenhotep III (1391-1353 BCE) as part of a treaty which balanced power between the two nations.This treaty was put to the test during a power struggle in Washukanni between Tushratta and a relative of the previous king, Shuttarna, known as Artatama II. Egypt backed Tushratta in this conflict while the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I backed Artatama II. Tushratta seemed poised to succeed when Egypt, fearing the growing power of the Hittites, withdrew its support. Suppiluliuma I, tired of diplomacy and now free to do as he pleased without fear of Egyptian reprisal, led his forces on Washukanni and sacked it. Tushratta was assassinated by his son, perhaps in an effort to save the city. Following this conquest, Mitanni was ruled by Hittite kings."http://www.ancient.eu/Mitanni/ The name Tushratta may also be a phonetic variant of Tvaṣṭr̥, Tuisto.                                                  Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is postulated. 
"In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni (between Suppiluliuma and Shattiwaza, ca. 1380 BC), the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked.Kikkuli's horse training text (circa 1400 BC) includes technical terms such as aika (Vedic Sanskrit eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pañca, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, round). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper (Vedic Sanskrit eka, with regular contraction of /ai/ to [eː]) as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has *aiva; compare Vedic eva "only") in general. Another text has babru(-nnu) (babhru, brown), parita(-nnu) (palita, grey), and pinkara(-nnu) (pingala, red). Another text has babru(-nnu) (babhru, brown), parita(-nnu) (palita, grey), and pinkara(-nnu) (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya (Hurrian: maria-nnu), the term for (young) warrior in Sanskrit as well;^[1] note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (Mayrhofer II 358). Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer I 686, I 736). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_superstrate_in_Mitanni
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvastr-is-metaphor-for-veneration-of.html Tvaṣṭr̥ is a metaphor for veneration of metalwork artificers, Bhāratam Janam, in Rigveda  
Tvaṣṭṛ is sometimes associated or identified with deities,such as Savitṛ, Prajāpatī, Viśvakarman and Puṣan. He is the father of Saraṇyū, who twice bears twins to Vivasvat (RV 10.17.1), Yama and Yami, also identified as the first humans to be born on Earth. He is also the father of Viśvarūpa or Triśiras who was killed by Indra, in revenge Tvaṣṭṛ created Vrtra a fearsome dragon. Tvaṣṭṛ is a solar deity in the epic of Mahābhārata and the Harivaṃśa. He is mentioned as the son of Kāśyapa and Aditi, and is said to have made the three worlds with pieces of the Sun god Surya.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvastar  
Annex 2 RV 10.81, 82 Viśvakarmā
RV 10.81, 10.82
Visvakarman. 81
1. HE who sate down as Hotarpriest-, the Rsi, our Father, offering up all things existing, He, seeking through his wish a great possession, came among men on earth as archetypal. 2 What was the place whereon he took his station? What was it that supported him? How was it? Whence Visvakarman, seeing all, producing the earth, with mighty power disclosed the heavens. 3 He who hath eyes on all sides round about him, a mouth on all sides, arms and feet on all sides, He, the Sole God, producing earth and heaven, weldeth them, with his arms as wings, together. 4 What was the tree, what wood in sooth produced it, from which they fashioned out the earth and heaven? Ye thoughtful men inquire within your spirit whereon he stood when he established all things. 5 Nine highest, lowest, sacrificial natures, and these thy midmost- here, O Visvakarman, Teach thou thy friends at sacrifice, O Blessed, and come thyself, exalted, to our worship. 6 Bring thou thyself, exalted with oblation, O Visvakarman, Earth and Heaven to worship. Let other men around us live in folly here let us have a rich and liberal patron. 7 Let us invoke today-, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thoughtswift- Visvakarman. May he hear kindly all our invocations who gives all bliss for aid, whose works are righteous.Visvakarman. 821. THE Father of the eye, the Wise in spirit, created both these worlds submerged in fatness. Then when the eastern ends were firmly fastened, the heavens and the earth were far extended. 2 Mighty in mind and power is Visvakarman, Maker, Disposer, and most lofty Presence. Their offerings joy in rich juice where they value One, only One, beyond the Seven Rsis. 3 Father who made us, he who, as Disposer, knoweth all races and all things existing, Even he alone, the Deities' narnegiverhim-, other beings seek for information. 4 To him in sacrifice they offered treasures, Rsis of old, in numerous troops, as singers, Who, in the distant, near, and lower region, made ready all these things that have existence. 5 That which is earlier than this earth and heaven, before the Asuras and Gods had being, What was the germ primeval which the waters received where all the Gods were seen together? 6 The waters, they received that germ primeval wherein the Gods were gathefed all together. It rested set upon the Unborns' navel, that One wherein abide all things existing. 7 Ye will not find him who produced these creatures: another thing hath risen up among you. Enwrapt in misty cloud, with lips that stammer, hymnchanters- wander and are discontented.Chhaya or Chaya (Sanskrit: छाया, Chāyā) means shadow or shade. Chhaya is also personified as the goddess of shadow, the consort of Surya, the Hindu sun god.^[1] She is the shadow-image or reflection of Saranyu (Sanjna), the first wife of Surya. Chhaya was born from the shadow of Sanjna and replaced Sanjna in her house, after the latter abandoned her husband.^[2]
Chhaya is usually described as the mother of Shani, the god of the planet Saturn and a feared graha; goddess Tapti, the personification of river Tapti and a son Savarni Manu, who is destined to be the next and eighth Manu (progenitor of mankind) - the ruler of the next Manvantara period.
Early Vedic and epic legends
In the Rigveda (c. 1200-1000 BCE), which is the earliest narrative about the Chhaya-prototype. After the birth of twins to Vivasvan (Surya), his consort Saranyu - the daughter of Vishwakarma - abandons him and flews in form of a mare. The woman the divine Saranyu places in her place is called Savarna ("same-kind"): similar to Saranyu, but mortal. Savarna has no children by Surya. A later (500 BCE) addition to the Rigveda by Yaska in his Nikuta says that Manu (the progenitor of mankind, called Savarni Manu in later Puranic text) was born to Savarna. While the original text says "they" (interpreted as the gods) substituted Savarna for Saranyu, Yaksa's Nikuta tells that Saranyu created Savarna and substituted her. Brhad devata calls the prototype of Chhaya as Sadrisha ("look-alike"), a woman who looked like Saranyu. Sadrsha begot Manu by Surya, who became a royal sage.
By the time of the Harivamsa (c. 5th century CE), an appendix of the epic Mahabharata; Saranyu is called Sanjna and her double is reduced to her shadow or reflection Chhaya. It narrates:^[2] that Sanjna, after giving birth to three children of the Sun, abandons him, and leaves Chhaya to take care of her children. Surya mistakes Chhaya for Sanjna and begets Manu by her. As Manu looked just like his father, he was called Savarni Manu. When Chhaya, also called parthvi ("earthly") Sanjna, became partial to her own son and ignored those of Sanjna, Yama threatens her, and Chhaya casts a curse on Yama. Upon discovery of this, Surya threatens Chhaya, and she discloses the story of her creation; whereafter Surya finds Sanjna and brings her back. The text also states that Shani was a brother of Savarni Manu, though his birth is not explicitly stated.
Puranic legends
The Markandeya Purana tells the tale of Sanjna-Chhaya twice, the tale is similar to that in the Harivamsa, but Sanjna leaves Surya as she is unable to bear his splendour and heat. The curse to Yama is a little different. Yama abuses Chhaya and picks his leg up to kick her. Chhaya curses Yama to have his leg affected with worms and sores. Surya grants Yama, a cock to eat the worms from his leg. In the other telling, the curse is almost same as the Harivamsa. Chhaya also cleverly says that she is Yama's father's wife, but does not say that she is his mother.
The Vishnu Purana also records the legend similar to Markandeya Purana, but has few differences. Unable to bear Surya's intense heat, Sanjna after giving birth to three children - retires to the forest to practise harsh austerities in form of a mare, leaving her shadow-image Chhaya, her handmaid to take her place and tend for her husband and progeny. Surya mistakes Chhaya for Sanjna and fathers three children on her. Chhaya gives birth to Shani, Savarni Manu and Tapti. However, Chhaya became partial to her own children and ignored those of Sanjna. Yama, suspected the behaviour of who he thought was his mother and offended her. Chhaya cast a curse on Yama (the details of the curse are not disclosed), which revealed to Yama and Surya that Chhaya was not the true Sanjna. After the extracting the truth from Chhaya, Surya finds Sanjna and brings her back.
The Matsya Purana also presents a similar account about Chhaya, however the children of Chhaya are named as Savarni Manu a son and two daughters: Tapti and Vishti, who was dark blue colour and a personification of Kala (Time or Death) who dwells in Hell. Chhaya's tale is also found in the 11th century CE Kathasaritsagara. The Markandeya Purana records that Chhaya had three sons: Shani, Savarni Manu and Revanta, the divine master of horses. Kurma Purana describes only Savarni Manu as her son.^[9] While in some versions of the tale, Surya abandons Chhaya after knowing the truth about her, Surya deserts Chhaya before bringing back Sanjna. however a contemporary version tells that Chhaya was forgiven and lived with Surya, Sanjna and their children thereafter.
While most accounts consider Chhaya to be the reflection or shadow of Saranyu (Sanjna) - Surya's first wife; Bhagavata Purana tells that Chhaya was a sister of Sanjna and the daughter of the divine architect Vishwakarma.
Markandeya Purana as well as Vishnudharmottara Purana prescribe that Surya should be depicted in images with Chhaya and his other wives by his sides.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhaya
Viktor Rydberg’s Investigations into Germanic Mythology published in 1886 and 1889 is seen as an account by a Swedish writer of undivided Proto-Indo-European people who ‘created the vessel of their worldview in myths.’ (Jan de Vries, 1961, Forschungsgeschichte der Mythologie, p.250).
Excerpt from 111. The results of the judgement on the Ivaldi sons’ artwork. Parallel myths in Rigveda
[quote]…it has already been shown that the splinters of Proto-IndoEuropean mythology, which Avesta, Zend, and Bundehesh have [658] preserved, speak of a terrible winter, which afflicted the world. To rescue the most noble and the best among plants, animals, and humans from the coming destruction, Yima established an enclosed area in the underworld, inside of which a selection of natural organisms live an uncontaminated life, uninterrupted by the events on earth‘s surface, so that they may populate a more beautiful and a happier earth in the world‘s regeneration. I have shown that the same myth in all important details reappears in the Germanic doctrine about Mimir's grove and the ásmegir living there. The Iranian records inform us that the great winter was the work of the evil spirit, but they do not tell us the particulars of it or the epic causes of the cold‘s devastation. But the Iranian mythology‘s Indian sister informs us of it in Rigveda. Clothed with divine rank, there lives among Rigveda's gods an extraordinary artist, Tvashtar (Tvashtri), often mentioned and addressed in Rigveda's hymns. The word means "the foreman,""the craftsman" (Bergaigne, Relig. Ved., III, 45;[1] Darmesteter, Ormazd, 63, 2; 100).[2] He is the one who forms the organisms in their maternal wombs, the one who prepares and first owns as his secret the strength- and inspiration-endowing soma-juice (Rigv., II. 53, and many other places);[3] it is he that nurtures the generations (Rigv., III. 55, 19).[4] Among the wonderful work he crafted is mentioned a double-bowl or goblet, which is the gods‘ drinking-vessel, and which fills itself with blessings (Rigv., III, 55, 20; X. 53, 9),[5] and Indra's, the Indic Thor's, lightning-wedge, the counterpart to Mjölnir. But among mortals brothers have grown up, themselves mortal, and not of divine rank, but who have educated themselves into artists, whose skill fills the world with astonishment. They are three in number, usually called the Ribhus, but also the Anus and the Ayus, names which perhaps have some ancient fellowship with the Völund names Anund and Ajo. Most daring and enterprising in successful artistic experiments is the youngest of the three (Rigv., IV, 34). They are also soma-brewers, skalds, and heroes (Rigv., IV. 36, 5, 7), and one of them, like [659] Völund's brother Örvandil-Egil, is an unsurpassed archer (Rigv., IV. 36, 6). For their handiwork‘s sake, these mortal artists come in contact with the gods (Rigv., IV, 35), and as Völund and Örvandil-Egil become Thor's friends, allies, war-comrades, and servants, so the Ribhus become Indra's (Rigv., I 51, 2; VII. 37, 7): ―with Indra, the helpful, allied themselves the helpers; with Indra, the nimble Ribhus.‖[6] They forge weapons, armor, and means of transportation, and make noteworthy treasures for the gods. On the earth, they create vegetation in the deserts, and carve out ways for the fertilizing streams (Rigv., V. 42, 12; IV. 33, 7). With Ivaldi's sons, they, therefore, share the qualities of being simultaneously creators of vegetation, and smiths at the hearth, and bestowers of precious gifts to the gods. But some evil tongue persuaded the gods that the Ribhus had uttered something disdainful of the double-bowl or goblet made by Tvashtar. This provoked Tvashtar and he demanded their death. The gods then sent the fire-god Agni to the Ribhus. The Ribhus asked: ―Why has the most excellent, the most youthful come to us? On what mission does he come?‖[7] Agni let them know that they were supposed to have found fault with Tvashtar's goblet; but they assured him that they had not uttered anything derogatory, but only talked about the material of which it was made. Agni, however, presented the gods‘ resolution, which enjoined them to make from Tvashtar's goblet four of the same kind. If they were not able to do this, then the gods would yield to Tvashtar's claim on their lives; but if they could, then they, with the gods, would share the right to receive offerings. Yet, moreover, they were to perform the following master test: they should smithy a living horse, a living vehicle, a living cow, and they should create a means of rejuvenation and demonstrate its efficacy on two beings, advanced in age and powerless. The Ribhus let the gods know that they would comply with the order. So they made the wonderful vehicle or the wagon-ship, which they gave to the Asvins, the beautiful twin-gods, on which they travel through the air and on the sea (Compare Skiðbladnir, Frey's ship, [660] and Hringhorni, Baldur's, and probably also Hödur's means of transportation through the air and on the sea). Of one horse they made two horses, and presented them to Indra. Out of an empty cowhide, they forged a cow (Compare Sindri's piece of art when, from an empty pigskin, he made the boar Sliðrugtanni). They made the requested means of rejuvenation, and tested it successfully on their aged parents. Finally, they even perform the great masterwork of producing from Tvashtar's goblet, four as good. Thereafter they appear before the gods who, "with insight," test their work.[8] Tvashtar himself could not help being astounded over the goblets. But the result of the gods‘ testing and judgment on the Ribhus‘ artwork was quite full of misfortune. Both Tvashtar and the Ribhus were dissatisfied. Tvashtar left the gods and proceeded to the mountains with his dises of vegetation, in whose society he is often mentioned. The Ribhus refused to receive the proffered share in the morning and noon sacrifices from the gods and, after laying curses on their adversaries, they went away on long wandering expeditions, and the gods knew not where to find them (Rigv., I. 161, 1-13; IV. 33, 1-11, and many other places). The result of this breach between the primeval artists themselves, and with the gods, becomes clear from the significance which Tvashtar, he who nourishes the world, and the Ribhus, who adorn the wastes with vegetation and who water the valleys, have as symbols of nature. The beneficent forces of nature, who previously had worked in the gods‘ service, abandon their cause, and over the world spreads that winter of which the Iranian myths speak, that darkness and that reign of giant-monsters which, according to Rigveda, once prevailed, and during which Indra, at the head of the gods, fought valiantly to restore order and to recapture the sun. Here we find remarkable points of contact, or rather contact surfaces, between the Asiatic Aryan and the Germanic mythic cycles. The concern is not similarities in individual details; such [similarities] can be pointed out in nearly all mythic cycles in the world, and, typically one builds altogether too dizzying [661] hypotheses on the weak foundations they offer. The concern here is commonality in great, central, connected complexes of myths: the myth about an original harmony between a divine clan and the subordinate and subservient artists, who forge fertility, ornaments and weapons for the gods, know how to brew the strength-endowing and inspiration-granting mead, and who are closely connected to vegetation-dises, who, as shall be shown later, appear as swanmaidens, not only in the Germanic godsaga but also in the Indic mythology; the myths of how this harmony was destroyed by the verdict of a trial, whose parties are, on the one side, he who forged Indra's thundering wedge in the Indic myths, and Thor's thundering hammer in the Germanic; and on the other side three brothers, of whom one is an excellent archer; the myth about the consequences of the judgment: nature‘s destruction by forces of frost or giant-monsters; the myth (in the earliest Iranian and the Germanic documents) of the subterranean pleasure-garden, in which a selection of creation‘s best beings are protected against annihilation, and survive uncorrupted through centuries; the myth (in the earliest Iranian and the Germanic documents) of these beings‘ destiny, which unites itself with the similarly common myth (in the Iranian and the Germanic mythic cycles) concerning the destruction and the renewal of the world. Common to the 14 IV, 33, 9. Indic and the Germanic mythologies too is that a cunning, spying being, in Rigveda Dadhyak (Dadhyank), in the Icelandic sources Loki, has forfeited his head to the artist who forged the wedge for Indra and the hammer for Thor, but saves it with cunning. An important observation should be pointed out here. A comparison between different passages in Rigveda demonstrates that of all the wonderful artworks that were laid before the gods to examine, there was originally not one of metal. Tvashtar's doublebowl or goblet was not forged of gold, but of fire and water and a third element. Indra's wedge was made of the bones of Dadhyak's horse‘s head, and first became a weapon of bronze in a later tradition. Common to the Aryan-Asiatic and the Germanic mythologies is the primeval artists‘ ability [662] to forge animals from empty animal skins, and to make from one object of art several similar ones (the Ribhus‘ goblet, Sindri's Draupnir). Also, in the Germanic mythology, Thor's hammer was not originally of metal, but of stone, and the other artworks created by Sindri and the Ivaldi sons have probably undergone similar changes in the course of centuries, in regard to their raw materials. It should also be noted that not a trace of a myth comparable to that of Svipdag and the sword of victory is to be found in the Aryan-Asiatic mythic cycle. In the Germanic heroic saga, Geirvandil, the spear-fighter, is the father of Örvandil, the archer, and first born to him is Svipdag, the sword-fighter (compare no. 123). The myth about the sword of victory seems to be purely Germanic, and to have been established during the Bronze or Iron Ages, while the myth concerning the judgment on the primeval artists and of the fimbul-winter which follows must originate from a time when metals were not in use among the Indo-Europeans. Otherwise, it is most incredible to believe that the judgment would concern works of art of which not one originally suggested a metal product.[unquote] Source: Viktor Rydberg's Investigations into Germanic Mythology, Volume I Translated and annotated with modern references by William P. Reaves, 2010
http://www.germanicmythology.com/ugm1/UGM1%20NEW%20TRANSLATION%20110-113.pdf
The narration is specific, detailed in RV. 10.17 and refers to the preparations for a wedding of Tvastar’s daughter.
Griffith’s translation RV 10.17: Various Deities. 171.TVASTAR prepares the bridal of his Daughter: all the world hears the tidings and assembles. But Yamas' Mother, Spouse of great Vivasvan, vanished as she was carried to her dwelling. 2 From mortal men they hid the Immortal Lady, made one like her and gave her to Vivasvan. Saranyu brought to him the Asvin brothers, and then deserted both twinned pairs of children. 3 Guard of the world, whose cattle Never are injured, may Pusan bear thee hence, for he hath knowledge. May he consign thee to these Fathers' keeping, and to the gracious Gods let Agni give thee. 4 May Ayu, giver of all life, protect thee, and bear thee forward on the distant pathway. Thither let Savitar the God transport thee, where dwell the pious who have passedbefore- thee. 5 Pusan knows all these realms: may he conduct us by ways that are most free from fear and danger. Giver of blessings, glowing, allheroic-, may he, thewise and watchful, go before us. 6 Pusan was born to move on distant pathways, on the road far from earth and far from heaven. To both most wonted places of assembly he travels and returns with perfect knowledge. 7 The pious call Sarasvati, they worship Sarasvati while sacrifice proceedeth. The pious called Sarasvati aforetime. Sarasvati send bliss to him who giveth. 8 Sarasvati, who camest with the Fathers, with them rejoicing thee in our oblations, Seated upon this sacred grass be joyful, and give us strengthening food that brings no sickness. 9 Thou, called on as Sarasvati by Fathers who come right forward to our solemn service, Give food and wealth to present sacrificers, a portion, worth a thousand, of refreshment. 10 The Mother Floods shall make us bright and shining, cleansers of holy oil, with oil shall cleanse us: For, Goddesses, they bear off all defilement: I, rise up from them purified and brightened. 11 Through days of earliest date the Drop descended on this place and on that which was before it. I offer up, throughout the seven oblations, the Drop which still to one same place is moving. 12 The Drop that falls, thy stalk which arms have shaken, which from the bosom of the press hath fallen, Or from the Adhvaryus' purifying filter, I offer thee with heart and cry of Vasat! 13 That fallen Drop of thine, the stalk which from the ladle fell away, This present God Brhaspati shall pour it forth to make us rich. 14 The plants of earth are rich in milk, and rich in milk is this my speech; And rich in milk the essence of the Waters: make me pure therewith.Wilson’s translation: 10.017.01 Tvas.t.a_ celebrates the marriage of his daughter; therefore, the whole world is assembled; but the mother of Yama, the newly-married wife of the mighty Vivasvat, disappeared. [Deity Saran.yu_: The legend: Saran.yu_, the daughter of Tvas.t.a_, was given in marriage to Vivasvat, and had by him Yama and Yami_. Intimidated by his ardour, she substituted another female, her shadow, Cha_ya_, for herself, and going to Uttarakuru, changed herself to a mare. Vivasvat begot Manu by Cha_ya_, when, finding his error, he set off to look for his wife. Discovering her disguise, he transformed himself to a horse, and had by his wife the two As'vins].  10.017.02 The gods concealing the immortal (Sarn.yu_) for the sake of mortals and having formed her, gave her to Vivasvat. She bore the two As'vins when this had happened and then Saran.yu_ gave birth to two twins. [For the sake of mortals: maryebhyah = manus.yebhyas tadutpattyartham, for men, i.e. that men might be born. Manu was the offspring of Vivasvat and the woman resembling Saran.yu_ and all men are descended from Manu; the two twins: Yama and Yami_, but dva_ mithuna_, may mean two pairs of twins, Yama and Yami_,  the first pair and the As'vins the second].  10.017.03 May the discriminating Pu_s.an, whose cattle are never lost, the protector of all beings, transfer you hence (to a better world); may he give you to these Pitr.s; may Agni (give) you to the beneficent gods. [This and the following three r.cas are to be recited at the funeral rites of a man who has been duly initiated, di_ks.ita].  10.017.04 May the all-pervading Va_yu protect you, may Pu_s.an (preserve) you, (going) first on the excellent path (to heaven); may the divine Savita_ place you, where the virtuous abide, whither they have gone. [a_yu = Va_yu].  10.017.05 Pu_s.an knows all these regions severally; met him conduct us by (the path) that is most free from peril; let him precede us, who is the giver of prosperity, endowed with radiance, accompanied by all pious men, ever vigilant, and knowing our (deserts).  10.017.06 Pu_s.an has been born on the best path of paths, on the best path of heaven on the best path of earth, he goes forward and backward over both (worlds), the assemblies longed for by all, discriminating (the merits of the dead). [Pu_s.an has been born: i.e., manifested in order to conduct men after death to their destination, according to their merits; he goes forward: i.e., favourably to the virtuous to show the fruit of good owrks, backward, i.e., he walks adversely to the wicked; discriminating the merits: i.e., he walks adversely to the wicked].  10.017.07 The devout invoke Sarasvati_; they worship Sarasvati_ at the strewn sacrifice; the virtuous call upon Sarasvati_; may Sarasvati_ bestow blessings upon the donor (of the oblation).  10.017.08 Divine Sarasvati_, who rides in the same chariot with the Pitr.s, and delighted (along with them) by the (sacrificial) viands, seated on the sacred grass gratified (by our offering, and grant us wholesome food.  10.017.09 Sarasvati_, whom the Pitr.s invoke when circumambulating sacrifice on the right, bestow upon the worshippers at this sacrifice a portion of food fit for thousands, and increase of riches.  10.017.10 May the maternal waters, purify us; may the shedders of water purify us with the effusion; for the divine (waters) bear away all sin; I come away from them purified (to heaven).  [Shedders of water...with effusion: ghr.tena no ghr.tapvah punantu: waters which purify others by water; ghr.ta = effused water; ghr.tapvah = divinities presiding over effused water; or, ghr.ta = oiled butter (Yajus. 4.2); udemi = I go to heaven (S'atapatha Bra_hman.a 3.1.2.11)].  10.017.11 The Soma has risen to the earthly and heavenly (worlds), both this visible world, and that which (existed) before (it); I offer that Soma flowing through the common region (of heaven and earth) after the sacrifice (offered by the) seven (officiating priests). [drapsam = a name of the Sun (S'atapatha Bra_hman.a: 8.4.1.20); hotra_h = ditah, which are seven: zenith, nadir, centre and four cardinal points].  10.017.12 Soma, which escapes (from the hide), your filaments which let fall from the hands (of the priest escape) from the vicinity of the planks (of the press), or (from the hand) of the Adhvaryu, or from the filter; I offer it all with my mind (to Agni) with the word vas.at.  10.017.13 Your juice and your filaments, (Soma), which escape, and which fall from the ladle on this side or on that; may this divine Br.haspati sprinkle it for our enrichment.  10.017.14 (Waters)! the plants flourish by means of water my prayer is effectual through water; the essence of water is vigorous through water; purify me with it. [payasvat = having water; or, sa_ravat, having pith or vigour; being vigorous b\y means of water in the shape of rain].[quote]Tuisto, Tvastar & YmirConnections have been proposed between the 1st century figure of Tuisto and the hermaphroditic primeval being Ymir in later Norse mythology, attested in 13th century sources, based upon etymological and functional similarity. Meyer (1907; loc. cit. North, Richard, 1997, Heathen Gods in Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press, p.269) sees the connection as so strong, that he considers the two to be identical. Lindow (Lindow, John, 2001, Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs, Oxford Univ. Press, p. 296), while mindful of the possible semantic connection between Tuisto and Ymir, notes an essential functional difference: while Ymir is portrayed as an "essentially… negative figure"– Tuisto is described as being "celebrated" (celebrant) by the early Germanic peoples in song, with Tacitus reporting nothing negative about Tuisto.
Jacob (Jacob, Alexander, 2005, Ātman: A Reconstruction of the Solar Cosmology of the Indo-Europeans. Georg Olms Verlag, p.232) attempts to establish a genealogical relationship between Tuisto and Ymir based on etymology and a comparison with (post-)Vedic Indian mythology: as Tvastr, through his daughter Saranyū and her husband Vivaswān, is said to have been the grandfather of the twins Yama and Yami, so Jacob argues that the Germanic Tuisto (assuming a connection with Tvastr) must originally have been the grandfather of Ymir (cognate to Yama). Incidentally, Indian mythology also places Manu (cognate to Germanic Mannus), the Vedic progenitor of mankind, as a son of Vivaswān, thus making him the brother of Yama/Ymir. [unquote]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuisto 
[1] Bergaigne defines the name as taksh, charpenter, (carpenter), ouvrer (workman).
[2] Darmesteter defines the name as: le Créateur, (Creator), l’Ordonnateur (Ordainer), le Formateur (Trainer).
[3] This reference is erroneous. Rigveda Book 2 has 43 verses. Rigv. II, 23, 17 may have been intended. It reads: ―For Tvastar, he who knows each sacred song, brought thee to life, preeminent o‘er all the things that be,‖ [Griffith tr.] As Rydberg indicates, the statements are well-supported. For example: Rigv. I, 117, 22: ―sweet Soma, Tvastar‘s secret‖; I, 188, 9: ―Tvastar the Lord hath made all forms and all the cattle of the field.‖; III, 48, 4: ―E'en from his birth-time Indra conquered Tvastar, bore off the Soma and in beakers drank it.‖; IV, 18, 3: ―In Tvastar's dwelling India drank the Soma.‖; X, 10, 5 ―Even in the womb God Tvastar, Vivifier, shaping all forms, Creator, made us consorts.‖; X, 184, 1: ―May Visnu form and mould the womb, may Tvastar duly shape the forms.‖ [Griffith tr.]
[4] Bergaigne, III, p. 40: ―III.55.19: ‗The god Tvastr Savitr who assumes all forms, nourishes the created beings; he engenders them in a large number and all the worlds belong to him.‖ [Paranjpe tr.]; ―Tvasṭar the god, the omniform. Creator, begets and feeds mankind in various manner.‖ [Griffith tr]:.
[5] Rigv. III, 55, 20: ―The two great meeting Bowls hath he united: each of the Pair is laden with his treasure.”; .X, 53, 9: ―Tvastar, most deft of workmen, knew each magic art, bringing most blessed bowls that hold the drink of Gods,‖ [Griffith tr.].
[6] This appears to be the first part of Rigv. I, 51, 2. Alfred Ludwig‘s German translation (1876) begins: ―es verbanden sich mit ihm dem hilfreichen die helfer,‖ [Der Rigveda, no. 966, p. 599]. Ralph Griffith‘s reads: ―As aids the skilful Ṛbhus yearned to Indra strong to save.‖; VII, 37, 7 refers to ―three close friends‖ of Indra‘s without naming the Ribhus.
[7] Rigv. I, 161, 1.
[8] IV, 33, 9.

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Picture gallery: artificers, boat-building ancient Bharatam

January 25, 2017, 5:15 am

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Artificers, Višvakarman of the world, unite! Baṛhai (Garhwālī), Baḍagi (Kannada), Vaḍlavāḍu (Telugu), Tuisco, Tuisto (Germans), Tarkhan (Turkic), Dhiman are Proto-Indo-European divine artificers

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/zxxlwuz

Excerpts:"Observations from Indostan"

india_sawyers

"As much as the labourer in Indoſtan is deficient in the capacity of exerting a great deal of ſtrength at an onſet, ſo is he endowed with a certain ſuppleneſs throughout all his frame, which enables him to work long in his own degree of labour; and which renders thoſe contortions and poſtures, which would cramp the inhabitant of northern regions, no conſtraint to him. There are not more extraordinary tumblers in the world. Their meſſengers will go fifty miles a day, for twenty or thirty days without intermiſſion. Their infantry march faſter, and with leſs wearineſs, than Europeans; but could not march at all, if they were to carry the ſame baggage and accoutrements. Robert Orme Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire of the Morattores, and of the English Concerns in Indostan – 1805"

india_carpenters

"The Indian carpenter’s tools are so coarse, and the native wood is so hard, that one would wonder that the work was ever performed. Almost every thing is done with a chisel and an axe. The gimlet is a long piece of iron wire with a flat point, fixed into a wooden handle consisting of two parts, the upper one of which is held in one hand, while the other is turned by a bow, whose string is twisted twice round it.

The plane is small, but similar to that of Europe, excepting that it has a cross stick in the front, which serves as a handle for another workman, two being generally employed at one plane. As the comforts of a carpenter’s bench are unknown, when a Hindoo wants to plane his work, he sits on the ground, with his partner opposite to him, steadying the timber with their toes, and both plane together. I have seen two of them working in this manner on a bit of wood a foot square, with a plane three inches long.

Even the blacksmiths sit down to do their work. They dig a hole eighteen inches or two feet deep, in the centre of which they place the anvil, so that they can sit by it with their legs in the hole. A native of India does not gel through so much work as an European; but the multitude of hands, and the consequent cheapness of labour, supply the place of the industry of Europe, and in most cases that of its machinery also. I saw the main-mast of the Minden, a weight little less than twenty tons, lifted and moved a considerable distance by the koolis or porters. They carried it in slings fixed to bamboos, which they placed on their heads crosswise, with one arm over the bamboo, and the other on the shoulder of the man immediately before; in front of the whole marched one to guide and to clear the way, for, when they have once begun to move, the weight on the head prevents them from seeing what is before them. Lady Maria Callcott Journal of a Residence in India – 1813"

"The Hindoo joiners make gods, bedsteads, window frames, doors, boxes, seats, pillars for houses, &c. They also delineate idol figures on boards, and sometimes paint the image; some engage in masonry. Formerly the Hindoo joiners had neither rule, compass, nor even a gimblet, nor indeed did the most skilful possess more than ten articles of what composes a joiner’s chest of tools; but they have now added a number, and, under the superintendance of a European, are able to execute very superior work. In some villages, several families of joiners, in ten others, perhaps, not two individuals of this cast, are to be found. The carpenters are in general extremely ignorant; very few are able to read. William Ward A view of the History, Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos – 1818"

—Jeff Burks ← Rambles in the Woodland

https://blog.lostartpress.com/2014/06/09/observations-from-indostan/

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/6d/86/d5/6d86d52cd1c3e8efd85aa5842f27a634.jpg
nov 17 1078 carpenter shop:

1078 Carpenter shop
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/488570259545186453/

Egyptian

Pull saw to make wooden planks

Woodworking shop model found in a tomb

Carpenter with adze working on a scaffold
3000 year old tool kit left in a tomb

European Neolithic Tool made from Flint 6500 BC

Source: http://www.altereagle.com/Master-Carpenter-History.html
Related image

German carpenter.

Carpenter, reproduced from the original drawing by Michael Wolgemut (Wohlgemuth) in the 'Chronique de Nuremburg'. Stock Photo

Carpenter, reproduced from the original drawing by Michael Wolgemut (Wohlgemuth) in the 'Chronique de Nuremburg'. German

CARPENTERS, 1568. /nWoodcut, 1568, by Jost Amman.

Relief depicting a blacksmith's shop and tools (stone), Roman, (3rd century BC) / Museo Nazionale d'Abruzzo, Aquila, Italy / Giraudon / The Bridgeman Art Library
https://www.pinterest.com/rasmusdrasmusse/smeder/

Ancient India - Ship Building & Navigation

In Ancient India there existed a strange belief that if any Hindu crossed the seas, he would lose his religion. When and why this belief came into being is not known. But taking a close look at out nation's maritime history we find evidence of a very large number of Indians who should have had lost their religion as they had crossed the seas to trade and build empires in distant lands.
Not only did these enterprising Indians, not lose their religion but they made India into one of the foremost maritime nations of those days and spread Indian culture overseas.
In those days India had colonies, in Cambodia (Kambuja in Sanskrit) in Java, (Chavakam or Yava dwipa) in Sumatra, in Borneo, Socotra (Sukhadhara) and even in Japan. Indian traders had established settlements in Southern China, in the Malayan Peninsula, in Arabia, in Egypt, in Persia, etc., Through the Persians and Arabs, India had cultivated trade relations with the Roman Empire.
Sanskrit and Pali literature has innumerable references to the maritime activity of Indians in ancient times. There is also one treatise in Sanskrit, named Yukti Kalpa Taru which has been compiled by a person called Bhoja Narapati. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru (YKT) had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of Sanskrit Manu scripts. An excellent study of the YKT had been undertaken by Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji entitled 'Indian Shipping'. Published by Orient Longman, Bombay in 1912.)

A panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicting a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru an ancient Indian text on Ship-building.
This treatise gives a technocratic exposition on the technique of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships, their sizes, the materials from which they were built. The Yukti Kalpa Taru sums up in a condensed form all the available information
The Yukti Kalpa Taru gives sufficient information and date to prove that in ancient times, Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials which were used in building ships. Apart from describing the qualities of the different types of wood and their suitability in shipbuilding, the Yukti Kalpa Taru also gives an elaborate classification of ships based on their size.
The primary division is into 2 classes viz. Samanya (ordinary) and Vishesha (Special). The ordinary type for sea voyages. Ships that undertook sea voyages were classified into, Dirgha type of ships which had a long and narrow hull and the Unnata type of ships which had a higher hull.
The treatise also gives elaborate directions for decorating and furnishing the ships with a view to making them comfortable for passengers. Also mentioned are details about the internal seating and accommodation to be provided on the ships. Three classes of ships are distinguished according to their length and the position of cabins. The ships having cabins extending from one end of the deck to the other are called Sarvamandira vessels.
These ships are recommended for the transport of royal treasure and horses. The next are the Madhyamarnandira vessels which have cabins only in the middle part of their deck. these vessels are recommended for pleasure trips. And finally there is a category of Agramandira vessels, these ships were used mainly in warfare.

MACCHA-YANTRA - THE ANCIENT INDIAN MARINER'S COMPASS

There were Sanskrit terms for many parts of a ship. The ship's anchor was known as Nava-Bandhan-Kilaha which literally means 'A Nail to tie up a ship' . The sail was called Vata Vastra a which means 'wind-cloth'. The hull was termed StulaBhaga i.e. an'expanded area'. The rudder was called Keni-Pata, Pata means blade; the rudder was also known as Karna which literally means a 'ear' and was so called because it used to be a hollow curved blade, as is found today in exhaust fans. The ship's keel was called Nava-Tala which means 'bottom of a ship'. The mast was known as Kupadanda, in which danda means a pole.
Even a sextant was used for navigation and was called Vruttashanga-Bhaga. But what is more surprising is that even a contrived mariner's compass was used by Indian navigators nearly 1500 to 2000 years ago. This claim is not being made in an overzealous nationalistic spirit. This has in fact been the suggestion of an European expert, Mr. J.L. Reid, who was a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders in England at around the beginning of the present century. This is what Mr. Reid has said in the Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xiii., Part ii., Appendix A.
"The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word Maccha Yantra, or fish machine, which Molesworth gives as a name for the mariner's compass".
It is significant to note that these are the words of a foreign Naval Architect and Shipbuilding Expert. It is thus quite possible that the Maccha Yantra (fish machine) was transmitted to the west by the Arabs to give us the mariner's compass of today.
- Sudheer
http://www.crystalinks.com/indiaships.html

Naval Warfare
The old notion that the Hindus were essentially a landlocked people, lacking in a spirit of adventure and the heart to brave the seas, is now dispelled. The researches of a generation of scholars have proved that from very early times the people of India were distinguished by nautical skill and enterprise, that they went on trading voyages to distant shores across the seas, and even established settlements and colonies in numerous lands and islands.

In ancient India, owing to the geographical influence, nautical shill and enterprise seems to have been best developed in three widely separated region of the country. These were Bengal, the valley and delta of the Indus, and the extreme south of the Deccan peninsula, called Tamilagam.

Boat-making and ship-building industries were found in India since ancient times. In the Vedic period, sea was frequently used for trade purposes. The Rig Veda mentions "merchants who crowd the great waters with ships". The Ramayana speaks of merchants who crossed the sea and bought gifts for the king of Ayodhya. Manu legislates for safe carriage and freights by river and sea. In some of the earliest Buddhist literature we read of voyages ‘out of sight’ of land, some lasting six months or so.

In Kautalya Arthasastra the admiralty figures as a separate department of the War Office; and this is a striking testimony to the importance attached to it from very early times. In the Rg Veda Samhita boats and ships are frequently mentioned. The classical example often quoted by every writer on the subject is the naval expedition of Bhujya who was sent by his father with the ship which had a hundred oars (aritra). Being ship-wrecked he was rescued by the twin Asvins in their boat.

"There was also extensive intercourse of India with foreign countries, including the Mediterranean lands and the African continent, naturally led to piracy on the waters. There then arose the need for the protection of sea-borne trade, and we are told that “at the outset the merchant vessels of India carried a small body of trained archers armed with bows and arrows to repulse the attacks of the pirates, but later they employed guns, cannon and other more deadly weapons of warfare with a few wonderful and delusive contrivances.”
(source: The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients In the Indian Ocean - William Vincent pp. 457). These are probably the beginnings of the ancient Indian navy.

In the Shanti Parvan (59, 41) of the Mahabharata it is said that the navy is one of the angas (part) of the complete army. Examples of ships being used for military purposes are not lacking. When Vidura scented danger to Kunti’s five sons, he made them escape to the forest with their mother, crossing the Ganges in a boat equipped with weapons having the power of withstanding wind and wave.

In the Dig Vijaya portion of the Sabha parva, it is said that Sahadeva crossed the sea and brought many islands under his sway after defeating the Mlecchas and other mixed tribes inhabiting them. If this be an historical fact the inference is irresistible that he could not have effected his conquest without the use of boats and vessels. We read in the Ramayana that Durmukha, a Raksasa, who had been fired by the impulse of anger at the deeds of Hanuman, offered his services to Ravana even to fight on the sea.

This is testimony enough of the use of a fleet for war purposes. There are other references here and there to ships in the Ramayana. When Hanuman was crossing the ocean to Lanka, he is compared to a ship tossed by winds on the high seas. Sugriva speaks of Sumatra, Java and even the Red Sea, when sending

forth his monkey hosts in quest of Sita.

The Amarakosa, mentions a number of nautical terms which stand for ship, anchorage (naubandhana), the helm of the ship (naukarana), the helmsman (naukaranadhara). That there were ships-building yards in different parts could be inferred from a significant term navatakseni occurring in a copper plate grant of Dharmaditya dated 531. A.D.

About 517 B.C. according to Herodotus, Darius launched a maritime expedition under Skylax of Caryanda to the Indus Delta, and during Alexander’s time, again, we read of the people of the Punjab fitting out a fleet. We have the testimony of Arrian to show that the Xathroi (Kshatri), one of the Punjab tribes, supplied Alexander during his return voyage with thirty oared galleys and transport vessels which were built by them. (source: India and Its Invasion by Alexander p. 156)

In the Manusamhita (Vii. 192), it is laid down that boats should be employed for military purposes when the theatre of hostilities abounded in water. Kamandaka (XVI, 50) alludes to naval warfare when he says:

"By regular practice one becomes an adept in fighting from chariot, horses, elephants and boats, and a past-master in archery."

Manavadharmasastra refers to sea fights and attests to the use of boats for naval warfare. The sailor is called naukakarmajiva. Thus in Vedic, Epic and the Dharmasastra literature we find that naval warfare is mentioned as a distinct entity, attesting a continuous naval tradition from the earliest times. Yukti-kalpataru specifies one class of ships called agramandira (because they had their cabins towards the prows), as eminently adapted for naval warfare (rane kale ghanatyaye).

Passing on to other literary evidence, we find in the Raghuvamsa frequent reference to boats and ships. Raghu in the course of his digvijaya conquered Bengal which was protected by a fleet (nausadhanotyatan). In anther place it is mentioned that Raghu marched on Persia through the land route, and not by the sea route, thereby showing that the latter was the more common route.

Historian Dr. Vincent A. Smith says that ‘the creation of the Admiralty department was an innovation due to the genius of Chandragupta.

"The Admiralty as a department of the State may have been a creation of Chandragupta but there is evidence to show that the use of ships and boats was known to the people of the Rg Veda. " (source: Early History of India - By Vincent Smith p 133).

In the following passage we have reference to a vessel with a hundred oats.

‘This exploit you achieved, Asvins in the ocean, where there is nothing to give support, nothing to rest upon, nothing to cling to, that you brought Bhujya, sailing in a hundred oared ship, to his father’s house.’

Further on in the Veda, this same vessel is described as a plava which was storm-proof and which presented a pleasing appearance and had wings on its sides. Another reference informs us that Tugra dispatched a fleet of four vessels (Catasro navah) among which was the one referred to above. We may infer from these passages that the Asvins were a great commercial people having their home in a far-off island, and that their ruler Tugra maintained a fleet in the interests of his State. There are also other references in the Rg Veda to show that the ancient Indians were acquainted with the art of navigation. For instance, Varuna is credited with a knowledge of the ocean routes along which vessels sailed.

The Baudhayana Dharmasastra speaks of Samudrasamyanam and interprets it as nava dvipantaragamanam, i.e. sailing to other lands by ships. This very term occurs in the navadhyaksa section of the Kautaliya Arthasastra.

The Puranas have several references to the use of ships and boats. The Markandeya Purana speaks of vessels tossing about on the sea. The Varahapurana refers to the people who sailed far into the ocean in search of pearls and oysters. The ships floated daily on the shoreless, deep and fearful waters of the ocean. We are on firmer ground when we see in the Andhra period their coins marked with ships. The ship building activities were great on the east coast, and the Coromandel coast in particular. From this period to about 15th century A.D. there was a regular intercourse with the islands of the Archipelago most of which were colonized and also with ancient America right across the Pacific as testified to us by the archaeological finds and inscriptions in those parts.

The Pali books of Sri Lanka like the Mahavamsa refers to ocean going vessels carrying 700 passengers. Such frequent intercourse and colonization through the ages could not have been effected without a powerful fleet.

Ships Landing of Prince Vijaya in Sri Lanka - 543 BC from Ajanta Frescos.

Ajanta painting of a later date depict horses and elephants aboard the ship which carried Prince Vijaya to Sri Lanka.

(source: India Through the ages - By K. M. Panikkar).

But it is in a later work, the Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja, that we have three classes of ships - the Sarvamandira, the Madhyamandira, and Agramandira. The first was called Sarvamandira because it had apartments all around. In the Sarvamandira were carried treasures, animals, and ladies of the court. This was the vessel ordinarily used by kings in times of peace. The Madhyamandira was so called because the living quarters were situated in the middle. It was a sporting vessel and generally used in the rainy season. The vessel of the third kind, the Agramandira, took its name from the circumstance that the living room was located in front or at the top of the vessel. The Agramandira was used for distant and perilous voyages and also sea-fights.

There are also in the Yuktikalpataru other references to vessels. There are 27 types of ships mentioned here, the largest having the measurement 276 ft X 36 ft X 27 ft weighing roughly 2,300 tons. The following passage points to the use of ships in warfare. The line: naukadyam vipadam jneyam makes it clear that naval expeditions were common. Under the heading of yanam or march mention is made of expeditions by land, water and air.

Kautilya remarks:

"Pirate ships (himsrika), boats from an enemy's country when they cross its territorial limits, as well as vessels violating the customs and rules enforced in port towns, should be pursued and destroyed."

It is obvious that the task set forth above could only be performed by armed vessels belonging to the state.

From this we may conclude that in ancient India ships were employed in warfare at least as early as the Rig Vedic times. It is an incontrovertible fact that there was a naval department in Mauryan times. We have the testimony of Megasthenes that the navy was under a special officer called the Superintendent of Navigation. This official was in turn controlled by the Admiralty department. The officer whom Megasthenes refers to as Superintendent of Navigation is called Navadhyaksa as already seen, in the Arthasastra.

The Greek accounts bear testimony to the fact that navigation had attained a very high development at the times of Alexander's invasion, for we are told that the invader was able to secure a fleet from the Punjab at short notice. The Arthasastra lays down some healthy regulations relating to navigation. Vessels which gave trouble or were bound for the enemy's country, or transgressed the regulations of port towns were to be destroyed.

A considerable ship building activity is evident on the west coast of India also as noted in the Sangam works of the Tamils. South India carried on political and commercial activities as far as the Mediterranean in the early centuries of the Christian era and before. The great Ceran Senguttavan had a fleet under him.

Turning to the history of South India, we have evidence to show that the country had trade and culture contacts with foreign countries like Rome in the west and Malay Archipelago and South east Asia in the east. Yavana ships laden with articles of merchandise visited the west coast frequently. There was active foreign trade between Tamil Indian and the outer world at least from the time of Soloman, i.e. about 1000 B.C. Roman historians refer to the commercial intercourse that existed between Rome and South India. In the first century before Christ we hear of a Pandyan embassy to Augustus Caesar. (refer to Periplus translated by Schoff p. 46).

The Sangam classics point to the profession of pearl-diving and sea-fisheries on a large scale. We hear of shipwrecks of the early Tamils saved now and then by Manimekhalai, the goddess of the sea.

(Note: ancient Tamil tradition traces its origins to a submerged island or continent, Kumari Kandam, situated to the south of India. The Tamil epics Shilappadikaram and Manimekhalai provide glorious descriptions of the legendary city and port of Puhar, which the second text says was swallowed by the sea.

As in the case of Dwaraka, (please refer to chapter on Dwaraka and Aryan Invasion Theory), initial findings at and off Poompuhar, at the mouth of the Cauvery, show that there may well be a historical basis to this legend: apart from several structures excavated near the shore, such as brick walls, water reservoirs, even a wharf (all dated 200-300 B.C.), a few years ago a structure tantalizingly described as a "U-shaped stone structure" was found five kilometers offshore, at a depth of twenty-three meters; it is about forty meters long and twenty wide, and fishermen traditionally believed that a submerged temple existed at that exact spot. If the structure is confirmed to be man-made (and not a natural formation), its great depth would certainly push back the antiquity of Puhar.

Only more systematic explorations along Tamil Nadu's coast, especially at Poompuhar, Mahabalipuram, and around Kanyakumari (where fishermen have long reported submerged structures too) can throw more light on the lost cities, and on the traditions of Kumari Kandam, which some have sought to identify with the mythical Lemuria).

ancient city in India.

We have the account of a Cera King conquering the Kadamba in the midst of sea waters. The Cera King Senguttuvan had a fleet with which he defeated the Yavanas who were punished with their hands being tied behind their backs and the pouring of oil on their heads. The Cholas also maintained a strong fleet with which they not only invaded and subjugated Lanka but also undertook overseas expeditions. Among the conquests of Rajaraja, Lanka was one, and his invasion of that island finds expression in the Tiruvalangadu plates, where it is described as follows:

"Rama built, with the aid of the monkeys, a causeway over the sea and then slew with great difficulty the king of Lanka by means of sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this (king) whose powerful army crossed the ocean in ships and burnt the king of Lanka."

Rajaraja also sent an expedition against the Twelve Thousand Islands, obviously a reference to the Laccadives and Maldives. Friendly embassies were also sent by the Chola king to China.

From the evidence of the Mahvamsa as well as from a few inscriptions we are able to gather some information regarding the diplomatic relations that existed between India and Sri Lanka. We have the story of Vijaya and his followers occupying the island about 543 B.C. Vijaya was a prince of North India who was banished from the kingdom by his father. Passing through the southern Magadha country he sailed to Sri Lanka, according to the Rajavali, in a fleet carrying more than 700 soliders, defeated the Yaksas inhabiting it, and settled there permanently.

This story is illustrated in the Ajanta frescoes.

Numerous ships carried the troops of Rajendra to Sri Vijaya and its dependencies which he conquered. Among the places conquered were Pannai (Pani or Panei on the east coast of Sumatra), Malaiyur (at the southern end of the Malay Peninsula), Mappappalam ( a place in the Talaing country of Lower Burma), Mudammalingam (a place facing the gulf of Siam), Nakkavaram (the Nicobar islands. Besides, active trade was carried on between South India and China during this period.

At the end of the 10th century the Chinese emperor sent a mission to the Chola king with credentials under the imperial seal and provisions of gold and piece-goods to induce the foreign traders of the South Sea and those who went to foreign lands beyond the sea for trade to come to China.

The facts clearly show that the Cholas maintained supremacy over the sea and kept a strong and powerful navy which was useful not only for carrying on extensive commerce with foreign countries but also for conducting military expeditions. During the days of the Kakatiyas of Warangal, Motupalle (Guntur District) was the chief port, on the east coast. Ganapatideva, the Kakatiya ruler, extirpated piracy on the sea and made the sea safe for commerce with foreign countries like China and Zanzibar. This policy was pursued by Rudramba, his daughter.

Vijayanagar kingdom also claimed supremacy over the sea. Since the days of Harihara I the rulers of Vijayanagar took the title of the Lord of the Eastern, Western and Southern oceans; and there were 300 ports in the empire. The activities of the Vijayanagar fleet on the west coast are also referred to by the Portuguese in 1506.

The Vijayanagar kings sent friendly embassies to foreign courts. 'Bukka I sent an embassy through his chief explainer to the court of Taitsu, the King Emperor of China, with tributes and large presents, among which was a stone which was valuable in neutralizing poison.

Accounts of Foreign Travelers to India
Coming to later times we have the account of Hiuen Tsang who notices a fleet of 3,000 sail belonging to the King os Assam. There is inscriptional evidence of the possession of a fleet under the Kakatiyas and the Cholas in South india. Marco Polo testifies to the huge size and efficient construction of Indian vessels while Yule in his Cathey refers to Rajput ships en route to China.

Marco Polo, a famous Venetian traveler who visited India in 13th Century also visited Thane Port. The first chapter of his book which deals with India is almost devoted to shipbuilding industry in India. Friar Odoric of Pordenone, an Italian Monk who visited India in 14th Century, in his account of his voyage across the Indian Ocean, a mention is made of ships which can carry 700 people.

"Ships of size that carried Fahien from India to China (through stormy China water) were certainly capable of proceeding all the way to Mexico and Peru by crossing the Pacific. One thousand years before the birth of Columbus Indian ships were far superior to any made in Europe upto the 18th century."(source: The Civilizations of Ancient America: The Selected Papers of the XXIXth International Congress of Americanists - edited Sol Tax 1951).

Ludovico di Varthema (1503 A. D) saw vessels of 1,000 tons burden built at Masulipatnam. According to Dr. Vincent, India built great sized vessels from the time of Agathareids (171 B.C.) to the 16th century. And no wonder the Portuguese, when they first landed at the west coast, were carried away by the excellent Indian vessels. Later still, the Vijayanagar Empire, which had as many as 300 ports, had a powerful fleet. The naval commander was styled Naviyadaprabhu.

India has a coastline of about 6300 km. Extensive new archaeological, epigraphical, sculptural and literary material has been added to our knowledge since the early decades of this century. Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji's Book Indian Shipping - A History of the Sea-Borne Trade and Marine Activity of The Indians From The Earliest Times published in 1912 Orient, is the most comprehensive study of Indian Navigation up to that period.

We now know that many ports on both Eastern and Western Coast had navigational and trade links with almost all Continents of the world. There are many natural and technological reasons for this. Apart from Mathematics and Astronomy, India had excellent manufacturing skills in textile, metal works and paints. India had abundant supply of Timber. Indian - built ships were superior as they were built of Teak which resists the effect of salt water and weather for a very long time.

"The art of Navigation was born in river Sindhu 6000 years ago. The very word navigation is derived from Sanskrit word Nav (or Nav-ship) Gatih."

Lieut. Col. A.Walker's paper: "Considerations of the affairs of India" written in 1811 had excellent remarks on Bombay-built ships.

He notes,

"situated as she is between the forests of Malabar and Gujarat, she receives supplies of timber with every wind that blows."

Further he says, "it is calculated that every ship in the Navy of Great Britain is renewed every twelve years. It is well known that teakwood built ships last fifty years and upwards. Many ships Bombay-built after running fourteen or fifteen years have been brought into the Navy and were considered as stronger as ever. The Sir Edward Hughes performed, I believe, eight voyages as an Indiaman before she was purchased for the Navy. No Europe-built Indiaman is capable of going more than six voyages with safety."

He has also further noted that Bombay-built ships are at least one-fourth cheaper than those built in the docks of England. Francois Balazar Solvyns, a Belgian/Flemish maritime painter, wrote a book titled Les Hindous in 1811.

His remarks are,

"In ancient times, the Indians excelled in the art of constructing vessels, and the present Hindus can in this respect still offer models to Europe-so much so that the English, attentive to everything which relates to naval architecture, have borrowed from the Hindus many improvement which they have adopted with success to their own shipping.... The Indian vessels unite elegance and utility and are models of patience and fine workmanship." (source: http://www.orientalthane.com/speeches/speech_2.htm).

Surprisingly, many earlier western traders and travelers have expressed the same views. Madapollum was a flourishing shipping centre. Thomas Bowrey, an English traveler who visited India during 1669-79, observes,

"many English merchants and others have their ships and vessels yearly built (at Madapollum). Here is the best and well grown timber in sufficient plenty, the best iron upon the coast, any sort of ironwork is ingeniously performed by the natives, as spikes, bolts, anchors, and the like. Very expert master-builders there are several here, they build very well, and launch with as much discretion as I have seen in any part of the world. They have an excellent way of making shrouds, stays, or any other rigging for ships".

A Venetian traveler of 16th Century Cesare de Federici, while commenting on the East Coast of India has noted that there is an abundance of material for ship building in this area and many Sultans of Constantinople found it cheaper to have their vessels built in India than at Alexandria.

Nicolo Conti who visited India in 15th century was impressed by the quality Indians had achieved in ship building. He observes:

"The nations of India build some ships larger than ours, capable of containing 2,000 butts, and with five sails and as many masts. The lower part is constructed with triple planks, in order to withstand the force of the tempests to which they are much exposed. But some ships are so built in compartments that should one part be shattered, the other portion remaining entire may accomplish the voyage."

J. Ovington, Chaplain to the British King, the seventeenth-century English traveler, who visited Surat, wrote a book A Voyage to Surat in the Year 1689. He was impressed by the skill of the Indians in ship-building and found that they even outshone Europeans. The timber used by the Indians was so strong that it would not ‘crack’ even by the force of a bullet so he urged the English to use that timber ‘to help them in war’. Indian Teak stood firmer than the English Oak, remarked Ovington.

Thomas Herbert, a traveler who visited Surat in 1627, has given an interesting account of the arrival, loading and unloading of ships through small boats at Swally marine (Sohaly), a few kilometres away from Surat. He remarked that between September and March every year, the port of Sohaly presented a very busy and noisy scene for there came many ships from foreign lands. The merchants (baniyas) erected their straw huts in large numbers all along the sea coast, making the whole place thus look like a country fair. The merchants sold various commodities like calicoes, ivory, agates, etc.

Many small boys engaged by the merchants were seen running about doing odd jobs. The English found that the small boats used and constructed by the natives could be of immense use. This was a definite gain for both nations. Boats and rafts were used as a means of conveyance for loading and unloading ships. There were about 4200 big and 4400 small boats. There were large-sized boats that could carry even elephants. The boats used by kings and nobles were designed to look artistic.

Abul Fazl writes about the "wonderfully fashioned boats with delightful quarters and decks and gardens"

Among the primitive Indian boats, the cattarmaran comes first. It consisted of three logs and three spreaders and cross lashings. The centre log was the largest, and pointed towards one end. Mainly fishermen used the cattarmaran for fishing. A little more skillfully made is the musoola boat, which has no iron fastening. It was mostly used in the Coromandel coast.

Dr John Fryer says,

"It is possible that the name musoola may be connected with Masulipatarn where boats seem to have been in use".

Another boat made in an indigenous manner was known as dingy. It was hollowed out from a single trunk. Lower down the Ganga, the name was applied to boats half-decked, half wagon-roofed and built of planks.

Purqoo was another type of boat described by Thomas Bowery. It plied between the Hooghly and Balasore. These boats were made very strong to carry ‘sufficient load’. They were also used for loading ships. they could remain in water for a long time without getting damaged. As compared to the purqoo, boora was a ‘lighter boat’ which rowed with 29 or 30 oars. These boats were also used for carrying saltpeter and other commodities. (source: Coastal trade flourished with Europeans - By Pramod Sangar).

Sir John Malcolm (1769 - 1833) was a Scottish soldier, statesman, and historian entered the service of the East India Company wrote about Indian vessels that they:

"Indian vessels are so admirably adapted to the purpose for which they are required that, notwithstanding their superior science, Europeans were unable, during an intercourse with India for two centuries, to suggest or to bring into successful practice one improvement."(source: Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. I and India and World Civilization - By D P Singhal part II p. 76 - 77).

In the middle of the 18th century, John Grose noted that at Surat the Indian ship-building industry was very well established, indeed, “They built incomparably the best ships in the world for duration”, and of all sizes with a capacity of over a thousand tons. Their design appeared to him to be a “a bit clumsy” but their durability soundly impressed him. They lasted “for a century”.

Lord Grenville mentions, in this connection, a ship built in Surat which continued to navigate up the Red Sea from 1702 when it was first mentioned in Dutch letters as “the old ships” up to the year 1700.” Grenville also noted that ships of war and merchandise “not exceeding 500 tons” were being built” with facility, convenience and cheapness” at the ports of Coringa and Narsapore.

Dr. H. Scott sent samples of dammer to London, as this vegetable substance was used by the Indians to line the bottom of their ships; he thought it would be a good substitute,

“in this country for the materials which are brought from the northern nations for our navy…There can be no doubt that you would find dammer in this way an excellent substitute for pitch and tar and for many purposes much superior to them.” source: Decolonizing History: Technology and Culture in India, China and the West 1492 to the Present Day - By Claude Alvares p. 68-69).

Alain Danielou (1907- 1994) son of French aristocracy, author of numerous books on philosophy, religion, history and arts of India has written:

"India's naval dockyards, which belonged to the state, were famous throughout history. The sailors were paid by the state, and the admiral of the fleet hired the ships and crew to tradesmen for transporting goods and passengers. When the British annexed the country much later on, they utilized the Indian dockyards - which were much better organized then those in the West - to build most of the ships for the British navy, for as long as ships were made of wood."(source: A Brief History of India - By Alain Danielou p. 106).
"...an Indian naval pilot, named Kanha, was hired by Vasco da Gama to take him to India. Contrary to European portrayals that Indians knew only coastal navigation, deep-sea shipping had existed in India. Indian ships had been sailing to islands such as the Andamans, Lakshdweep and Maldives, around 2,000 years ago. Kautiliya's shastras describe the times that are good and bad for seafaring. In the medieval period, Arab sailors purchased their boats in India. The Portuguese also continued to get their boats from India, and not from Europe. Shipbuilding and exporting was a major Indian industry, until the British banned it. There is extensive archival material on the Indian Ocean trade in Greek, Roman, and Southeast Asian sources."(source: History of Indian Science & Technology).

India became the first power to defeat a European power in a naval battle - The Battle of Colachel in 1742 CE.

A dramatic and virtually unknown past, in an area of bucolic calm surrounded by spectacular hills: that is Colachel, a name that should be better known to us. For this is where, in 1741, an extraordinary event took place -- the Battle of Colachel. For the first, and perhaps the only time in Indian history, an Indian kingdom defeated a European naval force.

The ruler of Travancore, Marthanda Varma, routed an invading Dutch fleet; the Dutch commander, Delannoy, joined the Travancore army and served for decades; the Dutch never recovered from this debacle and were never again a colonial threat to India.

The ruler of Travancore, Marthanda Varma, routed an invading Dutch fleet;

the Dutch commander, Delannoy, joined the Travancore army and served for decades;

the Dutch never recovered from this debacle and were never again a colonial threat to India.

The Battle of Colachel in 1742 CE, where Marthanda Varma of Travancore crushed a Dutch expeditionary fleet near Kanyakumari. The defeat was so total that the Dutch captain, Delannoy, joined the Travancore forces and served loyally for 35 years--and his tomb is still in a coastal fort there. So it wasn't the Japanese in the Yellow Sea in 1905 under Admiral Tojo who were the first Asian power to defeat a European power in a naval battle--it was little Travancore.

The Portuguese and the Dutch were trying to gain political power in India at that time. Marthanda Varma defeated the Dutch in 1741. He was an able ruler. He established peace in his country - Travancore. It was a remarkable achievement for a small princely state. (source: The Battle of Colachel: In remembrance of things past - By Rajeev Srinivasan - rediff.com and http://www.kerala.com/kera/culture1.htm).
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Diplomacy and War

Not withstanding the elaborate rule of war laid down in the epics and the law-books, insisting in the main that to wage war was the duty and privilege of every true Ksatriya, in several cases the horrors of war made the belligerent think of the consequences and avoid outbreak of hostilities by a well calculated policy which we now term diplomacy.

King seeking counsel.

Negotiation, persuasion and conciliation were cardinal points of the ancient Indian diplomatic system, and were effective instruments in averting many a war, which would otherwise have realized in much bloodshed and economic distress.

The political term for diplomacy is naya, and the opinion of Kautalya, the eminent politician of the 4th century B.C., a king who understands the true implications of diplomacy conquers the whole earth.

The history of diplomacy in ancient India commences with the Rig Veda Samhita, and the date of its composition may be taken as far back as the Chalcolithic period. In the battles the help of Agni is invoked to overcome enemies. He is to be the deceiver of foes. In pursuing his mission to a successful end, the use of spies is mentioned. This bears eloquent testimony to the system of espionage prevalent so early as the time of the Rig Veda Samhita. In the battle of the Ten Kings described in the seventh mandala, we find diplomacy of rulers getting supplemented by its association with priestly diplomacy, which exercised a healthy influence on the constitutional evolution.

International Relations - The picture presented in the epics and the Arthasastra literature seems to be confined to the four corners of Bharatkhanda. The intercourse as envisaged in the literature, shows relations to be more commerical than political in character.

Strabo quotes Megasthenes and says that Indians were not engaged in wars with foreigners outside India nor was their country invaded by foreign power except by Hercules and Dionsysius and lately by the Macedonians. There were friendly relations of Chandragupta with Seleukos Nikator, of Bindusara with Antiochus, of Asoka and Samadragupta with Lanka, of Pulaskesi with Persians, of Harsha with Nepal and China, of the Cholas with Sri Vijaya.

"It was always regarded as a legitimate object of the ambition of every king to aim at the position of Cakravartin or Sarvabhuuma (paramount sovereign or of supreme monarch)."

This ambition was legitimate and had no narrow outlook about it. It was a fruit to be sought after by every one of the monarchs comprising the mandala. If the king is not actuated by this idea, he falls short of an ideal king according to the Hindu Rajadharma.

Diplomatic agents - ambassadors

Bhisma mentions seven qualifications as essential in an ambassador: he should come from a noble line, belong to a high family, be skilful, eloquent of speech, true in delivering the mission, and of excellent memory.

Espionage in War

Spies filled an important role in both the civil and military affairs of ancient India. The institution of spies had a greater utility, as the king could take action on the report of the spies. Spies were engaged to look after the home officials, including those of the royal household as well as to report on the doings in the enemy kingdoms. The Rig Veda Samhita, often speaks of spies (spasah) of Varuna.

Only men of wisdom and purity were sent on this errand, thus suggesting that they should be persons above corruption and temptation of any sort. In the epics and post-epic literature in general, spies have been described as the 'eyes of the king'. In the Udyoga-parva (33, 34) of Mahabharata, it is stated that "cows see by smell, priests by knowledge, kings by spies, and others through eyes."

Spies roamed about in foreign states under various disguises to collect reliable information. In the Ramayana, a king mentions the wise adage that "the enemy, whose secrets have been known through espionage, can be conquered without much effort." The Arthashastra, which predates Christ by centuries, dwells at length on the importance of espionage and the creation of an effective spy network.

Such details may indicate the high development of the science of diplomacy in ancient India. It was the famous Indian strategist of the fourth-century B.C, Kautilya in the Arthasastra, who gave the world the dictum:

"The enemy of my enemy is my friend."

"The same style of Indian thought" says Heinrich Zimmer in his book, Philosophies of India, p. 139, admiringly of Kautilya, "that invented the game of chess grasped with profound insight the rules of this larger game of power."

Attitude to war

The Sangam age of the Tamils was the heroic age of the Tamil Indians. If the men of the Tamil land were heroes, then their women were heroines. A certain mother was asked where her son was, and she replied, that she was sure that the tiger that had lain in her womb would be found in the field of battle. War was the pabulum on which our ancient warriors were great in name and fame.

A certain lady who gave birth to only one son and who sent him to the field of battle when there was the country's call for it. Okkurmasattiyar, a poetess, praises a certain lady dresses the hair of her only son and gives him the armor to get ready for action in the field of battle. This may be contrasted with another where a heroic mother heard the disquieting news that her son lost his courage in action and had fled in fear.

If it were true, she expressed that she would cut off her breasts that had fed him with milk. With this determination she entered the battle-field with sword in her hand and went on searching for her fallen son. When she saw her son's body cut in twain, she felt much more happy than when she gave birth to him. (source: Puram 277 and 279 - in Tamil ).

Flags - The origin and use of flags can be traced to the earliest Indian literature, the Rig Veda Samhita. The term deaja occurs twice in the Veda. Besides, dhvaja, we meet with a good number of expressions for a banner in Vedic literature. These are Akra, Krtadhvaja, Ketu, Brhatketu, Sahasraketu. It appears that the Vedic host aimed their arrows at the banners of the enemy.

The idea was that once the banner was captured, or struck, a claim was made for success in the battle over the enemy. Ketu was a small flag as contrasted with Brhatketu or the big flag. Sahasraketu may be a thousand flag, or as the knight who brought under control a thousand flags of enemies. We are told that banners and drums were counted among the insignia of ancient Vedic kings. In the Mahabharata war, every leader had his own insignia to distinguish one division from the other.

Arjuna had the Kapidhvaja or the flag with the figure of Hanuman, Bhisma, Taladhvaja, cognizance of a palmyra tree etc.

http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/vimanas/esp_vimanas_11b.htm

Image result for ancient boat building india

Coins from the 1 century that show double masted ships. India

Above: Ajanta ship
Square rigged sails had the advantage of providing stability on large ships and in heavy seas, and they remained the main type of sail on European vessels until the last days of sail. However, the lateen sail provided greater maneuverability and ability to tack on rivers and in narrow waters. The fore-and-aft sail had an advantage in that it can keep much closer to the wind.
http://nabataea.net/sailing.html

A crowded riverside with bathers at Chandpal Ghat in Calcutta, were among the photographs

A crowded riverside with bathers at Chandpal Ghat in Calcutta, the main landing site for visitors to the city along the Hooghly River

Ships arriving at Chandpal Ghat, the main landing site for visitors to the city along the Hooghly River

Ships arriving at Chandpal Ghat, while crowds gather by the docks

Read more: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2140759/Days-Raj-Huge-collection-photographs-showing-life-India-century-ago-shoebox.html#ixzz4Wm29YSGh
Image result for kerala coir boat building bharatkalyan97

Image result for kerala coir boat building bharatkalyan97

A river boat on a seal. Indus Script.

Crucible SteelHigh-quality steel has been produced in South India since ancient times. They used crucible technique toproduce high quality steel in Ancient India.. Pure wrought iron was first mixed with glass and charcoal and was heated till the metal melted and absorbed the carbon.

Steel from ancient Bharat. Crucible steel.

Image result for boat building bharatkalyan97

A shipyard in Calicut ca. 16th cent. from an old print Danvers, 1894, I, 192

Sea routes between Kalinga and trading countries

The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depict a King and Queen with their subjects, the scene is based on Sailendran royal court.

A painted scroll showing Gurab, Galbat and other types of warships of the Maratha Navy

Maratha Grabs and Gallivats attacking an British East India Company ship

Merchants send ships to many parts of the ocean for gain (RV 1.56.2)
"Do thou convey us in a ship across the sea for our welfare." (RV I.97.8)

Allusion to a voyage undertaken by Vasishtha and Varuna in a ship skillfully fitted out, and their "undulating happily in the prosperous swing." (RV VII. 88.3,4)

A naval expedition is narrated on which Tugra the Rishi king sent his son Bhujyu against some of his enemies in the distant islands; Bhujyu, however, is shipwrecked by a storm, with all his followers, on the ocean, "where there is no support, no rest for the foot or the hand," from which he is rescued by the twin brethren, the Asvins, in their hundred-oared galley.(RV 1.116.3).

Panis in the Veda were sea-faring merchants (could be the later-day Phoeniians).

Ocean metaphors in Rigveda:

"Do Thou, Whose countenance is turned to all sides, send off our adversaries as if in a
ship, to the opposite shore: do Thou convey us in a ship across the sea for our welfare." -(Rig Veda. 1., 97, 7 and 8).

All the universe rests within your nature, in the ocean, in the heart, in all life.(Rig Veda IV. 58. 11).

As a ship across the river (or sea), Agni takes us across to safety (Rigveda I. 97.8)

Ramayana refers to Yavana Dvipa (Java), Suvarna Dvipa (Sumatra) and to Lohita Sayara (Red Sea).

Terracotta seal depicting ship found in West Bengal, dated between 400 BCE and 100 BCE

"The Mauryan emperor Chandragupta, who ruled from 321 to 297 B.C had even at that time, an actual Board of Admiralty, with a Superintendent of Ships at its head." References to it can be found in Kautilya's Arthasastra. From their voyages of conquest and trade, we can infer that although much later, the Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas of South India must also have had an efficient naval organization. The merchants of Surat, who relied upon ships built by the Wadias of Bombay (who had not taken long to copy prevailing European designs) were particularly rich - one of them Virji Vora (who died in the beginning of the 18th century) left a fortune of 22 million gold francs. "According to certain travelers, Surat was then the most beautiful city of India. One small detail will give an idea of the unparalleled luxury that prevailed there: certain streets were paved with porcelain. Francois Martin in his Memoires calls it 'a real Babylon'.

(source: History of the Indian Ocean- By Auguste Toussaint).

9th century Relief panel of a ship at Borobudur in Java, built during the Sailendra dynasty

Indian adventurers sailing out to Colonize Java.

Large four-masted ships possessed by the Indians at the time made crossing the Pacific perfectly feasible.

(image source: India Through the ages - By K. M. Panikkar and Transoceanic Contacts Between the Old and New World).

"The representation of ship on a seal indicates maritime activity, and there is enough evidence to show that the peoples of the Sindhu valley carried on trade not only with other parts of India but also with Sumer and the centers of culture in Western Asia, and with Egypt and Crete." (RC Majumdar, Ancient India, pp.210-216)..

"The vast extent of Indian cultural influences, from Central Asia in the North to tropical Indonesia in the South, and from the Borderlands of Persia to China and Japan, has shown that ancient India was a radiating center of a civilization, which by its religious thought, its art and literature, was destined to leave its deep mark on the races wholly diverse and scattered over the greater part of Asia." (Aurel Stein)(Source: The Vision of India - By Sisir Kumar Mitra p. 178 and Main Currents of Indian Culture - By S. Natarajan p. 50).

"The brightest sun shining over Southeast Asia in the first centuries A.D. was Indian Civilization. Waves of Indian colonists, traders, soldiers, Brahmins and Buddhist beat upon one Southeast shore after another. Great military power based on superior technical knowledge, flourishing trade fostered by the remarkable increase in maritime exchanges between India and these areas, the vast cultural superiority of the Indians, everything conspired to heighten the impact of the Indian Civilization on the Southeast Asian. Passenger ships plied regularly between the Ganges, Ceylon and Malaya in the middle of the first millennium A.D. Indian settlers from Gujarat and Kalinga colonized Java, for instance, while others set out for Burma or Cambodia. Old Indian books – the Kathasagara, the Jatakas and others – refer to these wondorous regions that set the imagination of civilized Indians on fire, to Suvarnabhumi, the fabulous “Land of Gold.” On the whole, the Indianization of Southeast Asia proceeded peacefully. Local chiefs and petty chieftains were admitted into the caste structure as Ksatriyas through a ritual known as vratyastoma, performed by an Indian Brahmin. All over Southeast Asia tremendous ruins are strewn, testifying to the immense influence of Indian Civilization." (Amaury de Riencourt, The soul of India, pp. 158-162).

"Indian art had accompanied Indian religion across straits and frontiers into Sri Lanka, Java, Cambodia, Siam, Burma, Tibet, Khotan, Turkestan, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan; “in Asia all roads lead from India.”

(source: Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage - By Will Durant MJF Books. 1935. p. 605).

"merchant shipping was very active in India and had, even since Roman times, linked the Mediterranean world to China with great vessels (nava) of which the Indian king owned a fleet, though most of them belonged to wealthy individuals."

(source: Daily Life in Ancient India - By Jeannie Auboyer, p.75).

"There is extant, a Prakrit text on ship-building named Angavijja written in the Kushana period and edited in the Gupta period. This text enlists about a dozen names of different types of ships, such as Nava, Pota, Kotimba, Salika, Sarghad, Plava, Tappaka, Pindika, Kanda, Katha, Velu, Tumba, Kumba and Dati. Some of these varieties of ships such as Tappaka (Trappaga), Kotimba and Sarghad have also been mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. They are considered to be very large ships capable of sailing along the coast as well as in deep sea." http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm

"One is struck by the fundamental difference in the results achieved in the countries of the Far East, by the civilizing action of China and that of India. The reason of it lies in the radical difference in the methods of colonization, employed by the Chinese and by the Hindus. The Chinese proceeded with conquest and by annexation: the armies occupied the lands and the officials spread the Chinese civilization. The Hindu penetration and infiltration seem to have almost always been peaceful and unaccompanied by those destructions, which disgrace the Mongol cavalcade or the Spanish conquest of America. Far from being destroyed by the conquerors, the indigenous people have found in the Hindu society, transplanted and made supple, a frame, in which their own societies have been able to integrate and develop themselves." "The exchange of ambassadors between the two shores of the Bay of Bengal was done on a footing of equality, whereas China always required of the " barbarians of the south" the recognition of her suzerainty, which was expressed by the regular payment of tribute."

"The lands, militarily conquered by China, had to adopt or imitate her institutions, customs, religions, language and script. On the contrary, those, whom India peacefully conquered, by the prestige of her culture, have preserved the essence of their individual characters and have developed them, each according to its own genius."

(source: Les états Hindouisés d'Indochine et d'Indonésie - By George Coedes p. 64-66).

In Bauddham tradition, ara rescued sailors who were at risk of Shipwreck.

From the fifth century to the tenth the command of the Malacca Straits was in the hands of a great Indian naval power, based on Sumatra known to history as the Sri Vijaya Empire. This State included much of Peninsular Malaya, Sumatra and the Western half of Java besides numerous island principalities. I'Tsing who resided for some years in that Kingdom says that the King possessed numerous ships which sailed regularly between India and Sri Vijaya as also between Sumatra and China.

The Sri Vijaya Kings maintained a powerful navy which swept the sea of pirates and corsairs. Their naval power, well attested by their continuous raids on the coasts of Champa and Annam, is recorded both in local inscriptions and in Chinese annals, (e.g Po Nagar Stelae inscription of King Satya Varman 784 A.D. and in Yang Tikuh inscription of Indra Varman I, dated 787). With the Straits of Malacca firmly under their control and with their authority extending over the far flung group of islands, the Sri Vijaya Kings were in a position to enforce their rule over the Indian waves. Further, they were also closely connected with the Indian Kingdoms of the Eastern side of the Bay of Bengal especially with the Kalinga monarchs of Orissa.

Till the end of the tenth century, that is, for a period of nearly 500 years, the Sri Vijaya Kings were the Lords of the Ocean. But in 1007 the Chola Emperor Rajendra fitted out a powerful navy and challenged the might of Sri Vijaya. he not only defeated the opposing navy, but captured Kedah and established the Chola power on the Malaya Peninsula. This hundred year war was of great importance for it weakened the Sri Vijaya power. Chau Ju Kua, the Imperial Chinese Inspector of Foreign Trade, in his work entitled Chu Fau Chi written in 1225 states that Sri Vijaya was not merely a great emporium of trade, but controlled the Straits of Malacca and thus was able to dominate the sea trade to China with the west. All ships passing through the Straits had to call at the capital and the maritime administration kept a close watch on traffic through the lane.

As regards to Sumatra, the Bombay Gazateer says: "The Hindu settlements of Sumatra was almost entirely from the east coast of India, and that Bengal, Orissa and Masulipatam had a large share in colonizing both Java and Cambodia cannot be doubted."

Charles Coleman wrote: "Mr. Anderson, in his account of his mission to the coast of that island (Sumatra) has, however, stated that he discovered at Jambi the remains of an ancient Hindu temple of considerable dimensions, and near the spot various mutilated figures, which would appear to clearly indicate the former existence of the worship of the Vedantic philosophy."

(source: The Mythology of the Hindus - with Notices of Various Mountain and Island Tribes, Inhabiting the Two Peninsulas of India and the Neighbouring Islands -By Charles Coleman p. 861). Refer to India once ruled the Americas! – By Gene D Matlock

Francois Balazar Solvyns (1760-1824) a French maritime painter, wrote a book titled "Les Hindous" (tome troisieme) in 1811. He lived in Calcutta from 1791-1803 and he remarked:

"In ancient times, the Indians excelled in the art of constructing vessels, and the present Hindus can in this respect still offer models to Europe-so much so that the English, attentive to everything which relates to naval architecture, have borrowed from the Hindus many improvement which they have adopted with success to their own shipping.... The Indian vessels unite elegance and utility and are models of patience and fine workmanship."

Surprisingly, many earlier western traders and travelers have expressed the same views. Madapollum was a flourishing shipping center. Thomas Bowrey, an English traveler who visited India during 1669-79, observes, "many English merchants and others have their ships and vessels yearly built (at Madapollum). Here is the best and well grown timber in sufficient plenty, the best iron upon the coast, any sort of ironwork is ingeniously performed by the natives, as spikes, bolts, anchors, and the like. Very expert master-builders there are several here, they build very well, and launch with as much discretion as I have seen in any part of the world. They have an excellent way of making shrouds, stays, or any other rigging for ships".

Alain Danielou (1907- 1994) son of French aristocracy, author of numerous books on philosophy, religion, history and arts of India has written:

"India's naval dockyards, which belonged to the state, were famous throughout history. The sailors were paid by the state, and the admiral of the fleet hired the ships and crew to tradesmen for transporting goods and passengers. When the British annexed the country much later on, they utilized the Indian dockyards - which were much better organized then those in the West - to build most of the ships for the British navy, for as long as ships were made of wood."

(source: A Brief History of India - By Alain Danielou p. 106).

During the same period a great impetus was given to Indian shipping and maritime enterprise by the great Shivaji, the great Maratha leader. Shivaji, who liberally patronized the shipbuilding industry but the beginnings of the Maratha navy were laid a little earlier. In 1640 Shahji Bhonsle was able to achieve a naval victory over the Portuguese off Reradanda. Shahji was helped in his expedition by Tukoji, whose son, the famous Kanhoji Angray, occupied such an important position in the Maratha navy of the times. Under Shivaji the growth of the Maratha was accompanied by the formation of a formidable fleet. Sivaji believed in the doctrine Jalaim jasya, valaim tasya and so proceeded to organize the Maratha navy on sound lines. In 1698 Kanhoji Angray succeeded to the command of the Maratha navy with the title of Dariya Saranga. Angray soon became a menace to the European traders along the west coast and in 1707 his ship attacked the frigate Bombay, which was blown up after a brief engagement. The career of Angray was one long series of naval exploits and achievements rare in the annals of Indian maritime activity but unfortunately "dismissed in a few words by our Indian historians."

(source: Indian Shipping - A History of the Sea-Borne Trade and Marine Activity of The Indians From The Earliest Times 1912 p. 183 -184).

The following account of Orme, describing the features of the Maratha ships and Angrey:

" The piracy which Angray exercised upon ships of all nations indifferently who did not purchase his passes, rendered him every day more and more powerful. His fleet consists of grabs and gallivats, vessels peculiar to the Malabar coast..."

(source: Bombay Gazetteer, Volume I part ii p. 89). Refer to Marco Polo’s epic journey to China was a big con – Team Folks

In the days of the sailing ships and oaken vessels, the naval engineering of the Hindus was efficient and advanced enough to be drawn upon with confidence for European shipping. At Madapollum, for example, on the Madras coast, many English merchants used to have their vessels yearly built. The Hindu ship architects could ingeniously perform all sorts of iron works, e. g., spikes, bolts, anchors, etc. "Very expert master-builders there are several here," says the English traveler,Thomas Bowrey in his Geographical Account of Countries Round the Bay of Bengal (1669-1675); "they build very well, and launch with as much discretion as I have seen in any part of the world. They have an excellent way of making shrouds, stays, or any other riggings for ship."

Writing even as late as 1789, on the eve of the Industrial Revolution in Europe, Solvyns, the French traveler, could still recommend, in his Les Hindous (Vol. III, 1811), the Hindu method of uniting the planks are "not unworthy of the imitation of Europeans." He says, "In ancient times the Hindus excelled in the art of constructing vessels, and the present Hindus can in this respect still offer models to Europe."

In the building of the boat the Hindus began by choosing a large piece of timber which they bent as they pleased. To the two ends of this they attached another piece thicker than it, and covered this simple frame with planks; "but they have a particular manner of joining these plants to each other, by flat cramps with two points which enter the boards to be joined, and use common nails only to join the plants to the knee. For the sides of the boat they have pieces of wood which out pass the planks. This method is as solid as it is simple."

The Portuguese "imitated" the pointed prow in their Indian ships. This was a characteristic feature of the grab, a Hindu ship with three masts. The industrial and material culture of Old India was thus sufficiently vital to influence contemporary Europe at the threshold of the 19th century civilization. The tradition is reported also by old American sea-captains that fishing boats like the sloop, yawl, cutter, etc. so common in the United States waters were modeled in the '"colonial period" on Hindu patterns.

(source: Creative India - By Benoy Kumar Sarkar p. 105).

Francois Balazar Solvyns (1760-1824) a French maritime painter, has made the following observation in his book, "Les Hindous"

Introducing the 40 or so sketches of boats and river vessels in use in Northern India in the 1790s, he observes, "the English, attentive to everything which relates to naval architecture, have borrowed from the Hindoos many improvements which they have adapted with success to their own shipping."

Commenting on Indian rowing an early eighteenth century observer remarked: "Their water-men row after a different manner from ours. They move the oar with their feet, and their hands serve instead of the hypomochlion, or roller on which it turns."

(source: Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century: Some Contemporary European Accounts - By Dharampal Impex India. p.LVII).

Har Bilas Sarda author of Hindu Superiority (1906) wrote:

"They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried on over land or by sea."

Colonel James Tod author of author of Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan: or the Central and Western Rajput States of India ISBN 8120612892 says:

"The Hindus of remote ages possessed great naval power."

(source: Hindu Culture and The Modern Age - By Dewan Bahadur K.S. Ramaswami Shastri - Annamalai University 1956 p. 74-75).

From the teak forests, which were numerous along the western coasts, the Indians built their ships. Bishop Reginald Heber wrote in 1824, ships built by native artisans are notoriously as good as any which sail from London or Liverpool.

(source: Journey Through the Upper Provinces of India - Bishop Reginald Heber Vol. I and II p. 176). For more refer to chapter on Sacred Angkor

***

"...an Indian naval pilot, named Kanha, was hired by Vasco da Gama to take him to India. Contrary to European portrayals that Indians knew only coastal navigation, deep-sea shipping had existed in India. Indian ships had been sailing to islands such as the Andamans, Lakshdweep and Maldives, around 2,000 years ago. Kautiliya's shastras describe the times that are good and bad for seafaring. In the medieval period, Arab sailors purchased their boats in India. The Portuguese also continued to get their boats from India, and not from Europe. Shipbuilding and exporting was a major Indian industry, until the British banned it. There is extensive archival material on the Indian Ocean trade in Greek, Roman, and Southeast Asian sources."

(source: History of Indian Science & Technology).

India became the first power to defeat a European power in a naval battle - The Battle of Colachel in 1742 CE.

A dramatic and virtually unknown past, in an area of bucolic calm surrounded by spectacular hills: that is Colachel, a name that should be better known to us. For this is where, in 1741, an extraordinary event took place -- the Battle of Colachel. For the first, and perhaps the only time in Indian history, an Indian kingdom defeated a European naval force. The ruler of Travancore, Marthanda Varma, routed an invading Dutch fleet; the Dutch commander, Delannoy, joined the Travancore army and served for decades; the Dutch never recovered from this debacle and were never again a colonial threat to India.

The Battle of Colachel in 1742 CE, where Marthanda Varma of Travancore crushed a Dutch expeditionary fleet near Kanyakumari. The defeat was so total that the Dutch captain, Delannoy, joined the Travancore forces and served loyally for 35 years--and his tomb is still in a coastal fort there. So it wasn't the Japanese in the Yellow Sea in 1905 under Admiral Tojo who were the first Asian power to defeat a European power in a naval battle--it was little Travancore. The Portuguese and the Dutch were trying to gain political power in India at that time. Marthanda Varma defeated the Dutch in 1741. He was an able ruler. He established peace in his country - Travancore. It was a remarkable achievement for a small princely state.

(source: The Battle of Colachel: In remembrance of things past - By Rajeev Srinivasan - rediff.com and http://www.kerala.com/kera/culture1.htm). For more refer to chapter on Glimpses IX and Sacred Angkor.

***

Retrospect

Dynasty after dynasty succeeded to the position of paramount power in the land, but the course of commerce ran smooth through all these changes. This is shown on the one hand, unmistakably by the books of Roman writers with their remarkably accurate details regarding Indian exports and imports, and harbors, and on the other hand, by the unimpeachable testimony of many finds of Roman coins both in Northern and Southern India.

A consideration of the kind of things which India sent abroad in exchange for the things she imported and a glance at the list of Indian exports and imports such as that given in that most interesting work on oriental commerce, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, will reveal certain peculiar features regarding the economic system of ancient India, to which has been traced the proverbial "wealth of Ind" by many scholars. As remarked by Major J. B. Keith, in an article in the Asiatic Quarterly Review (July, 1910), "the old prosperity of India was based on the sound principle which is, that after clothing and feeding your own people, then of your surplus abundance give to to the stranger." The result was the development of an external trade to which we owe, on the one hand, the great cities like Baalbek and Palmyra in the desert, and, on the other hand, "those great monuments of art, which India was enabled to erect after clothing and feeding her own people." And of the many satrapies of Darius, India was the only one, which could afford to pay her to tribute in gold to him. Finally, we should not miss the point of Pliny's famous complaint about allowing India to find a market for her superfluous manufactured luxuries in Rome, and thereby suck out her wealth and drain her of gold.

It may be noted that it was India's wonderful achievement in applied chemistry more than her skill in handicraft that enabled India to command for more than a thousand years (from Pliny to Tavernier) the markets of the East as well as the West, and secured to her an easy and universally recognized pre-eminence among the nations of the world in exports and manufactures. Some of the Indian discoveries in chemical arts and manufactures are indicated as early as the 6th century A.D. by Varahamihira in the Brihat-Samhita.

Besides the trade with the West generally, there was also developed along with it a trade with the East. The West alone could not absorb the entire maritime activity of India, which found another vent in a regular traffic in the Eastern waters between Bengal and Ceylon, Kalinga, and China and Suvarnabhumi, and a complete navigation, in fact, of the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean and laid the foundation of a Greater India.

***

"Almost from the dawn of her history, it has been the privilege of India to carry the torch of her unique ideals to distant lands and inspire them to noble adventures, both in the inner and outer fields of human activity. The culture of India has been like a sky-high tower of light shedding its lustre on the surrounding countries, even on those at the far ends of the earth, illuminating the mind of man, exalting his heart, ennobling his life and above all beckoning him on the realization of the highest spiritual destiny."

(source: The Vision of India - By Sisir Kumar Mitra ASIN 8124200068 p. 161).

Source: http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Seafaring_in_Ancient_India.htm

See: Indian Shipping: A History of the Sea-Borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians From the Earliest Times - By R. K. Mookerjee

The ships built by Hindu navigators at that time are described thus by J. Hornell stated to be an authority on Indian boat designs. They were "square rigged, two masted vessels, with raked stem and stern, both sharp, without bowsprit and rudder and steered by two quarter paddles." (Quoted in Towards Angkor - By Q. Wales p. 26). First the Mauryas and then the Andhras were the lords of the Eastern Seas. The Ambassador of the Prince of Wu reported that while he was in Khamboja (Cambodia) in about A.D. 250 he saw ships with seven sails which could stay at sea for four weeks at a time. Other reports mention ships mention ships which carried over 600 men and more than 1,000 tons of merchandise. From the Andhras the sovereignty of the eastern Seas passed to the Pallavas as may be inferred from the great influence which this dynasty exercised on the colonial kingdoms of Further India.

The Hindus had already in use a magnetic compass known as Matsya Yantra for determining direction. The work "Merchants Treasure" written at Cairo by Baylak al Kiljaki mentions the magnetic needle as being in use in the Indian Ocean. The route that Fa-hien, the celebrated Chinese monk, took to return home after his stay in India (412-413) is fully described by him. Leaving Tramralipti, the Orissa port, he took fourteen days to reach Sri Lanka. From there he embarked for Java and called at Nicobars (Nakka-varam), the island of the naked. From Nicobar the ship passed through the Straits of Malacca into the Pacific. Oceanic travel was therefore well advanced in the fifth century and Indian mariners not merely crossed the Bay of Bengal at its widest point, but sailed far out into the Pacific.

Further, the Hindus had developed great skill in building ocean-going ships of great strength and durability. The participation of Hindus in the navigational activities of the Red Sea is also borne out by the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, a second century farce in the Greek language in which the conversation between certain characters is in a language which some scholars have identified as being South Indian. Besides, there are extensive allusions to maritime affairs and to long voyages in early Tamil literature. Tamil scholars have counted no less than 1,800 nautical words in that language.

The numerous ports of India from Broach to Quilon became great markets of trade. A first century Tamil classic describes the port of Muziris. (Cragnore in Cochin) as being filled with ships. The ruins of a Roman temple have also been discovered in that area.

(source: India and the Indian Ocean - K. M. Panikkar The MacMillan Company, 1945 p. 26-27).

Sir Stamford Raffles (1781-1826) the British Governor of Java, in his book, History of Java, II, p. 87, wrote:

“In the year 525 Saka era – 603 A.D., it being foretold to a king of Gujarat that his country would decay and go to ruin, he resolved to send his son to Java. He embarked with about 5000 followers in 6 large and about 100 small vessels, and after a voyage of four months reached an island they supposed to be Java; but finding themselves mistaken, re-embarked, and finally settled at Matarem, in the center of the island they were seeking….The prince then found that men alone were wanting to make a great and flourishing state. He accordingly applied to Gujarat for assistance, when his father, delighted at his success, sent him reinforcement of 2000 people…From this period Java was known and celebrated as a kingdom; an extensive commerce was carried on with Gujarat and other countries, and the bay of Matarem was filled with adventurers from all parts.”

(source: Periplus of the Erythrean Sea - W.H. Schoff p. 245).

Yuktikalpataru gives a detailed classification of ships: They were two kinds: ordinary (Samanya) ships comprising those used in inland waters and special (visesa) meant for sea journeys. The largest of these called Manthara measured 120 cubits in length, 60 in breadth and 60 cubits in height. During the days of the composition of Yuktikalpataru, it appears that ship-building was highly advanced. Bhoja has advised the builders of the sea-faring ships not to join the plants with iron, as, in the case, the magnetic iron in sea water could expose the ship to danger. To avoid this risk, he suggests that planks of the bottoms should be held together with the help of substances other than iron.

According to Marco Polo an Indian ship could carry crews between 100 to 300. Out of regard for passenger convenience and comfort, the ships were well furnished and decorated. Gold, silver, copper and compound of all these substances were generally used for ornamentation and decoration.

(source: India Through The Ages: History, Art Culture and Religion - By G. Kuppuram p. 527-531).

The shipping of the Andhra and Pallava coins doubtless survives in the modern “masula boats” at Madras:

J H Furneaux wrote in his book, Glimpses of India, p. 254:

“These masula boats are flat-bottomed barges constructed of planks sewn together with rope of cocoanut fiber, caulked with oakum, are able to withstand better than far more solidly built craft the shock of being landed on the sandy beach from the crest of a something breaker.”

Similar in a general way to the Andhra coin-symbol is the Gujarati ship carved in a bas-relief on the frieze on the Borobodor temple in Java. While dating from about 600 A.D. this vessel was probably not different from those of the 1^st century, while the short broad sail with double yards is identical with those of the Egyptian Punt Expedition of the 15^th century B.C.

Kalidasa, in the Raghuvamsa, tells of a tour of conquest of India, made by Raghy, the great-great-grandfather of Rama; starting from Ayodhya he went eastward to the ocean, having conquered the Bangalis, who trusted in their ships.”

The textile industry of both Trichinopoly and Tanjore has been famous from early times. There can be little doubt that some of the finest fabrics that reached the Roman world came from this kingdom of Chola. From this part of India, in the middle ages, came those gold-threaded embroideries which were to such demand in the Saracen markets.

Marco Polo called Chola “the kingdom of Maalabar called Soli, which is the best and noblest province in India, and where the best pearls are found.”

(source: Periplus of the Erythrean Sea - W.H. Schoff p. 242- 250).

Indian adventurers sailing out to Colonize Java.

Large four-masted ships possessed by the Indians at the time made crossing the Pacific perfectly feasible.

(image source: India Through the ages - By K. M. Panikkar and Transoceanic Contacts Between the Old and New World

Sailor dropping anchor - Angkorwat, Cambodia.

The Hindu Period in The Indian Ocean

(image source: India and the Indian Ocean - By K. M. Panikkar).

Indian Shipping: High Vessels - Pearl, fishers' Grabs and Catamarans

(image source: From "Les Hindous" French early 19th century work).

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/07/seafaring-bharatam-janam-of-vedic-times.html

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What God shall we adore with our oblation? devatā kah, prajāpatih (RV 10.121), viśvakarmā (RV 10.81, 82) Simorg, śyēnaciti 'falcon-shaped fire-altar'

January 25, 2017, 6:19 pm

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/hnlk9tw

Many interpretations have been provided at a metaphysical level for the Rigveda metaphors and expressions such as hiraṇyagarbha.

I submit a material level interpretation. At this material-interpretation level, All the metaphors used in Rigveda related to Soma, amśu are consistent with the identification of Soma as 'wealth-yielding mineral', purified out of the many mineral complexes in माक्षिक mākshika 'pyrite ores'.

Rigveda citation:

To you, O Aswins, that fly betrayed the soma: RV 1.119.9 Line 1

auśija औशिज a. (-जी f.) [उशिज्-अण्] Desirous, zealous, wishing; कक्षीवन्तं य औशिजः Mbh. VI.1.37.(Apte) औशिज [p= 240,1] mfn. (fr. उशिज्) , desirous , zealous , wishing RV.N. of

कक्षीवत् and other ऋषिs RV. TS. A1s3vS3r. &c

Rishi of the RV 1.119 is

Griffith translation RV 1.119.9, 10

9 To you in praise of sweetness sang the honeybee-: Ausija calleth you in Somas' rapturous joy.
Ye drew unto yourselves the spirit of Dadhyac, and then the horses' head uttered his words to you.
10 A horse did ye provide for Pedu, excellent, white, O ye Asvins, conqueror of combatants,
Invincible in war by arrows, seeking heaven worthy of fame, like Indra, vanquisher of men.

http://tinyurl.com/h3bbdu2 Simorg, śyēná (anzu), patanga, mákṣikā: Rigveda riddles, Meluhha hieroglyphs as archaeometallurgy metaphors

A remarkable parallel is seen between rebus-metonymy layered cipher of Indus Script Corpora and riddles in the Rigveda. Indus Script Corpora is a compendium of metalwork catalogues. Rigveda riddles related to three birds are also rebus-metonymy layered riddles of archaeometallurgy involved in processing Soma, ams’u, ‘electrum’.

The speculative symbolism of Rigveda Sukta 1.164 detailed by Willard Johnson and Jan EM Houben is resolved by archaeometallurgy. The riddle of three birds of Rigveda relates to ancu ‘iron’ (Tocharian),patanga ‘quicksilver, mercury’ and mākṣikā ‘pyrites’ – all deployed in metalwork by Bhāratam Janam, ‘metalcaster folk’ a term used as self-designation by Rishi Vis’vamitra Gathina in Rigveda.

“The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula FeS2. This mineral's metallic luster and pale brass-yellow hue give it a superficial resemblance to gold, hence the well-known nickname of fool's gold. The color has also led to the nicknames brass, brazzle, and Brazil, primarily used to refer to pyrite found in coal.(Julia A. Jackson, James Mehl and Klaus Neuendorf, Glossary of Geology, American Geological Institute (2005) p. 82; Albert H. Fay, A Glossary of the Mining and Mineral Industry, United States Bureau of Mines (1920) pp. 103–104.) …The name pyrite is derived from the Greek πυρίτης (pyritēs), "of fire" or "in fire".. Pyrite is sometimes found in association with small quantities of gold. Gold and arsenic occur as a coupled substitution in the pyrite structure.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite

See notes on speculative symbolism: Johnson, Willard, 1976, On the RG Vedic riddle of the two birds in the fig tree (RV 1.164.20-22), and the discovery of the Vedic speculative symposium, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 96, No. 2 (Apr-Jun. 1976), pp. 248-258.

The imagery of the thunderstone or thunderbolt is linked to the metaphor of an eagle carrying away the tablets of destiny in Mesapotamian legends. This Anzu bird ligatured to a tiger is cognate Vedic śyēna. In Meluhha hieroglyphs, an abiding hieroglyph is that of a tiger. The tiger denotes a smithy, forge and smelter: kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'working in iron'; kolhe 'smelters'; kolami 'smithy, forge'. The gloss Anzu is a rendering of Tocharian word Ancu, 'iron' (Rigveda ams'u, 'soma, electrum'):

Rishi: BrahmAtithih kANvah; devata: As'vinau; as'vikas'avah; cedyah kas'uh

यथोत कृत्व्ये धनेंशुम् गोष्वगस्त्यम् यथा वाजेषु सोभरिम् (RV 8.5.26)Trans. 8.005.26 And in like manner as (you protected) Ams'u when wealth was to be bestowed, and Agastya when his cattle (were to be recovered), and Sobhari when food (was to be supplied to him).

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/05/contributions-of-bharatam-janam-to.html Contributions of Bhāratam Janam to Archaeometallurgy: Reinterpreting Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177). This article includes a detailed unraveling of the riddles in Rigveda Sukta 1.164 as relatable to Pravargya by Jan EM Houben. (The ritual pragmatics of a Vedic hymn: The 'riddle hymn' and the Pravargya ritual by Jan EM Houben, 2000, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (4), pp. 499-536.) Jan EM Houben indicates the possibility that the riddle in Rigveda Sukta 1.164 is explained as a metaphor of three birds, one of which is Suparna (garumat); the second a bird eating a sweet fig in a tree. The third bird is Patanga. The author of RV 10.177 is Rishi Patanga Prajapati and RV 10.177 is the same as RV 1.164.31. I suggest that the three birds in the Sukta RV 1.164 referred to by Houben are: śyēna, patanga, mākṣikā:

śyēna is suprana (garutmat), falcon
mākṣikā is the pippalam sva_du atti: 'the flying bee which eats the sweet fig' (RV 1.164.20)
patanga is the third bird, flying insect (RV 10.177) The three flying birds (insects) are rebus-metonymy renderings as hieroglyphs signifying metalwork catalogues in archaeometallurgical transactions of Bhāratam Janam, 'metalcaster folk'

patanga, mercury or quicksilver in transmuting metal (Soma, ams'u);

mākṣikā, pyrites (which are to be oxidised to attain purified pavamAna Soma, electrum as gold-silver compound);

śyēna, anzu, ams'u (electrum ore filaments in the pyrites).

Three flying birds are abiding metaphors in Rigveda.

The glosses are: śyēna, patanga, mākṣikā. The three glosses are rebus-metonymy renderings of sena 'thunderbolt'; patanga 'mercury'; mākṣikā 'pyrites' -- three references to metalwork catalogs of Bhāratam Janam, 'lit. metalcaster folk'. A variant phonetic form of mākṣikā is makha 'fly, bee, swarm of bees' (Sindhi). The rebus-metonymy for this gloss is: makha 'the sun'. Mahavira pot is a symbol of Makha, the Sun (S'Br. 14.1.1.10).

In Vedic texts, Divinity Indra is lightning, his weapon is vajra, thunderbolt. The name "thunderbolt" or "thunderstone" -- vajrāśani (Ramayana) --has also been traditionally applied to the fossilised rostra of belemnoids. The origin of these bullet-shaped stones was not understood, and thus a mythological explanation of stones created where a lightning struck has arisen. (Vendetti, Jan (2006). "The Cephalopoda: Squids, octopuses, nautilus, and ammonites", UC Berkeley) In Malay and Sumatra they are used to sharpen the kris, are considered very lucky objects, and are credited with being touchstones for gold.

Reinterpreting Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177) The metaphor of the 'thunderbolt' is depicted as Anzu bird [cognate:asaṇi 'thunderbolt' (Prakritam)] carrying away the tablets of destiny in Mesopotamian legends. A phonemic variant śyēna, 'falcon' gets deified, immortalised as a śyēnaciti 'falcon-shaped fire-altar' in Vedic tradition in Bharatam. This is mərəγō saēnō ‘the bird Saēna’ in Avestan. (See article on Simorg in Encyclopaedia Iranica, annexed. The cognate expression in Samskritam is śyēna mriga).

http://tinyurl.com/hnlantg

Soma in Rigveda, an allegory for metalwork, consistent with the tradition of Indus Script Corpora metalwork catalogues

three intriguing references to Soma in the Rigveda:

1. Mortals do not taste Soma. RV 10.85.3, 4 which suggest that Brahmana and those who dwell on earth do NOT partake of Soma. Similar refrain occurs in Atharva Veda. Hillebrandt and Oldenburg suggest that Soma is a metahpor for the sun or moon.

2. माक्षिक, the fly, betrays Soma. RV 1.119.9 There is a pun on the word माक्षिक which also signifies 'pyrites' (secondary ores).

3. Reference to Soma in the dual and plural RV 9.66.2,3,5 refer to Soma in dual, or plural (re-inforcing the allegorical nature of the descriptions.

The Vedic texts and translations are given below.

I suggest that these three references point to the allegorical nature of Soma in the Rigveda. Soma is NOT a metaphor for the sun or moon but metaphor for metalwork, working with माक्षिक 'pyrites'. "The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula Fe S₂....Pyrite is usually found associated with other sulfides or oxides in quartz veins, sedimentary rock, and metamorphic rock, as well as in coal beds." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite

Item 1: Mortals do not taste Soma

Griffith translation: RV 10.85.1-4: 1. TRUTH is the base that bears the earth; by Surya are the heavens sustained. By Law the Adityas stand secure, and Soma holds his place in heaven. 2 By Soma are the Adityas strong, by Soma mighty is the earth. Thus Soma in the midst of all these constellations hath his place. 3 One thinks, when they have brayed the plant, that he hath drunk the Soma's juice; Of him whom Brahmans truly know as Soma no one ever tastes. 4 Soma, secured by sheltering rules, guarded by hymns in Brhati, Thou standest listening to the stones none tastes of thee who dwells on earth.

soma is not a drink of mortals: "one thinks to have drunk soma, when they crush the plant. Of him (soma), which the braahmanas know, no one ever tastes.": RV X.85.3; same hymn in AV. XIV.1.3; "No earthly one eats you." : RV X.85.4; soma is for Indra: "Boldy drink soma from tbe beaker, Indra!...": AV VII.77; [Hillebrandt and Oldenburg treat soma as a metaphor for the moon or the sun]

Item 2: माक्षिक, the fly, betrays Soma

uta syaa vaam madhuman maakshikaarapan madey somasyausijo huvanyati (To you, O Aswins, that fly betrayed the soma: RV 1.119.9); mākshika = pyrite ores; fly. cf."maakshikam (pyrites), digested hundred times with juice of plantain leaves, andthen steeped for three days in oil, clarified butter and honey, and then heated strongly in a crucible yields its essence" (alchemical treatise: Rudrayamala Tantra, cited in P.Ray, History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, p.157)

माक्षिक [p= 805,2] mfn. (fr. मक्षिका) coming from or belonging to a bee Ma1rkP. (Monier-Williams)

मक्षिकः मक्षि (क्षी) का A fly, bee; भो उपस्थितं नयनमधु संनिहिता मक्षिका च M.2. -Comp. -मलम् wax. (Apte)

माक्षिक n. a kind of honey-like mineral substance or pyrites MBh.

उपरसः uparasḥउपरसः 1 A secondary mineral, (red chalk, bitumen, माक्षिक, शिलाजित &c)

Griffith translation: RV 1.119.1-10:1. HITHER, that I may live, I call unto the feast your wondrous car, thought-swift, borne on by rapid steeds. With thousand banners, hundred treasures, pouring gifts, promptly obedient, bestowing ample room. 2 Even as it moveth near my hymn is lifted up, and all the regions come together to sing praise. I sweeten the oblations; now the helpers come. Urjani hath, O Asvins, mounted on your car. 3 When striving man with man for glory they have met, brisk, measurcIess, eager for victory in fight, Then verily your car is seen upon the slope when ye, O Asvins, bring some choice boon to the prince. 4 Ye came to Bhujyu while he struggled in the flood, with flying birds, self-yoked, ye bore him to his sires. Ye went to the far-distant home, O Mighty Ones; and famed is your great aid to Divodisa given. 5 Asvins, the car which you had yoked for glorious show your own two voices urged directed to its goal. Then she who came for friendship, Maid of noble birth, elected you as Husbands, you to be her Lords. 6 Rebha ye saved from tyranny; for Atri's sake ye quenched with cold the fiery pit that compassed him. Ye made the cow of Sayu stream refreshing milk, and Vandana was holpen to extended life. 7 Doers of marvels, skilful workers, ye restored Vandana, like a car, worn out with length of days. From earth ye brought the sage to life in wondrous mode; be your great deeds done here for him who honours you. 8 Ye went to him who mourned in a far distant place, him who was left forlorn by treachery of his sire. Rich with the light ofheaven was then the help ye gave, and marvellous your succour when ye stood by him. 9 To you in praise of sweetness sang the honey-bee: Ausija calleth you in Soma's rapturous joy. Ye drew unto yourselves the spirit of Dadhyac, and then the horse's head uttered his words to you. 10 A horse did ye provide for Pedu, excellent, white, O ye Asvins, conqueror of combatants, Invincible in war by arrows, seeking heaven worthy of fame, like Indra, vanquisher of men.

A reference to mākshika in RV 1.119.9 is a pun on the word:mAkshika 'fly' mAkshika 'pyrites'

To you, O Aswins, that fly betrayed the soma: RV 1.119.9

Makshika as pyrites are used in metlwork: "maakshikam (pyrites), digested hundred times with juice of plantain leaves, and then steeped for three days in oil, clarified butter and honey, and then heated strongly in a crucible yields its essence" (alchemical treatise: Rudrayamala Tantra, cited in P.Ray, History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, p.157)

Item 3: Reference to Soma in the dual and plural

Griffith translation: RV 9.66.1-5: 1. For holy lore of every sort, flow onward thou whom all men love. A Friend to be besought by friends. 2 O'er all thou rulest with these Two which, Soma Pavamana, stand, Turned, as thy stations, hitherward. 3 Wise Soma Pavamana, thou encompassest on every side Thy stations as the seasons come. 4 Flow onward, generating food, for precious boons of every kind, A Friend for friends, to be our help. 5 Upon the lofty ridge of heaven thy bright rays with their essences, Soma, spread purifying power.

It is extraordinary that soma is referred to in dual, or plural (re-inforcing 
the allegorical nature of the descriptions): "with those two forms" (RV 
IX.66.2,3,5); "the forms (plural, not dual) that are thine" (RV IX.66.3); "the 
shining rays spread a filter on the back of the heaven, O soma, with (thy) forms
(plural, not dual)" (RV IX.66.5); the dual reference is to the ore-form and the 
purified/processed form.

http://tinyurl.com/pdm2eysBy the 5^th millennium BCE, armlets of copper plus added lead, were cast at Mehergarh by lost-wax process.

(Davey. CJ, 2009, The early history of lost wax casting. Metallurgy and Civilisation, J. Mei and Th. Rehren eds. Archetype, London, 147-154).

At the end of 5th millennium BCE, Shahi Tump evidences lost-wax casting.

(Mille, B., Bessenval, R. and Bourgarit, D. Early ‘lost-wax casting’ in Balochistan (Pakistan): the “Leopards Weight “ from Shahi-Tump. Persiens antike Pracht, Bergbau-Handwerk-Archäologie, T. Stöllner, R. Slotta and A. Vatandoust (eds). Der Anschnitt Beiheft 12: Deutsches Bergbau Museum, Bochum (2004): 274- 280).

It is suggested that a narrative based on archaeo-metallurgical researchers documenting lost-wax casting techniques and artifacts from Dong Son (Hanoi) to Nahal Mishmar (Haifa) along the Maritime Tin Route is likely to be a riveting narrative. The narrative will certainly herald the contributions made by artisans of the Bronze Age reinforced by the metalwork catalogues of Indus Script Corpora which have documented the technological splendour.

This splendour will be matched by utsava bera which are taken in processions all over Bharatam, that is India, even today, during days of temple festivities attesting the abiding nature of the awe-inspiring cire perdue bronze or brass castings..

Leopard weight. Shahi Tump. H.16.7cm; dia.13.5cm; base dia 6cm; handle on top.

Seashells inlays on frieze. The pair of leopard and ibex is shown twice, separated by stylized flies.

Source: https://www.academia.edu/8164498/Early_lost-wax_casting_in_Baluchistan_Pakistan_the_Leopards_Weight_from_Shahi-Tump

mákṣā f., mákṣ -- m. f. ʻ fly ʼ RV., mákṣikā -- f. ʻ fly, bee ʼ RV., makṣika -- m. Mn.Pa. makkhikā -- f. ʻ fly ʼ, Pk. makkhiā -- f., macchī -- , °chiā -- f.; Gy. hung. makh ʻ fly ʼ, wel. makhī f., gr. makí f., pol. mačin, germ. mačlin, pal. mắki ʻ mosquito ʼ,măkīˊla ʻ sandfly ʼ, măkīˊli ʻ house -- fly ʼ; Ash. mačī˜ˊ ʻ bee ʼ; Paš.dar. mēček ʻ bee ʼ, weg. mečīˊk ʻ mosquito ʼ, ar. mučək, mučag ʻ fly ʼ; Mai. māc̣hī ʻ fly ʼ; Sh.gil.măṣīˊ f., (Lor.) m*lc̣ī ʻ fly ʼ (→ Ḍ. m*lc̣hi f.), gur. măc̣hīˊ ʻ fly ʼ (ʻ bee ʼ in gur. măc̣hi̯kraṇ, koh. măc̣hi -- gŭn ʻ beehive ʼ); K. mȧchi f. ʻ fly, bee, dark spot ʼ; S. makha,makhi f. ʻ fly, bee, swarm of bees, sight of gun ʼ, makho m. ʻ a kind of large fly ʼ; L. (Ju.) makhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, khet. makkīˊ; P. makkh f. ʻ horsefly, gnat, any stinging fly ʼ, m. ʻ flies ʼ, makkhī f. ʻ fly ʼ; WPah.rudh. makkhī ʻ bee ʼ, jaun. mākwā ʻ fly ʼ; Ku. mākho ʻ fly ʼ, gng. mã̄kh, N. mākho, A. mākhi, B. Or. māchi, Bi. māchī, Mth. māchī,mã̄chī, makhī (← H.?), Bhoj. māchī; OAw. mākhī, lakh. māchī ʻ fly ʼ, ma -- mākhī ʻ bee ʼ (mádhu -- ); H. māchī, mākhī, makkhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, makkhā m. ʻ large fly, gadfly ʼ; G. mākh, mākhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, mākhɔ m. ʻ large fly ʼ; M. mās f. ʻ swarm of flies ʼ, n. ʻ flies in general ʼ, māśī f. ʻ fly ʼ, Ko. māsu, māśi; Si. balu -- mäkka, st. -- mäki -- ʻ flea ʼ, mässa, st. mäsi -- ʻ fly ʼ; Md. mehi ʻ fly ʼ.
*makṣātara -- , *mākṣa -- , mākṣiká -- ; *makṣākiraṇa -- , *makṣācamara -- , *makṣācālana -- , *makṣikākula -- ; *madhumakṣikā -- .
Addenda: mákṣā -- : S.kcch. makh f. ʻ fly ʼ; WPah.kṭg. mákkhɔ, máṅkhɔ m. ʻ fly, large fly ʼ, mákkhi (kc. makhe) f. ʻ fly, bee ʼ, máṅkhi f., J. mākhī f.pl., Garh. mākhi. (CDIAL 9696) mākṣiká ʻ pertaining to a bee ʼ MārkP., n. ʻ honey ʼ Suśr. 2. *mākṣa -- . [mákṣā -- ]
1. WPah.bhad. māċhī ʻ bee ʼ, khaś. mākhī; -- Pk. makkhia -- , macchia -- n. ʻ honey ʼ; Ash. mači, mačík ʻ sweet, good ʼ, mačianá ʻ honey ʼ; Wg. mác̣i, mäc̣ ʻ honey ʼ, Kt. mac̣ī˜, Pr. maṭék, Shum. mac̣hī, Gaw. māc̣hī, Kal.rumb. Kho. mac̣hí, Bshk. mē̃c̣h, Phal. mn/ac̣hī, mḗc̣hī, Sh. măc̣hīˊ f., S. L. mākhī f., WPah.bhiḍ. māċhī n., H.mākhī f.
2. K. mã̄ch, dat. °chas m. ʻ honey ʼ, WPah.bhal. māch n. -- For form and meaning of Paš. māš, mōṣ ʻ honey ʼ see NTS ii 265, IIFL iii 3, 126.
*mākṣakulika -- , *mākṣikakara -- , *mākṣikamadhu -- .Addenda: mākṣika -- : Kho. mac̣hi ʻ honey ʼ BKhoT 70.(CDIAL 9989)*mākṣikakara or *mākṣakara -- ʻ bee ʼ. [Cf. madhu- kara -- m. ŚārṅgP., °kāra -- m. BhP., °kārī -- f. R. <-> mākṣiká -- , kará -- 1]
Ash. mačarīk, °čerīˊk ʻ bee ʼ, Wg. mac̣arīˊk, Kt. mačerík NTS ii 265, mac̣e° Rep1 59, Pr. mučerík, məṣkerík, muṭkurīˊk, Shum. mã̄c̣hāˊrik, Kal.rumb. mac̣hḗrik, Bshk.māˊc̣ēr, Phal. māc̣hurīˊ f.; Sh.koh. măc̣hāri f. ʻ bee ʼ, gil. (Lor.) m*lc̣hari ʻ bee, wasp, hornet ʼ (in latter meaning poss. < *makṣātara -- ); P. makhīr m. ʻ bee ʼ, kgr. ʻ honey ʼ; -- Gaw. mã̄c̣(h)oṛík with unexpl. -- ṛ -- . (CDIAL 9990) *mākṣikamadhu ʻ honey ʼ. [mākṣiká -- , mádhu -- ]
P. mākhyō̃ f., mākho m. ʻ honey, honeycomb ʼ.(CDIAL 9991) مچئِي mac̱ẖaʿī, s.f. (6th) A bee in general. Sing. and Pl. سره مچئِي saraʿh-mac̱ẖaʿī, s.f. (6th). Sing. and Pl.; or دنډاره ḏḏanḏḏāraʿh, s.f. (3rd) A hornet, a wasp. Pl. يْ ey. See ډنبره (Pashto) माक्षिक [p= 805,2] mfn. (fr. मक्षिका) coming from or belonging to a bee Ma1rkP. मक्षिकः makṣikḥ मक्षि makṣi (क्षी kṣī) का kāमक्षिकः मक्षि (क्षी) का A fly, bee; भो उपस्थितं नयनमधु संनिहिता मक्षिका च M.2.-Comp.-मलम् wax. madhu

मधु a. -मक्षः, -क्षा, -मक्षिका a bee. (Samskritam) )

माक्षिक [p.805] n. a kind of honey-like mineral substance or pyrites MBh.(Monier-Williams) Seven minerals are identified as pyrites: उपधातुः upadhātuḥउपधातुः An inferior metal, semi-metal. They are seven; सप्तोपधातवः स्वर्णं माक्षिकं तारमाक्षिकम् । तुत्थं कांस्यं च रातिश्च सुन्दूरं च शिलाजतु ॥ उपरसः uparasḥउपरसः 1 A secondary mineral, (red chalk, bitumen, माक्षिक, शिलाजित &c). माक्षि (क्षी) क Pyrites. -Comp. -धातुः pyrites.(Apte.Samskritam) மாக்கிகம் mākkikam, n. < mākṣika. 1. Bismuth pyrites; நிமிளை. (நாமதீப. 382.) 2. Honey; தேன். (நாமதீப. 410.) செம்புத்தீக்கல் cempu-t-tīkkal , n. < செம்பு +. Copper pyrites, sulphide of copper and iron; இரும்புஞ்செம்புங்கலந்த உலோகக்கட்டி. Loc.

Copper and arsenic ores
Ore name	Chemical formula
Arsenopyrite	FeAsS
Enargite	Cu₃AsS₄
Olivenite	Cu₂(AsO₄)OH
Tennantite	Cu₁₂As₄S₁₃
Malachite	Cu₂(OH)₂CO₃
Azurite	Cu₃(OH)₂(CO₃)₂

Sulfide deposits frequently are a mix of different metal sulfides, such as copper, zinc, silver, lead, arsenic and other metals. (Sphalerite (ZnS2), for example, is not uncommon in copper sulfide deposits, and the metal smelted would be brass, which is both harder and more durable than bronze.)The metals could theoretically be separated out, but the alloys resulting were typically much stronger than the metals individually.

An alternative rendering in translations of RV 10.81.5,6 and 10.81.1 by Wilson provides elucidation of the expression hiraṇyagarbha:

10.082.05 What was that embryo which was beyond the heaven, beyond this earth, beyond the gods, beyond the asuras, which the waters first retained, in which all the gods contemplated each other?
10.082.06 The waters verily first retained the embryo in which all the gods were aggregated, single deposited on the navel of the unborn (creator), in which all beings abide. [The embryo is Vis'vakarman. arpitam an.d.am = mundane egg; or, bi_jam].

10.081.01 The r.s.i, the hota_, our father who offering all these worlds has taken his seat; desiring wealth by pious benedictions, the first inventor has entered inferior (beinggs). [Offering all these worlds: i.e., destroying at the pral.aya, or dissolution of the world (Yajus. 17.17); asi_dat = had stopped, or has sat down in Agni. The 'wealth' desired by Vis'vakarma_ is heaven, which is to be obtained by hymns and the like. a_s'is.a_ = by the wish to become many; or, by the desire to create again and again; prathamacchad = assuming the principal form, or first investing, Agni with the worlds; Parames'vara is intended: a_tma_ va_ idam eka eva_gra a_si_t: Aitareya Bra_hman.a 2.4.1; Nirukta, 10.26: Vis'vakarman was at a sarvamedha, or universal sacrifice; he offered up all the worlds, and last of all offered up himself in sacrifice. The first line of the r.ca is a reference to the destuction of all things; the second line of the r.ca refers to their re-creation].

हिरण्य mfn. golden , made of gold Mn. MBh.; hiraṇyam हिरण्यम् [हिरणमेव स्वार्थे यत्] 1 Gold; Ms.2.246. -2 Any vessel of gold; मन्त्रवत् प्राशनं चास्य हिरण्यमधुसर्पिषाम् Ms.2.29 (some take in the first sense). -3 Silver; (ददौ) हिरण्यस्य सुवर्णस्य मुक्तानां विद्रुमस्य च Rām.1.74.5; Mb. 13.57.34. -4 Any precious metal. -5 Wealth, property; अपदेश्यैश्च संन्यस्य हिरण्यं तस्य तत्त्वतः Ms.8.182. (Monier-Williams)

hiraṇyam हिरण्यम् [हिरणमेव स्वार्थे यत्] 1 Gold; Ms.2.246. -2 Any vessel of gold; मन्त्रवत् प्राशनं चास्य हिरण्यमधुसर्पिषाम् Ms.2.29 (some take in the first sense). -3 Silver; (ददौ) हिरण्यस्य सुवर्णस्य मुक्तानां विद्रुमस्य च Rām.1.74.5; Mb. 13.57.34. -4 Any precious metal. -5 Wealth, property; अपदेश्यैश्च संन्यस्य हिरण्यं तस्य तत्त्वतः Ms.8.182. -6 Semen virile. -7 A cowrie. -8 particular measure. -9 A substance. -1 The thorn-apple (धत्तूर). -ण्या One of the seven tongues of fire. -Comp. -अक्षः N. of a celebrated demon, twin brother of Hiraṇyakaśipu; अंशे हिरण्याक्षरिपोः स जाते हिरण्यनाभे तनवे नयज्ञः R.18.25. [On the strength of a boon from Brahman, he became insolent and oppressive, seized upon the earth, and carried it with him into the depths of the ocean. Viṣṇu therefore became incarnate as a boar, killed the demon and lifted up the earth.]; -कर्तृ m. goldsmith; यथा हिरण्यकर्ता वै रूप्यमग्नौ विशोधयेत् Mb.12.28.11. -कोशः gold and silver (whether wrought or unwrought). (Apte)

अज 1 [p= 9,2] N. of a mineral substance; aja अज a. [न जायते; जन्-ड. न. त.] Unborn, existing from all eternity; यो मामजमनादिं च वेत्ति लोकमहेश्वरम् Bg.1. 3; अजस्य गृह्णतो जन्म R.1.24. -जः 1 The 'unborn', epithet of the Almighty Being; न हि जातो न जाये$हं न जनिष्ये कदाचन । क्षेत्रज्ञः सर्वभूतानां तस्मादहमजः स्मृतः ॥ Mb.; also a N. of Viṣṇu, Śiva or Brahmā. -2 The (individual) soul (जीवः) अजो नित्यः शाश्वतो$यं पुराणो न हन्यते हन्यमाने शरीरे Bg.2.2. ;N. of a mineral substance (माक्षिकधातु).

The expression used in RV 10.82.6 is ajasyanābhā, i.e. existing in the navel of the aja, 'Unborn). This is elucidated further by the meaning of aja as the name of a mineral substance माक्षिकधातु., i.e. a pyrite mineral.

Thus, the pyrite minerals, upadhātu existing in the navel of the aja, 'unborn' is the substance of adoration. The Soma Yāga thus is an oblation to purify the pyrite minerals to realize hiraṇyam, 'gold'.which is a signifier of draviṇam mentioned in RV 10.81.1 in the expression draviṇam icchamānah, i.e. 'those desirous obtaining wealth'. Hiraṇyam is thus draviṇam, wealth.

In terms of material substances described, the hiraṇyagarbha expression can be viewed as wealth-yielding pyrites which include the element hiraṇyam.

The adored One is Brahman, हिरण्य-गर्भ, 'golden embryo'.

The oblation is to That One, that हिरण्य-गर्भ, 1 N. of Brahman (as born from a golden-egg, embryo?). -2 N. of Viṣṇu. -3 the soul invested by the subtile body or सूक्ष्मशरीर cf. (in phil.) the soul invested with the सूक्ष्म-शरीर or subtle body (= सूत्रा*त्मन् , प्रा*णा*त्मन्) Veda7ntas.(Monier-Williams)

Adoration of viśvakarmā is adoration of Creativity.

Oblation: yajñḥ यज्ञः [यज्-भावे न] 1 A sacrifice, sacrificial rite; any offering or oblation; यज्ञेन यज्ञमयजन्त देवाः; तस्माद्यज्ञात् सर्वहुतः &c.; यज्ञाद् भवति पर्जन्यो यज्ञः कर्मसमुद्भवः Bg.3.14. -2 An act of worship, any pious or devotional act. (Every householder, but particularly a Brāhmaṇa, has to perform five such devotional acts every day; their names are :-- भूतयज्ञ, मनुष्ययज्ञ (hospitality), पितृयज्ञ, देवयज्ञ, and ब्रह्मयज्ञ, which are collectively called the five 'great sacrifices'.)

who (kaH) is the ātman on whom we meditate upon? परमा* त्मन् [p= 588,2] m. all the heart (only instr. = परमेण चेतसा , col.1) MBh.; the Supreme Consciousness Up. Mn. MBh. &c (cf. Religious Thought and Life in India, also called 'ब्राह्मन् ism and हिन्दू ism,' by Sir M. Monier-Williams, 37). चेतस् [p= 398,1] n. splendour

RV.; ( Naigh. iii , 9) consciousness , intelligence , thinking soul , heart , mind VS. xxxiv , 3 AV. Mn. ix , xii MBh. &c (ifc.Kat2hUp. Mn. &c ); will AV. vi , 116 , 3 TBr. iii , 1 , 1 , 7.

कः kḥ कः 1 Brahman. प्रजाः सिसृक्षुः क इवादिकाले Ch.2.51. यावद्गमं रुद्रभयाद्यथा कः Bhāg.1.7.18. -2 Viṣṇu. -3 Kāmadeva. -4 Fire. -5 Wind or air. -6 Yama. -7 The sun. -8 The soul.

कः, पुं, (कचति दीप्यते स्वेन ज्योतिषा ज्योति- र्म्मयत्वात् कच् + ड ।) ब्रह्मा (यथा, भागवते । ३ । १२ । ५१ । “एवं युक्तकृतस्तस्य दैवं चावेक्षतस्तदा । कस्य रूपमभूद् द्वेधा यत्कायमभिचक्षते” ॥) विष्णुः । (यथा महाभारते । १३ । विष्णोः सहस्र- नामकथने । १४९ । ९१ । “एको नैकः सवः कः किं यत् तत्पदमनुत्तमम्” ॥ प्रजापतिः । यथा भागवते । ८ । ५ । ३९ । “खेभ्यश्च छन्दांस्यृषयो मेढ्रतः कः प्रसीदतां नः स महाविभूतिः” ॥) दक्षः । (यथा भागवते । ९ । १० । १० ॥ “जघ्नेऽद्भुतैणवपुषाऽश्रमतोऽपकृष्टो मारीचमाशु विशिखेन यथा कमुग्रः” ॥) कामदेवः ॥ अग्निः ॥ वायुः ॥ यमः ॥ सूर्य्यः ॥ आत्मा ॥ राजा ॥ ग्रन्थिः ॥ मयूरः ॥ इति मेदिनी ॥ मनः ॥ शरीरम् ॥ कालः ॥ धनम् ॥ शब्दः ॥ इत्यनेकार्थ- कोषः ॥ प्रकाशः ॥ इत्येकाक्षरकोषः ॥

कः, त्रि, सर्व्वनाम । इति विश्वः । के कि इति भाषा ॥ (यथा विष्णुपुराणे । १ । १७ । २० । “तमृते परमात्मानं तात ! कः केन शास्यते” ॥)

क पु० कै--शब्दे कच--दीप्तौ वा ङ १ ब्रह्मणि २ विष्णौ ३कामदेवे ४ अग्नौ ५ वायौ ६ यमे ७ सूर्य्ये ८ आत्मनि ९ दक्षे-प्रजापतौ १० राजनि ११ कामग्रन्थौ १२ मयूरे” मेदि० ।१३ विहगे शब्दचि० । १४ चित्ते १५ देहे १६ काले१७ घने मेघे १८ शब्दे अनकार्थकोषः १९ प्रकाशे चएकाक्षरकोषः । २० शिरसि न० “द्वाभ्यामीष्ठौ द्विरुन्मृज्यचैकेन क्षालयेत् करम् । मुखघ्राणनेत्रश्रोत्रनाभ्युरस्कंभुजौ क्रमात्” तन्त्रसारः कं शिरः २१ जले २२ सुखे च न०मेदि० २३ केशे पु० धरणी । तत्र ब्रह्मणि “दिग्वा-तार्कप्रचेतोऽश्विवह्नीन्द्रीपेन्द्रमित्रकाः” शा० ति० । कः ब्रह्मा ।तट्टीका “कस्मै त्वा काय त्वा” यजु० २०, ४ । काय सुखाय प्रजापतये इत्येके । “कस्यासि कोनामासीति प्रजा-पतिर्वै कोनाम” शत० ४, ५, ६, ४ । “कवत्योयाज्यानु-बाक्या कोहि प्रजापतिः” ६, २, २, ५, प्रजापतिर्वै कस्तस्माएवैतदिमां वषट्करोति” ६, ४, ३, ४ । दक्षप्रजापतौ“ततः प्राचेतसोऽसिक्न्यामनुनोतः खयम्भुवा । षष्टिंस जनयामास दुहितॄःपितृवत्सलाः । दश धर्म्मायकायेन्दोर्द्विषट् त्रिनव दत्तवान्” भाग० ६, ३, २०, कायदक्षप्रजापतये द्विषट्द्वादश । “खेभ्यस्तु छन्दांस्यृषयो मेढ्रतःकः” भाग० ८, ५, २८ । कः प्रजापतिः । “यस्मात्पितामहो-भूतः प्रभुरेकः प्रजापतिः । ब्रह्मा सुरगुरुः स्थाणुर्मनुःकः परमेष्ठ्यथ” भा० आ० १ अ० । “मारीचमाशु विशिखेनयथा कमुग्रः” ९, ९, १० कं दक्षम् । सुखे “प्राणो ब्रह्म कँब्रह्म खं ब्रह्मेतिसहोवाच जानाम्यहं यत्प्राणो ब्रह्म कञ्च तु खञ्च न जानामीति तेऽहोचुः यद्वाव कं तदेव खं यदेवखं तदेव कमिति” छा० उप० । अत्र सुखस्वरूपतयाब्रह्मरूपत्वम् । यथाह तद्भाष्ये “तमेवमुक्तवन्तं ब्रह्मचारिणंते ह्यग्नयः ऊचुः यद्वाव यदेव वयं कमवोचाम तदेव खमाकाश इत्येवं खेन विशेष्यमाणं कं विषयेन्द्रियसंयोभजातसु-खान्निवर्त्तितं स्यान्नीलेतेव विशेष्यमाणमुत्पलं रक्तादिभ्यः । यदेव खमाकाशमवोचाम तदेव च कं सुखमिति जानीहिएवञ्च सुखेन विशेष्यमाणं खं भौतिकादचेतनात् खान्नि-वर्त्तितं स्यान्नीलोत्पलवदेव” । अत्र कंशब्दएव मान्ताव्ययम्इत्यन्ये । जले “के शवं पतितं दृष्ट्वा द्रोणोहर्षमुपागतः”विदग्धमु० । “के यूयं स्थल एव सम्प्रति वयम्” सा०त० । कः देवताऽस्य अण् । “कस्येत्” पा० इत्वृद्धिः । काय प्रजापतिदैवते विवाहभेदे । “स्त्रींस्त्रीन्कायोढजासुतः” मनुः ।

https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम्/

कः, पुं, (कचति दीप्यते स्वेन ज्योतिषा ज्योति-र्म्मयत्वात् कच् + ड ।) ब्रह्मा (यथा, भागवते ।३ । १२ । ५१ ।“एवं युक्तकृतस्तस्य दैवं चावेक्षतस्तदा ।कस्य रूपमभूद् द्वेधा यत्कायमभिचक्षते” ॥) विष्णुः । (यथा महाभारते । १३ । विष्णोः सहस्र-नामकथने । १४९ । ९१ ।“एको नैकः सवः कः किं यत् तत्पदमनुत्तमम्” ॥प्रजापतिः । यथा भागवते । ८ । ५ । ३९ ।“खेभ्यश्च छन्दांस्यृषयो मेढ्रतः कःप्रसीदतां नः स महाविभूतिः” ॥) दक्षः । (यथा भागवते । ९ । १० । १० ॥“जघ्नेऽद्भुतैणवपुषाऽश्रमतोऽपकृष्टो:मारीचमाशु विशिखेन यथा कमुग्रः” ॥)कामदेवः ॥ अग्निः ॥ वायुः ॥ यमः ॥ सूर्य्यः ॥ आत्मा ॥राजा ॥ ग्रन्थिः ॥ मयूरः ॥ इति मेदिनी ॥ मनः ॥शरीरम् ॥ कालः ॥ धनम् ॥ शब्दः ॥ इत्यनेकार्थ-कोषः ॥ प्रकाशः ॥ इत्येकाक्षरकोषः ॥कः, त्रि, सर्व्वनाम । इति विश्वः । के कि इति भाषा ॥(यथा विष्णुपुराणे । १ । १७ । २० ।“तमृते परमात्मानं तात ! कः केन शास्यते” ॥)

https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/शब्दकल्पद्रुमः

RV 10.121 "The poet in this creation hymn seeks to name That One who is the true source of being...the recurrent interrogative, posited a deity named 'Ka' (Who?') to whom this hymn was thenceforth addressed."

http://www.mircea-eliade.com/from-primitives-to-zen/024.html

The hymn is addressed to:

That One, Prajapati, 'That One presiding over creation'.

Cosmos (reality), Man (Purusha, existence, continuously re-generationg), God (infinity, which rolls all into That One; as creation, as manifestation of the self-existent Brahman).

RV 10.121
1. IN the beginning rose Hiranyagarbha, born Only Lord of all created beings.
He fixed and holdeth up this earth and heaven. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
2 Giver of vital breath, of power and vigour, he whose commandments all the Gods acknowledge -.
The Lord of death, whose shade is life immortal. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
3 Who by his grandeur hath become Sole Ruler of all the moving world that breathes and slumbers;
He who is Lord of men and Lord of cattle. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
4 His, through his might, are these snowcovered- mountains, and men call sea and Rasa his
possession:
His arms are these, his are these heavenly regions. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
5 By him the heavens are strong and earth is stedfast, by him lights' realm and skyvault- are
supported:
By him the regions in midair- were measured. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
6 To him, supported by his help, two armies embattled look while trembling in their spirit,
When over them the risen Sun is shining. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
7 What time the mighty waters came, containing the universal germ, producing Agni,
Thence sprang the Gods one spirit into being. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
8 He in his might surveyed the floods containing productive force and generating Worship.
He is the God of gods, and none beside him. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
9 Neer may he harm us who is earths' Begetter, nor he whose laws are sure, the heavens' Creator,
He who brought forth the great and lucid waters. What God shall we adore with our oblation?
10 Prajapati! thou only comprehendest all these created things, and none beside thee.
Grant us our hearts' desire when we invoke thee: may we have store of riches in possession.

Visvakarman. 81

Visvakarman. 82

1. THE Father of the eye, the Wise in spirit, created both these worlds submerged in fatness.
Then when the eastern ends were firmly fastened, the heavens and the earth were far extended.
2 Mighty in mind and power is Visvakarman, Maker, Disposer, and most lofty Presence.
Their offerings joy in rich juice where they value One, only One, beyond the Seven Rsis.
3 Father who made us, he who, as Disposer, knoweth all races and all things existing,
Even he alone, the Deities' nam e giverhim-, other beings seek for information.
4 To him in sacrifice they offered treasures, Rsis of old, in numerous troops, as singers,
Who, in the distant, near, and lower region, made ready all these things that have existence.
5 That which is earlier than this earth and heaven, before the Asuras and Gods had being,
What was the germ primeval which the waters received where all the Gods were seen together?
6 The waters, they received that germ primeval wherein the Gods were gathefed all together.
It rested set upon the Unborns' navel, that One wherein abide all things existing.
7 Ye will not find him who produced these creatures: another thing hath risen up among you.
Enwrapt in misty cloud, with lips that stammer, hymn chanters- wander and are discontented.

विश्व--कर्मन् a [p= 992,3] mfn. accomplishing or creating everything RV. AV. Br. MBh. Hariv. m. " all-doer , all-creator , all-maker " , N. of the divine creative architect or artist (said to be son of ब्रह्मा , and in the later mythology sometimes identified with त्वष्टृ q.v. , he is said to have revealed the स्थापत्यवेद q.v. , or fourth उप-वेद , and to preside over all manual labours as well as the sixty-four mechanical arts [whence he is worshipped by कारुs or artisans] ; in the Vedic mythology , however , the office of Indian Vulcan is assigned to त्वष्टृ as a distinct deity , विश्व-कर्मन् being rather identified with प्रजा-पति [ब्रह्मा] himself as the creator of all things and architect of the universe ; in the hymns RV. x , 81 ; 82 he is represented as the universal Father and Generator , the one all-seeing God , who has on every side eyes , faces , arms , and feet ; in Nir. x , 26 and elsewhere in the ब्राह्मणs he is called a son of भुवन , and विश्व-कर्मन् भौवन is described as the author of the two hymns mentioned above ; in the MBh. and Hariv. he is a son of the वसु प्रभास and योग-सिद्धा ; in the पुराणs a son of वास्तु , and the father of बर्हिष्मती and संज्ञा ; accord. to other authorities he is the husband of घृताची ; moreover , a doubtful legend is told of his having offered up all beings , including himself , in sacrifice ; the रामा*यण represents him as having built the city of लङ्का for the राक्षसs , and as having generated the ape नल , who made राम's bridge from the continent to the island ; the name विश्व-कर्मन् , meaning " doing all acts " , appears to be sometimes applicable as an epithet to any great divinity) RV. &c; m. N. of सूर्य or the Sun Va1s. Ma1rkP. m. of one of the seven principal rays of the sun (supposed to supply heat to the planet Mercury) VP.; n. (only ibc.) every action MaitrUp. Va1s.

हिरण्य--गर्भ [p= 1299,3] m. a golden fetus Cat.N. of ब्रह्मा (so called as born from a golden egg formed out of the seed deposited in the waters when they were produced as the first creation of the Self-existent ; according to Mn. i , 9, this seed became a golden egg , resplendent as the sun , in which the Self-existent ब्रह्म was born as ब्रह्मा the Creator , who is therefore regarded as a manifestation of the Self-existent RV. x , 121) RV. AV. S3Br. &c (cf. RTL. 14 &c )

N. of the author of the hymn ऋग्वेद x , 121 (having the patr. प्राजापत्य) Anukr.; of

विष्णु MBh.mfn. relating to हिरण्य-गर्भ or ब्रह्मा. (A. Weber, Indian Studies.)

प्राजापत्य m. a descendant of प्रजा-पति (patr. of पतं-ग , of प्रजावत् , of यक्ष्म-नाशन , of यज्ञ , of विमद , of विष्णु , of संवरण , of हिरण्य-गर्भ) RAnukr.; m. a son born in the प्राजापत्य form of marriage Vishn2.; m. (with or scil. विवा*ह or विधि) a form of marriage (in which the father gives his daughter to the bridegroom without receiving a present from him) A1s3vGr2. i , 6 Mn. iii , 30 &c.

MAY

Simorg, śyēná (anzu), patanga, mákṣikā: Rigveda riddles, Meluhha hieroglyphs as archaeometallurgy metaphors

Mirror: https://www.academia.edu/12595279/Simorg_%C5%9By%C4%93n%C3%A1_anzu_patanga_m%C3%A1k%E1%B9%A3ik%C4%81_Rigveda_riddles_Meluhha_hieroglyphs_as_archaeometallurgy_metaphors

Rishi: BrahmAtithih kANvah; devata: As'vinau; as'vikas'avah; cedyah kas'uh

śyēna is suprana (garutmat), falcon
mākṣikā is the pippalam sva_du atti: 'the flying bee which eats the sweet fig' (RV 1.164.20)
patanga is the third bird, flying insect (RV 10.177) The three flying birds (insects) are rebus-metonymy renderings as hieroglyphs signifying metalwork catalogues in archaeometallurgical transactions of Bhāratam Janam, 'metalcaster folk'

patanga, mercury or quicksilver in transmuting metal (Soma, ams'u);

mākṣikā, pyrites (which are to be oxidised to attain purified pavamAna Soma, electrum as gold-silver compound);

śyēna, anzu, ams'u (electrum ore filaments in the pyrites).

Three flying birds are abiding metaphors in Rigveda.

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2015/05/contributions-of-bharatam-janam-to.html Contributions of Bhāratam Janam to Archaeometallurgy: Reinterpreting Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177) The metaphor of the 'thunderbolt' is depicted as Anzu bird [cognate:asaṇi 'thunderbolt' (Prakritam)] carrying away the tablets of destiny in Mesopotamian legends. A phonemic variant śyēna, 'falcon' gets deified, immortalised as a śyēnaciti 'falcon-shaped fire-altar' in Vedic tradition in Bharatam. This is mərəγō saēnō ‘the bird Saēna’ in Avestan. (See article on Simorg in Encyclopaedia Iranica, annexed. The cognate expression in Samskritam is śyēna mriga).

Bhāratam Janam, 'lit. metalcaster folk'

Hieroglyph: Ku. balad m. ʻ ox ʼ, gng. bald, N. (Tarai) barad, id. Rebus: L. bhāraṇ ʻ to spread or bring out from a kiln ʼ; M. bhārṇẽ, bhāḷṇẽ ʻ to make strong by charms (weapons, rice, water), enchant, fascinate (CDIAL 9463) Ash. barī ʻ blacksmith, artisan (CDIAL 9464).

Rebus: baran, bharat ‘mixed alloys’ (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi) bharana id. (Bengali) bharan or toul was created by adding some brass or zinc into pure bronze. bharata = casting metals in moulds (Bengali) भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c. भरताचें भांडें (p. 603) [ bharatācē mbhāṇḍēṃ ] n A vessel made of the metal भरत. 2 See भरिताचें भांडें.भरती (p. 603) [ bharatī ] a Composed of the metal भरत.(Marathi. Molesworth)

पतं--ग m. or n. quicksilver L.

पतं--ग [p= 581,1]the sun (cf. पत-ग) RV. AV. Var. &cN. of one of the 7 suns TA1r. VP.

पतं--ग a spark ( Sa1y. ; " a पिशाच " Mahi1dh. ) RV. iv , 4 , 2

Ancient Greek tetradrachm coin from Akragas, 410 BCE, with a grasshopper on the right.

पतं--ग [p= 581,1] mfn. flying RV. i , 118 , 4 any flying insect , a grasshopper , a bee , a butterfly or moth S3Br. (°त्/अंग) Up. Mn. &c ( -ता f.Prasannar. )

pataṅgá ʻ ep. of divine (flying) things ʼ RV., m. ʻ bird ʼ lex.; patáṅga -- m. ʻ (noxious) insect ʼ Br̥ĀrUp.; pataṅga<-> m. ʻ insect ʼ MBh., °gama -- m. BhP.,pataga -- m. MBh. (ʻ bird ʼ lex.). 2. *pattaṅga -- . 3. *paṭaṅga -- . 4. *paṭṭiṅga -- . 5. *phattiṅga -- . 6. *phaṭiṅga -- , phaḍiṅgā -- f. ʻ grasshopper ʼ lex. 7. *phaṭṭiṅga -- .[*patan<-> ʻ wing ʼ with suffix -- ga -- (EWA ii 198) X some nonAryan word. -- √pat] 1. Pk. payaṁga -- m. ʻ grasshopper ʼ. 2. Woṭ. patáṅg ʻ butterfly ʼ, Tor. (Biddulph) "pattang" m., Sv. pataṅg; H. patiṅgā m. ʻ grasshopper ʼ. 3. Pa. paṭaṅga -- m. ʻ grasshopper ʼ, Ku. pilaṅaṭ.4. Ku. piṭaṅo m. ʻ insect ʼ. 5. H. phatiṅgā m. ʻ grasshopper ʼ. 6. A. phariṅ ʻ any winged insect, grasshopper ʼ; B. phaṛiṅ ʻ winged insect ʼ, phaṛiṅgā ʻ cricket ʼ; Or. phaṛiṅga ʻ locust, cricket ʼ; H. phaṛiṅgā, phaṅgā m. ʻ grasshopper ʼ, Si.palan̆gā.7. N. phaṭeṅro ʻ grashopper ʼ; -- Dm. phaṭṭäi ʻ butterfly ʼ, Phal. phāṭuṛīˊ f. S.kcch. pataṅgh m. ʻ moth ʼ.(CDIAL 7721) So<pAp.pAr>//<pAr>(DL) {N} ``^grasshopper, ^locust''.

So<pAr>\\<pAp.pAr>(DL)  {N} ``^grasshopper, ^locust''.<phapha>(D)  {NI} ``a big green ^grasshopper''.  #24801. (Munda etyma)

A tabanid from the Western Ghats, India. Hybomitra micans

Apis mellifera (Honeybee).

मख 1 [p= 772,1] mfn. (prob. connected with √1. मह् or √ मंह्) jocund , cheerful , sprightly , vigorous , active , restless (said of the मरुत्s and other gods) RV. Br.m. a feast , festival , any occasion of joy or festivity RV. S3a1n3khGr2. m. a sacrifice , sacrificial oblation S3Br. &c ( Naigh. iii , 17)m. (prob.) N. of a mythical being (esp. in मखस्य शिरः , " मख's head ") RV. VS. S3Br. (cf. also comp.)

máhas2 n. ʻ delight in praise ʼ VS., ʻ festival, worship ʼ Pañcar., ʻ sacrifice ʼ lex., mahá -- m. ʻ festival, sacrifice ʼ MBh. [In later MIA. collides with makhá -- m. ʻ sacrifice ʼ ŚBr. -- √maṁh?]

Pa. maha -- n.m. ʻ festival ʼ; Pk. maha -- m. ʻ festival, sacrifice ʼ; OG. maha ʻ festival ʼ; Si. maha ʻ sacrifice ʼ. mahā -- in cmpds. ʻ great ʼ. [mah -- ] †indramaha (CDIAL 9937) máhas1 n. ʻ greatness, glory ʼ RV., ʻ splendour, light ʼ Inscr. [máh -- ] Pa. maha -- n.m. ʻ greatness ʼ; -- Si. maha ʻ light, brilliance ʼ (ES 66) ← Sk.? (CDIAL 9936)

Golden eagle.

<gOruDO>(P),,<gOruRO>(P) {N} ``^eagle, any big ^bird''. *Mu.<gaRur>, Ho<goruR>, H.<gArURA> `large species of heron, eagle', Sk.<gArUDA>. %11781. #11691.(Munda etyma) garuḍá m. ʻ a mythical bird ʼ Mn. Pa. garuḷa -- m., Pk. garuḍa -- , °ula -- m.; P. garaṛ m. ʻ the bird Ardea argala ʼ; N. garul ʻ eagle ʼ, Bhoj. gaṛur; OAw. garura ʻ blue jay ʼ; H. garuṛ m. ʻ hornbill ʼ, garul ʻ a large vulture ʼ; Si. guruḷā ʻ bird ʼ (kurullā infl. by Tam.?). -- Kal. rumb. gōrvḗlik ʻ kite ʼ?? (CDIAL 4041) gāruḍa ʻ relating to Garuḍa ʼ MBh., n. ʻ spell against poison ʼ lex. 2. ʻ emerald (used as an antidote) ʼ Kālid. [garuḍá -- ] 1. Pk. gāruḍa -- , °ula -- ʻ good as antidote to snakepoison ʼ, m. ʻ charm against snake -- poison ʼ, n. ʻ science of using such charms ʼ; H. gāṛrū, gārṛū m. ʻ charm against snake -- poison ʼ; M. gāruḍ n. ʻ juggling ʼ. 2. M. gāroḷā ʻ cat -- eyed, of the colour of cat's eyes ʼ.(CDIAL 4138)

G. garāḍ, °ḍɔ m. ʻ pit, ditch ʼ (< *graḍḍa -- < *garda -- ?);*gaḍḍa1 ʻ hole, pit ʼ. [G. < *garda -- ? -- Cf. *gaḍḍ -- 1 and list s.v. kartá -- 1] Pk. gaḍḍa -- m. ʻ hole ʼ; WPah. bhal. cur. gaḍḍ f., paṅ. gaḍḍṛī, pāḍ. gaḍōṛ ʻ river, stream ʼ; N. gaṛ -- tir ʻ bank of a river ʼ; A. gārā ʻ deep hole ʼ; B. gāṛ, °ṛā ʻ hollow, pit ʼ; Or.gāṛa ʻ hole, cave ʼ, gāṛiā ʻ pond ʼ; Mth. gāṛi ʻ piercing ʼ; H. gāṛā m. ʻ hole ʼ; Si. gaḍaya ʻ ditch ʼ. -- Cf. S. giḍ̠i f. ʻ hole in the ground for fire during Muharram ʼ. -- X khānĭ̄ -- : K. gān m. ʻ underground room ʼ; S. (LM 323) gāṇ f. ʻ mine, hole for keeping water ʼ; L. gāṇ m. ʻ small embanked field within a field to keep water in ʼ; G. gāṇ f. ʻ mine, cellar ʼ; M. gāṇ f. ʻ cavity containing water on a raised piece of land ʼ (LM 323 < gáhana -- ).WPah.kṭg. gāṛ ʻ hole (e.g. after a knot in wood) ʼ.(CDIAL 3981)

Pa. cēna frost, ice. Kuwi (Mah.) hennā hoar-frost. (DEDR 2823)

Si. sena, heṇa ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; aśáni f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ RV., °nī -- f. ŚBr. [Cf. áśan -- m. ʻ sling -- stone ʼ RV.]Pa. asanī -- f. ʻ thunderbolt, lightning ʼ, asana -- n. ʻ stone ʼ; Pk. asaṇi -- m.f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; Ash. ašĩˊ ʻ hail ʼ, Wg. ašē˜ˊ, Pr. īšĩ, Bashg. "azhir", Dm. ašin, Paš. ášen, Shum.äˊšin, Gaw. išín, Bshk. ašun, Savi išin, Phal. ã̄šun, L. (Jukes) ahin, awāṇ. &circmacrepsilon;n (both with n, not ṇ), P. āhiṇ, f., āhaṇ, aihaṇ m.f., WPah. bhad. ã̄ṇ, bhal. ´tildemacrepsilon; hiṇi f., N. asino, pl. °nā; Si. sena, heṇa ʻ thunderbolt ʼ Geiger GS 34, but the expected form would be *ā̤n; -- Sh. aĩyĕˊr f. ʻ hail ʼ (X ?). -- For ʻ stone ʼ > ʻ hailstone ʼ cf. upala -- and A. xil s.v. śilāˊ -- Sh. aĩyĕˊr (Lor. aĩyār → Bur. *lhyer ʻ hail ʼ BurLg iii 17) poss. < *aśari -- from heteroclite n/r stem (cf. áśman -- : aśmará -- ʻ made of stone ʼ).(CDIAL 910) vajrāśani m. ʻ Indra's thunderbolt ʼ R. [vájra -- , aśáni -- ]Aw. bajāsani m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ prob. ← Sk. (CDIAL 11207)

श्येन firewood laid in the shape of an eagle S3ulbas

श्येना f. a female hawk L. श्येन [p= 1095,2] m. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man) RV. &c mfn. eagle-like AitBr. mfn. coming from an eagle (as " eagle's flesh ") , Kr2ishn2aj. ?? (prob. w.r. for श्यैन). śyēná m. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV. Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ. (CDIAL 12674) शेन [ śēna ] m (श्येन S) A hawk. शेनी f (श्येनी S) A female hawk.श्येन [ śyēna ] m S A hawk. श्येनी f S A female hawk. (Marathi)

Alabaster votive relief of Ur-Nanshe, king of Lagash, showing Anzû as a lion-headed eagle, ca. 2550–2500 BC; found at Tell Telloh the ancient city of Girsu, (Louvre)

Ninurta with his thunderbolts pursues Anzû stealing the Tablets of Destiny from Enlil's sanctuary (Austen Henry Layard Monuments of Nineveh, 2nd Series, 1853)

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2011/11/syena-orthography.html

śyena, orthography, Sasanian iconography. Continued use of Indus Script hieroglyphs.

Syena-citi: A Monument of Uttarkashi Distt.
EXCAVATED SITE -PUROLA

Geo-Coordinates-Lat. 30° 52’54” N Long. 77° 05’33” E

Notification No& Date;2742/-/16-09/1996

The ancient site at Purola is located on the left bank of river Kamal. The excavation yielded the remains of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) from the earliest level alongwith other associated materials include terracotta figurines, beads, potter-stamp, the dental and femur portions of domesticated horse (Equas Cabalus Linn). The most important finding from the site is a brick alter identified as Syenachiti by the excavator. The structure is in the shape of a flying eagle Garuda, head facing east with outstretched wings. In the center of the structure is the chiti is a square chamber yielded remains of pottery assignable to circa first century B.C. to second century AD. In addition copper coin of Kuninda and other material i.e. ash, bone pieces etc and a thin gold leaf impressed with a human figure tentatively identified as Agni have also been recovered from the central chamber.

Note: Many ancient metallic coins (called Kuninda copper coins) were discovered at Purola. cf. Devendra Handa, 2007, Tribal coins of ancient India, ISBN: 8173053170, Aryan Books International.

Kuninda

"In the Visnu Purana, the domain of Kunindas is especially defined as the Kulindopatyaka, i.e., the bounding foothills demarcating the Kuninda territory (NSWH, p. 71)...According to Ptolemy (McCrindle's Ptolemy, p. 110), the country of the Kulindrine, Kulindas, was located somewhere in the mountainous region around the sources of Vipasha (the Beas), the Shatadru (the Satluj), the Yamuna and the Ganga...Kulindas emerged as a powerful warrior community...upgrade them as the vratya kshatriya...(Manusmriti, 10.20.22)"(Omacanda Handa, 2004, Naga cults and traditions in the western Himalaya, Indus publishing, p.76.)

In Dyuta parva (Sabhaparva, Mahabharata) Duryodhana said: "I describe that large mass of wealth consisting of various kinds of tribute presented to Yudhishthira by the kings of the earth. They that dwell by the side of the river Sailoda flowing between the mountains of Mer and Mandara and enjoy the delicious shade of topes of the Kichaka bamboo, viz., the Khashas, Ekasanas, the Arhas, the Pradaras, the Dirghavenus, the Paradas, the Kulindas, the Tanganas, and the other Tanganas, brought as tribute heaps of gold measured in dronas (jars) and raised from underneath the earth by ants and therefore called after these creatures." [cf. Section LI, Kisari Mohan Ganguli's translation (1883-1896)].

The Kuninda warrior clan is mentioned in ancient texts under the different forms of its name: Kauninda, Kulinda, and Kaulinda. Their coins have been found mostly in the Himalayan foothills, between the Rivers Sutlej and Yamuna. The Kuninda were therefore neighbors of the Kuluta and Trigarta clans.

Their coins have the figure of Bhagwan Shiva holding a trident, with the legend: Bhagwatah Chatresvara-Mahatmanah, translating to Bhagwan Shiva, tutelary deity of Ahichhatra, the Kuninda capital. On the obverse the coins portray a deer, six-arched hill, and a tree-in-railing.

These coins are made of copper, silver, and bronze, and are found from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. This suggests that the Kuninda gained independence from both the Indo-Greek and Kushan invaders. A Raja named Amoghabhuti features prominently in the later coins, which bear a striking resemblance to the coinage of the Yaudheya clan. It seems that the Kunindas in alliance with the latter ejected the Kushans in the 3rd century CE.

By the 5th century the clan-state of the Kuninda disappeared, or more accurately, broke-up into tiny fragments under the families of Ranas and Thakkuras just as their neighbors the Kuluta. The region of Simla Hills, down to the 20th century, was littered with tiny entities ruled by such petty chieftains, which were grouped by the British Empire into the Simla Hill States.

Silver coin of the Kuninda Kingdom, c. 1st century BCE.
Obv: Deer standing right, crowned by two cobras, attended by Lakshmi holding a lotus flower. Legend in Prakrit (Brahmi script, from left to right): Rajnah Kunindasya Amoghabhutisya maharajasya ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas").
Rev: Stupa surmounted by the Buddhist symbol triratna, and surrounded by a swastika, a "Y" symbol, and a tree in railing. Legend in Kharoshti script, from righ to left: Rana Kunidasa Amoghabhutisa Maharajasa, ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas"). NB: Note the svastika, tree and mountain glyphs; these are Indus script hieroglyphs on the coin, attesting to the survival of the writing system in metallurgical contexts -- in this case, in the context of a mint. Note on Kuninda.
IGNCA Newsletter, 2003 Vol. III (May - June)

Syena Chiti, Garuda shaped Chiti Schematic as described by John F Price. Context: Panjal Atiratra yajnam (2011). cf.The paper of John Price: Applied geometry of śulbasūtras.

First layer of vakrapakṣa śyena altar. The wings are made from 60 bricks of type 'a', and the body, head and tail from 50 type 'b', 6 of type 'c' and 24 type 'd' bricks. Each subsequent layer was laid out using different patterns of bricks with the total number of bricks equalling 200.

"Sênmurw (Pahlavi), Sîna-Mrû (Pâzand), a fabulous, mythical bird. The name derives from Avestan mərəγô saênô 'the bird Saêna', originally a raptor, either eagle or falcon, as can be deduced from the etymologically identical Sanskrit śyena."

Senmurv on the tomb of Abbess Theodote, Pavia early 8th c. "Griffin-like .
Simurgh (Persian: سیمرغ), also spelled simorgh, simurg, simoorg or simourv, also known as Angha (Persian: عنقا), is the modern Persian name for a fabulous, benevolent, mythical flying creature. The figure can be found in all periods of Greater Iranian art and literature, and is evident also in the iconography of medieval Armenia, the Byzantine empire , and other regions that were within the sphere of Persian cultural influence. Through cultural assimilation the Simurgh was introduced to the Arabic-speaking world, where the concept was conflated with other Arabic mythical birds such as the Ghoghnus, a bird having some mythical relation with the date palm, and further developed as the Rukh (the origin of the English word "Roc")." http://www.flickr.com/photos/27305838@N04/4830444236/

See: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/simorg

See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simurgh

Sassanid silk twill textile of a simurgh in a beaded surround, 6-7th c. CE

"The simurgh was considered to purify the land and waters and hence bestow fertility. The creature represented the union between the earth and the sky, serving as mediator and messenger between the two. The simurgh roosted in Gaokerena, the Hōm (Avestan: Haoma) Tree of Life, which stands in the middle of the world sea Vourukhasa. The plant is potent medicine, is called all-healing, and the seeds of all plants are deposited on it. When the simurgh took flight, the leaves of the tree of life shook making all the seeds of every plant to fall out. These seeds floated around the world on the winds of Vayu-Vata and the rains of Tishtrya, in cosmology taking root to become every type of plant that ever lived, and curing all the illnesses of mankind. The relationship between the simurgh and Hōm is extremely close. Like the simurgh, Hōm is represented as a bird, a messenger and as the essence of purity that can heal any illness or wound. Hōm - appointed as the first priest - is the essence of divinity, a property it shares with the simurgh. The Hōm is in addition the vehicle of farr(ah) (MP: khwarrah, Avestan: khvarenah, kavaēm kharēno) "[divine] glory" or "fortune". Farrah in turn represents the divine mandate that was the foundation of a king's authority."Sogdian Samarqand in the 7th century AD Archaeology in the landscapes of ancient Sogd has furnished us with a great amount of works of art, mainly from the early Middle Ages. Of highest value are the wall paintings from a palace hall (object 23, room 1) of the Sogdian ruler Varxuman at Samarqand (Afrasiab site)... The western wall is the most important one in room 23/1 due to its position opposite the entrance. This feature seems to be common in Sogdian architectural layouts both of private main halls and palace throne rooms. Who is figure no. 4 of the western wall? (page II) The following proposal for an identification of figure 4 is certainly only an attempt. As we have seen, group A2 of delegates seems to belong to nations of the west. A second hint comes from the clothes of figure 4. The delicate ornamentation depicts fabulous beasts known as "Senmurvs". Look below:

Left: The Senmurvs are set into an overall pattern of curved rhomboids.

Right: Close-up of the garment of figure 4 Originally more than hundred human figures must have been depicted on the walls of our room. Many of these persons are dressed with richly ornamented and multicoloured clothes. But it seems noteworthy that the Senmurv is, in contrary to other patterns, only to meet with figure 4 on the western wall. The reason for that must be the symbolic nature of the Senmurv. Speaking of this creature we concentrate only on the "dog-peackock" as depicted on the Afrasiab murals. Doubtless it originates from Iranian symbolism. The most spectacular examples can be seen on the late Sasanian rock reliefs of Taq-e Bustan (Iran):

Left: Senmurvs as pattern on the caftan of a Sasanian king, Taq-e Bustan, Great Ivan, left wall.

Right: Senmurv in medaillon on the clothes of the heavy-armoured rider, Taq-e Bustan, Geat Ivan. Comparing these images with the Senmurvs from Afrasiab we notice a striking similarity. Apparently the Senmurv in Sasanian iconography was a symbol with intimate connection to kingship. Images concentrate on representations of royal persons and on royal silverware. Only in post-Sasanian times, when dynastic restrictions were lost, the Senmurv spread wide as a merely ornamental motif on Near and Middle Eastern textiles, metalwork, and so on. Concerning the Afrasiab murals we have a general date within the limits of the Sasanian dynasty (i.e., before 652), as we have tried to explain on another page. Therefore, if the Senmurv (i.e., the "dog-peacock"!) was a Sasanian royal emblem, his appearance on the Afrasiab murals should point to the same symbolic value. In other words: The "owner" of the symbol should represent a Sasanian king. http://www.orientarch.uni-halle.de/ca/afras/text/w4b.htm

Wall panel with a Senmurv. Iran, Chal Tarhan. 7th-8th c. Stucco.Inv. Nr. 6642. Image of a quite similar panel which is in better condition that came from the same site, see British Museum, inv. no. ME 1973.7-25.3.

Sassanid silver plate of a simurgh (Sēnmurw), 7-8th c. CE. An exquisite and beautifully gilded Sassanid silver plate. The central creature within it is usually identified as the senmurw of Zoroastrian mythology which features the head of a snarling dog, the paws of a lion and the tail of a peacock. This object is today displayed in the Persian Empire collection of the British Museum. Peacock-dragon or peacock-griffin?

British Museum. Department: Middle East Registration number: 1922,0308.1 BM/Big number: 124095. Date 7thC-8thC (?) Description Gilded silver plate with low foot-rim and centering mark on the underside; single line engraved around the outside of the rim, with a second engraved line defining the interior; hammered and lathe-turned, then decorated; interior shows a senmurw (a legendary dog-headed bird) facing left, a leaf hanging from its mouth; neck and lower portion of the wing are punched with an imbricated design; the breast is enriched with a foliated motif; the tail feathers are conventionally rendered by punching, the lowest portion concealed by a bold scroll in relief; below the tail, a branch of foliage projects into the field; the foliate border is composed of overlapping leaves, on each of which are punched three divergent stems surmounted by berries in groups of three. Old corrosion attack on part of the underside. Condition of gilding suggests that this is re-gilding. Dimensions : Diameter: 18.8 centimetres (rim)Diameter: 6.8 centimetres (interior, foot-ring)Diameter: 7.3 centimetres (exterior, foot-ring)Height: 3.8 centimetres Volume: 450 millilitresWeight: 541.5 grammes. Hammered gilt silver plate with a low circular foot ring measuring 7.3 cm. across at the base; centering mark and extensive traces of old corrosion attack on the underside; single line engraved around the outside of the rim, with a second engraved line defining the interior. The plate was made by hammering, and decorated through a combination of chasing and punching, with thick gilding over the background. Early published references to the raised portion being embossed separately and added with solder are incorrect, and only the foot ring is soldered on. XRF analysis indicates that the body has a composition of 92% silver, 6.9% copper and 0.45% gold, and the foot has a slightly different composition of 93.4% silver, 5.4% copper and 0.5% gold. The decoration is limited to the interior and shows a composite animal with a dog's head, short erect mane, vertical tufted ears and lion's paws, facing left with a foliate spray dangling from its open mouth like a lolling tongue; a ruff-like circle of hair or fur frames its face; the neck, muscular shoulders and lower tail feathers are punched with an imbricated or overlapping wave design resembling feathers or scales; the breast is enriched with a foliated motif; a pair of wings with forward curling tips rise vertically from behind the shoulders, with a broad rounded peacock-like tail behind decorated with a bold foliate scroll and conventionally rendered by punching; below the tail, a second branch of foliage projects into the field. The foliate border is composed of overlapping leaves, on which are punched three divergent stems surmounted by berries in groups of three. This plate is said to have been obtained in India prior to 1922 when it was purchased in London by the National Art Collections Fund on behalf of the British Museum. It is usually attributed to the 7th, 8th or early 9th century, thus is post-Sasanian, Umayyad or early Abbasid in political terms. Initially described as a hippocamp, peacock-dragon or peacock-griffin, most scholars follow Trever's (1938) identification of this as a senmurw (New Persian simurgh), or Avestan Saena bird (cf. also Schmidt 1980). The iconographic features of a senmurw include the head of a snarling dog, the paws of a lion and the tail of a peacock, with the addition of the plant motifs on the tail or hanging out of the mouth being allusions to its role in regenerating plants. This bird is described in Pahlavi literature as nesting "on the tree without evil and of many seeds" (Menog-i Xrad 61.37-42), and scattering them in the rainy season to encourage future growth (Bundahišn XVI.4). For this reason it was believed to bestow khwarnah (glory and good fortune), and particularly that of the Kayanids, the legendary ancestors of the Sasanians. This motif is first attested in a datable Sasanian context on the rock-cut grotto of Khusrau II (r. 591-628) at Taq-i Bustan, when it appears within embroidered roundels decorating the royal gown. The same motif recurs within a repeating pattern of conjoined pearl roundels depicted on silks from the reliquary of St Lupus and a tomb at Mochtchevaja Balka in the north Caucasus, a press-moulded glass inlay and vessel appliqué in the Corning Museum of Glass, metalwork, Sogdian murals, and the late Umayyad palace façade at Mshatta (e.g. Harper et al. 1978: 136, no. 60; Trever & Lukonin 1987: 115, pl. 73, no. 26; Overlaet ed. 1993: 270, 275-77, nos 119, 127-28). However, there are significant differences of detail between all of these, and a little caution is necessary before making definite attributions of iconography, date or provenance. Many of the features are also repeated on the depiction of a horned quadruped depicted on a 7th century plate in the Hermitage (Trever & Lukonin 1987: 117-18, pl. 106, no. 36); most recently, Jens Kröger has reiterated the possibility of an early Abbasid date for the present plate, and observed that the distinctive decoration on the tail resembles the split palmette motifs on early Abbasid and Fatimid rock crystal. Source: http://tinyurl.com/7wbzcxg The heroic theft: myths from Rgveda and the Ancient Near East - David M. Knipe (1967)

Annex:

SIMORḠ (Persian), Sēnmurw (Pahlavi), Sīna-Mrū (Pāzand), a fabulous, mythical bird. The name derives from Avestan mərəγō saēnō ‘the bird Saēna’, originally a raptor, either eagle or falcon, as can be deduced from the etymologically identical Sanskrit śyená.

SIMORḠ (Persian), Sēnmurw (Pahlavi), Sīna-Mrū (Pāzand), a fabulous, mythical bird. The name derives from Avestan mərəγō saēnō ‘the bird Saēna’, originally a raptor, either eagle or falcon, as can be deduced from the etymologically identical Sanskrit śyená. Saēna is also attested as a personal name which is derived from the bird name.

In the Avestan Yašt 14.41 Vərəθraγna, the deity of victory, wraps xᵛarnah, fortune, round the house of the worshipper, for wealth in cattle, like the great bird Saēna, and as the watery clouds cover the great mountains, which means that Saēna will bring rain. In Yašt 12.17 Saēna’s tree stands in the middle of the sea Vourukaša, it has good and potent medicine, is called all-healing, and the seeds of all plants are deposited on it. This scanty information is supplemented by the Pahlavi texts. In theMēnōg ī Xrad (ed. Anklesaria, 61.37-41) the Sēnmurw’s nest is on the “tree without evil and of many seeds.” When the bird rises, a thousand shoots grow from the tree, and when he (or she) alights, he breaks a thousand shoots and lets the seeds drop from them. The bird Cīnāmrōš (Camrōš) collects the seeds and disperses them where Tištar (Sirius) will seize the water with the seeds and rain them down on the earth. While here the bird breaks the branches with his weight, in Bundahišn 16.4 (tr. Anklesaria) he makes the tree wither, which seems to connect him with the scorching sun. An abbreviated form of this description is found in Zādspram 3.39; a gloss on the Pahlavi translation of Yašt 14.41 confuses the tree of many seeds with the tree of the White Hōm. Two birds are involved in the scattering of the seeds also in the New Persian Rivāyat of Dārāb Hormazyār (tr. Dhabhar, p. 99), here called Amrōš and Camrōš, Amrōš taking the place of Sēnmurw; these names derive from Avestan amru and camru, personal names taken from bird names.

The seasonal activity of the Sēnmurw in conjunction with Camrōš and Tištar can be interpreted consistently in astronomical terms. The identity of Tištar with Sirius, the brightest star of the constellation Canis Major (the Great Dog), is well established, and it can be assumed that Sēnmurw and Camrōš are stars, too. For Sēnmurw the constellation Aquila (Eagle), or its most prominent star, Altair (Ar. al-ṭayr ’the bird’), is the most likely candidate. The heliacal rise of Sirius in July corresponds to the setting of Aquila. Camrōš may be identified with Cygnus (Swan), which sets some time after Aquila. The influence of Greek astronomy and astrology is well attested in Sasanian Iran, but itself goes back to Babylonian sources, and it is quite possible that the Avestan source was dependent on them (contra Schmidt, p. 10). The assumption that the rise of Tištar signals the beginning of the rains, as it does in Egypt, and must therefore be a direct borrowing, is not compatible with the climate of most of Iran. The rise of Tištar will rather signal the beginning of his fight with Apaoša, the demon of drought. In the torrid summer months Tištar gains in strength, and it is with the defeat of Apaoša that the rains begin in late fall (cf. Forssman, p. 57 n. 9; Panaino, p. 18ff.).

In the Pahlavi Rivāyat accompanying the Dādestān ī Dēnīg (ed. Dhabhar, 31c8) the Sēnmurw makes his/her nest in the forest at the time of the resurrection when the earth becomes flat and the waters stand still. As Williams (II, p. 185) rightly remarks, this means that the Sēnmurw will retire from his/her task to distribute the seeds of the plants. In the Ayādgār-ī Zarērān (Jamasp-Asa I, 12.3) Zarēr’s horse is called sēn-i murwag, possibly because of its strength and swiftness.

The Sēnmurw has an evil counterpart in the bird Kamak, who is one of the monsters killed by Karšāsp (Mēnōg-ī Xrad 27.50). The SaddarBundahišn (20.37-43; tr. Dhabhar, p. 518) gives a description of its activities which are the exact opposite of those of the Sēnmurw: When Kamak appeared he spread his wings over the whole world, all the rain fell on his wings and back into the sea, drought struck the earth, men died, springs, rivers and wells dried up. Kamak devoured men and animals as a bird pecks grain. Karšāsp showers arrows on him day and night like rain till he succumbs. In killing men Kamak is the opposite of Camrōš, who pecks up the enemies of Iran like grain (Bundahišn 24.24).

In the chapter on the classification of animals of the Bundahišn the three-fingered Sēn is called the largest of the birds (13.10), and also the Sēnmurw is of the species of birds (13.22); they are obviously identical. The three-fingered Sēn was created first among the birds, but is not the chief, a position held by the Karšipt (according to the Indian Bundahišn 24.11 a carg, falcon or hawk), the bird that brought the religion to the enclosure (var) of Jamšēd (cf. Vd. 2.42) (17.11). In 13.34-35 the Sēnmurw has come to the sea Frāxkard (Vourukaša) before all the other birds. In Zādspram 23.2 the Karšipt and the Sēnmurw are singled out among the birds to attend the conference with Ōhrmazd on the animals, the creatures protected by Wahman. Bundahišn 13 contains serious contradictions. While in 10 and 22 the Sēnmurw is a bird, in 23 it is one of the species of bats: they are of the genera of the dog, the bird, and the muskrat because they fly like a bird, have teeth like a dog and a cave for dwelling like the muskrat. Zādspram 3.65 does not make the bats a separate genus, but counts them and the Sēnmurw among the birds, though they are of a different nature, having teeth and feeding their young with milk from their breasts.Bundahišn 13.23 contradicts not only 10 and 22 but also 15.13, where the Sēnmurw is counted among the oviparous birds. From this stare of affairs it can be inferred that there was an older version, in which the Sēnmurw was a bird pure and simple as in the Avesta, and a later one, in which she was a bat, and that the compiler of theBundahišn has confused them. With the change to a bat the Sēnmurw changed gender from male to female.

An identification of the original Sēnmurw with a known bird is difficult. The Sēn’s being called three-fingered is puzzling, since most birds have four claws. Herzfeld (1930, pp. 142-43) suggested the ostrich, which has only three claws, but this is impossible because the ostrich is an African flightless bird. The epithet may then be based on the observation of the bird when perching on the branch of a tree when only three claws are visible. The Sēnmurw in representative art also has only three claws but, contrary to my earlier opinion (Schmidt, p. 59), it is hardly the source of the description. The three-fingered Sēn is the largest bird (Bundahišn 13.10) mentioned among the large birds, side by side with the eagle (āluh) and the lammergeier (dālman); this excludes the falcon, which is much smaller than either of them. In size and habitat the closest possibility would be the black vulture (Aigypius monachus), which nests mostly in trees, but as a scavenger does not hunt live prey. Therefore I would suggest the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), particularly if the identification with the constellation Aquila is correct. That the Simorḡ was not known solely as a mythological being, but also as a real bird, can be inferred from the fact that in Judeo-Persian the word translates the Hebrew näšär ‘eagle’ (cf. Asmussen).

In post-Sasanian times the Simorḡ occurs in the epic, folktales, and mystical literature (cf. PLATE I, a medieval representation [see IL-KHANIDS iii. BOOK ILLUSTRATION). In Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma Simorḡ is the savior, tutor and guardian of Zāl-e zar. This motif is attested first in Iran for Achaemenes, who was reared by an eagle according to Aelian (De natura animalium XII, 2). Because Zāl was born an albino, his father Sām considered him to be of demonic origin and exposed him in the Alburz mountains. The female bird Simorḡ found the child when she was searching for food for her young. God gave the bird the feeling of love (mehr) for the child. Seeing that the child was crying for milk, she took him to her nest to rear him with her own young, which also showed love for the boy. She chose the most tender meat for him so that he could suck the blood as a substitute for the milk he lacked. When Zāl was grown up, Sām had a dream that made him repent his sin, and set out in search of his son. He found him with the Simorḡ, who returned the young man to his father. Before letting him go, she gave him one of her feathers: by burning it he would be able to call her for help (Šāh-nāma, ed. Mohl, I, p. 217ff.). The first time she was called for assistance was at the birth of Zāl’s son, Rostam. The bird suggested they anaesthetize the mother with wine before opening up her side and also prescribed the herbs for healing the wound; the healing was completed by touching the wound with the bird’s feather (I, p. 351ff.). For the second and last time the Simorḡ was called when Rostam and his horse Raḵš were wounded by the arrows of Esfandiār; she extracted the arrows and healed the wounds. Knowing the secrets of fate (rāz-e sepehr) she warned that whoever killed Esfandiār would be damned in this and the next world. Finally, however, she took Rostam in a single night to the tamarisk tree from which the fatal arrow was cut (IV, p. 665ff.). Zāl called the wings of the Simorḡ fortune and grace (farr), and she offered him the feather with the words: “be always in the shadow of my fortune and grace (sāya-ye farr-e man)” (I, p. 226 lines 175, 181). Metaphorically this conveys the sense of protection and the granting of boons and powers. It is similar to the wrapping of fortune round the house in Yašt 14.41. When coming down from the mountain, the Simorḡ is compared to a cloud, a comparison also implied in the Yašt. She presses Zāl’s body against her breast and thereby fills the world with the smell of musk. This may be a reflex of the muskrat nature of the Sēnmurw in the Bundahišn .

The Simorḡ, protector of Zāl and Rostam, has an evil counterpart called by the same name. She lives on a mountain and looks like a mountain or a black cloud; she can carry off crocodiles, panthers and elephants. She has two young ones as big as herself. This Simorḡ is one of the adversaries Esfandiār kills in the course of his seven exploits on the way to the castle of Arjāsp. To overcome the huge monster Esfandiār constructs a large chariot spiked all over with swords which cut the bird to pieces (IV, p. 509f.). It is not impossible that both birds are originally identical and the Simorḡ is ambivalent. Her benevolent behavior towards Zāl was due to God’s intervention, and went against her nature as a raptor. In the contemptuous description of Zāl’s origin it is said that the Simorḡ spared the child because she could not stomach him (IV, p. 612).

Trever (pp. 20-21) quotes two Kurdish folktales about a bird called Sīmīr, the Kurdish reflex of Simorḡ. In one of them the hero rescues the young of the birds by killing a snake that is crawling up the tree to devour them. As a reward Sīmīr gives him three of her feathers; by burning them he can call her for help. Later he calls her, and she carries him to a distant land. In the other tale she carries the hero out of the netherworld; here she feeds her young with her teats, a trait which agrees with the description of the Sēnmurw by Zādspram. The bird also feeds the hero on the journey while he feeds her with pieces of sheep’s fat and water. Similar is an Armenian folktale (Trever, p. 21-22) in which the hero is lost in the netherworld and only the bird Sīnam can carry him out. The young of Sīnam are regularly eaten by the serpent Višap. The hero kills the snake and goes to sleep under the tree. The returning bird spreads her wings to shield him from the sun. As reward she takes him to the world of light. He must feed her with sheep’s fat and wine. When the fat is eaten up the hero cuts a piece of flesh from his leg and gives it to the bird. She recognizes that it is human flesh and does not swallow it, but restores it to the hero’s leg at the end of the journey, a deed consonant with the curative powers of the Simorḡ. These versions obviously go back to the common stock of Iranian Simorḡ stories (see Marzolph, Types 301, 301E*, 449, 550(8), 707(1)). Similar tales are widely attested in Eurasian folklore (cf. Ruben, pp. 511ff.).

In classical and modern Persian literature the Simorḡ is frequently mentioned, particularly as a metaphor for God in Sufi mysticism. In this context the bird is probably understood as male. The most famous example is Farid-al-Din ʿAṭṭār’sManṭeq al-ṭayr ‘The parliament of the birds’ (cf. Ritter, p. 11ff., Bürgel, pp. 5-6). The Simorḡ is the king of the birds; he is close to them, but they are far from him, he lives behind the mountains called Kāf, his dwelling is inaccessible, no tongue can utter his name. Before him hang a hundred thousand veils of light and darkness. “Once, Simorḡ unveiled his face like the sun and cast his shadow over the earth...Every garment covering the fields is a shadow of the beautiful Simorḡ.” Fauth (p. 128) sees in this a memory of the Sēnmurw dispersing the seeds. Thirty birds (si morḡ) that have survived the hard and perilous quest for their king reach his palace. Coming face to face with the sun of his majesty they realize that they, the thirty birds of the outer world, are one with the Simorḡ of the inner world. Finally the birds lose themselves forever in the Simorḡ they, the shadows, are lost in him, the sun.

The classification of the Sēnmurw as a bat belonging to three genera in theBundahišn has led Camilla Trever to identify a composite animal in Sasanian art as the Sēnmurw. This animal has the head of a dog, the wings and—in most examples—the tail of a peacock. It has precursors in Scythian art of a millennium earlier, one example of which shows a striking resemblance to the Sasanian representation (Schmidt, fig. 2); it cannot be established what they were called nor can a historical connection be made, because composite animals of similar type are found in the Near East, Central Asia, and China. Various forerunners have been claimed as a model, such as the lion-griffin of Mesopotamia (Harper, 1961, pp. 95-101) and the Hellenistic hippocampus (Herzfeld, 1920, p. 134), but it is unlikely that one single source can be identified. In Sasanian art the image is clearly attested in the 6th-7th century, the most famous examples being those shown on the garments of King Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 591-628) on the rock reliefs of Ṭāq-e Bustān (Schmidt, figs. 4 and 5). The animal is depicted with the head of a snarling dog. The two paws, one raised above the other in a posture of attack, are those of a beast of prey with only three claws. The wing feathers, which rise from a circular base, are curled towards the front. The long, raised, oval-shaped, curved tail is that of a peacock, not showing individual feathers but a highly stylized foliage pattern. The other examples agree to a large extent; many, however, show individual tail feathers. The Sēnmurw is attested in reliefs, metalware and textiles (representative examples can be seen in Schmidt, plates VI, VII, X, XI). It spread all over Eurasia with other motifs of Sasanian art and was used for many centuries after the fall of the Persian Empire. In early Islamic art it is found in Iran at Čāl Tarḵān Ashkhabad (Harper, 1978, p. 118), in Syria at Qaṣr al-Ḵayr al-Ḡarbi (Schlumberger, p. 355), in Jordan at Mshatta (Creswell, 1932, p. 404 with pl. 66), and at Ḵerbat al-Mafjar (Hamilton, figs. 118a, 253). It is also found in a Christian context in Georgia, Armenia and Byzantium (cf., e.g., Grabar pls. XV 2, XX 3, XXII 1, XXIII 3, XXVII 1, XXVIII 2; Trever, fig. 7; Chubinashvili, pls. 23, 26, 27).

The canine heads on headdresses of the queen and a prince on coins of Warahrān II (r. 276-293) have been interpreted as Sēnmurw, but this is a matter of debate (Schmidt, p. 24ff.). The Sēnmurw is very prominent on the coinage of the Hephthalites in the seventh and eighth centuries C.E. It is distinguished from the standard Sasanian form by having rather a cock’s than a peacock’s tail and also frequently showing reptilian features, which are rare in the Sasanian form. Its head occurs as a crown-emblem in several issues (nos. 208-10, 241-243, 246, 254-255 in Göbl I, cf. the drawings in IV, pls. 6-7); in one issue (no. 259) the whole animal appears on the top of the crown. The head and neck, or the complete animal, are also used as countermarks (KM 102, 106, 107, 101, 106, 107, 101, 105, 3a-d, 11A-K, 1, 10 in Göbl II, 141ff., IV pl. 10). When carrying a pearl necklace in its mouth (Issue 255.1), the Sēnmurw is probably the conveyer of the investiture (Göbl, p. 156), whether the necklace can be identified with the xᵛarnah or not. Göbl also sees a proof for the Sēnmurw’s association with the xᵛarnah in the fact that the countermark is in all cases stamped at least approximately on the inscription GDH ʾpzwtˈ "[may] farrah [be] increased” or on the Sēnmurw of the coin; this, however, remains doubtful.

Nevertheless, the relation of the Sēnmurw to the xᵛarnah is undeniable. It is already present in the Avesta, and it is so in the Šāh-nāma. The feather is offered to Zāl as a token of the Simorḡ’s farr: since in Ṭāq-e Bustān the Sēnmurw does not occur in the investiture scene, it was probably not an exclusively royal symbol, but a more general one of good fortune.

We do not know how Ferdowsi, ʿAṭṭār and other Islamic authors visualized the Simorḡ. In the much later manuscript illustrations he/she is not a composite animal, but a fantastic bird (cf., e.g., Welch, pp. 125, 127).

It is rather obvious that the classification of the Sēnmurw as a bat is a rationalization, as Trever (p. 17) has pointed out, and that it derives from the representation in art. Once this image was adopted there arose the desire to find a model for it in nature, and the bat offered itself because of its resemblance to a dog and a bird. However, the images do not show the wings of a bat, but those of a feathered bird, and the peacock-tail does not fit either. We may speculate about the elements of this rationalization as follows.

The dispersal of the seeds of plants is characteristic of the fruit-bats (cf. van der Pijl), indigenous to the south of Iran: they carry the fruits some distances from the trees, chew them up and spit out the seeds. They generally live in trees, but one species, Rousettus, dwells in caves like the more common insectivorous bats (Slaughter and Walton, p. 163). Some species of bats have scent glands (Yalden and Morris, p. 200), which may have led to the connection of the Sēnmurw with the muskrat.

The dog component could be interpreted by the Sēnmurw’s close relationship to the “Dog star” Sirius, i.e., Tištar, the brightest star of the constellation Canis Major, assuming that the Latin name was known. In support of this may be quoted theRivāyat of Hormazyar Framarz (Dhabhar, p. 259) where the dog Zarrīnḡoš ‘Yellow-Ear’, who is obviously identical with the dawn-yellow-haired chief of the dog species (Bundahišn XVII 9), chases away demons and is the guardian of the body of Gayōmard. He keeps watch near the bridge of Činvat that leads to paradise. He who feeds dogs will be protected by Zarrīngōš from the demons even if he is otherwise fit for hell. The demons will not punish him, out of fear of Haftōrang, Ursa Major (the Great Bear), who guards souls fit for hell. Thus the whole scene is projected to the firmament, and Zarrīngōš will represent Canis Major. The source is late (17th century), but the function of Haftōrang is attested much earlier (Mēnōg-ī Xrad 48.15), and the whole may well represent an old tradition. On a Sasanian stamp we possibly have Gayōmard=Orion with a dog=Canis Major (Brunner apud Noveck, no. 61). When the Simorḡ carries her protégé to the netherworld and back, this is related to the well-known function of the dog as psychopompos.

The peacock, a bird native to India, not only lends itself to expressing beauty and splendor but is auspicious (Nair, 1977, p. 71) and a harbinger of the rainy season (pp. 13, 26, 40, 77, 91ff., 103), a characteristic it shares with the Sēnmurw. In the Indus Civilization the peacock seems to have been a psychopompos (Vats, 1940: I, p. 207f., II, pl. LVII 2). In the Buddhist Mora Jataka a king wants to eat the flesh of the golden peacock because it confers youth and immortality (Nair, pp. 210-11). Peacock and Simorḡ have closely related functions in the Tāriḵ-e moʿjam of Fażl-Allāh al-Ḥosayni, a fourteenth-century text that amalgamates the Old Iranian religion and its legends with Islamic Persian mysticism: When King Siyāmak is killed, Ṭāʾus (the peacock) carries his spirit (ruḥ) and Simorḡ his soul (ravān) to the height of the eight paradises (Hartman, 168, XXXIX).

Dog and peacock have a common connection with the rainy season, a feature which the Sēnmurw has had since its earliest attestation in the Avesta. It seems possible that this feature was one of the reasons behind the creation of the composite representation. The composite animals of earlier art will have contributed to the creation of the Sēnmurw image. If the above interpretations are correct, the astral connection was the decisive motive. It then follows that the Sasanian Sēnmurw was a conscious creation. The identification as a bat in the Bundahišn and in Zādspram was an afterthought.

In Armenia and the Caucasus the Simorḡ has a counterpart in Paskuč (and related forms of the name). This same name occurs in Manichaean Middle Persian (Henning, II, p. 274), where the spirit of fever, called Idra, has three forms and wings like a pšqwc and settles in the bones and skull of humans. In the Mēnōg-ī Xrad (26. 49-50) Sām Keršāsp is said to have slain the horned serpent and the grey-blue wolf called pašgunǰ; the wolf may be a winged one. The Armenian paskuc and the Georgian p’asgunǰi both translate the Greek gryps ‘gryphon, griffin’ in the Septuagint (Marr, p. 2083). It is also glossed as ‘bone-swallower’ (ossifrage, osprey) (Marr, p. 2087 n. 2), but also mentioned as a kind of eagle native to India. In Modern Armenian paskuč is the griffin vulture (Gyps fulvus). In Georgian sources a p’asgunǰiis described as having a body like that of a lion, head, beak, wings and feet like those of an eagle, and covered in down; some have four legs, some two; it carries off elephants and injures horses; others are like a very large eagle (Marr, p. 2083). In late mediaeval Georgian translations of the Šāh-nāma, Georgian p’asgunǰi renders the Persian simorḡ (Marr, p. 2085f.). In a Georgian parallel to the Armenian and Kurdish tales quoted earlier, the bird there called Sīnam and Sīmīr is replaced byp’asgunǰi (Levin-Schenkowitz, p. 1ff.). In a Talmudic tale a giant bird pwšqnṣʾswallows the giant serpent that has swallowed a giant toad and settles on a very strong tree; Daniel Gershenson (personal communication) interprets this as a metaphor for the coming of the rainy season: the frog represents water, the snake drought, and the Pušqanṣā the rainy season. The tale is thus a reworking of the Sēnmurw story. Talmudic commentators identify the bird as a gigantic raven. In an illustration in the Gerona manuscript of Beatus’s commentary on the Book of Revelation, the picture of the Sēnmurw opposite that of an eagle is found with the subscript coreus (read corvus) et aquila in venatione “raven and eagle on the hunt” (Grabar, pl. XXVIII fig. 2). This evidence shows that the Sēnmurw took different shapes in different cultures and that the same name was used for real birds and fabulous composites as well as for benevolent and malevolent beasts.

The Simorḡ’s equivalent in Arabic sources is the ʿAnqāʾ. The ambivalent nature of this bird is attested in the Hadith: the bird was created by God with all perfections, but became a plague, and a prophet put an end to the havoc it wrought by exterminating the species (Pellat, p. 509). In the Sumerian Lugalbanda Epic the mythical bird Anzu is a benevolent being. The hero frees the young of the bird, which in return blesses him. In the Sumerian Lugal-e and the Akkadian Anzu Epic the bird represents demonic powers and is vanquished by the god Ninurta. In the Akkadian Etana Epic the hero is carried by the eagle to the heaven of Anu. The correspondence of these motifs with the Simorḡ stories in the Šāhnāma and the Kurdish folktales is obvious, showing that they are of common Near Eastern heritage (Aro, p. 25ff.). In an illustration of a manuscript of the Thousand and One Nights the Simorḡ is identified with the monstrous bird Roḵ (cf. Casartellli, p. 82f.).

The Sēnmurw has many traits in common with the Indian Garuḍa, the steed of the god Viṣṇu (cf. Reuben, pp. 489ff., 495, 506f., 510, 515, 517). It is of particular interest that the comparison was made already in Sasanian times. In the first book of the Sanskrit Pañcatantra (the cognate of Kalila and Dimna) is a story of the birds of the shore who complain to their king Garuḍa. In Sogdian, synmrγ is used to translate garuḍa (see Utz, p. 14); and in the old Syriac translation of the Middle Persian original of Kalila and Dimna, Garuḍa is rendered by Simorḡ (cf. de Blois). Fauth (p. 125ff.) has argued that all the mythical giant birds—such as Simorḡ, Phoenix, Garuḍa, the Tibetan Khyuṅ, and also the Melek Ṭāʾus of the Yezidis—are offshoots of an archaic, primordial bird that created the world. Thus Simorḡ as God in Persian mysticism would, curiously, represent a return to the original meaning.

Bibliography:

This article is based mainly on the author’s "The Sēmurw. Of Birds and Dogs and Bats,” Persica 9, 1980, pp. 1-85.

An extensive collection of the pertinent literary material from the Avesta to the present is found in ʿAli Solṭāni Gord-Farāmarzi, Simorḡ dar qalamraw-i farhang-e Irān, Tehran, 1993.

B. T. Anklesaria, ed. and tr., Zand-Ākāsīh, Iranian or Greater Bundahišn, Bombay, 1956.

T. D. Anklesaria, Dânâk-u Mainyô-i Khard, Bombay, 1913.

J. Aro, “Anzu and Sīmurgh,” in Barry L. Eichler , ed., Kramer Anniversary Volume: Cuneiform studies in honor of Samuel Noah Kramer, Kevelar, 1976, pp. 25-28.

Jes P. Asmussen, “Sīmurγ in Judeo-Persian translations of the Hebrew Bible,” Acta Iranica 30, 1990, pp. 1-5.

V. F. Büchner, “Sīmurgh,” in EI ¹; F. C. de Blois, “Sīmurgh,” in EI ². J. C. Bürgel, The Feather of Simurgh, New York, 1988.

L. C. Casartelli, “Çyena—Simrgh—Roc,” in Congrès scientifique international des Catholiques, Paris, 1891, VI, pp. 79-86.

G. Chubinashvili, Gruzinskaya srednevekovaya khudozhestvennaya rez’ba po derevu, Tbilisi, 1958. A. C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture I, Oxford, 1932.

B. N. Dhabhar, The Persian Rivayats of Hormazyar Framarz, Bombay, 1932.

W. Fauth, “Der persische Simurġ und der Gabriel-Melek Ṭāʾūs der Jeziden,” Persica12, 1987, pp. 123-147.

B. Forssman, “Apaoša, der Gegner des Tištriia,” ZVS 82, 1968, pp. 37-61.

Ph. Gignoux and A. Tafazzoli, Anthologie de Zādspram, Paris, 1993.

R. Göbl, Dokumente zur Geschichte der Iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien I-IV, Wiesbaden, 1967.

A. Grabar, “Le rayonnement de l’art sassanide dans le monde chrétien,” in Atti del convegno interzionale sul Tema: La Persia nel Medioevo, Accademia dei Lincei, Rome, 1971, pp. 679-707.

R. W. Hamilton, Khirbat al Mafjar: An Arabian Mansion in the Jordan Valley, Oxford, 1959.

P. O. Harper, “The Sēnmurw,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Series 2, 20, 1961.

Idem, The Royal Hunter. Art of the Sasanian Empire, New York, 1978.

S. Hartman, Gayomart, Uppsala, 1953.

W. B. Henning, Selected Papers II, Acta Iranica 15, Leiden, 1977.

Ernst Herzfeld, Am Tor von Asien, Berlin, 1920. Idem, “Zarathustra, Teil II: Die Heroogonie,” AMI I, Berlin, 1930, pp. 125-68.

J. M. Jamasp-Asana, The Pahlavi Texts I-II, Bombay, pp. 1897-1913.

I. Levin and G. Schenkowitz, Märchen aus dem Kaukasus, Düsseldorf, 1978.

N. Ya. Marr, “Ossetica-Japhetica,” in Izvestiya Rossiskoi Akademii Nauk 1918, pp. 2069-2100, 2307-2310.

Ulrich Marzolph, Typologie des persischen Volksmärchens, Beirut and Wiesbaden, 1984.

P. Th. Nair, The Peacock. The National Bird of India, Calcutta, 1977.

M. Noveck, The Mark of Ancient Man. Ancient Near Eastern Stamp Seals and Cylinder Seals: The Gorelick Collection, New York, 1975.

A. Panaino, Tištrya. Part II, The Iranian Myth of the Star Sirius, Rome, 1995. Ch. Pellat, “ʿAnqāʾ,” EI ². H. Ritter, Das Meer der Seele, Leiden, 1978.

W. Ruben, “On Garuḍa,” The Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society 27, 1941, pp. 485-520.

D. Schlumberger, “Les fouilles de Qasr el-Ḫeir el-Garbi (1936-38),” Syria 20, 1939, pp. 195-238, 324-373.

B. H. Slaughter and Dan W. Walton, eds., About Bats. A Chiropteran Biology Symposium, Dallas, 1970.

C. V. Trever, The Dog-Bird. Senmurw-Paskudj, Leningrad, 1938.

D. A. Utz, “An Unpublished Sogdiam Version of the Mahāyāna Manāparinirvāṇasutra in the German Turfan Collection,” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1976.

L. van der Pijl, “The Dispersal of Plants by Bats,” Acta Botanica Neerlandica 6, 1957 pp. 291-315.

M. S. Vats, Excavations at Harappa I-II, Delhi, 1940.

S. C. Welch, A King’s Book of Kings, New York, 1972.

A. V. Williams, The Pahlavi Rivayat Accompanying the Dādestān ī Dēnīg I-II, Copenhagen, 1990.

D. W. Yalden and P. A. Morris, The Lives of Bats, Newton Abbot, London, and Vancouver, 1975.

(Hanns-Peter Schmidt)

Originally Published: July 20, 2002

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/simorg

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

January 26, 2017

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Māyābheda & concluding mantra-s of Rigveda RV 10.177 to 191: Soma in a nutshell

January 25, 2017, 8:33 pm

≫ Next: Yajña and hermeneutics: straightening out the distortions

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/z4uoush

माय [p= 811,1] creating illusions (said of विष्णु) MBh. माया f. art , wisdom , extraordinary or supernatural power (only in the earlier language); Illusion (identified in the सांख्य with प्रकृति or प्रधान and in that system , as well as in the वेदा*न्त , regarded as the source of the visible universe) IW. 83 ; 108Illusion personified (sometimes identified with दुर्गा , sometimes regarded as a daughter of अनृत and निरृति or निकृति and mother of मृत्यु , or as a daughter of अधर्म) Pur.du. (माये इन्द्रस्य) N. of 2 सामन्s A1rshBr. भेद a [p= 757,2] breaking open , disclosing , divulging , betrayal (of a secret cf. रहस्य-भ्°). With these semantics, it is possible to interpret Māyābheda as a divulgence, breaking-open of the Māyā, 'illusion, wisdom'.

Thus, the final rica-s of Rigveda in RV 10.177 to 191 can be viewed as the concluding statements of the Samhitā elucidating the purport of Soma samsthā which is the very essence of the processes described in the entire Samhitā -- Soma in a nutshell.

See:

http://tinyurl.com/j9ldrnn अयस् ayas, अंशुः aṃśuḥ as iron pyrites of Sarasvati civilization & Veda ādhyātmikā tradition — tantra yukti principles in metalwork thesis explained: pratinidhi ‘substitution’ and apamiśraṇa ‘adulterant’

http://tinyurl.com/ogn68y3 Context: Indus Script decipherment. Māyābheda sukta (RV 10.177.1-3) and hieroglyph components from mAhAvIra, gharma pot in pravargya prefacing agniṣṭōma अग्निष्टोम Soma yajna

Hieroglyph components from Mahavira (gharma) Pravargya pot signifying 'face, mouth, nose' are read rebus as muha~ 'iron castings' (Santali) on Indus Script inscriptions, pointing to Vedic अग्निष्टोम Soma yajna tradition continuum evidenced by metalwork during the Bronze Age evidenced by Indus Script Corpora from ca. 3300 BCE.

The context is: Māyābheda sukta (RV 10.177.1-3) and the uniquely designed Mahavira pot used in Agniṣṭoma.

In a rica RV 1.164.31, Rishi di_rghatama_ aucatthya repeats the rica which appears in RV 10.177.3. Both the rica are a prayer to the Sun. "According to the Asvalayana Srauta Sutra IV.6, Mantra ||2|| of this Rigvedic hymn is the inviting verse of the immolated to Vac (speech), and is used in the parvargya rites along with Mantra ||3||. Mantra ||1|| does refer directly to the Sun." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayabheda

The expression used in RV 10..177.1 is significant: asurasya māyayā. This expression can also be interpreted in the context of metalwork by Assur and their extrordinary metallurgical competence as iron smelters and as sun worshippers. आसुर 1 [p= 160,3] mf(ई)n. (fr. असुर) , spiritual , divine RV. VS. AV. The epithet आसुरी f. is also associated with Devi Sarasvati.

असुर m. pl. N. of a warrior-tribe , (g. पर्श्व्-ादि , q.v.)(Monier-Williams, p.121) āsura आसुर A prince of the warrior-tribe Asura asura असुर N. of the preceptor of the Asuras, Sukrāchārya. -2 the planet Venus. -आह्वम् bell-metal.(Apte. Samskritam) The gloss may also relate to Assur 'iron smelters' and to 'sun'.

माय [p= 811,1] mfn. ( √3. मा) measuring (» धान्य-म्°) माया f. art , wisdom , extraordinary or supernatural power (only in the earlier language)(Monier-Williams)

http://www.royalasiaticsociety.org/site/files/Part%203%20-%20Aryans%20and%20Nomads.pdf

"...a separate observation must be made for the small metal objects found inside the Swat cinerary urns; they generally date from cultural Period V and are always of copper, mostly in the shape of large pins...it may not be wholly accidental that the main metallic types found in the Swat valley...have antecedens in he area of the Middle Danubian Basin, referable to the Early Bronze Age or to the Middle Bronze Age. We are referring in particular to the conical-headed pins, those with a disk head, with a small loop head and with a broad flat head, as well as to small dagger blades or knives; in the period we have mentioned, the main area of European diffusion of the above-mentioned finds seems to be located between northern Hungary and Slovakia."(Giorgio Stacul, 1971, Cremation graves in northwest Pakistan and their Eurasian connections: Remarks and hypothesis, in: East and West, vol. 21, No. 1/2 (March-June 1971), p. 9-19, IsIAO, p. 14)

The reference to copper objects and to Hungary/Slovakia is significant. It has earlier been noted that the word for copper is the same in Indian sprachbund and in Slavic languages:

Santali glosses:

Wilhelm von Hevesy wrote about the Finno-Ugric-Munda kinship, like "Munda-Magyar-Maori, an Indian link between the antipodes new tracks of Hungarian origins" and "Finnisch-Ugrisches aus Indien". (DRIEM, George van: Languages of the Himalayas: an ethnolinguistic handbook. 1997. p.161-162.) Sumerian-Ural-Altaic language affinities have been noted. Given the presence of Meluhha settlements in Sumer, some Meluhha glosses might have been adapted in these languages. One etyma cluster refers to 'iron' exemplified by meD (Ho.). The alternative suggestion for the origin of the gloss med 'copper' in Uralic languages may be explained by the word meD (Ho.) of Munda family of Meluhha language stream:

Sa. mE~R~hE~'d `iron'. ! mE~RhE~d(M).

Ma. mErhE'd `iron'.

Mu. mERE'd `iron'.

~ mE~R~E~'d `iron'. ! mENhEd(M).

Ho meD `iron'.

Bj. merhd(Hunter) `iron'.

KW mENhEd

@(V168,M080)

http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/AA/Munda/ETYM/Pinnow&Munda

— Slavic glosses for 'copper'

Мед [Med]Bulgarian

Bakar Bosnian

Медзь [medz']Belarusian

Měď Czech

Bakar Croatian

KòperKashubian

Бакар [Bakar]Macedonian

Miedź Polish

Медь [Med']Russian

Meď Slovak

BakerSlovenian

Бакар [Bakar]Serbian

Мідь [mid'] Ukrainian[unquote]

http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/element.php?sym=Cu

Miedź, med' (Northern Slavic, Altaic) 'copper'.

One suggestion is that corruptions from the German "Schmied", "Geschmeide" = jewelry. Schmied, a smith (of tin, gold, silver, or other metal)(German) result in med ‘copper’.

"Further possible confirmation of such Eurasian correlations, the result of migratory or trade currents datable to the Middle or Late Bronze Age, might be the significant resemblance between certain flat copper anthropomorphic figurines from the upper plain of the Ganges (BB Lal, Further copper hoards from the Gangetic basin and a review of the problem, AI, VII, 1951, figs. 2.1, 5, 8; 4.2; pls. V 1, VI A, IX, X A)..." (Giorgio Stacul, opcit., p.18).

BB Lal's views on the direction of migration out of India into Eurasia have been clearly spelt out in his lecture. 'Let not the 19th century paradigms continue to haunt us!', Inaugural Address delivered at the 19th International Conference on South Asian Archaeology at University of Bologna, Ravenna, Italy on July 2–6, 2007. http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/19th-century-paradigms.html

https://www.scribd.com/doc/234719906/Stacul-1971-Pakistan-Cremation-Graves

Gandhara Swat Grave culture

A cremation urn with a lid from Pakistan, dating to ca. 1200 BC. Swat Valley, Gandhara Grave Culture, made of terracotta.Courtesy of the LACMA, via their online collections: AC1994.234.8a-b.

Terracotta

(a) Urn: 17 x 15 in. (43.18 x 38.1 cm); (b) Lid: 2 x 8 1/4 in. (5.08 x 20.96 cm)Gift of Marilyn Walter Grounds (AC1994.234.8a-b) http://collections.lacma.org/node/177356

http://ancientart.tumblr.com/post/113109747567/a-cremation-urn-with-a-lid-from-pakistan-dating

"...we may note the occurrence of post-cremation urn burials in both northern and southern Baluchistan (Periano Ghundai II, Mughal Ghundai III, Dabar Kot, Mehi, Sutkagen-dor - Gupta 1972; Singh 1970). Cenotaphs in the South Cemetery of Mehrgarh were also inferred by Santoni (1984) to have represented cremations, as they were dug into extensive burnt deposits. By the mid-2nd millennium BCE he practice can be observed in Swat (Stacul 1966, etc.), Dir (Dani 1967) and Zarif Karuna (Khan 1973); by the beginning of the first it has entered the Ganga valley, where the cremated remains were deposited in unlined pits instead of urns (at Chirand, Sonpur, Rajgir and Rajghat -- Singh 1970). Since historical times, of course, cremation has been the predominant mode of disposal of the dead among the Hindus of the Subcontinent."(Erdosy, George, 1995, The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: language, material culture and ethnicity, Walter de Gruyter, p. 10). These observations of Erdosy have to be seen in the context of the movements of Ayu and Amavasu as documented in Baudhayana Srautasutra -- and should NOT be construed as proof of Aryan invasion/migration into India. The evidences of post-cremation urns may just explain the movements of people out of India and within India.

.After Fig. 2 Gandhara grave culture (Ghalegay V period) face urn from Zarif Karuna near Peshawar, now in the Islamabad Museum.Source: Parpola, Asko, The face urns of Gandhara and the Nasatya cult in: Asko Parpola, ed., Migration, trade and peoples Part 3: Aryans and Nomads, London, British Assn. for South Asian Studies, British Academy, pp. 149-162. "The parallelism in the head symbolism between the gharma vessel in the cult of the As'vins -- the 'possessorsof horses' -- and the face of the urn of the Gandhara Graves appears not to be just a coincidence...the conspicuous three-dimensional 'nose' of the later face urns has a counterpart in the gharma vessel. The Satapatha Brahmana (14.1.2.17) describes the preparation of the gharma vessel thus: 'He then takes a lump of clay and makes the Mahavira (pot) with (the mantra), 'For Makha thee! for Makha's head thee!...a span high, for the head is, as it were, a span high; -- contracted in the middle, for the head is, as it were, contracted in the middle. At the top he then draws it out (unnayati) (so as to form) a spout (mukham 'mouth') of three thumb's breadths (high); he thereby makes a nose (nAsikam) to this (Mahavira, or Pravargya).' It is true that the description does not exactly match the making of the face urns of the Gandhara Graves, but it is remarkable that the gharma pot alone of all the vessels described in the Vedic literature is expressly told to have a 'nose'. It is also true that the Satapatha Brahmana is the only Vedic text to mention this 'nose', and although its present redactions are younger than the texts of the Black Yajurveda, it goes back to an earlier version and its contents in some respects differ entirely from all the other texts. That it can well have preserved ancient traditions prevalent among the Kanvas is quite likely on the basis that one of the two redactions belongs to the Kanvas. The 'nose' of the face urn and the gharma pot should have some specific function, and it indeed is meaningful when considered in the context of the As'vin cult...Comparing the gharma vessel with the cinerary urn of the Gandhara Grave culture implies that there should be a close relationship between the gharma rite and the funeral. I think such a relationship does indeed exist. According to the Rigveda, the gharma rite was instituted by Atri and offered by his descendants out of gratitude to the As'vins, because these had saved Atri from the distress of the rbIsa pit. It was the As'vins who had first given the hot gharma drink to Atri while saving him, so the gharma rite imitates the service rendered by the As'vins. I am arguing that the Atri legend reflects the Atri clan's initial adoption of the cremation burial and the associated cult of the As'vins as funeral deities, who revive the dead by means of their drink of heated milk. These funeral practices new to them the Atris took over from the Kanvas, with whom they established friendly relations while setting in Gandhara." (pp.156-157).

"About 1800 BCE, there is a major cultural change in the Swat Valley with the introduction of new ceramics and two new burial rites: flexed inhumation in a pit and cremation burial in an urn which, according to early Vedic literature, were both practiced in early Indo-Aryan society." http://www.indicstudies.us/Archives/AIT/Aryan%20Migration%20Theories.doc

Asko Parpola goes on to relate nas- 'nose' to NAsatya, an extrapolation which may be a stretch.

Assuming that the Zarif Karuna (near Peshwar) pot is rebus-metonymy layer signifying muha~ 'iron ingot' (Santali), both the prominent 'nose' hieroglyph and the 'face' hieroglyph on the pot can be explained as cognate signifiers,

Focus on nose, face, mouth on Zarif Karuna pot

In one stream of the Indian sprachbund lexis one set of glosses relate to mukha, the semantics relate to face, mouth; in another stream the entries relate to muk 'nose'.

A simple explanation can be offered for the prominence of the 'nose' in gharma or Pravargya clay pot.

The rebus reading of mu~h 'face' and mu~h 'ingot' has been notd. The cognates for mu~h face in languages of Indian sprachbund: Ta. muka (-pp-, -nt-), mukar (-v-, -nt-), mō (-pp-, -nt-) to smell; mōppam smell; nose (DEDR 4886) Ta. mukam face, mouth; Ka. moga face, mouth; Go. (G. Ma.) mukam, (M.) mukum id. (Voc. 2861); (A. S. Ko.) mokom id (Voc. 2972). Konḍa mokom

id.;Kuwi (Su. P. Isr. F.) mūmbu, (S.) mūmbū, (Mah.) mūkā id. (DEDR 4889) Ko. mu·k nose, funnel of bellows; mu·kn man with long nose; fem. mu·ky. To. mu·k nose (in songs); Koḍ. mu·kï nose. Tu.

mūku, mūgu, mūṅku nose, beak; Ta. mūkku nose, nostril, beak, nose-shaped part of anything; Te. mukku nose, beak, end, point, tip. Kol. muŋgaḍ,(Kin.) mukk, (SR.) mukku nose

(DEDR 5024)

Allograph: See frogs on the Dong Son Bronze drums: Kur. mūxā frog. Malt. múqe id. / Cf. Skt. mūkaka- id. (DEDR 5023) If the rebus reading was the same as in Santali muha~ (as an Autro-asiatic gloss of Indian sprachbund), the message conveyed by the bronze-smiths of Dong Son can be interpreted: that iron castings are also part of the supercargo conveyed together with the bronze drums.

Hieroglyph: múkha n. ʻ mouth, face ʼ RV., ʻ entrance ʼ MBh.Pa. mukha -- m.; Aś.shah. man. gir. mukhato, kāl. dh. jau. °te ʻ by word of mouth ʼ; Pk. muha -- n. ʻ mouth, face ʼ, Gy. gr. hung. muy m., boh. muy, span. muí, wel. mūīf., arm. muc̦, pal. mu', mi', pers. mu; Tir. mū ʻ face ʼ; Woṭ. mū m. ʻ face, sight ʼ; Kho. mux ʻ face ʼ; Tor. mū ʻ mouth ʼ, Mai. mũ; K. in cmpds. mu -- ganḍ m. ʻ cheek, upper jaw ʼ, mū -- kāla ʻ having one's face blackened ʼ, rām. mūī˜, pog. mūī, ḍoḍ. mū̃h ʻ mouth ʼ; S. mũhũ m. ʻ face, mouth, opening ʼ; L. mũh m. ʻ face ʼ, awāṇ. mū̃ with descending tone, mult. mũhã m. ʻ head of a canal ʼ; P. mū̃h m. ʻ face, mouth ʼ, mū̃hã̄ m. ʻ head of a canal ʼ; WPah.śeu. mùtilde; ʻ mouth, ʼ cur. mū̃h; A. muh ʻ face ʼ, in cmpds. -- muwā ʻ facing ʼ; B. mu ʻ face ʼ; Or. muhã ʻ face, mouth, head, person ʼ; Bi. mũh ʻ opening or hole (in a stove for stoking, in a handmill for filling, in a grainstore for withdrawing) ʼ; Mth. Bhoj. mũh ʻ mouth, face ʼ, Aw.lakh. muh, H. muh, mũh m.; OG. muha, G. mɔ̃h n. ʻ mouth ʼ, Si. muya, muva. -- Ext. -- l<-> or -- ll -- : Pk. muhala -- , muhulla -- n. ʻ mouth, face ʼ; S. muhuro m. ʻ face ʼ (or < mukhará -- ); Ku. do -- maulo ʻ confluence of two streams ʼ; Si. muhul, muhuna, mūṇa ʻ face ʼ H. Smith JA 1950, 179.; -- -- ḍ -- : S. muhaṛo m. ʻ front, van ʼ; Bi. (Shahabad) mohṛā ʻ feeding channel of handmill ʼ. -- Forms poss. with expressive -- kkh -- : seemúkhya -- . -- X gōcchā -- s.v. *mucchā -- .mukhará -- , múkhya -- , maukhya -- ; *mukhakāṣṭha -- , *mukhaghāṭā -- , mukhacandra -- , *mukhajāla -- , *mukhanātha -- , mukhatuṇḍaka -- , *mukhatuttikā -- , *mukhadhara -- , mukhaśuddhi -- , *mukhahāra -- , mukhāgra -- , *mukhāñcala -- , *mukhānta -- , *mukhāyana -- ; amukhá -- , abhimukhá -- , āmukha -- , unmukha -- , *nirmukha -- ; adhōmukha -- , ūrdhvamukha -- , kālamukha -- , gṓmukha -- , caturmukha -- , *paścamukha -- , valīmukha -- , śilīmukha -- , saṁmukhá -- , *sāṁmukha -- , sumukha -- .Addenda: múkha -- : WPah.kṭg. (kc.) mū̃ (with high level tone) m. (obl. -- a) ʻ mouth, face ʼ; OMarw. muhaṛaü ʻ face ʼ.(CDIAL 10158)

Rebus: mũh ‘ingot’ (Munda) mũh ʻ opening or hole (in a stove for stoking, in a handmill for filling, in a grainstore for withdrawing) ʼ (Bihari)(CDIAL 10158)mleccha-mukha (Skt.) = copper; milakkha (Pali) mu~hu~ = face (S.); rebus: mu_ha ‘smelted ingot’ [mũh opening or hole (in a stove for stoking, in a handmill for filling, in a grainstore for withdrawing)(Bi.)]

Deux représentations du dieu Soma

http://www.anthropologieenligne.com/pages/sacrificeI_2.html (Note: No literary source has been cited for this identification).

After gharma is taken out of the furnace hot milk is offered to As'vins. The prayer is offered on three consecutive days preceding the upasad; gharma or mahavira pot and implements used are carried in procession to uttaravedi and buried there. gharma or ukhA Mahavira vessel is the head of Makha, head of the yajna and is the sun, the all-seeing eye.

SBr. (14.1.1-5) explains: "The ods, Agni, Indra, Soma, Makha, Vishnu and the Vis've DevAh perform a sacrificial session that whoever amongst them through austerity, fervour, faith, sacrifice and oblations would first encompass the end of the sacrifice would be the most excellent amont them and the glory should then be common to them all. Vishnu obtained it." Our all-encompassing hero (mahAn VIrah) has fallen... Dadhyanc AtharvaNa knew...how the head of the sacrifice is put on again...Dadhyanc AtharvaNa with a horse's head taught them (As'vins) the sweet (secret)(SB. 14.1.1.11-18, 25). The decapitated divinity in Tandya Brahmana is Makha. Taittiriya Aranyaka calls him Makha Vaishnava. Vishnu is the sacrifice; Makha is Vishnu. (SB 14.1.1.6; SB 14.1.1.13). Dadhyanc's horse's head was submerged in S'aryaNAvat. (RV 1.84.14). (See: Kramrisch, Stella, 1975, The Mahavira vessel and the plant Putika, in:Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 2 (Apr-Jun 1975), pp. 222-235).

Deux représentations du dieu Soma

RV_1,084.14a icchann aśvasya yac chiraḥ parvateṣv apaśritam |

RV_1,084.14c tad vidac charyaṇāvati ||

RV 1.84.14: Wishing for the horse's head hidden in the mountains, he found in S'aryan.a_vat.

Ekamukha linga seen in Bhuteshwar next to a smelter and tree (kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter') may be comparable to the mukha seen on gharma, Mahavira pot.

प्रवर्ग्य [p= 693,2] m. a ceremony introductory to the सोम sacrifice (at which fresh milk is poured into a heated vessel called ,महा-वीर or घर्म , or into boiling ghee) Br. S3rS. MBh. &c n. N. of a सामन् A1rshBr (Monier-Williams) घर्म gharma The प्रवर्ग्य ceremony A cauldron, boiler.Sunshine; A cavity in the earth shaped like a boiler. -A hot day. Ved. A sacrifice. pravargyḥ प्रवर्ग्यः A ceremony preliminary to the Soma sacrifice; प्रवर्ग्यं शास्त्रतः कृत्वा Rām.1.14.4; Bhāg.3.13.37. (Apte. Samskritam) ప్రవర్గ్యము (p. 0843) [ pravargyamu ] pra-vargyamu. [Skt.] n. A certain ceremony or sacrifice. అగ్నిష్టోమాద్యంగ భూతమైనయాగవిశేషము. ప్రవర్గ్యుడు pra-vargyuḍu. n. An officiating priest. పురోహితుడు.

For a metaphysical account of the significance of Mahavira and Pravargya in the context of RV 10.117, see: https://manasataramgini.wordpress.com/2013/07/02/the-mayabheda-sukta/

10.177.01 The wise behold their mind; (seated) in their heart the Sun made manifest by the illusion of the asura; the sages look into the solar orb, the ordainers (of solar worship) desire the region of his rays. [Illusion of the asura: asurasya = the supreme Brahma devoid of all disguise; aktam ma_yaya_ = united, to knowledge, all-knowing].
10.177.02 The Sun bears the (sacred) word in his mind the Gandharva has spoken it, (abiding) within the womb; sages cherish it in the place of sacrifice, brilliant, heavenly ruling the mind. [Sacred word: va_k: the three Vedas; Taittiri_ya Bra_hman.a 3.12.9: in the morning the deity moves in the sky with the hymns of the R.k, he abides at noon in the Yajurveda, at his setting he is extolled with the Sa_maveda; the sun moves accompanied by the three Vedas; gandharva: from gah (voices), and dhr. (to hold) = the breath of life].
10.177.03 I beheld the protector (the Sun), never descending, going by his paths to the east and to the west; clothing (with light) the (four) quarters of heaven and the intermediate spaces, he constantly revolves in the midst of the worlds.

10.178.01 Let us invoke here for our welfare that Ta_rks.ya, who is mighty, the commissioned of the gods, the victorious, the outstripper of chariots, of irresistible car, the overthrower of hosts, the swift. [Ta_rk.sya: i.e., suparn.a, the son of Tr.ks.a, commissioned by the gods to bring the Soma from heaven; cf. Nirukta 10.28].
10.178.02 Repeatedly invoking the liberality (of Ta_rks.ya), as (we do that) of Indra, let us mount upon it for our welfare as upon a ship; O heaven and earth, vast, expanded, manifold, profound, may we not suffer harm now from (Ta_rks.ya's) coming to or departing from you.
10.178.03 He who has by his strength rapidly spread out the waters for the five castes like the sun by his light-- thousand-yielding, hundred-bestowing is his course, like an unfailing arrow, none can stop it. [Arrow: Nirukta 10.29: yuvatim s'arya_m = paryuvati_m s'aramayam is.um = a diving reed-made arrow].

10.179.01 Rise up, look to the portion of Indra suitable to the season; if it be cooked, offer it; if uncooked, gratify him (by praise).
10.179.02 Go, Indra, quickly to the oblation which is cooked, the sun is advanced nearly to the middle of his road; your friends sit around you with their offerings as the protectors of a family (attend upon) the migrating lord of the mansion. [Protectors of a family: kulapa_h = the sons; uraja = gantavya gr.ha_h, houses to be gone to, as if they were inns or caravanseries].
10.179.03 I consider (the oblation) as cooked in the udder (of the cow), I consider it cooked in the fire, I consider this pure and fresh (oblation) well-cooked; Indra, wielder of the thunderbolt, doer of many deeds, drink well pleased of the curd of the noon-day sacrifice.

10.180.01 Indra, invoked of many, you triumph over your enemies; pre-eminent is your strength, may your generosity be shown on this occasion; bring treasures with your right hand; you are the lord of the wealth-conveying rivers.
10.180.02 Terrible are you as a wandering lion who dwells in the mountains; come from a far-off, distant (world); having whetted your rapid and sharp bolt, destroy our enemies, Indra, put to flight our opponents. [Nirukta 1.20: kucarah = having a bad gait; cf. about Vis.n.u RV 1.154.2].
10.180.03 You have been born, Indra, endowed with protecting and desirable vigour; benefactor of mankind, you did drive away the man who was unfriendly(to us), you prepared a spacious region for the gods.

10.181.01 Vasis.t.ha, whos (son) is Pratha by name, and whose (son) is Sapratha, has (with them) borne away from Dha_ta, and from the radiant Savita_, and from Vis.n.u, the rathantara portion of the oblation which is offered with the anus.t.up verse. [Rathantara: is the Sa_maveda; or some hymns of this Veda].
10.181.02 They discovered (the Br.hat) which has been put away, the most excellent substance of the sacrifice which was hidden; Bharadva_ja took the Br.hat from Dha_ta_, the radiant Savita_, Vis.n.u, and Agni. [They: i.e., Dha_ta_, Savita_ etc.; br.hat: br.hat is also a portion of the Sa_maveda].
10.181.03 Those brilliant deities discovered by their intelligence the principal means of sacrifice which has to be effused, whichleads to the gods; these (priests) have taken the Gharma from Dha_ta_, the radiant Savita_ and Vis.n.u.

10.182.01 Let Br.haspati, the overcomer of difficulties, put aside (all sins), let him thrust aside the weapon of the calumniator; may he hurl down the inglorious (enemy), may he baffle the malevolent, and bestow upon the sacrificer health and prosperity. [Difficulties: duragaha = destroyer of those who go wickedly; or, may he lead us across difficulties].
10.182.02 May Nara_s'am.sa protect us at the Praya_ja rite; may he be (the giver of) felicity to us as the Anuya_ja (divinity) at oblations; may Br.haspati hurl down the inglorious (enemy), may he baffle the malevolent, and bestow upon the sacrificer health and prosperity. [At the Praya_ja rite: there are five praya_jas, and three anuya_jas; the second Praya_ja has Nara_s'am.sa (a name of Agni) for its deity; the second Anuya_ja has Agni as its deity].
10.182.03 May Tapurmu_rdha_ consume the ra_ks.asas, who are the enemies of the Bra_hman.as, (and then proceed) to slay (their) malignant (chief); may Br.haspati hurl down the inglorious (enemy), may he baffle the malevolent, and bestow upon the sacrificer health and prosperity.

10.183.01 (The wife speaks). I beheld you in my mind conversant (with sacred rites), born of penance, renowned for penance; enjoying in this world progeny and riches, do you who are desirous of offspring beget offspring.
10.183.02 (The Yajama_na speaks). I behold you in my mind radiant (with beauty), beseeching (your husband's approach) to your body at due season; may you, who are youthful, come up to me; bear offspring, you who are desirous of offspring.
10.183.03 (The hota_ speaks). I implant the seed in vegetables, the germ in all living beings; I engender progeny upon the earth; I beget children on other women. [I beget children: the share of the hota_ in the procreation of living beings is referable to the efficacy of the sacrifices at which he ministers. The metaphor: children = riches derived from sacrifice].

10.184.01 May Vis.n.u construct the womb, may Tvas.t.a_ fabricate the members, may Praja_pati sprinkle (the seed), may Dha_ta_ cherish your embryo.
10.184.02 Sustain the embryo, Sini_va_li, sustain the embryo, Sarasvati_, may the divine As'vins, garlanded with lotuses, sustain your embryo.
10.184.03 We invoke your embryo which the A'vins have churned with the golden pieces of touchwood, that you may bring it forth in the tenth month.

10.185.01 May the great, brilliant, unassailable protection of the three (deities), Mitra, Aryaman, and Varun.a, be (granted to me).
10.185.02 Let not their malignant enemy have power over dwellings, or roads, or enclosures.
10.185.03 (Nor the enemy of) the mortal upon whom the sons of Aditi bestow the eternal light (of life) that he may live. [Yajus. 3.31-33)].

10.186.01 May Va_ta breath into our hearts a healinv balm, bringing happiness; may he prolong our lives.
10.186.02 You, Va_ta, are both our father and our brother and our friend; cause us to live.
10.186.03 The store of ambrosia, Va_ta, which is placed in your house, give us of it that we may live.

10.187.01 Raise the hymn to Agni, the benefactor of mankind; may he bear us (safe) beyond (the reach of) those who hate us.
10.187.02 May (Agni), who from a great distance shines fiercely upon the desert tract that he has attained, bear us (safe) beyond (the reach of) those who hate us. [Desert tract: tiro dhanva = across the desert; tiras = pra_ptam].
10.187.03 May (Agni), the showerer of benefits, who, his pure radiance destroys the ra_ks.asas, bear us (safe) beyond (the reach of) those who hate us.
10.187.04 The Agni that glances at all the lokas, should protect us from the ill-will of enemies.
10.187.05 The Agni that appears in the celestial sphere above us in the form of illumined light, should protect us from all kinds of sorrows and troubles.

10.188.01 Urge the food-giver, Ja_tavedas, (as) a horse, to sit down upon this our sacred grass. [Ja_tavedas as a horse: or, as'vam (adj.) = the all-pervading Ja_tavedas].
10.188.02 I offer earnest and ample praise to this Ja-tavedas, the showerer (of benefits), whose sons are intelligent (worshippers).
10.188.03 May he invest our sacrifice with those bright (flames) of Ja_tavedas, that are the bearers of the oblation to the gods.

10.189.01 This moving many-coloured (Sun) has arrived, he has sat down before his mother (earth) in the east, and advances to his father heaven. [Deity Sa_rpara_jn~i_: i.e., Kadru, the mother of the serpent race; Yajus. 3.6-8; gau = gamanas'i_la, moving; the deity: first line, Agni; second line, Su_rya or Agni].
10.189.02 His radiance penetrates internally, drawing (the air) down (through the lungs) after having sent it up, the mighty one beholds the sky. [After having sent it up: i.e., setting after having risen; the mighty one: the sun; or, Agni in the character of Va_yu; mahis.ah = mighty].
10.189.03 The thirty stations of the day and night shine with (the sun's) rays, the gvoice (of praise) is addressed to the Sun. [Sun's rays: dha_ma = related to duration of time: he shines for thirty stations (or ghat.is, one ghat.i = 24 minutes) in the day; stations = muhu_rtas, or periods of 48 minutes; voice of praise: patan:ga = agni; dha_ma = either 30 muhu_rtas (making up 24 hours), or as the thirty days of the month during every one of which the diligent yajama_na sacrifices].

10.190.01 Truth (of thought) and truthfulness (of speech) were born of arduous penance, thence was night generated, thence also the watery ocean. [Penance: an allusion to the penance of Brahma_ preceding creation; tatah = from that penance, or from him (Brahma_); watery ocean: samudra = firmament and ocean (arn.ava)].
10.190.02 From the watery ocean was the year afterwards produced, ordaining nights and days, the ruler of every moment.
10.190.03 Dha_ta_ in the beginning created the sun and moved the heaven, the earth, the firmament, and the happy (sky).

10.191.01 Agni, showerer (of benefits), you who are the lord, you verily combine with all creatures, you are kindled upon the footmark of Il.a_ (the altar); bring unto us riches. [You verily combine: lit., you mix, associate all things; you alone among the gods pervade all living beings; or, Yajus. 15.30: you give the sacrificer all the objects (phala_ni) for which he prays].
10.191.02 Meet together, talk together, let your minds apprehend alike; in like manner as the ancient gods concurring accepted their portion of the sacrifice.
10.191.03 Common be the prayer of these (assembled worshippers), common be the acquisition, common the purpose, associated be the desire. I repeat for you a common prayer, I offer for you with a common oblation.
10.191.04 Common, (worshipppers), be your intention; common be (the wishes of) your hearts; common be your thoughts, so that there may be thorough union among you.

S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center
January 26, 2017

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See: Tvaṣṭṛ, ākhyāna or narration of itihāsa, from the Bronze Age Rigveda, sacred text http://tinyurl.com/gpayut8

Let us invoke to day, to aid our labour, the Lord of Speech, the thought swift

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See: Tvaṣṭā, Tvaṣṭṛ ancestor of Meluhha artificers = Tuisco, Tuisto, ancestor of Germanic people. Emerges from Viśvakarma (Purusha suktam) http://tinyurl.com/z4mttc5

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Mirror: https://www.academia.edu/12595279/Simorg_%C5%9By%C4%93n%C3%A1_anzu_patanga_m%C3%A1k%E1%B9%A3ik%C4%81_Rigveda_riddles_Meluhha_hieroglyphs_as_archaeometallurgy_metaphors

śyena, orthography, Sasanian iconography. Continued use of Indus Script hieroglyphs.Syena-citi: A Monument of Uttarkashi Distt.EXCAVATED SITE -PUROLAGeo-Coordinates-Lat. 30° 52’54” N Long. 77° 05’33” ENotification No& Date;2742/-/16-09/1996

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First layer of vakrapakṣa śyena altar. The wings are made from 60 bricks of type 'a', and the body, head and tail from 50 type 'b', 6 of type 'c' and 24 type 'd' bricks. Each subsequent layer was laid out using different patterns of bricks with the total number of bricks equalling 200.

"Sênmurw (Pahlavi), Sîna-Mrû (Pâzand), a fabulous, mythical bird. The name derives from Avestan mərəγô saênô 'the bird Saêna', originally a raptor, either eagle or falcon, as can be deduced from the etymologically identical Sanskrit śyena."

Left: The Senmurvs are set into an overall pattern of curved rhomboids.

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Wall panel with a Senmurv. Iran, Chal Tarhan. 7th-8th c. Stucco.Inv. Nr. 6642. Image of a quite similar panel which is in better condition that came from the same site, see British Museum, inv. no. ME 1973.7-25.3.

SIMORḠ (Persian), Sēnmurw (Pahlavi), Sīna-Mrū (Pāzand), a fabulous, mythical bird. The name derives from Avestan mərəγō saēnō ‘the bird Saēna’, originally a raptor, either eagle or falcon, as can be deduced from the etymologically identical Sanskrit śyená.

śyena, orthography, Sasanian iconography. Continued use of Indus Script hieroglyphs.

Syena-citi: A Monument of Uttarkashi Distt.
EXCAVATED SITE -PUROLA

Geo-Coordinates-Lat. 30° 52’54” N Long. 77° 05’33” E

Notification No& Date;2742/-/16-09/1996