Vajra, Ayasam vajram, 'metal weapon' (RV 10.48.3), a metaphor for vajrasanghAta cementite on iron carbide used in Art traditions of Bharatam and Ancient Near East.

June 15, 2015, 7:45 am

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It appears that the orthographic shapes chosen during the Bronze Age to denote a metallic thunderbolt weapon use the wavy lines or streaks of lightning as a metaphor. Now that it is evident that iron forging is dated to the 3rd millennium BCE, the use of hardened or carbide ferrous metal weapons cannot be ruled out. The ancient word which denoted such a metallic weapon is vajra in Rigveda, specifically described as Ayasam vajram, metallic weapon or metallic thunderbolt.

I suggest that the association of the gloss vajra with lightning becomes a metaphor to further define vajrasangAta 'adamantine glue' which creates a steel metallic form with nanotubes or cementite.

The samAsa used by Varahamihira is vajrasanghAta, an adamantine glue. In archaeometallurgical terms, this is defined as a mixture consisting of eight parts of lead, two of bell-metal and one of iron dust.

Image result for vajra lightning ancient near east

Lightning as a metaphor for the nanotubes or cementite on crucible steel.

The micrograph shows the microstructure for an Fe - 1.4 wt % C steel, the white regions being cementite. From: Callister, "Materials Science and Engineering," Wiley (1997).

It is possible that this phenomenon of lightning-likes streaks of white or cementite observed in crucible steel might have provided the model for creating hieroglyph of a wavy forms of three prongs in a weapon(trident) called vajra, mentioned as a weapon in the Rigveda

Reference to thunderbolt weapon made of metal:

त्वष्टा वज्रम् अतक्षद आयसम् मयि देवासो वृजन्नपि क्रतुम्

मामानीकम् सूर्यस्ये वादुष्टरम् माम् आर्यन्ति कृत्येन कर्त्वेनच

Translation. Griffith: 3 For me hath Tvastar forged the iron thunderbolt: in me the Gods have centred intellectual power.

Translation: Sayana, Wilson: 10.048.03 For me Tvas.t.a_ fabricated the metal thunderbolt; in me the gods have concentrated pious acts; my lustre is insurmountable, like that of the Sun; men acknowledge me as lord in consequence of what I have done, and of what I shall do. [My lustre is the Sun: my army is hard to overcome, like the sun's lustre; ani_ka = lit., face].

2 He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvastarfashioned. (RV 1.32.2).
6 Even for him hath Tvastar forged the thunder, most deftly wrought, celestial, for the battle,(RV 1.61.6)
9 When Tvastar deft of hand had turned the thunderbolt, golden, with thousand edges, fashioned(RV 1.85.9)
10 Yea, Strong One! Tvastar turned for thee, the Mighty, the bolt with thousand spikes and hundred(RV 6.17.10)

Tvastr the maker of divine instruments makes Vajra for Indra, notes Rigveda."Tvastr made it for him from the bones of the seer Dadhica: it is hundred-jointed, thousand-pointed. ...'' Samudramanthanam narrative in Bhagavata Purana.

Indra Holding Thunderbolt Vajra – Keshava Temple, Somnathpur

Indra with Vajra
Khmer style, NE-Thailand, That Phanom Rung Temple,
12th century, Buriram Province, Worship of Siva.

Bas-relief of Phnom Kulen in Cambodia, IX century.Indra holds double-vajra, seated on a column.

Panchalas of Ahichhatra, 75-50 BC, Indramitra, 5.92g, 17mm, Indra holding 'Vajra' (Thunderbolt) http://www.coinnetwork.com/profiles/blogs/hindu-deities-of-indian-coins

Indra on Airavata elephant, holding vajra.Sculpture from Orissa.

Indra on Airavata, Consort Shachi. Keshava Temple, Somnathpur.

Vajradhara (Adi-Buddha) is he thunderbolt-bearer. rdo-rje-hc'an 'he who holds a thunderbolt'; ocirdara (corruption of vajradhara), or Vacir bariqci (he who holds a thunderbolt); Symbols: vajra 'thunderbolt'; ghaNTa 'bell'; MudrA: vajra-hUmkAra. Colour: dark blue; S'akti: PrajnApaaramita; Other names: Karmavajra, dharmavajra. Vajradhara, the 'indestructible', lord of all mysteries, master of all secrets, is an exoteric representation of Adi-Buddha and in this form is believed to reign over the Eastern Quarter...Certain Lamaist sects identified Vajradhara with Vajrasattva, while others looked upon Vajrasattva as an active form of Vajradhara, who was too lost in divine quietude to occupy himself directly with the affairs of sentient beings. Others again worshipped Vajradhara as a supreme deity distinct and apart from Vajrasattva...Vajradhara was thus looked upon as Adi-Buddha by the two greatest sects of the MahAyAna schoo; the dKar-hGya-pa (Red-caps) and the dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow-caps)...He has the UrNA and ushNIsha. His arms are crossed on his breast in the vajrahUmkAra mudrA holding the vajra and ghaNTA. These two symbols may, however, be supported by flowering branches on either side, the stems being held in the crossed hands, which is his special mystical gesture." (Getty, Alice, 1988, The gods of Northern Buddhism: their history and iconography, Courier Corporation;1914, Oxford, Clarendon Press, p.ix).

Vajrasatva with vajra
Khmer style, NE-Thailand
13th century,
Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism,
Phimai Museum, Thailand.

The vajra is the most important ritual implement, symbol of Vajrayana Buddhism

Vajra pestles, vajra bell and vajra's tray: 五鈷杵 gokosho, 独鈷杵 tokkosho, 金剛盤 kongōban, 三鈷杵 sankosho and 五鈷鈴 gokorei.

Open vajra.

Yamantaka, Fear-Striking Vajra, Lord of Death (Tibetan: Gshin-rje-gshed), multiheaded, holding vajra, rope, dagger, riding a water buffalo, statue of a guardian, enormous strength, Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism, Art Institute, Chicago, Illinois, USA

Vajrasattva holds the vajra in his right hand and a bell in his left hand.

"The Assyro-Chaldean gods were represented holding a trident (v. trizUla) with the points zig-zag shaped, representin lightning. In Mesopotamia the golds hold a double trident, which is also found in the caves of Ellora, as well as other parts of India, in the hand of Siva. The Northern Buddhists believe that Buddha wrested the vajra (double trident) from the Hindu god Indra, and adopted it as a Buddhist symbol with the slight change of closing the points of the darts. The Indian vajra with three darts is flat and the points do not touch. The Tibetan 'thunderbolt' with four darts is round, and as the points are closed the two ends resemble lotus-buds in form. A fifth dart runs through the centre of the vajra, from end to end, making five darts, which represent the five bodies of the DhyAni-Buddhas. In Japan the vaja (kongO0, called doko (or tokko) has only one dart, which is four-sided. There is also a three-darted vajra, the san-kO, which resembles the Indian form in that it is flat and that the points are not closed. The five-darted kongO, the go-kO, differs from the Tibetan vajra in that all the five darts are outside. It is looked upon as representing the five elements as well as the five bodies of the celestial Buddhas. If the vajra has seven darts around an eighth, it is called kyukokyo...Padmasambhava introduced the vajra into Tibet, and through his influence it became most popular. The priests adopted its use to exorcise devils, and it was also introduced into the ceremonies for worshipping AmitAyus. In the esoteric doctrine the vajra is the mystic symbol of the linga, and the expression, 'in vajra attitude', is the attitude of yab-yum. The vajra is the special symbol of Akshobhya and of VajrapANi. Vajradhara holds it in his right hand and the vajra-handled bell in his left hand, as does also Trailokyavijaya, KongOsatta, and Aizen-myO-O; Vajrasattva holds it balanced on his right hand, while the left hand holds the vajra-handled bell on his hip. The vajra is carried as an accessory symbol by all the Yidam, but not by the DharmapAla...The Vajra-dhAtu, is the 'diamond' element. Vajra is here translated 'diamond' rather than 'thunderbolt', and represents the Spiritual world, or complete Enlightenment -- the esoteric teachings of the Dharma-kAya as against the exoteric teachings of the NirmANa-kAya. It is the sixth element, the manas (mind), and is symbolized by the triangle with the point below (v. tri-koNa), as well as by the full moon. It is located in the West, and is symbolized by the setting of the sun." (Getty, Alice, 1988, The gods of Northern Buddhism: their history and iconography, Courier Corporation, p.200)

Thunderbolts (vajras) in Mesopotamia

The oldest thunderbolt reference is found in The Seven Tablets of Creation made of are baked clay and found among some 22.000 other tablets in the ruins of the palace and library of Ashur-bani-pal (B.C. E 668-626) at Ḳuyûnjiḳ (Nineveh)'' in modern day Iraq (location: N36.366 E43.166).

''Marduk destroying Tiâmat, who is here represented in the form of a huge serpent.''

From a seal-cylinder in the British Museum,
no. 89,589.

''Battle between Marduk (Bel) and the Dragon[Tiamat]. Drawn from a bas-relief from the Palace of Ashur-nasir-pal, King of Assyria, 885-860 B.C.E, at Nimrûd.''

British Museum. Nimrud Gallery, Nos. 28 and 29.

"The form of the vajra as a sceptre or a weapon appears to have its origin in the single or double trident, which arose as a symbol of the thunderbolt or lightning in many ancient civilizations of the Near and Middle East. Parallels are postulated with the meteoric hammer of the Teutonic sky-god Thor, the thunderbolt and sceptre of the Greek sky-god Zeus, and the three thunderbolts of the Roman god Jupiter. As a hurled weapon the indestructible thunderbolt blazed like a meteoric fireball across the heavens, in a maelstrom of thunder, fire and lightning." Source: http://www.sundial.thai-isan-lao.com/sundial_vajra_literature.html

"The vajra is the Indian representative of the thunderbolt, and a comparison of corresponding ideas with other Indo-European peoples leads to the conclusion that even in the Indo-European period there was some idea of a vaguely personified independent wielder of the thunderbolt. With the Germanic tribes he became the "Thunderer," the porr of Old Norse mythology, in Hellas and Rome he was associated with Zeus-Jupiter, and in India he became Indra. But a vague recollection of his original independence had left its impression on the religious mind of the Aryans, and he was never quite absorbed by Indra. Even in the Rigveda, our chief document for the period when Indra, rose to the rank of supreme god, we also find Rudra designated as vajrabahu (II, 33. 3); in the Atharvaveda Bhava and Sarva are asked to use their Vajra against evil-doers (IV.28.6), and Soma smites with the vajra (VI. 6. 2), &c.; in the Bhagavatapurana (X. 159. 20) Visnu wields the thunderbolt, and so forth." pp. 316-317 in Note on Vajrapani-Indra, Sten Konow, Acta Orientalia, 1930.

Eagle on thunderbolt with oak-leaf.

Ptolomy III, 246 - 221 BC
Egypt, Eurgetes, Alexandria.
Opposite site: Zeus-Ammon.
Source: Wildwinds.com

Syracyse, 288 B.C.E

Zeus and thunderbolt

Sicily, Syracuse, 357-354 B.C.E
''Vajra
     The Vajra, thunderbolt, which Usana Kavya is said to have fashioned, as also Tvastri in RV 1 .32.2, was Indra's exclusive weapon and on account of his skill in wielding it, he is called in RV Vajrabhrit, bearing the bolt, Vajrivat, armed with the bolt. Vajradaksina, holding the bolt in his right hand, Vajrabahu orVajrahasta, holding the Vajra in his hand, or Vajrin, armed with the bolt, which is the commoner epithet of them all. Not much information about the shape of Vajra is available in the RV. However, it is said that it was made of iron, and that it belonged to the category of the weapons called the astras i.e. those weapons which are operated by throwing.
     In RV V.34.2 cited earlier where Uiani is said to have presented a weapon with thousand bhristis to Indra. Geldner has translated bhristis as spike. The meaning of the word, however, is doubtful. It also occurs in RV 1.133.5 in the context of the picaci who is described as pisangabhristi. Geldner thinks that the weapon is Soma.
      JB 1.97 narrates the story of the birth of Vajra: The devas and the asuras were contesting. Those devas created a sharp-edged thunderbolt (which was) as if a man. (They through) him (? tam) warded off the asuras. Having pushed them away, he returned to the devas. The devas were frightened. They attacked him, and broke him into three. Broken into three, he remained the same ...
     It seems likely that the vajra was similar to trisula. A double trisula is found on some of the Assyrian bas-reliefs [see picture below: 4.0 Thunderbolts (vajras) in Mesopotamia], where it is depicted as having the three edges on each side with the handle in between.
Before acquiring the thunderbolt, the devas and the asuras were fighting with the staves and bows (dandairdhanubhisca) and did not succeed in defeating each other. Thereupon they started pairing the masculine and feminine words with a view to ending the battle conclusively.
     AiBr. II.31 states in the ritual language the reason of the balance in the strength of the devas and the asuras: "The Asuras performed at the sacrifice all that the Devas performed. The Asuras became thus of equal power (with the Devas) and did not yield to them (in any respect). Thereupon the Devas saw (by their mental eyes) the tusnim samsa i.e. silent praise. The Asuras (not knowing it) did not perform this (ceremony) of the Devas. This "silent praise" is the silent (latent) essence (of the mantras). Whatever weapon (Vajra) the Devas raised against the Asuras, the latter got aware of them . The Devas then saw the silent praise as their weapon; they raised it, but the Asuras did not become aware of it. The Devas aimed it at the Asuras and defeated the latter who did not perceive (the weapon aimed at them). Thereupon the Devas became the masters of the Asuras...""
     This may simply be interpreted as suggesting that the asuras were alert every time they were attacked, but when taken unawares, they succumbed to the attack.
     The discussion of archaeological material shows that this original double trisula was transformed by the asuras into a weapon which could perform two kinds of functions. It could be thrown and could be held as well.''
Source: Shendge, Malati J.: The civilized Demons: The Harappans in the Rigveda. Pgs. 79-80.

वज्र[p= 913,1] a kind of hard mortar or cement (कल्क) VarBr2S. (cf. -लेप) mn. " the hard or mighty one " , a thunderbolt (esp. that of इन्द्र , said to have been formed out of the bones of the ऋषि दधीच or दधीचि [q.v.] , and shaped like a circular discus , or in later times regarded as having the form of two transverse bolts crossing each other thus x ; sometimes also applied to similar weapons used by various gods or superhuman beings , or to any mythical weapon destructive of spells or charms , also to मन्यु , " wrath " RV. or [with अपाम्] to a jet of water AV. &c ; also applied to a thunderbolt in general or to the lightning evolved from the centrifugal energy of the circular thunderbolt of इन्द्र when launched at a foe ; in Northern Buddhist countries it is shaped like a dumb-bell and called Dorje ; » MWB. 201 ; 322 &c ) RV. &c a diamond (thought to be as hard as the thunderbolt or of the same substance with it) , Shad2vBr. Mn. MBh. &c n. a kind of hard iron or steel L. mfn. adamantine , hard , impenetrable W. mfn. shaped like a kind of cross (cf. above ) , forked , zigzag ib. [cf. Zd. vazra , " a club. "](Monier-Williams)

Note: In Rigveda, vajra refers to something hard or mighty compared to a thunderbolt or a jet of water. At what stage of semantic evolution, the gloss was expanded to mean 'adamaentine, glue' is unclear. This is the stage when the artisans might have recognized the feature of cementite, as a nanotube which forms when carbon combines with iron. It is clear that in VarAhamira's time, the gloss vajra meant an adamantine glue: sanghAta. It is possible that this gloss was signified by the sangaDa 'lathe' which is a device most commonly deployed on Indus Script Corpora. Kalyan

S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center
June 15, 2015

Vientine, Laos

Indra in Vientaine, Laos
http://swamiindology.blogspot.in/2014/09/why-did-sumer-and-egypt-worship-indra.html

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Nepal quake shifted Mt. Everest by 3 centimetres. Similar seismotectonics of the past millennia resulted in drying up of Vedic River Sarasvati -- Kalyan

June 16, 2015, 4:08 am

≫ Next: Tvaṣṭr̥ is a metaphor for veneration of metalwork artificers, Bhāratam Janam, in Rigveda

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Published: June 16, 2015 16:08 IST | Updated: June 16, 2015 16:11 IST Beijing, June 16, 2015

Nepal quake shifted Mount Everest by 3 centimetres

IANS

During the past decade, Mount Everest moved 40 cm to the northeast at a speed of four cm a year and rose three cm at a speed of 0.3 cm a year.

The devastating April 25 earthquake and the aftershocks thereafter have moved Mount Everest by three centimetres, media reported on Tuesday.

According to China’s National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation, the 7.9-magnitude earthquake that hit Nepal, shifted Mount Everest by three cm to the southwest, China Daily reported.

Since 2005, the administration has been setting up satellite geodetic survey points on the north side of Everest that enable scientists to measure the speed of tectonic movement.

“The mountain has been constantly moving to the northeast, and the earthquake made it bounce a little bit in the opposite direction,” Xu Xiwei, deputy head of the Institute of Geology at the China Earthquake Administration in Beijing, said.

The second 7.5-magnitude quake in Nepal on May 12, however, did not move the mountain either horizontally or vertically.

During the past decade, the mountain moved 40 cm to the northeast at a speed of four cm a year and rose three cm at a speed of 0.3 cm a year.
http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/nepal-quake-shifted-mount-everest-by-3-centimetres/article7322002.ece?homepage=true

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Tvaṣṭr̥ is a metaphor for veneration of metalwork artificers, Bhāratam Janam, in Rigveda

June 16, 2015, 7:56 am

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This veneration finds expression in the contributions made by metalcaster folk -- Bhāratam Janam -- during the Bronze Age of Sarasvati-Sindhu (Hindu) Civilization. This veneration gets reflected in the Indus Script Corpora which is a veritable catalogus catalogorum of metalwork.

Tvaṣṭr̥ is Vis'vakarma, ancient artificer of Bhāratam Janam 'metalcaster
folk', who created -- त्वष्टा वज्रम् अतक्षद आयसम्(RV 10.48.3)-- metal vajra
weapon in a smithy-forge. The Meluhha gloss is kole.l; the same gloss
also means 'temple' -- Smithy is a temple.

This Vis'vakarma tradition continues in Bharatam in the making of panchaloha utsava bera (bronze utsava murti) taken in temple processions. The method for making utsava bera is the same technique that was used to make the cire perdue lost-wax method of casting bronze castings of the types found in Nahal Mishmar or Mohenjo-daro or in Dong Son bronze drums.

Smithy-forge in action depicted on a Sanchi sculptural relief. Artisans working in smithy.

Segments of the sculpture showing: 1. scribe; 2. stacks of straw asociated with epigraphs (incribed ovals -- cartouches -- atop the stacks) and the row of seated artisans. There are two hieroglyphs on these segments: 1. scribe; 2. straw-stacks. Both can be read as Meluhha hieroglyphs. The scribe shown on Amaravati sculpture is kaṇḍa kanka 'stone scribe'. The gloss is reinforced by the hieroglyph: stack of straw: kaṇḍa (Meluhha glosses are from Indian sprachbund).

A synonym of 'visible language' is 'incised speech'takshatvAk, (a metaphor used in what is possibly the oldest human document, the Rgveda. This takshatvAk is exemplified in the entire Indus Script Corpora which catalogues metalwork.

Devata: PavamAna Soma. Rishi: Vasishtha Maitravaruni The phrase used is: takshat vAk

(RV 9.97.22)

9.097.22 When the praise of the zealous worshipper sanctifies him as that of a noisy (crowd) in front (praises) a distinguished (prince) for the support (he affords); then the cows come to the excellent exhilarating Indu, the lord (of all, abiding) in the pitcher, eager to gratify him (with their milk). [For the support he affords: dharman.i = the reason (nimitta) of the praise; i.e. the duty of acquisition and preservation (or the duty of securing property), yogaks.ema vis.ayam karma].

The gloss takshat can be explained as 'engraving'. See त्वक्ष, त्वष्ट 'to engrave'. त्वष्टृ is विश्वकर्म the divine architect, engraver, smith who forges vajra weapon for Indra.

It is apposite to refer to all sukta-s of Rigveda which refer to TvaSTR who is venerated as the artificer of Bharatam Janam, 'lit. metalcaster folk'.

In RV 1.113.10, Sayana explains: Tvas.t.a_ = Vis'vakarma_, artificer of the gods, the fabricator of the original sacrificial vase or ladle. tvas.t.a_ vai pas'u_na_m mithuna_na_m ru_kakr.t---iti s'ruteh (Taittiri_ya.Sam.hita_ 6.1.8.5): Tvas.t.a_ forms in animals in pairs. This remarkable elucidation seems to anticipate the characteristic hieroglyphic multiplex forms of composite animals used repeatedly in Indus Script Corpora.

T. P. Verma seems to be quite justified in taking ‘takshat vAk’ (in Rigveda 9.97.22) to stand for incised writing. Yet another reference to writing by incision is met with in Rigveda (6.53.5-8). The Rishi prays Pushan to ‘pari trindhi’ the hearts of the Pan.is with arah (a pointed stick) to render them complacent towards priests. Aras (pointed sticks) were used to draw deep lines (groves) in the soil for sowing seeds. ‘Pari trindhi’, therefore, in my view, seems to have here the sense of ‘carving’ better than ‘piercing’ or ‘tearing up’ as understood respectively by Wilson and Griffith. ‘Arah’ in this context obviously stands for a ‘stylus’.

Then, again, Rigveda (7.6.3) designates the Pan.is as ‘granthinah’, and V. S. Pathak states that the Pan.is were so called because they possessed some sort of account-books. Pathak may be quite correct. The term ‘granthinah’ does literally mean ‘one possessing book (that is, folios probably of bark strung together)’, and it’s quite probable that the Pan.is, well-known for trade and marketing, had some such means of maintaining accounts in writing howsoever crudely. Needless to add that the terms ‘pan.a’ (coin), ‘aapan.a’ (shop), ‘antaraapan.a’ (market), etc. are related to and derived from the name of janas known to Rigveda as Pan.is, and so scholars agree that Pan.is were famous traders of the time.

To engrave: त्वक्ष, त्वष्ट are synonyums in Samskritam: தச்சன் taccaṉ, n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter; மரத்தில் வேலை செய்பவன். மரங்கொஃ றச்சரும் (மணி. 28, 37). 2. Person of carpenter caste; தச்சுவேலைசெய்யும் சாதியான். 3. The 14th nakṣatra, as pertaining to Višvakarma; [விசுவ கர்மாவுக் குரியது] சித்திரை நாள். (பிங்.) தச்சாசாரியம் taccācāriyam, n. < id. +. Status or position of a master-carpenter; தச் சத் தலைமை. (S. I. I. ii, 278, 17.)தச்சு taccu, n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter's work; தச்சன்றொழில். தச்சு விடுத்தலும் (திருவாச. 14, 3). 2. Day's work of a carpenter; தச்சனது ஒருநால் வேலையளவு.கல்லுளித்தச்சன் kal-l-uḷi-t-taccaṉ, n. < id. +. Sculptor, stone-cutter; கல்வேலை செய் யுந் தச்சன். (W.)
ترکانړ tarkāṟṟṉ, s.m. (5th) A carpenter. Pl. ترکانړان tarkāṟṟṉān. (Panjābī).دروزګر darūz-gar, s.m. (5th) A carpenter, a joiner. Pl. دروزګران darūzgarān (corrup. of P درود گر). (Pashto) त्वक्ष् 1 P. (त्वक्षति, त्वष्ट) 1 To pare, hew, peel -2 To make thin. -3 To cover. त्वष्ट p. p. Made thin, pared, peeled &c. त्वष्टिः f. Carpentry. -m. N. of a mixed tribe (?).त्वाष्ट्र a. [त्वष्टा देवता अस्य अण्] Belonging to Tvaṣṭṛi; U.6.3. (v. l.). -ष्ट्री 1 The asterism चित्रा. -2 A small car. -ष्ट्रम् The creative power.(Samskritam) Synonym of lekha: त्वष्टा विवस्वन्तमिवोल्लिलेख Ki.17.48.-4 To carve. (Samskritam) <uzra> {V} ``to ^engrave (cut incised designs)''. !literally. @V0282. #25401.Gu<uzra> {V} ``to ^engrave (cut incised designs)''. !literally (Munda) Taccha1 [Vedic takṣan, cp. taṣṭṛ, to takṣati (see taccheti), Lat. textor, Gr. te/ktwn carpenter (cp. architect), te/xnh art] a carpenter, usually as ˚ka: otherwise only in cpd. ˚sūkarathe carpenter -- pig (=a boar, so called from felling trees), title & hero of Jātaka No. 492 (iv.342 sq.). Cp. vaḍḍhakin. Tacchati [fr. taccha1, cp. taccheti] to build, construct; maggaŋ t. to construct or repair a road J vi.348.Taccheti [probably a denom. fr. taccha1=Lat. texo to weave (orig. to plait, work together, work artistically), cp. Sk. taṣṭṛ architect =Lat. textor; Sk. takṣan, etc., Gr. te/xnh craft, handiwork (cp. technique), Ohg. dehsa hatchet. Cp. also orig. meaning of karoti & kamma] to do wood -- work, to square, frame, chip J i.201; Miln 372, 383. (Pali) Konḍa (BB) taṟh- (i.e. taR-) to scrape. Pe.treh- (trest-) id., plane, cut with adze Manḍ. teh- (-t-) to shave. Kui tahpa (taht-) to smooth off, level down, chip, scrape; n. act of smoothing off. Kuwi (Su.) tah- (tast-) to scrape, plane; (S.) tah'nai to engrave. (DEDR 3146) takṣa in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ VarBr̥S., vṛkṣa -- takṣaka -- m. ʻ tree -- feller ʼ R. [√takṣ] Pa. tacchaka -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, taccha -- sūkara -- m. ʻ boar ʼ; Pk. takkha -- , °aya -- m. ʻ carpenter, artisan ʼ; Bshk. sum -- tac̣h ʻ hoe ʼ (< ʻ *earth -- scratcher ʼ), tec̣h ʻ adze ʼ (< *takṣī -- ?); Sh. tac̣i f. ʻ adze ʼ; -- Phal. tērc̣hi ʻ adze ʼ (with "intrusive" r).(CDIAL 5618) takṣaṇa n. ʻ cutting, paring ʼ KātyŚr. [√takṣ]Pa. tacchanī -- f. ʻ hatchet ʼ; Pk. tacchaṇa -- n., °ṇā -- f. ʻ act of cutting or scraping ʼ; Kal. tēčin ʻ chip ʼ (< *takṣaṇī -- ?); K. tȧchyunu
(dat. tȧchinis) m. ʻ wood -- shavings ʼ; Ku. gng. taċhaṇ ʻ cutting (of wood) ʼ; M. tāsṇī f. ʻ act of chipping &c., adze ʼ.Pk. tacchaṇa -- n. ʻ cutting ʼ; Kmd.barg. taċə̃ři ʻ chips (on roof) ʼ GM 22.6.71.(CDIAL 5619) tákṣati (3 pl. tákṣati RV.) ʻ forms by cutting, chisels ʼ MBh. [√takṣ]Pa. tacchati ʻ builds ʼ, tacchēti ʻ does woodwork, chips ʼ; Pk. takkhaï, tacchaï, cacchaï, caṁchaï ʻ cuts, scrapes, peels ʼ; Gy. pers. tetchkani ʻ knife ʼ, wel. tax -- ʻ to paint ʼ (?); Dm. taċ -- ʻ to cut ʼ (ċ < IE. k̂s NTS xii 128), Kal. tã̄č -- ; Kho. točhik ʻ to cut with an axe ʼ; Phal. tac̣<-> ʻ to cut, chop, whittle ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) thačoiki ʻ to fashion (wood) ʼ; K.tachun ʻ to shave, pare, scratch ʼ, S. tachaṇu; L. tachaṇ ʻ to scrape ʼ, (Ju.) ʻ to rough hew ʼ, P. tacchṇā, ludh. tacchanā ʻ to hew ʼ; Ku. tāchṇo ʻ to square out ʼ; N. tāchnu ʻ to scrape, peel, chip off ʼ (whence tachuwā ʻ chopped square ʼ, tachārnu ʻ to lop, chop ʼ); B. cã̄chā ʻ to scrape ʼ; Or. tã̄chibā, cã̄chibā, chã̄cibā ʻ to scrape off, clip, peel ʼ; Bhoj.cã̄chal ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ; H. cã̄chnā ʻ to scrape up ʼ; G. tāchvũ ʻ to scrape, carve, peel ʼ, M. tāsṇẽ; Si. sahinavā, ha° ʻ to cut with an adze ʼ. <-> Kho. troc̣ik ʻ to hew ʼ with "intrusive" r.Kmd. taċ -- ʻ to cut, pare, clip ʼ GM 22.6.71; A. cã̄ciba (phonet. sãsibɔ) ʻ to scrape ʼ AFD 216, 217, ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ 331.(CDIAL 5620) tákṣan (acc. tákṣaṇam RV., takṣāṇam Pāṇ.) m. ʻ carpenter ʼ. [√takṣ]Pk. takkhāṇa -- m., Paš. ar. tac̣an -- kṓr, weg. taṣāˊn, Kal. kaṭ -- tačon, Kho. (Lor.) tačon, Sh. thac̣&oarcacute;ṇ m., kaṭ -- th°, K. chān m., chöñü f., P. takhāṇ m., °ṇī f., H. takhānm.; Si. sasa ʻ carpenter, wheelwright ʼ < nom. tákṣā. -- With "intrusive" r: Kho. (Lor.) tračon ʻ carpenter ʼ, P. tarkhāṇ m. (→ H. tarkhān m.), WPah. jaun. tarkhāṇ. -- With unexpl.d -- or dh -- (X dāˊru -- ?): S. ḍrakhaṇu m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; L. drakhāṇ, (Ju.) darkhāṇ m. ʻ carpenter ʼ (darkhāṇ pakkhī m. ʻ woodpecker ʼ), mult. dhrikkhāṇ m., dhrikkhaṇī f., awāṇ.dhirkhāṇ m.(CDIAL 5621)

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/vajra-ayasam-vajram-metal-weapon-rv.html Vajra, Ayasam vajram, 'metal weapon' (RV 10.48.3), a metaphor for vajrasanghAta cementite on iron carbide used in Art traditions of Bharatam and Ancient Near East.

vajrasangAta 'adamantine glue' which creates a steel metallic form with nanotubes or cementite.

There are references to TvaSTR in every one of the 10 manDalas of Rigveda, in 45 Rca-s. I would suggest that together with Agni, Indra and Soma, the dominant divinities of the Rigveda are: Sarasvati (vAk) and TvaSTR.

Reference to thunderbolt weapon made by TvaSTR of metal -- perhaps steel with adamantine glue of nanotubes or cementite -- occurs in RV 10.48.3. This Sukta is a remarkable monologue of Indra who says, tvaSTR takSada Ayasam vajram:

10.048.03 For me Tvas.t.a_ fabricated the metal thunderbolt; in me the gods have concentrated pious acts; my lustre is insurmountable, like that of the Sun; men acknowledge me as lord in consequence of what I have done, and of what I shall do. [My lustre is the Sun: my army is hard to overcome, like the sun's lustre; ani_ka = lit., face].

The sentence used is: TvaSTA Ayasam vajram atakSada, i.e. TvaSTR forged the steel vajra weapon for India. This makes him a master smith working in a smithy-forge:

त्वष्टा वज्रम् अतक्षद आयसम् मयि देवासो वृजन्नपि क्रतुम्

मामानीकम् सूर्यस्ये वादुष्टरम् माम् आर्यन्ति कृत्येन कर्त्वेनच

Translation. Griffith: 3 For me hath Tvastar forged the iron thunderbolt: in me the Gods have centred intellectual power.

Translation: Sayana, Wilson: 10.048.03 For me Tvas.t.a_ fabricated the metal thunderbolt; in me the gods have concentrated pious acts; my lustre is insurmountable, like that of the Sun; men acknowledge me as lord in consequence of what I have done, and of what I shall do. [My lustre is the Sun: my army is hard to overcome, like the sun's lustre; ani_ka = lit., face].

rvs.1.1310 Tvastar I call, the earliest born, the wearer of all forms at will:
rvs.1.22And Tvastar, to the Soma draught.
rvs.1.322 He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvastar fashioned.
rvs.1.52Tvastar gave yet more force to thine appropriate strength, and forged thy thunderbolt of
rvs.1.616 Even for him hath Tvastar forged the thunder, most deftly wrought, celestial, for the battle,
rvs.1.80even Tvastar trembled at thy wrath and quaked with fear because of thee, lauding thine own
rvs.1.859 When Tvastar deft of hand had turned the thunderbolt, golden, with thousand edges, fashioned
rvs.1.14210 May Tvastar send us genial dew abundant, wondrous, rich in gifts,
rvs.1.142For increase and for growth of wealth, Tvastar our kinsman and our Friend.
rvs.1.161Then Tvastar, when he viewed the four wrought chalices, concealed himself among the Consorts of
rvs.1.1615 As Tvastar thus had spoken, Let us slay these men who have reviled the chalice, drinkingcup- of
rvs.1.162While Tvastar sends him forward with the Charger, acceptable for sacrifice, to glory.
rvs.1.1866 Moreover Tvastar also shall approach us, oneminded- with the princes at his visit.
rvs.1.1889 Tvastar the Lord hath made all forms and all the cattle of the field
rvs.2.15 Thou givest strength, as Tvastar, to the worshipper: thou wielding Mitras' power hast kinship
rvs.2.3May Tvastar lengthen our line and kindred, and may they reach the place which Gods inhabit.
rvs.2.2317 For Tvastar, he who knows each sacred song, brought thee to life, preeminent over all the
rvs.2.314 Or may this Tvastar, God who rules the world with power, oneminded- with the Goddesses speed
rvs.2.36And, Tvastar, wellcontent- be joyful in the juice with Gods and Goddesses in gladsome company.
rvs.3.49 Well pleased with us do thou O God, O Tvastar, give ready issue to our procreant vigour,
rvs.3.74 Strengthgiving- streams bear hither him eternal, fain to support the mighty work. of Tvastar.
rvs.3.48even from his birthtime- Indra conquered Tvastar, bore off the Soma and in beakers drank it.
rvs.3.5412 Deft worker, skifulhanded-, helpful, holy, may Tvastar, God, give us these things to aid us,
rvs.3.5519 Tvastar the God, the omniform. Creator, begets and feeds mankind in various manner.
rvs.4.33Four beakers let us make, thus spoke the youngest. Tvastar approved this rede of yours, O Rbhus.
rvs.4.33And Tvastar, when he looked on the four beakers resplendent as the day, was moved with envy.
rvs.4.42These the two worldhalves- have I, even as Tvastar knowing all beings, joined and held together.
rvs.5.59 Rich in all plenty, Tvastar, come auspicious of thine own accord
rvs.5.314. Anus have wrought a chariot for thy Courser, and Tvastar, Muchinvoked-! thy bolt that glitters.
rvs.5.418 You I extol, the nourishers of heroes bringing you gifts, Vastospati and Tvastar-
rvs.5.46And may the Rbhus and the Asvins, Tvastar and Vibhvan remember us so that we may have wealth.
rvs.6.1710 Yea, Strong One! Tvastar turned for thee, the Mighty, the bolt with thousand spikes and hundred
rvs.6.4719 Here Tvastar, yoking to the car the Bay Steeds, hath extended sway.
rvs.6.499 May Herald Agni, fulgent, bring for worship Tvastar adored, in homes and swift to listen,
rvs.6.50And, with the Gods and Dames accordant, Tvastar; Dyaus with the Gods and Prthivi with oceans.
rvs.6.5211 May Indra, with the Marut host, with Tvastar, Mitra, Aryaman,
rvs.7.29 Well pleased with us do thou, O God, O Tvastar, give ready issue to our procreant vigour,
rvs.7.3420 What time our wives draw near to us, may he, lefthanded- Tvastar, give us hero sons.
rvs.7.3421 May Tvastar find our hymn acceptable, and may Aramati, seeking wealth, be ours.
rvs.7.34May he, with the Varutris, be our refuge, may bountiful Tvastar give us store of riches.
rvs.7.35Kind, with the Rudras, be the Healer Rudra, and, with the Dames, may Tvastar kindly listen.
rvs.8.918 That through this famed Ones' power, he may stand by us even as Tvastar comes
rvs.9.59 1 summon Tvastar hither, our protector, champion, earliestborn-,
rvs.9.81The Maruts, Asvins, Vayu, and Brhaspati, Savitar, Tvastar, tractable Sarasvati.
rvs.10.27 Thou whom the Heaven and Earth, thou whom the Waters, and Tvastar, maker of fair things, created,
rvs.10.8Then Trita slew the foe sevenrayed-, threeheaded-, and freed the cattle of the Son of Tvastar.
rvs.10.8He smote his three heads from his body, seizing the cattle of the oniniform Son of Tvastar.
rvs.10.105 Even in the womb God Tvastar, Vivifier, shaping all forms, Creator, made us consorts.
rvs.10.18May Tvastar, maker of fair things, be gracious and lengthen out the days of your existence.
rvs.10.469 That Agni, him whom Heaven and Earth engendered, the Waters. Tvastar, and with might, the Bhrgus,
rvs.10.483 For me hath Tvastar forged the iron thunderbolt: in me the Gods have centred intellectual power.
rvs.10.539 Tvastar, most deft of workmen, knew each magic art, bringing most blessed bowls that hold the
rvs.10.6410 And let Brhaddiva, the Mother, hear our call, and Tvastar, Father, with the Goddesses and Dames.
rvs.10.6510 Tvastar and Vayu, those who count as Rbhus, both celestial Hotarpriests-, and Dawn for
rvs.10.66May the God Rudra with the Rudras favour us, and Tvastar with the Dames further us to success.
rvs.10.709 Since thou, God Tvastar, hast made beauty perfect, since hou hast been the Angirases' Companion,
rvs.10.92God Tvastar Wealthbestower-, the Rbhuksanas, Rodasi, Maruts, Visnu, claim and merit praise.
rvs.10.1109 Hotar more skilled in sacrifice, bring hither with speed today- God Tvastar, thou who knowest.
rvs.10.1252 I cherish and sustain highswelling- Soma, and Tvastar I support, Pusan, and Bhaga.
rvs.10.1841. MAY Visnu form and mould the womb, may Tvastar duly shape the forms...

r.s.i: medha_tithi ka_n.va; devata_: 1.idhma or samiddhi agni, 2. tanu_napa_t, 3.nara_s'am.sa, 4.il.a_, 5.barhi, 6.divyadva_ra, 7.us.a_sa_nakta_, 8.divyahota_ pracetas, 9.tisro devyah: sarasvati_, il.a_, bha_rati_, 10.tvas.t.a_, 11.vanaspati, 12. sva_ha_kr.ti; chanda: ga_yatri_

1.013.01 Agni, who are Susamiddha, invoker, purifier, bring hither the gods to the offerers of our oblation, and do your sacrifice. [The A_pris are twelve including a name of fire, naras'ansa. Su = well; sam = completely; iddha = kindled; hence, Susamiddha = the thoroughly kindled].

1.013.02 Wise (Agni) who are Tanu_napa_t (= devourer of clarified butter), present this day our well-favoured sacrifice to the gods for their food. [Tanu_napa_t, deourer of clarified butter (tanu_napa); alternatively, tanu = own substance, or fuel, i.e. consumer of its own substance; napa_t = tanaya, son or offspring; alternatively, napa_t = who does not preserve, who destroys].

1.013.03 I invoke the beloved Nara_s'ams'a, the sweet-tongued, the offere of oblations, to this sacrifice. [Nara_s'am.s'a, him whom men praise: nara s'am.santi].

1.013.04 Agni, (who are) I_l.ita (= worshipped), bring hither the gods in an easy-moving chariot, for you are the invoker instituted by men. [I_l.ita, stutah, the worshipped; fr. i_l.a, to adore, to praise].

1.013.05 Strew, learned priests, the sacred grass, well bound together (in bundles), and sprinkled with clarified butter, the semblance of ambrosia. [Barhis is an appellative of Agni; amr.ta-sama_nasya ghr.tasya or maran.a-rahitasya barhirna_makasya, agneh:amr.ta (clarified butter sprinkled on grass) has the appearance of ambrosia; or agni is immortal].

1.013.06 Let the bright doors, the augmenters of sacrifice, (hitherto) unentered, be set open, for certainly today is the sacrifice to be made. [Doors: agnivis'es.amu_rtayah, personifications of agni].

1.013.07 I invoke the lovely night and dawn to sit upon the sacred grass, at this our sacrifice. [naktam = night; us.as = dawn; they denote two forms of fire, presiding over theose seasons: tat-ka_la_bhima_nivahnimu_rtidvaye].

1.013.08 I call the two eloquent divine and sage invokers (of the gods), that they may celebrate this our sacrifice. [Two agnis: daivyau hota_rau pracetasau, two divine invokers (pracetasas), who are sages (kavi)].

1.013.09 May the three undecaying goddesses, givers of delight, Il.a_, Sarasvati_, and Mahi_ (= Bha_rati_), sit down upon the sacred grass. [Mahi = Bha_rati; Il.a_, Sarasvati_, Bha_rati_ are personifications of agni: agnimu_rtayah; they are also three personified flames of fire. As goddesses, Il.a_ = earth (bride of Vis.n.u); Sarasvati_ = goddess of eloquence (wife of Brahma_); Bharati_ = speech (wife of Bharata, an A_ditya)].

1.0113.10 I invoke the chief and multiform Tvas.t.r. (= Vis'vakarma_); may he be solely ours. [Tvas.t.a_ = Vis'vakarma_, artificer of the gods, the fabricator of the original sacrificial vase or ladle. tvas.t.a_ vai pas'u_na_m mithuna_na_m ru_kakr.t---iti s'ruteh (Taittiri_ya.Sam.hita_ 6.1.8.5): Tvas.t.a_ forms in animals in pairs; he is also an A_ditya; here he is an Agni: Tvas.tr.-na_makam agnim].

1.013.11 Present, divine Vanaspati (= lord of the woods), our oblation to the gods, and may true knowledge be (the reward) of the giver.

1.013.12 Perform the sacrifice conveyed through Sva_ha_ (= an exclamation used in pouring the oblation on the fire) to Indra, in the house of the worshipper; therefore I call the gods hither. [sva_ha_ = an exclamation used in pouring the oblation on the fire, also identified with Agni. Sva_ha_ is called the daughter of Br.haspati, son of An:giras (Maha_bha_rata); she is also the daughter of Daks.a and wife of Agni].

r.s.i: medha_tithi ka_n.va; devata_: 1-4 as'vinau, 5-8 savita_, 9-10 agni, 11 devya, 12 indra_n.i_, varun.a_ni_, agna_yi_, 13-14 dya_va_pr.thivi_, 15 pr.thivi_, 16 vis.n.u or devagan.a, 17-21 vis.n.u; chanda: ga_yatri_

1.022.01 Awaken, the As'vins, associated for the morning sacrifice; let them both come hither to drink of this Soma juice.

1.022.02 We invoke the two As'vins, who are both divine, the best of charioteers, riding in an excellent car and attaining heaven.

1.022.03 As'vins, stir up (mimiks.atam = mix intimately, rapidly like a whip) the sacrifice with your whip that is wet the foam (of your horses), and lashing loudly. [ka_s'a = whip, may also mean speech; madhumati_ and sunr.ta_vati_ = wet and loud, signifying sweet and veracious--come with such speech, As'vins and taste the libation].

1.022.04 The abode of the offerer of the libation is not far from you, As'vins, going thither in your car.

1.022.05 Invoke Savita_ (Sun), the golden- handed, to protect me; he will appoint the station of the worshippers. [suvarn.ahasta = golden-handed, i.e. he who gives gold to the worshipper. Legend: At a sacrifice performed by the gods, Su_rya undertook the office of r.tvij, but positioned himself in the station of Brahma_. The Adhvaryu priests saw him in that position and gave him the oblation termed pra_s'itra. As soon as this was received, Su_rya cut off the hand that had improperly accepted it. The priests who had given the oblation bestowed upon Su_rya a hand of gold].

1.022.06 Glorify Savita_, who is no friend to water, or our protection; we desire to celebrate his worship.(apa_m napa_t = son of the waters). [apa_m-napat may also mean the Sun, who is the parent of the waters: a_ditya_t ja_yate vr.s.t.ih: rain is born from the sun (Manu 3.76); napa_t = lit. who does not cherish (na pa_layati), but dried them up by his heat, santa_pena s'os.akah].

1.022.07 We invoke Savita_, the enlightener of men, the dispenser of various home-insuring wealth.

1.022.08 Sit down, friends; Savita_ verily is to be praised by us, for he is the giver of riches.

1.022.09 Agni, bring hither the loving wives of the gods, and Tvas.t.a_, to drink the Soma juice.

1.022.10 Youthful Agni, bring hither for our protection the wives (of the gods), Hotra_ (wife of Agni or personified invocation), Bha_rati_ (an A_ditya), Varutri_ (= varan.i_ya_, chosen), and Dhis.an.a_ (= va_c or va_g-devi_, goddess of speech). [varutri_: varan.i_ya_, who is to be chosen or preferred).

1.022.11 May the goddesses, whose wings are unclipt the protectresses of mankind, favour us with perfection, and with entire felicity. [acchinna-paks'a_h: the wives of the gods being in the form of birds, no one had cut their wings].

1.022.12 Invoke hither, Indra_n.i_, Varun.a_ni_, and Agna_yi_, for our welfare, and to drink the Soma juice.

1.022.13 May the great heven and the earth be pleased to blend this sacrifice (with their own dews) and fill us with nutriment. [bhari_mabhih = bharan.aih pos.an.aih].

1.022.14 The wise taste, through their pious acts, the ghee-resembling waters of these two, (abiding) in the permanent region of the Gandharvas. (Antariks.a, the sphere of gandharvas, yaks.as and apsarasas, the firmament between heaven and earth). [a_ka_s'e varma_nayoh dya_va_pr.thivyoh].

1.022.15 Earth be your wide-spreading, free from thorns, and our abiding place; give us great happiness. [syona_ = expanded, pleasant, agreeable]. [The hymn is repeated at the ceremony termed maha_na_mni, at the time of touching the earth].

1.022.16 May the gods preserve us (from that portion) of the earth whence Vis.n.u (aided) by the seven metres, stepped. [Vis.n.u = parames'vara, supreme ruler, one who pervades the world: vis.n.ur-vis.aterva vyas'noter-va_; vicakrame = stepped; vividhapa_dakraman.am kr.tava_n, he made the goiing of various steps; gods, headed by Vis.n.u subdued the invincible earth, using the seven metres of the Veda as their instruments; an allusion to the Trivikrama avata_ra where Vis.n.u traverses the three worlds in three steps; preserve us from the earth = the hindrance of the sin of those inhabiting the earth, bhu_loke vartama_na_na_m pa_paniva_ran.am].

1.022.17 Vis.n.u traversed this (world); three times he planted his foot and the whole (world) was collected in the dust of his (footstep).[tredha_ nidhadhe padam: the three paces of Vis.n.u imply the presence of Vis.n.u in the three regions of earth, air and heaven, in the forms of Agni, Va_yu and Su_rya, fire, wind and the sun. According to S'a_kapu_n.i, the step was on earth, in the firmament, in heaven; according to Aurn.ava_bha on Sama_rohan.a or the eastern mountain, on Vis.n.upada the meridian sky and Gayas'iras the western mountain, thus identifiying Vis.n.u with the Sun, and his three paces with the rise, culmination, and setting of that luminary].

1.022.18 Vis.n.u, the preserver, the uninjurable, stepped three steps, upholding thereby righteous acts. [gopa_, sarvasya jagato raks.akah: the preserver of all the worlds; the principal attribute of Vis.n.u].

1.022.19 Behold the deeds of Vis.n.u, through which (the worshipper) has accomplished (pious) vows; he is the worthy friend of Indra.

1.022.20 The wise ever contemplate that supreme station of Vis.n.u, as the eye ranges over the sky. [ paramam padam = supreme degree or station, svarga].

1.022.21 The wise, ever vigilant and diligent in praise, amply glorify that which is the supreme station of Vis.n.u.

r.s.i: hiran.yastu_pa a_n:girasa; devata_: indra; chanda: tris.t.up
	1.032.01 I declare the former valorous deeds of Indra, which the thunderer has achieved; he clove the cloud; he cast the waters down (to earth); he broke (a way) for the torrents of the mountain. [Vr.tra, also called Ahi, is alluded to as condensed accumulation of vapour figuratively shut up or obstructed by a cloud; Indra, with his thunderbolt or atmospheric prowess divides up the augmented mass yielding a vent for the rain to descend on the earth and moisten the fields]. 1.032.02 He clove the cloud, seeking refuge on the mountain; Tvas.t.a) sharpened his far-whirling bolt; the flowing waters quickly hastened to the ocean, like cows (hastening) to their calves. 1.032.03 Impetuous as a bull, he quaffed the Soma juice, he drank of the libation at the triple sacrifice. Maghvan took his shaft, the thunderbolt, and with it struck the first born of the clouds. [Triple sacrifice: at the trikadrukas, three sacrifices termed jyotis., gauh and a_yu]. 1.032.04 Inasmuch, Indra, as you have divided the first-born of the clouds, you have destroyed the delusions of the deluders, and then engendering the sun, the dawn, the firmament, you have not left an enemy (to oppose you). [first-born of the clouds: the first-formed cloud]. 1.032.05 With his vast destroying thunderbolt, Indra struck the darkling mutilated Vr.tra; as the trunks of trees are felled by the axe, so lies Ahi prostrate on the earth. [Ahi and Vr.tra are synonyms of megha, a cloud]. 1.032.06 The arrogant Vr.tra, as if unequaled, defied Indra, the mighty hero, the destroyer of many, the scatterer of foes; he has not escaped the contact of the fate (Indra's) enemies. The foe of Indra has crushed the (banks of the) rivers. [ruja_na_h pipis.e, he has ground the rivers or broken down the banks of the rivers, signifying the fall of Vr.tra]. 1.032.07 Having neither hand nor foot, he defied Indra, who struck him with the thunderbolt upon his mountain-like shoulder, like one emasculated who pretends to virility; then Vr.tra, mutilated of many members, slept. 1.032.08 The waters, that delight the minds (of men), flow over him, recumbent on this earth, as a river (bursts through) its broken (banks). Ahi has been prostrated beneath the feet of the waters, which Vr.tra, by his might, had obstructed. 1.032.09 The mother of Vr.tra was bending over her son, when Indra struck her nether part with his shaft; so the mother was above and the son underneath, and Da_nu slept (with her son), like a cow with its calf. [da_nu derived fr. do, to cut or destroy or fr. Da_nu wife of Ka_s'yapa and mother of the Da_navas or Titans]. 1.032.10 The waters carry off the nameless body of Vr.tra, tossed into the midst of the never- stopping, never-resting currents. The foe of Indra has slept a long darkness. 1.032.11 The waters, the wives of the destroyer, guarded by Ahi, stood obstructed, like the cows by Pan.is; but by laying Vr.tra, Indra set open the cave that had confined them. 1.032.12 When the single resplendent Vr.tra returned the blow (which had been inflicted), Indra, by your thunderbolt, you became (furious), like a horse's tail. You have rescued the kine; you have won, Hero, the Soma juice; you have let loose the seven rivers to flow. [Like a horse's tail, as a horse lashes his tail to get rid of the flies; seven rivers: gan:ga_, yamuna_, sarasvati_, s'atudri_, parus.n.i_ (ira_vati_), asikni, marudvr.dha_, vitasta_, a_rji_ki_ya (vipa_sa_) and sus.oma_ (sindhu)]. 1.032.13 Neither the lightning nor the thunder (discharged by Vr.tra), nor the rain which he showered, nor the thunderbolt, harmed Indra, when he and Ahi contended and Maghvat triumphed also over other (attacks). 1.032.14 When fear entered, Indra, into your heart when about to slay Ahi, what other destroyer of him did you look for, that, alarmed, you did traverse ninety and nine streams like a (swift) hawk? [When fear entered Indra: his fear was the uncertainty whether he should destroy Vr.tra or not]. 1.032.15 Then Indra, the wilder of the thunderbolt, became the sovereign of all that is moveable or immoveable, of hornless and horned cattle; and as he abides the monarch of men, he comprehended all things (within him), as the circumference comprehends the spokes of a wheel.

r.s.i: savya a_n:girasa; devata_: indra; chanda: jagati_, 13, 15 tris.t.up

1.052.01 Worship well that ram who makes heaven known, whom a hundred worshippers at once are assiduous in praising. I implore Indra with many prayers to ascend the car, which hastens like a fleet courser to the sacrificer for my protection.
1.052.02 When Indra, who delights in the sacrificial food, had slain the stream-obstructing Vr.tra, and was pouring down the waters, he stood firm amid the torrents like a mountain, and endowed with a thousand means of protecting (his votaries) increased in vigour.
1.052.03 He who is victorious over his enemies, who is spread through the dewy (firmament), the root of happiness, who is exhilarated by the Soma him I invoke, the most bountiful Indra, along with learned priests, with a mind disposed to pious adoration, for he is the bestower of abundant food.
1.052.04 Tha Indra whom in heaven the libations sprinkled on the sacred grass replenish, as the kindred rivers hastening to it fill the ocean; that Indra whom the Maruts, the driers up of moisture, who are unobstructed, and of undistorted forms, attended as auxiliaries at the death of Vr.tra.
1.052.05 His allies, exhilarated (by libations), preceded him, warring against the withholder of the rain, as rivers rush down declivities. Indra, animated by the sacrificial food, broke through the defences of Vala as did Trita through the coverings (of the well). [paridhi_r iva tritah: tritah, triple or threefold;hence, 'as through triple coverings or defences'. A legend is: Ekata, Dvita and Trita were three men produced in water by Agni, for the purpose of removing or rubbing off the relics of an oblation of clarified butter (like three blades of sacred grass used to rub off. Another legend: Agni threw the cinders of burnt-offerings into water, whence arose Ekata, Dvita and Trita (called A_ptyas or sons of water). Trita went to draw water from a well and fell into it; Asuras heaped coverings over the mouth of the well to prevent his escape, but he broke through them. Indra's breaking through the defences of Vala, the asura is compared to this exploit of Trita].
1.052.06 When, Indra, you had smitten with my thunderbolt the check of the wide-extended Vr.tra, who, having obstructed the waters reposed in the region above the firmament, your fame spread afar, your prowess was renowned.
1.052.07 The hymns, Indra, that glorify you, attain unto you, as rivulets (flow into) a lake. Tvas.t.a_ has augmented your appropriate vigour; he has sharpened your bolt with overpowering might.
1.052.08 Indra, performer of holy acts, desirous of going to man, you with your steeds have slain Vr.tra (have set free) the waters, have taken in your hands your thunderbolt of metal, and have made the sun visible in the sky.
1.052.09 Through fear (of Vr.tra, they, the worshippers), recited the suitable hymn of the Br.hat (Sa_ma), self-illuminating, strength-bestowing, and ascending to heaven; on which his allies, (the Maruts), combating for men, (guardians) of heaven, and vivifiers of mankind animated Indra (to destroy him). [Sa_ma is added to br.hat. The alusion is to Sa_ma, a verse of the R.k].
1.052.10 The strong heaven was rent asunder with fear at the clamour of that Ahi, when you, Indra, was inspired by (drinking) the effused (Soma), and your thunderbolt in its vigour struck off the head of Vr.tra, the obstructor of heaven and earth.
1.052.11 Although, Indra, the earth were of tenfold (its extent), and men multiplied every day, yet, Maghavan, your prowess would be equally renowned; the exploits achieved by your might would be spread abroad with the heavens.
1.052.12 Firm-minded Indra, abiding (secure) in your strength beyond the limit of the wide-expanded firmament, you have framed the earth for our preservation; you have been the type of vigour; you have encompassed the firmament and the sky as far as to the heavens.
1.052.13 You are the type of the extended earth you are the lord of the vast god-frequent (svarga) verily with your bulk you fillest all the firmament of a truth, there is none other such as you. [pratima_nam bhuvah, the counter-measure of the earth, i.e. of similar magnitude and like inconceivable power; r.s.vavi_rasya br.hatah patih, lord or protector of the great (region), in which are the gods (vi_ra) who are pleasant (r.s.va)].
1.052.14 you, Indra, of whom heaven and earth have not attained the amplitude; of whom the waters of heaven have not reached the limit; of whom, when warring with excited animation against the withholder of the rains, (his adversaries have not equalled the prowess); you alone have made everything else, (than yourself), dependent (upon you).
1.052.15 The Maruts worshipped you in this (encounter); all the gods in this engagement imitated you in exultation, when you had struck the face of Vr.tra with your angular and fatal (bolt). [bhr.s.timata_ vadhena, with the weapon that has angles; Aitareya Bra_hman.a: vajra, the thunderbolt of Indra has eight angles or blades, as.t.as.r.r vai vajrah].

r.s.i: nodha_ gautama; devata_: indra; chanda: tris.t.up

1.061.01 I offer adoration to that powerful, rapid, mighty, praise-meriting, and unobstructed Indra; adoration that is acceptable, and oblations that are grateful, as food (to a hungry man).
1.061.02 I offer (oblations, acceptable as) food (to the hungry), to that Indra; I raise (to him) exclamations that may be of efficacy in discomfiting (my foe); others (also) worship Indra, the ancient lord, in heart, in mind, and in understanding.
1.061.03 I offer with my mouth a loud acclamation, with powerful and pure words of praise, to exalt him who is the type (of all), the giver (of good things), the great, the wise.
1.061.04 I prepare praises fo rhim, as a carpenter constructs a car, (that the driver) may thence (obtain) food; praises well deserved, to him who is entitled to commendation, and excellent oblations to the wise Indra. [ratham na tas.t.eva tatsina_ya: sina = food; tat = owner of the car, i.e. for his food].
1.061.05 To propitiate that Indra for the sake of food, I combinepraise with utterance, as (a man harnesses) a horse (to a car), in order to celebrate the heroic, munificent, and food-conferring Indra, the destroyer of the cities (of the asuras). [juhva_: the instrument of invocation, the organ of speech; arkam: hymnb or praise in metre].
1.061.06 For that Indra, verily Tvas.t.a_ sharpened the well-acting, sure-aimed thunderbolt for the battle, with which fatal (weapon) the foe-subduing and mighty sovereign severed the limbs of Vr.tra.
1.061.07 Quickly quaffing the libations, and devouring the grateful viands (presented) at the three (daily) sacrifices which are dedicated to the creator (of the world), he, the pervadere of the universe, stole the ripe (treasures of the asuras); the vanquisher (of his foes), the hurler of the thunderbolt, encountering pierced the cloud. [vis.n.u = pervader, an epithet applied to Indra, sarvasya jagato vya_pakah. Cloud = vara_ha. Vis.n.u is the personified yajn~a; he attracted the accumulated wealth of the asuras; then, he remained concealed behind seven difficult passes, or the days of initiatory preparation for the rite. Indra crossed the seven defiles or went through the seven days of initiation and pierced the sacrifice. Taittiri_ya expands this further: Vara_ha, the stealer of what is beautiful, cherishes beyond the seven hills, the wealth of the asuras; Indra, having taken up the tufts of grass, and pierced the seven hills, slew him: vara_hoyam vamamos.ah sapta_nam girin.a_m parasta_d vittam vedyam asura_n.a_m bibharti; sa darbhapin~julam uddhr.tya, sapta girin bhitva_, tam ahanniti].
1.061.08 To that Indra the women, the wives of the gods, addressed their hymns, on the destruction of Ahi; he encompasses the extensive heaven and earth; they two do not surpass your vastness. [Wives of the gods are personified ga_yatri_ and other metres of the Vedas; gna_h, preceding devapatni_h means: females whose nature is locomotive: gamanasvabha_vah].
1.061.09 His magnitude verily exceeds that of the heaven, and earth and sky; Indra, self-irradiating in his dwelling, equal to every exploit, engaged with no unworthy foe, and killed in conflict, calls to battle. [Calling the clouds to battle or to collide, to generate rain].
1.061.10 Indra, by his vigour, cut to pieces with his thunderbolt Vr.tra, the absorber (of moisture), and set free the preserving waters, like cows (recovered from thieves); and, consentient (to the wishes)of the giver of the oblation, (grants him) food.
1.061.11 Through his power, the rivers sport, since he has opened (a way for them) by his thunderbolt; establishing his supremacy and granting a (recompense) to the giver (of the oblation), he, the swift-moving provided a resting place for Tu_rvi_ti. [Tu_rvi_ti is a r.s.i who had been immersed in water; Indra brought him to dry land].
1.061.12 Indra, who are the quick moving and strength-endowed lord (of all), hurl your thunderbolt against this Vr.tra and sever his joints, as (butchers cut up) a cow, that the rains may issue from him, and the waters flow (over the earth). [The text says, 'cut in pieces the limbs of Vr.tra, as of a cow' (gorna); added: 'as worldly men, the carvers (vikarata_rah) of flesh, divide here and there the limbs of animals].
1.061.13 Proclaim, with new hymns, the former exploits of that quick-moving Indra, when wielding his weapons in battle, he encounters and destroys his enemies.
1.061.14 Through fear of him, the stable mountains (are still), and through dread of his appearance, heaven and earth tremble; may, Nodhas, praising repeatedly the preserving power of that beloved Indra, be speedily (blessed) with vigour.
1.061.15 To him has that praise been offered which he, sole (victor over his foes), and lord of maniford wealth, prefers (to receive) from those (who praise him). Indra has defended the pious sacrificer Etas'a when contending with Su_rya, the son of Svas'va. [Legend: A king names Svas'va (lord of good horses, su as'va) was desirous of a son; he worshipped Su_rya, who was also born as the son of a king. There was a dispute between him and r.s.i Etas'a. Indra sided with the latter].
1.061.16 Indra, harnesser of steeds, the descendants of Gotama have offered to you prayers of efficacy to secure your presence; bestow upon them every sort of affluence; may he who has acquired wealth by pious acts, come hither quickly in the morning.

r.s.i: gotama ra_hu_gan.a; devata_: indra; chanda: pan:kti

1.080.01 Mighty wielder of the thunderbolt, when the priest had thus exalted you (by praise), and exhilarating Soma (had been drunk), you did expel, by your vigour, Ahi from the earth, manifesting your own soverignty. [Brahma_ = bra_hman.a; this su_ka is arcannanu svara_jyam: arcannanu is interpreted as prakat.ayan: svsya sva_mitvam prakat.ayan, making manifest his own mastership or supremacy].
1.080.02 That exceedingly exhilarating Soma, which was brought by the hawk (from heaven), when poured forth, has exhilarated you, so that in your vigour, thunderer, you have struck Vr.tra from the sky, manifesting your own sovereignty. [Brought by the hawk: s'yenabhr.ta, brought from heaven by ga_yatri_, having the wings of a hawk].
1.080.03 Hasten, assail, subdue; your thunderbolt cannot fail; your vigour, Indra, destroys men; slay Vr.tra, win the waters, manifesting your own sovereignty.
1.080.04 Youu have struck Vr.tra from off the earth and from heaven; (now) let loose the wind-bound, life-sustaining rain, manifesting your own sovereignty.
1.080.05 Indignant Indra, encountering him, has struck with his bolt the jaw of the trembling Vr.tra, setting the waters free to flow, and manifesting his own soverignty.
1.080.06 Indra has struck him on the temple with his hundred-edged thunderbolt, and, exulting, wishes to provide means of sustenance for his friends, manifesting his own sovereignty.
1.080.07 Cloud-borne, Indra, wielder of the thunderbolt, verily your prowess is undisputed, since you, with (superior) craft, have slain that deceptive deer, manifesting your own sovereignty. [Deceptive deer: Vr.tra assumed the form of a deer].
1.080.08 Your thunderbolts were scattered widely over ninety-and-nine rivers; great is your prowess, strength is deposited in your arms, manifesting your own sovereignty. [ninety-and nine = 9,000 or an indefinite number].
1.080.09 A thousand mortals worshipped him together, twenty have hymned (his praise); a hundred (sages) repeatedly glorify him; so, Indra, is the oblation lifted up, manifesting your own sovereignty. [Twenty: 16 priests employed at a sacrifice, yajama_na, his wife and two functionaries, sadasya and s'amitri_, directors of the ceremonies of the assembly].
1.080.10 Indra overcame by his strength the strength of Vr.tra; great is his manhood, wherewith, having slain Vr.tra, he lest loose the waters, manifesting his own sovereignty.
1.080.11 This heaven and earth trembled, thunderer, at your wrath, when, attended by the Maruts, you slew Vr.tra by your prowess, manifesting your own sovereignty.
1.080.12 Vr.tra deterred not Indra by his trembling or his clamour; the many-edged iron thunderbolt fell upon him; (Indra) manifesting his own sovereignty.
1.080.13 When you (Indra), did encounter with your bolt Vr.tra and the thunderbolt (which he hurled), then Indra, the strength of you determination to slay Ahi was displayed in the heavens, manifesting your own sovereignty.
1.080.14 At your shout, wielder of the thunderbolt, all things, moveable or immoveable, trembled; even Tvas.t.a_ shook with fear, Indra, at your wrath, manifesting your own sovereignty.
1.080.15 We know not of a certainty the all-pervading Indra; who (does know him, abiding) afar off in his strength? for in him have the gods concentrated riches, and worship, and power, manifesting his own sovereignty. [ko-vi_rya_parah, lit. who with vigour].
1.080.16 In like manner as of old, so in whatever act of worship Atharvan or father Manu, or Dadhyan~c engaged, their oblations and their hymns were all congregated in that Indra, manifesting his own sovereignty. [Manus.-pita: Manu being the progenitor of all mankind; dadhyan~c or dadhi_ci_, a r.s.i, son of Atharvan].

r.s.i: gotama ra_hu_gan.a ; devata_: marudgan.a; chanda: jagati_, 5,12 tris.t.up

1.085.01 The Maruts who are going forth decorate themselves like females; they are gliders (through the air), the sons of Rudra, and doers of good works by which they promote the welfare of earth and heaven; heroes, who grind (solid rocks), they delight in sacrifices.
1.085.02 They, inaugurated by the gods, have attained majesty; the sons of Rudra have established their dwelling above the sky; glorify him (Indra) who merits to be glorified, they have inspired him with vigour; the sons of Pr.s'ni have acquired dominion. [uts.ita_sah = were sprinkled with holy water by the gods: devair-abhis.iktah].
1.085.03 When the sons of earth embellish themselves with ornaments, they shine resplendent in their persons with (brilliant) decorations; they keep aloof every adversary; the waters follow their path. [goma_tarah, having for their mother the cow (sons of earth)].
1.085.04 They who are worthily worshipped shine with various weapons; incapable of being overthrown, they are the over-throwers (of mountains); Maruts, swift as thought, entrusted with the duty of sending rain, yoke the spotted deer to your cars.
1.085.05 When, Maruts, urging on the cloud, for the sake of (providing) food, you have yoked the deer to your chariots, the drops fall from the radiant (sun), and moisten the earth, like a hide, with water. [arus.a = radiant (applied to the sun or to the Agni of lightning, a harbinger of rain].
1.085.06 Let your quick-paced, smooth-gliding coursers bear you (hither); and moving swiftly, come with your hands (filled with good things); sit, Maruts, upon the broad seat of sacred grass, and regale yourselves with the sweet sacrificial food.
1.085.07 Confiding in their own strength, they have increased in (power); they have attained heaven by their greatness, and have made (for themselves) a spacious abode; may they, for whom Vis.n.u defends (the sacrifice) that bestows all desires and confers delight, come (quickly), like birds, and sit down upon the pleasant and sacred grass.
1.085.08 Like heroes, like combatants, like men anxious for food, the swift-moving (Maruts) have engaged in battles; all beings fear the Maruts, who are the leaders (of the rain), and awful of aspect, like princes.
1.085.09 Indra, wields the well-made, golden, many-bladed thunderbolt, which the skillful Tvas.t.a_ has framed for him, that he may achieve great exploits in war. He has slain Vr.tra and sent forth an ocean of water. [Tvas.t.a_ is again the artisan of the gods].
1.085.10 By their power, they bore the well aloft, and clove asunder the mountain that obstructed their path; the munificent Maruts, blowing upon their pipe, have conferred, when exhilarated by the Soma, desirable (gifts upon the sacrificer). [dhamanto va_n.am = blowing upon their pipe; va_n.am = a lute, a vi_n.a_ with a hundred strings; dhamanta = blowing, applied to a pipe as a wind isntrument; avatah avat.ah; avatah ku_pah (Nirukta 3.23.7)].
1.085.11 They brought the crooked well to the place (where the Muni was), and sprinkled the water upon the thirsty Gotama; the variously-radiant (Maruts) come to his succour, gratifyinng the desire of the sage with life-sustaining (waters). [Legend: R.s.i Gotama, being thirsty, prayed to the Maruts for relief; Maruts brought a well from a distance to his hermitage].
1.085.12 Whatever blessings (are diffused) through the three worlds, and are in your gift, do you bestow upon the donor (of the oblation), who addressed you with praise; bestow them, also, Maruts, upon us, and grant us, bestowers of all good, riches, whence springs prosperity.

r.s.i: di_rghatama_ aucathya; devata_: (a_ri_su_kta) 1 idhma or samiddha agni, 2 tanu_napa_t, 3 nara_s'am.sa, 4 il.a, 5 barhi, 6 devi_dva_ra, 7 us.a_sa_nakta_, 8 divya hota_ pracetasa, 9 devi_: sarasvati_, il.a_, bha_rati_, 10 tvas.t.a_, 11 vanaspati, 12 sva_ha_kr.ti, 13 indra; chanda: anus.t.up

1.142.01 Agni, who are samiddha, bring the gods today (to the worshipper), whose ladle is uplifted; extent (the merit of) former sacrificer to the giver (of the offering), by whom the Soma is poured forth. [A_pri's of Agni: cf. RV. 1.4.2].
1.142.02 Tanu_napa_t, be present at this well-flavoured and cutter-fed sacrifice, (the offering) of a pious offerer (of oblations); glorifying you.
1.142.03 The pure, purifying, wonderful Nara_s'am.sa, an adorable god among gods, (having come) from heaven, thrice mixes the sacrifice with the sweet (Soma). [Nara_s'am.sa is the deity presiding over the sacrifice: yajn~a_bhima_ni devah; thrice mixes: he comes thrice, or he thrice bestows rewards, perhaps an allusion to the three daily sacrifices].
1.142.04 Agni, who are Il.ita, bring hither Indra, the wonderful, the beloved; this my praise is recited, bright-tongued, before you.
1.142.05 The priests, bearing ladles, are strewing the sacred grass in this holy sacrifice, to prepare a god-frequented and well-spread abode for Indra.
1.142.06 Let the bright, separable doors, the augmenters of sacrifice, the purifiers of rites, the desired of many, be set open for the gods to enter. [The hymn is addressed to the divinities presiding over th e doors of the chamber of sacrifice; asas'cata = not adhering together, mutually separable; asajyama_na-paraspara viprakr.s.t.a, perhaps folding-doors of wide or open doors].
1.142.07 Beautiful night and morning, ever hymned, ever associated, progeny (yahuh sunuh--Nirukta 2.2.11) (of time), parents of sacrifice, sit down of your own good will on the sacred grass.
1.142.08 May the two pleasing-tongued receivers of praise, the divine and sage invokers (of the gods), officiate today at this our sacrifice, which confers (rewards) and attains heaven. [Attains heaven: mandra-jihva_ is an apithet applied to Agni, the two flames that give delight to the gods].
1.142.09 May the pure hota_, placed among the gods, and Bha_rati_, among the Maruts, and may the adorable Il.a_, Sarasvati_, Mahi_, sit down upon the sacred grass. [hota_ = homa-nis.pa_dika_, the presenter of the oblation; deves.u arpita_ = delivered amongst the gods, the praisers of priests (Marutsu); or, marutsu-bha_rati_ = va_c, situated in heaven, dyustha_na_ and connected with bharata, an A_ditya, or name of the sun; il.a_, sarasvati_, mahi_ = sound (va_c); or the goddesses presiding over sound in the three regions, severally of earth, firmament, and heaven].
1.142.10 May Tvas.t.a_, favourably disposed towards us, send to us, for our nourishment and prosperity, the quick (falling), wonderful, abundant (water), in the centre (of the cloud, effecting), of itself much (good). [Qucik (falling), wonderful: the hymn has epithets only related to udakam, water: turi_pam adbhutam puru va_ram puru tmana_; in the centre: na_bha_ na_bhau meghasya avasthitam udakam, i.e. rain; Tvas.t.a_ = personified fire or lightning, in which capacity he is the sender of rain, vr.s.t.ya_deh karta_].
1.142.11 Vanaspati, here present of your own accord, convey our offerings to the gods; the divine and intelligent Agni accepts (the oblations) for the deities. [vanaspati: the fire,or Agni of the sacrificial post, or yupa, from its being of timber].
1.142.12 (Priests), present the oblation with sva_ha_ to Indra, in the form of Ga_yatra, along with Pu_s.an and the Maruts; also to the assembled gods, and the Va_yu. [In the form of Ga_yatra: Ga_yatra-vepase--ga_yatra is substituted for itara-sa_ma: vepas = ru_pa; ga_yatram- ru_pam yasya; ga_yatravepas = a name or form of Indra; along with Pu_s.an and the Maruts: lit., having or possessed of Pu_s.an or the Maruts: pus.anvate marutvate; vis'vadeva_ya (singular) = vis'vadeva- san:gha_ya, the assemblage of all the gods; or, an epithet to identify Indra with all the deities; the personification of Agni is sva_ha_, as one of the A_pris].
1.142.13 Approach, Indra, to partake of the oblations consecrated with sva_ha_; approach and hear the invocation, as they invoke you to the sacrifice.

r.s.i: di_rghatama_ aucatthya; devata_: r.bhugan.a; chanda: jagati_, 14 tris.t.up

1.161.01 Is this our senior or our junior who has come (to us); has he come upon a message (from the gods); what is it we should say? Agni,brother, we revile not the ladle which is of exalted race; verily we assert the dignity of the wooden (implement). [The legend: the three R.bhus were engaged in a sacrifice and about to drink the Soma; the gods sent Agni to see what they were doing. Agni noticed that they resembled each other; Agni assumed a like form. The hymn refers to this form, calling himbrother, and questionign his comparative age. The next hymn states the purpose of Agni's visit is to order the conversion of one spoon or ladle, camasa, used for drinking Soma, or for libations, into four spoons].
1.161.02 Make fourfold the single ladle; so the gods command you; and for that purpose have I come, sons of Sudhanvan; if you accomplish this, you will be entitled to sacrifices along with the gods.
1.161.03 Then said they, in answer to Agni, the messenger (of the gods). Whatever is to be done, whether a horse is to be made, or a car is to be made, or a cow is to be made, or the two (old parents) are to be made young, having done all these (acts), Brother Agni, we are then ready to do (what you desire) to be done. [cf. su_ktas 20, 110 and 111 which relate the marvelsof the R.bhus].
1.161.04 So doing R.bhus, you inquired: where, indeed, is he who came to us as a messenger? When Tvas.t.a_ observed the one ladle become four, he was immediately lost amongst the women. [gna_su antarnya_naje; the verb is explained: nyakto abhu_t; the combination of ni and anj is perhaps the converse of vyan~j, to be manifest, i.e. to be concealed, indistinct, or invisible. gna_ = stri_ (mena gna_ iti stri_n.a_m--Nirukta 3.21); str.yam a_tma_nam amanyata = he, Tvas.t.a_, fancied himself; woman, that is, he felt humbled, as feeble as a female].
1.161.05 When Tvas.t.a_ said: let us slay those who have profaned the ladle, (designed) for the drinking of the gods; then they made use of other names for one another as the libation was poured out; and the maiden (mother) propitiated them by different appellations. [Then they made us of other names: a legend accounts for the origin of the names of the chief officiating priests; to evade the indignation of Tvas.t.a_, the R.bhus assumed the titles: adhvaryu, hota_ and udgata_;an individual engaged in priestly functions at a sacrifice is to be always addressed by these titles, and never by his own name; propitiated themby different appellations: anyair ena_n kanya_ na_mabhih sparat: kanya_ = svotpa_dayitri_ ma_ta_, a mother self-engendering].
1.161.06 Indra has caparisoned his horses; the As'vins have harnessed their car; Br.haspati has accepted the omniform (cow); therefore, R.bhu, Vibhva and Va_ja, go the gods, doers of good deeds, enjoy your sacrificial portion.
1.161.07 Sons of Sudhanvan, from a hideless (cow) you have formed a living one; by your marvellous acts you have made your aged parents young; from one horse you have fabricated another; harness now your chariot, and repair unto the gods.
1.161.08 They, (the gods), have said, sons of Sudhanvan, drink of this water, (the Soma); or drink that which has been filtered through the mun~ja grass; or, if you be pleased with neither of these, be exhilarated (by that which is drunk) at the third (daily) sacrifice. [R.bhus may be participants of the libations offered at dawn or at noon; the right of the R.bhus to share in the third, or evening sacrifice is always acknowledged].
1.161.09 Waters are the most excellent said one (of them). Agni is that most excellent, said another; the third declared to many the Earth (to be the most excellent), and thus speaking true things the R.bhus divided the ladle. [The earth: vardhayanti_m = a line of clouds or the earth: vadhah arkah (Nirukta 2.20.7)].
1.161.10 One pours the red water (the blood) upon the ground; one cuts the flesh, divided into fragments by the chopper; and a third seperates the excrement from the other parts; in what manner may the parents (of the sacrifice) render assistance to their sons? [The R.bhus are identified with the priests employed in the sacrifice of a victim; the parents of the sacrifice: the parents pitr.s, = the institutor of the ceremony and his wife].
1.161.11 R.bhus, leaders (of the rains), you have caused the grass to grow upon the high places; you have caused the waters to flow over the low places; for (the promotion of) good works; as you have reposed for a while in the dwelling of the unapprehensible (Sun), so desist not today from (the discharge of) this (your function). [R.bhus are identified in this and following hymns with the rays of the sun, as the instruments of the rain and the causes of fertility; a_dityaras'mayo api r.bhava ucyante: (Nirukta 11.16); unapprehensible Sun: agohyasya gr.he: agohya = a name of the sun (Nirukta); who is not to be hidden, aguhani_ya;or, agrahan.i_ya, not to be apprehended, literally or metaphorically; so desist not: idam na_nugacchatha; anusr.tya na gacchatha, having come forth, go not away without doing this,idam, your office of sending down rain for as long a period as you repose in the solar orb; a truism is explained in Nirukta: ya_vat tatra bhavatha na ta_vadiha bhavatha, as long as you are there, you are not here].
1.161.12 As you glide along enveloping the regions (in clouds); where, then, are the parents (of the world)? curse him who arrests your arm; reply sternly to him who speaks disrespectfully (to you). [The parents of the world: the sun and the moon, the protectors of the world, which, during the rains, are hidden by the clouds; who speaks disrespectfully: yah pra_bravi_t pra tasma_ abravi_tana: pra prefixed to bru_ = either to speak harshly or kindly, to censure or to praise].
1.161.13 R.bhus, reposing in the solar orb, you inquire: who awakens us, unapprehensive (Sun), to this office (of sending rain). The Sun replies: the awakener is the wind; and the year (being ended), you again today light up this (world). [The awakener is the wind: s'va_nam bodhayita_ram = the awakener is the dog; but, s'va_nam = antarks.e svasantam va_yum, the reposer in the firmament, the wind; sam.vatsare idam adya_ vyakhyata, you have made this world today luminous, after the year has expired; i.e. the rainy season has passed, the rays of the sun and moon are again visible].
1.161.14 Sons of Strength, the Maruts, desirous of your coming, advance from the sky; Agni comes (to meet you) from the earth; the wind traverses the firmament; and Varun.a comes with undulating waters.

r.s.i: di_rghatama_ aucatthya; devata_: as'vastuti; chanda: tris.t.up, 3,6 jagati_

1.162.01 Let neither Mitra nor Varun.a, Aryaman, A_yu, Indra, R.bhuks.in,nor the Maruts, censure us; when we proclaim in the sacrifice the virtus of the swift horse sprung from the gods. [a_yu = va_yu (a_yuh satataganta_ va_yuh, vaka_ralopo va_); r.bhuks.in = Indra; but,here Praja_pati, he in whom the r.bhus,or the devas, abide (ks.iyanti); sprung from the gods: devaja-tasya = born as the type of various divinities, who are identified with different parts (e.g. us.a_ va_ as'vasya medhyasya s'irah: Br.hada_ran.yaka Upanis.ad 1.1.1); legend: the horse's origin from the sun, either direct, or through the agency of the Vasus: sura_d as'vam vasavo niratas.t.a].
1.162.02 When they, (the priests), bring the prepared offering to the presence (of the horse), who has been bathed and decorated with rich (trappings), the various-coloured goat going before him, bleating, becomes an acceptable offering to Indra and Pu_s.an. [The prepared offering: ra_tim-gr.bhi_ta_m = lit. the seized wealth; the offering to be made for the horse; pu_s.an = Agni; the goat is to be tied to the front of the horse at the sacrificial post, such a goat, black-necked, kr.s.nagri_va (a_gneyah kr.s.n.agri_vah: Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 5.5.22), being always regarded as an a_gneya pas'u, or victim sacred to Agni, and to be offered to him (Ka_tya_yana Su_tra 98). A black goat is also dedicated to pu_s.an, along with soma (Yajus. xxix.58; but, he is also to be attached to the na_bhi or middle of the horse (Yajus. xxiv.1)].
1.162.03 This goat, the portion of Pu+s.an fit for all the gods, is brought first with the fleet courser, to that Tvas.t.a_ may prepare him along with the horse, as an acceptable preliminary offering for the (sacrificial) food. [The portion of Pu_s.an: he is to be offered in sacrifice to Pu_s.an or Agni; Tvas.t.a_ = sarvasyotpa_daka, the producer of all forms; tvas.t.a_ ru_pa_n.i vikaroti (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 1.5.92); or, identified wiith Agni;preliminary offering purod.a_s'am = offering of cakes and butter; purasta_d-da_tavyam, that which is to be first offered].
1.162.04 When the priests at the season (of the ceremony), lead forth the horse, the offering devoted to the gods, thrice round (the sacrificial fire); then the goat, the portion of Pu_s.an, goes first, announcing the sacrificer to the gods. [The goat is to be first immolated].
1.162.05 The invoker of the gods, the minister of the rite, the offerer of the oblation, the kindler of the fire, the bruiser of the Soma, the director of the ceremony, the saage (superintendent of the whole); do you replenish the rivers by this well-ordered, well-conducted, sacrifice. [The invoker of the gods: designations applied to eight of the sixteen priests employed at a solemn rite: the two first are: hota_ and adhvaryu; avaya_j = pratiprastha_ta_, who brings and places the offering; agnimindha = agni_dh, the kindler of the fire; gra_vagra_bha = the praiser of the stones that bruise the Soma,or he who applies the stones to that purpose; s'am.sta_ = pras'a_sta_; suvipra = Brahma_ (brahmaiko ja_te ja_te vidya_m vadatibrahma_ sarvavidyah sarva veditumarhati: Nirukta 1.8); replenish the rivers: vaks.an.a_ apr.n.adhvam, nadi_h pu_rayata, fill the rivers; the consequence of sacrifice being rain and fertility; or, it may mean, offer rivers of butter, milk, curds, and the like].
1.162.06 Whether they be those who cut the (sacrificial) post, or those who bear the post, or those who fasten the rings on the top of the post, to which the horse (is bound); or those who prepare the vessels in which the food of the horse is dressed; let the exertions of them all fulfil our expectation. [The post: twenty-one posts, of different kinds of wood, each twenty-one cubits long, are to be set up, to which the different animals are to be fastened, amounting to three hundred and forty-nine, besides two hundred and sixty wild animals, making a total of six hundred and nine (Ka_tya_yana); the text seems to refer to a single post: cas.a_lam ye as'vayu_pa_ya taks.ati: cas.a_la = a wooden ring, or bracelet, on the top of the sacrificial post; or, it was perhaps a metal ring at the foot of the post].
1.162.07 May my desire be of itself accomplished, such as it has been entertained, that the smooth-backed steed should come to (gratify) the expectations of the gods; we have made him well-secured for the nutriment of the gods; let the wise saints now rejoice.
1.162.08 May the halter and the heel-ropes of the fleet courser, and the head-ropes, the girths, and any other (part of the harness); and the grass that has been put into his mouth; may all these be with you, (horse), amongst the gods. [The heel-ropes: da_ma = a rope fastened round the horse's neck; sanda_na = one that fastens his feet; any other part of the harness: s'is.an.ya_ ras'ana_ rajjuh: s'irs.an.ya_ = the rope that is fastened to the head, the reins; rajjuh = rope].
1.162.09 Whatever the flies may eat of the raw flesh of the horse; whatever (grease) is smeared upon the brush or upon the axe; (what is smeared) upon the hands or the nails of the immolator, may all this be with you, (horse), amongst the gods. [Whatever is smeared: svarau svadhitau riptam, or liptam, smeared: the flesh that is smeared;or, unguent with which the animal is anointed; svaru = implement used used in anointing; svarun.a_ pas'um anakti = grease of fat; svadhiti = axe; explained elliptically: chedanaka_le,or avada_naka_le, at the time of cutting up or dissecting, or, pas'uchedana-sa_dhana a_si_h = a sword or knife, the instrument of cutting up the victim; Ni_ti-man~jari cites a text, in which the sacrificers are vais.n.avas: dhanyaste vais.n.ava_ deva_n yajante pas'orami_s.am s'amiturnakha hastastham deves.t.am maks.ika_sitam = happy are the vais.n.avas, who worship the gods with the consecrated flesh of an animal, adhering to the nails and hands of the immolator, and eaten by flies; maks.ika_ = pyrites ores].
1.162.10 Whatever undigested grass fall from this belly; whatever particle of raw flesh may remain; let the immolators make the whole free from defect, and so cook the pure (offering) that it may be perfectly dressed. [Particle: gandhan = les'ah, a little part; may be perfectly dressed: medham s'r.tapa_kam pacantu = let them cook the pure flesh with perfect cooking; i.e. make it fit for the gods, and not done toomuch or toolittle, as may be fit for pitr.s and men].
1.162.11 Whatever (portion) of your slaughtered (body) fall from your carcass when it is being roasted by the fire, (escaping) from the spit; let it not be left on the ground,nor on the (sacred) grass, but let it (all) be given to the longing gods. [ga_tra_d agnina_ pacyama_na_d abhi s'u_lam:in the preceding hymn, s'r.tapa_kam = boiling; and a ukha, a pot or cauldron is specified in hymn 13 for the same purpose; this use is at variance with the use of s'u_la or spit; the inference is that part was boiled and part was roasted; it is suggested that the portion that falls may be the rasa, the dripping, which is to be received upon darbha grass, afterwards probably to be thrown on the fire].
1.162.12 Let their exertions be for our good who watch the cooking of the horse; who say, it is fragrant; therefore give us some; who solicit the flesh of the horse as alms. [Therefore give us some: ya i_m a_huh suribhir nirhareti = ye cainam s'obhana gandho atah kin~cid asmabhyam dehi = who say of it, it is fragrant, therefore, give us some; or, give to to the gods; nirhara = take off, or give, having no government].
1.162.13 The stick that is dipped into the cauldron in which the flesh is boiled; the vessels that distribute the broth; the covers of the dishes, the skewers, the knives, all do honour (to the horse). [The stick: i_ks'an.am ma_m.spacanya_ ukha_yah; i_ks'an.am = pa_kapari_ks.a_ sa_dhanam ka_s.t.ham, a piece of wood, an implement for testing if the cooking is effected; the vessels: pa_tra_n.i yu_s.n.a a_secana_ni = the vessels that are sprinklers of the boiled juice or broth, rasasya kvathitasya; the dishes: u_s.man.ya_ pidha_na_, covers confining the heat; u_s.man.ya_ = vessels for confining the heat, u_s.maniva_ran.a_rha_n.i pa_tra_n.i; pidha_na_ = covers of the dishes, apidha_na_ caru_n.a_m; skewers: an:ka, slips of cane, vetasas'a_kha_, for marking the members of the horse as they are to be dissected. According to Ka_tya_yana, Su_tra 155, this is to be done by the queens, or wives of the sacrificer, and their attendants, with one hundred and one needles or skewers, which may of gold, silve,or bronze or other metal, so embellished; the knives: su_na_h avada_na sa_dhana_h = implements of dissection, the svadhiti and others].
1.162.14 May the place of going forth, of tarrying, of rolling on the ground; the foot-fastening of the horse, (the water) that he has drunk, the grass that he has eaten; may all these be thine among the gods.
1.162.15 Let not smoke-smelling Agni cause you, (horse), to utter sound; let not the glowing cauldron, odoriferous (with its contents), be overturned; the gods accept a horse that has been selected (for sacrifice); that has been led (round the fire); that has been devoutly offered, and has been consecrated by (the exclamation), vas.at. [Let not: this may be addressed to the horse before the horse is killed; or, to the horse's limbs in process of cooking, to desire them not to boil too loud, that is, too fast, lest the fire split the cauldron; odoriferous: jaghrih tapena jighrati, smellling with heat].
1.162.16 The cloth which they spread as a covering for the horse; the golden (trappings with which they decorate him), the head-ropes, the foot-ropes, all these they offer as acceptable to the gods. [As a covering for the horse: at the time of putting the horse to death, the adhi_va_sa (cf. Ka_tya_yana Su_tra 145), a curtain is held,behind which the principal queen lies through the night by the side of the horse].
1.162.17 Whoever has goaded you in your paces, either with heel or with whip, whilst nothing in your strength-- all these (vexations) I pour out with holy prayers, as oblation with the ladle.
1.162.18 The axe penetrates the thirty-four ribs of the swift horse; the beloved of the gods, (the immolators), cut up (the horse) with skill, so that the limbs may be unperforated, and recapitulating joint by joint. [Thirty-four ribs: it is noted that other animals have only 24 ribs; unperforated: acchidra_ ga_tra_: the vis'asana karta_rah, or dissectors, are to utter the name of the parts, as heart, tongue,breast, as they divide them; and are to so separate them that they may not have holes or perforations, they may not be mangled].
1.162.19 There is one immolator of the radiant horse, which is Time; there are two that hold him fast; such of your limbs as I cut up in due season, I offer them, made into balls (of meat) upon the fire. [Time: r.tuh, properly season; by metonymy, time; there are two: day and night, or heaven and earth].
1.162.20 Let not your precious body grieve you, who are going verily (to the gods); let not the axe linger in your body; let not the greedy and unskilful (immolator) missing the members, mangle your limbs needlessly with his knife.
1.162.21 Verily at this moment you do not die; nor are you harmed; for you go by auspicious paths to the gods. The horses of Indra, the steeds of the Maruts shall be yoked (to their ears), and a courser shall be placed in the shaft of the ass of the As'vins (to bear you to heaven).
1.162.22 May this horse bring to us all-sustaining wealth, with abundance of cows of excellent horses, and of male offspring; may the spirited steed bring us exemption from wickedness; may this horse, offered in oblation, procure for us bodily vigour. [The spirited steed; aditi = not poor or mean, adi_na, as an epithet of as'va].

r.s.i: agastya maitra_varun.i; devata_: vis'vedeva_; chanda: tris.t.up

1.186.01 May the divine Savita_, the benefactor of all men, come benignantly to our solemnity, together with the divinities of earth, and do you, who are (always) young, willingly present at our sacrifice, exhilarate us, as (you exhilarate) the whole world. [Another interpretation: vis'va_nara = an epithet of Savita_, vis'va nara hitaka_ri, the doer of good to all men; il.a = food, yatha_ sarve ira_m bhaks.ayanti tatha_ etu; but, il.a_bhih saha = bhu_mistha_na_bhih deva_bhih, with the divinities, whose place is earth; jagad = jan:gama, moveable, i.e. cattle and offspring].
1.186.02 May all the triumphant gods, Mitra, Aryaman, Varun.a equally well pleased, come (to our rite); may they all be propitious to us; may they not leave us in want of food, after overcoming (our foes).
1.186.03 I praise with hymns, (O gods), your best beloved guest, Agni, who is prompt (to partake of the oblation) and who is well pleased along (with you); so that (thereby) Varun.a, the possessor of renown, the subduer of foes, the animator (of men), may fill us with food.
1.186.04 I approach you, (deities), with reverence, night and day, in the hope of overcoming (sin), as (willingly), as a gentle cow (comes to be milked), mixing (for you) on the appropriate day the (sacrificial) food, (consisting) of multiform (preparations) of milk (generated) from the same udder. [Multiform preparations: vis.uru_pe payasi sasminnu_dhan = in multiform milk in a common udder; i.e. the manifold water or solution of the Soma prepared for the sacrifice; since it yields rewards, it is compared to an udder yielding milk whence butter, ghee].
1.186.05 May, Ahirbudhnya grant us happiness; may Sindhu come, nourishing us as a (cow her) calf, whereby we may propitiate the grandson of the waters, (Agni), whom the clouds, swift as thought, convey. [Sindhu = name of a river; ahirbudhnya: or, ahir who is also budhnya; ahi and budhna = antariks.a; the compound implies a divinity presiding over the firmament; ahirvradhna of the Pura_n.as is enumerated as one of the Rudras; ahirbradhna is the name of S'iva].
1.186.06 Or may Tvas.t.a_ come to this sacrifice, equally well pleased with those who praise (him) at the excellent (rite) at which he is present; may the most potent Indra, the protector of man, the destroyer of Vr.tra, come to the (solemnity) of our leaders.
1.186.07 For our minds, yoked together like horses tend to the ever youthful Indra, as cows to their calves; and the praises of men, (addressed) to him, are generating most fragrant (fruit), as wives bear (children to their husbands). [Most fragrant fruit: surabhis.t.amam = atis'ayena surabhim, exceedingly fragrant].
1.186.08 Or may the Maruts, being of one mind, come from heaven and earth (to the sacrifice); they who are a mighty host, who have parti-coloured steeds, who are like protecting chariots, and who are devourers of foes may they come like friendly deities. [Like protecting chariots: avanayo na ratha_h = raks.aka_h ratha_h; avanaya = bending, or inclining downwards].
1.186.09 For, verily, their greatness is well known, (as) they diligently discharge their functions; by which their spot pours rain upon every arid soil, as light spreads (universally) on a fine day.
1.186.10 Propitiate the As'vins and Pu_s.an, for my protection; (propitiate) those (deities), who are of independent powers, as Vis.n.u, devoid of hatred, Va_yu and R.bhuks.in, and may I influence the gods to be present for my felicity. [Who are of independent powers: svatavaso hi santi = ye sva_yattabala_h santi, those who are self-dependent, powerful; r.bhuks.in = Indra].
1.186.11 Objects of admiration, may that wealth-abounding effulgence which manifests itself amongst the gods, give animation to our existence, and (permanence to) our dwellings; that we may (thence) obtain food, strength, and long life.

r.s.i: agastya maitra_varun.i; devata_: 1 idhma or samiddha agni; 2 tanu_napa_t; 3 ila; 4 barhi; 5 devi_dva_ra; 6 us.a_sa_nakta_; 7 divya hota_gan.a pracetas; 8 sarasvati, il.a_, bha_rati_; 9 tvas.t.a_; 10 vanaspati; 11 sva_ha_kr.ti; chanda: ga_yatri_

1.188.01 You shine today, divine conqueror of thousands, kindled by the priests; do you, who are the sapient messenger (of the gods), convey (to them) our oblation. [The A_pris are also praya_jas; kim. devata_ = what sort of divinities are these; praya_ja, that which is an especial object of worship; such as divinities presiding over the seasons, over the metres of the Veda, over animals, over life, over the spirit, which are forms of Agni: praya_ja ritudevata_s'chandodevata_h pas'udevata_h pra_n.adevata_ a_tmadevata_ itya_dina_ bahu_n paks.a_n upnyasyu bra_hman.a_ni ca pradars'ya a_gneya_ eveti siddha_ntitam. samiddha is a particple, an epithet of deva; susamiddha = well-kindled, a name of Agni].
1.188.02 The adorable Tanu_napa_t proceeds to the rite and combines with the oblation, bearing (for the sacrificer) infinite (abundance of) food.
1.188.03 Agni, who are to be glorified, bring hither, being invoked by us, the adorable gods, for you are the donor of thousands. [Who are to be glorified: id.ya = i_l.ita; nara_s'amsa, a term which normally precedes i_l.ita, is here omitted].
1.188.04 By the power (of their prayers) they have strewn the sacred grass, the seat of numerous heroes, pointing to the east; on which, A_dityas, you are manifest.
1.188.05 They have sprinkled water on the doors (of the hall of sacrifice), which are variously and perfectly radiant, manifold, excellent, many, and numerous. [The doors: vira_t samra_t. vibhvi_h prabhvi_h bahvi_s'ca bhu_yasi_s'ca ya_h: the last two epithets are epithets of number, and the rest are names].
1.188.06 Let the brilliant and beautiful Day and Night, who shine with surpassing lustre, sit down here (upon the sacred grass).
1.188.07 Let these two chief, well-spoken, divine sages, the invokers (of the gods), perform this our sacrifice.
1.188.08 Bha_rati_, Il.a_, Sarasvati_, I invoke you all, that you may direct us to prosperity. [Bha_rati_, the goddess presiding over the heaven; Il.a_, the goddess presiding over the earth; Sarasvati_, the goddess presiding over the firmament; they are all three considered to be special manifestations of the majesty of the sun: etis tisra a_dityaprabha_va vis'es.aru_pa itya_huh].
1.188.09 Tvas.t.a_, who is the master (in fashioning) the forms (of beings), has made all animals distinct; grant us, (Tvas.t.a), their increase. [Tvas.t.a ru_pa_n.i hi prabhuh: kartum = to make, is understood; Tvas.t.a_ is the divinity presiding over the implements of sacrifice;he also fashions beings in the womb as soon as begotten: retasah siktasya tvas.t.a_ ru_Pa_n.i vikaroti; or, yonau sr.s.t.a_ni ru_pa_n.i kartumprabhuh].
1.188.10 Vanaspati, deliver of yourself the victim to the gods, so that Agni may taste the oblation.
1.188.11 Agni, the preceder of the gods [puroga_ puroga_mi_; agnih kasma_dagran.i_rbhavati (Nirukta 7.14), is characterized by the Ga_yatri_ measure; he blazes when the oblations are offered.

r.s.i: gr.tsamada (a_n:girasa s'aunahotra pas'a_d) bha_rgava s'aunaka; devata_: agni; chanda: jagati_

2.001.01 Sovereign of men, Agni, you are born for the days (of sacrifice), pure and all-irradiating, from the waters, from the stones, from trees, and from plants. [sus'uks.an.i = drying up, causing the evaporation of the earth's moisture; or, it may mean: destroying, consuming; Agni is produced from the waters, either as lightning that accompanies rain or submarine fire; from stones by striking them together; so from trees or wood by attrition; from plants, such as bamboo, by mutual friction, causing the conflagration of a forest].
2.001.02 Yours Agni, is the office of the Hota_, of the Pota_, of the R.tvij, of the Nes.t.a_; you are the Agni_dhra of the devout; yours is the functionof the Pras'a_sta_; you are the Adhvaryu (adhvaryu radhvarayur adhvaram ka_mayata iti va_ (Nirukta 1.8) and the Brahma_; and the householder in our dwelling. [Hota_ etc.: these are the eight of the sixteen priests employed at very solemn ceremonies; the duty of the Pras'a_sta_ is ascribed to the Maitra_varun.a, and Brahma_ is identified with the Bra_hman.a_ccahm.si; Kulluka Bhat.t.a, in his commentary on Manu viii.210 enumerates sixteen priests, in the order and proportion in which they are entitled to share in a daks.in.a_ of a hundred cows, being arranged in four classes, of which the first four are severally the heads, and others subordinate to them, in the same course of succession: 1. Hota_, Adhvaryu, Udgata_ and Brahma_, are to have twelve each, or forty-eight in all; 2. Maitra_varun.a, Pratistota_, Bra_hman.a_ccam.si and Prastota_, six each, or twenty-four; 3. Accava_ka, Nes.t.a_, A_gni_dhra and Pratiharta_ four each, or sixteen; and 4. Gra_vadut, Neta_, Pota_ and Subrahman.ya, three each, or twelve in all; making up the total of one hundred. Thus, the percentages for the four groups are: 48, 24, 16, 12 respectively. Ra_mana_tha, in his commentary on the Amarakos'a, viii.17 gives the names of 16 priests, but with a few variations: Gra_vastut replaces Gra_vadut; Prastota_, Neta_ and Pota_ are replaced with Prastha_ta_, Pras'a_sta_ and Balaccadaka. In the Aitareya Bra_hman.a vii.1, the sixteen priests are enumerated with some variations: Pratistota_, Gra_vadut, Neta_ and Subrahman.ya are replaced with Pratiprasthata_, Upaga_ta_, A_treya and Sadasya. Other priests included in this list are: Gra_vastut, Unneta_, Subrahman.ya and the S'amita_ (immolator), when a Bra_hman.a. Ma_dhava's commentary on the Nya_ya-ma_la-Vista_ra of Jaimini, the list of 16 priests, following Kuma_rila Bhat.t.a includes: 1. Adhvaryu, Prati-prastha_ta_, Nes.t.a_, Unneta_ (ceremonial of the Yajurveda); 2. Brahma_, Bra_hman.a_ccam.si, A_gni_dh, Pota_ (superintend the whole according to the ritual of the three vedas); 3. Udga_ta_, Prastota_, Pratiharta_, Subrahman.ya (chant the hymns, especially, Sa_maveda); 4. Hota_, Maitra_varun.a, Acchava_ka, Gra_vastut (repeat the hymns of the R.ca_); the head of each class receives the entire daks.in.a_,or gratuity; the second, one-half; the third, one-third; and the fourth, a quarter].
2.001.03 You, Agni, are Indra, the showerer (of bounties) on the good; you are adorable Vis.n.u, the hymned of many; you Brahman.aspati, are Brahma_, the possessor of riches; you, the author of various (conditions) are associated with wisdom.
2.001.04 You, Agni, are the royal Varun.a, observant of holy vows; you are the adorable Mitra, the destroyer (of foes); you are Aryaman, the protector of the virtuous, whose (liberality) is enjoyed by all; you are a portion (of the sun); be the distributor (of good things), divine (Agni), at our sacrifice. [Whose liberality: liberality is said to be the characteristic of Aryaman, da_tr.tvam caryamn.o lin:gam; you are a portion of the sun: tvam am.s'ah = forms of the sun, or the A_ditya, named am.s'a; You, Agni, are Rudra: tvam rudro asuro maho divah: asura = s'atru_n.a_m nirasita_, the expeller of enemies; divas = from heaven; or, the giver of strength, asur, balam, tasya data_ a_ditya ru_pa: a form of a_ditya, or an a_ditya].
2.001.05 You, Agni, are Tvas.t.a_, (the giver) of great wealth to (your) worshipper; these praises are yours; do you, of benevolent power, (admit) our affinity; you, who are prompt to encourage (us), give us good (store of) horses; you, who abound with opulence, are the strength of men.
2.001.06 You, Agni, are Rudra, the expeller (of foes) from the expanse of heaven; you are the strength of the Maruts; you are supreme over (sacrificial) food; you, who are pleasantly domiciled (in the hall of sacrifice), go with ruddy horses, (fleet as) the wind; as Pu_s.an, you cherish, of yours own will, those who offer worship.
2.001.07 You, Agni, are Dravin.oda_s, to him who honours you; you are the divine Savita_, the possessor of precious things; protector of men, you are Bhaga, and rule over wealth; you are the cherisher of him who worships you in his dwelling.
2.001.08 The people adore you, Agni, the protector of the people in their dwellings; they propitiate you as a benevolent sovereign; leader of a radiant host, you are lord over all offerings; you are the distributor of tens, and hundreds, and thousands (of good things).
2.001.09 (Devout) men (worship) you, Agni, as a father, with sacred rites; they (cherish) you, who are the illumination of the body, with acts (of kindness), as a brother; you are as a son to him who propitiates you; and you protect us, a faithful and firm friend.
2.001.10 You, Agni, are (ever) resplendent, and are to be glorified when present; you are lord over all renowned food and riches; you shine brightly, and you consume (the oblation) for him who offers it; you are the especial accomplisher of the sacrifice, and bestower (of its rewards). [Resplendent: tvam agna r.bhuh, tvam. va_jasya i_s'is.e: r.bhu = bha_sama_nah, shining; va_jasya = annasya, of food].
2.001.11 You, divine Agni, are Aditi to the donor of the oblation; you are Hota_ and Bha_rati_, and thive by praise; you are Il.a_ of a hundred winters to him who makes you gifts; you, lord of wealth, are the destroyer of Vr.tra, Sarasvati_. [Il.a_ of a hundred winters: tvam il.a_; s'atahima_si = the earth of unlimited duration, aparimitaka_la bhu_mih; destroyer of Vr.tra: vr.traha_ = destroyer of sin].
2.001.12 When, well-cherished Agni, you are (the giver of) excellent food; in your desirable and delightful hues, beauties (abound) you (are) food; (you are) the transporter (beyond sin); you are mighty; you are wealth; you are manifold, and everhwhere diffused.
2.001.13 The A_dityas have made you, Agni, their mouth; the pure (deities) have made you, Kavi, their tongue; the (gods), the givers of wealth, depdn upon you at sacrifices; they eat the offered oblation through you.
2.001.14 All the benignant immortal gods eat the offered oblation through you, as their mouth; mortals taste the flavour (of all viands) through you; you are born pure the embryo of plants. [Corn and other grains ripen by the heat of the sun or fire; the text has s'uci, pure; this is interpreted as vasu, being the abode of all: sarves.a_m niva_sabhu_tah san].
2.001.15 You are associated, Agni, by your vigour, with those (gods); divine, well-born Agni, you exceed (them in strength); for the (sacrificial) food that is here prepared is, by your power, subsequently diffused through both regions, heaven and earth.
2.001.16 The pious are they who present, as a gift, to the reciters of your praises, an excellent cow and an excellent horse; do you, Agni, lead both us and them to the best of abodes, (or heaven), that we and our worthy descendants may repeat the solemn prayer to you at the sacrifice.

r.s.i: gr.tsamada (a_n:girasa s'aunahotra pas'ca_d) bha_rgava s'aunaka; devata_: a_pri_ su_kta 1, idhma or samiddha agni; 2 nara_s'am.sa; 3 il.a; 4 barhi; 5 divyadva_ra; 6 us.a_sa_nakta_; 7 divya hota_gan.a pracetasa; 8 tisro devyah (sarasvati_, il.a_, bha_rati); 9 tvas.t.a_; 10 vanaspati; 11 sva_ha_kr.ti; chanda: jagati_

2.003.01 Agni, the well-kindled, placed upon (the altar of) the earth, stands in the presence of all beings; the invoker (of the gods), the purifier, the ancient, the intelligent, the divine; let the venerable Agni minister to the gods. [A_pris: cf. 1.142; 1.188].
2.003.02 May the bright Nara_s'am.sa, illuminating the receptacles (of the offering) making manifest by his greatness the three radiant (regions) and diffusing the oblation at the season of sacrifice with butter-dispensing purpose, satisfy the gods. [Nara_s'am.sa: in the preceding su_ktas, tanu_napa_t is the second personification of Agni addressed; in this su_kta, he is omitted].
2.003.03 Agni, who are the venerable i_l.ita, do you, with mind favourably disposed towards us, offer today sacrifice to the gods, before the human (ministrant priest) as such, bring hither the company of the Maruts, the undecaying Indra, to whom, seated on the sacred grass, do you priests offer worship.
2.003.04 Divine grass, let the Vasus, the VIs'vedevas, the adorable A_ditya, sit upon this flourishing, invigrating, well-grown, sacred grass, strewn for the sakeof wealth upon this altar, and sprinkled with butter. [Divine grass: the barhis, or a personification of Agni].
2.003.05 Let the divine doors, spacious and easily accessible, and to be saluted with prostrations, be set open; let them be celebrated as expansive, uninjurable, and conferring sanctity upon the illustrious class (of worshippers), possessed of virtuous progeny.
2.003.06 In regard of our good deeds, Day and Night, perpetually reverenced, are interweaving in concert, like two famous female weavers, the extended thread, (to complete) the web of the sacrifice, liberal yielders (of rewards), containers of water. [Like two famous female weavers: vayyeva ran.vite = vayya iva va_nakus'ale iva s'abdite, stute].
2.003.07 Let the two divine invokers of the gods, the first (to be reverenced), most wise, sincerely worshipping with sacred texts, most excellent in form, offering homage to the gods in due season, present oblations in the three high places upon the navel of the earth. [Two divine invokers of the gods: the personified fires of earth and the firmament, under the character of, two ministeringpriests; the navel of the earth: this is the usual altar; the three high places: sa_nus.u tris.u, are the three sacred fires: ga_rhapatya, a_havani_ya and daks.in.a_].
2.003.08 May the three goddesses, Sarasvati_, perfecting our understanding, the divine il.a_, and all-impressive Bha_rati_, having come to our dwelling, protect this faultless rite, (offered) for our welfare.
2.003.09 May a tawny-hued, well-grown (son), the bestower of food, active, manly, a worshipper of the gods, be born; may Tvas.t.a_ prolong for us a continuous (line of) progeny, and may the food of the gods come also to us.
2.003.10 May Agni, who is Vanaspati, approving (of our rite), approach; and by his especial acts fully dress the victim; may the divine immolator convey the burnt-offering to the gods, knowing it to have been thrice consecrated. [By his especial acts: agnir-havih su_daya_ti pra dhi_bhih =Agni, who is the supporter, or the instrument of cooking or maturing fitly, cooks the oblation of the nature of the victim with various acts, which are the means of cooking; he dresses the oblation, not under-dressing nor over-dressing it: agnih pa_kadharo havih pas'uru_pam karmavis.es'aih pa_kasa_dhanaih prakars.en.a su_daya_ti ks.a_rayati apa_ka_dhikapa_dira_hityena havih pacati; the divine immolator: daivyah s'amita_: s'amita_ = the person who kills the victim; Agni is the immolator of the gods: deva_na_m s'amita_; thice consecrated: tridha_ samaktam = thrice anointed or sprinkled; the three rites or ceremonies are termed: upastaran.a, avada_na, abhigha_ran.a].
2.003.11 I sprinkle the butter, for butter is his birth-place; he is nourished by butter; butter is his radiance; Agni, showerer (of benefits), bring the gods to the offered oblation; exhilarate them; convey to them the offering that has been reverently sanctified. [cf. Yajurveda 17.88; dha_ma - dwelling, or radiance; alternative reading: Adhvaryu, or priest, bring hither Agni to the oblation; exhilarate him; (and say to him). Showerer (of blessings), convey the consecrated oblation (to the gods).

r.s.i: gr.tsamada (a_n:girasa s'aunahotra pas'ca_d) bha_rgava s'aunaka; devata_: br.haspati, 1-5,9,11,17,19 brahman.aspati; chanda: jagati_, 15,19 tris.t.up

2.023.01 We invoke the Brahman.aspati, chief leaderof the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sage; aboundingbeyondmeasure in (every kind of) food;best lord of prayer; hearing our invocations, come with your protections, and sit down in the chamber of sacrifice. [Brahman.aspati = brahman.o annasya parivr.d.hasya karman.o va_ pa_layita_, the protector or cherisher of food,or of any great or solemn acts of devotion; he has other attributes in the text, as, gan.a_na_m gan.apatih, chief of the gan.as (inferior deities); jyes.t.hara_jam brahman.a_m, the best lord of mantras, or prayers: pras'asyam sva_minam mantra_n.a_m].
2.023.02 Br.haspati, destroyer of the asuras, through you the intelligent gods have obtained the sacrificialportion; in like manner as the adorable sun generates the (solar) rays by his radiance, so are you the generator of all prayers. [Br.haspati = Brahman.aspati; perhaps Br.haspati is of a more martial character; his protection is souhght for against enemies and evil spirits; perhaps, br.hata_m veda_na_m pa_lakah: br.hat = mantra, br.hato mantrasya, sva_min].
2.023.03 Having repelled revilers and (dispersed) the darkness you stand Br.haspati, on the radiant chariot of sacrifice, (which is) formidable (to foes), the humiliator of enemies, the destroyer of evil spirits, the cleaver of the clouds, the attainer of heaven.
2.023.04 You lead men, Br.haspati, by virtuous instructions; you preserve them (from calamity); sin will never overtake him who presents (offerings) to you; you are the afflicter of him who hates (holy) prayers; you are the punisher of wrath; such is your great mightiness. [Him who hates holy prayers: brahmadvis.ah = those who hate either the bra_hman.as,or the mantras or prayers].
2.023.05 The man whom you, Brahman.aspati, a kind protector, defend, neither sorrow nor sin, nor adversaries nor dissemblers ever harm, for you drive away from him all injurious (things).
2.023.06 You, Br.haspati, are our protector and the guide of (our) path; (you are) the discerner (of all things); we worship with praises for your adoration; may his own precipitate malice involve him (in destruction) who practises deceit against us.
2.023.07 Turn aside from (the true) path, Br.haspati, the arrogant and savage man who advances to injure us, although unoffending and keep us in the right way for (the completion of) this offering to the gods.
2.023.08 Br.haspati, defender (from calamity), we invoke you, the protector of our persons, the speaker of encouraging words and well disposed towards us; do you destroy the revilers of the gods; let not the malevolent attain supreme felicity.
2.023.09 Through you, Brahman.aspati, (our) benefactor, may we obtain desirable wealth from men destroy those (our) unrighteous enemies, whether nigh or far off, who prevail against us.
2.023.10 Through you, Br.haspati, (who are) the fulfiller of our desires; pure, and associated (with us), we possess excellent food; let not the wicked man who wishes to deceive us be our master; but let us, excelling in (pious) praises, attain (prosperity).
2.023.11 You, Brahman.aspati, who have no requiter (of your bounty), who are the showerer (of benefits), the repairer to combat, the consumer of foes, the victor in battles, you are true, the discharger of debts, the humiliator of the fierce and of the exulting.
2.023.12 Let not, Br.haspati, the murderous (weapon) of that man reach us, who, with unrighteous mind, seeks to harm us; who, fierce and arrogant, designs to kill (your) worshippers; may we baffle the wrath of the strong evil-doer].
2.023.13 Br.haspati is to be invoked in battles; he is to be approached with reverence; he who moves amidst combats, the distributor of repeated wealth; the lord Br.haspati has verily overturned all the assailing malignant (hosts), like chariots (overturned in battle).
2.023.14 Consume with your brightest (weapon) the ra_ks.asas, who have held your witnessed prowess in disdain; manifest, Br.haspati, your glorified (vigour), such as it was (of old), and destroy those who speak against you.
2.023.15 Br.haspati, born of truth, grant us that wonderful treasure, wherewith the pious man may worship exceedingly; that (wealth) which shines amongst men; which is endowed with lustre, (is) the means of (performing holy) rites, and invogirates (its possessor) with strength. [dravin.am citram = lit., various or wonderful wealth; in the Bra_hman.as it is interpreted as brahma varcas or tejas, brahmanical virtue or energy (cf. Yajus. 26.3; dravin.am = dhanam (Aitareya Bra_hman.a 4.11)].
2.023.16 Deliver us not to the thieves, the enemies delighting in violence, who seize ever upon the food (of others); those who cherish in their hearts the abandonment (of the gods); (they), Br.haspati, who do not know the extent of (your) power (against evil spirits). [Who do not know the extenf of your power: na parah sa_mno viduh = ye puma_msah sa_mnah sa_maya_t tvattah parah parasta_d anyadukr.s.t.am sa_ma yad raks.oghnam na ja_nanti, those men who do not know anything greater than the faculty of destroying ra_ks.asas, derived from you made up of that faculty; sa_ma vai raks.oha = sa_ma is the killer of ra_ks.asas].
2.023.17 Tvas.t.a_ engendered you (chief) amongst all beings, (whence) you are the reciter of many a holy hymn: Brahman.aspati acknowledges a debt to the performer of a sacred rite; he is the acquitter (of the debt), and the destoyer of the oppressor. [When you are the reciter: sa_mnah sa_mnah kavih, the reicter or another of every sa_ma, sarvasya sa_mnah ucca_rayita_ karta_si; or kavi refers to tvas.t.a_, further explained as the sage who created Brahman.aspati by the efficacy of the sa_ma: sa_mnah sa_ren.a tvam aji_janat; acknowledges a debt: r.n.acit stotr.ka_mam r.n.am iva cinoti, he takes the intention of the praiser as if it was a debt, or obligation; acquitter of the debt: r.n.aya is explained as the discharger or remover of the debt which is of the nature of sin: pa_paru_pasya r.n.asya pr.thak karta_].
2.023.18 When Br.haspati, descendant of An:giras, for your glory, Parvata had concealed the herd o fkine, you did set them free, and with thine associate, Indra, did send down the ocean of water which had been enveloped by darkness.
2.023.19 Brahman.aspati, who are the regulator of this (world), understand (the purport) of (our) hymn, and grant us posterity; for all is prosperous that the gods protect; (and therefore) may we blessed with excellent descendants, glorify you at this sacrifice. [Yajus. 34.58; vadema = may we declare or glorify you; or, let us speak, let what we ask be given to us;let it be enjoyed by us: di_yata_m bhujyata_m ucca_rayema].

r.s.i: gr.tsamada (a_n:girasa s'aunahotra pas'ca_d) bha_rgava s'aunaka; devata_: vis'vedeva_; chanda: jagati_, 6 tris.t.up

2.031.01 Mitra and Varun.a, associated with the A_dityas, the Rudras and the Vasus, protect our (sacrificial) chariot, when (it goes) about (from one place to another); like birds that fly down, seeking for food, rejoicing, and resting in the woods. [Protect our sacrificial chariot: asma_kam avatam ratham: the cart or wagon to bring food (as mentioned in the next hymn), perhaps, Soma, to prepare the libation].
2.031.02 Propitiated divinities, protect our chariot, gone forth in quest of food among the people, when the quick (horses), raising the dust with their paces, trample with their feet upon the high places of the earth. [Upon the high places of the earth: pr.thivya_h sa_nau jan:ghananta pa_n.ibhih = going heavily on the precipice of the earth with their feet; lit., with their hands].
2.031.03 Or, may that all beholding Indra, the accomplisher of great deeds, by the collective vigour of the Maruts, (coming) from heaven, protect our chariot with unassailable protection, (for the sake of securing to us) ample wealth and abundant food.
2.031.04 Or, may the divine Tvas.t.a_, the defender of the world, together with the wives (of the gods), well pleased, urge on the chariot; or may Il.a_, the resplendent Bhaga, Heaven and Earth, the sagacious Pu_s.an, and the As'vins, the two husbands (of Su_rya_), urge on the chariot. [The wives of the gods: the text as gnabhih, with the wives; as accompanying Tvas.t.a_, they are devapatni_h, wives of the gods, the personified metres of the Veda, according to Taittiri_ya: chanda_m.si vai gnah].
2.031.05 Or, may the two divine auspicious and mutually contemplating Day and Night, the animators of moving (creatures, urge it on); and, Earth and Heaven, whilst I praise you both with a new hymn, I offer you food of the standing (corn), although provided with the three (sorts of sacrificial) viands. [I offer you food: stha_tus'ca vayas trivaya_ upastire = I, who am able to offer you three sorts of sacrificial food, vegetable substances, animal victims, or the Soma: os.adhipas'usoma_tmaka_ni anna_ni; spread, upastr.n.a_mi; the food, or cakes and butter, carupurod.a_s'a_di laks.an.a_ni of that which is stationary, that is, vri_hya_deh, or rice and other grains].
2.031.06 We desire, gods, to repeat the praise of you, who are propitiated by praise; may Ahirbudhnya, Aja ekapa_d, Trita, R.bhuks.in, Savita_, bestow upon us food, and may the swift-moving grandson of the waters, (Agni, be gratified by) our praises and our worship. [Ahirbudhnya and Aja ekapa_d are two rudras; ahirbudhnya = ahi, the epithet budhnya implies his origin in the firmament: budhnam antariks.am tatra bhavo ahi na_ma_ deva; aja ekapa_d is the name of the sun, the unborn, who goes with one foot; trita is an epithet: tritasti_rn.atama, most expanded, an epithet of Indra; r.bhuks.in is an appellative of Indra. Savita_ = the generator of all, sarvasya prasavita_].
2.031.07 Adorable (gods), I desire that these (my) earnest praises (should please) you; men wishing for food, desirous of vigour, have constructed (hymns) for your celebration; may you hasten like a (swift) chariot-horse to our (pious) rite].

r.s.i: gr.tsamada (a_n:girasa s'aunahotra pas'ca_d) bha_rgava s'aunaka; devata_: r.tudevata_, 1 indra and madhu, 2 marut and ma_dhava, 3 tvas.t.a_ and s'ukra, 4 agni and s'uci, 5 indra and nabha, 6 mitra_varun.a and nabhasya; chanda: jagati_

2.036.01 (The libation) that is being presented, Indra, to you, comprises the (products of the) cow, and he (consecrated) water; and the leaders (of the rite) have expressed it with stones, and strained it through woollen (filters); do you, Indra, who are the first (of the gods), and rule (over the world), drink the Soma offered by the Hota_, and sanctified by the exclamations sva_ha_ and vas.at. [Through woollen filters: the text has avibhih, with sheep; explained as aver ba_lamayair das'a_pavitraih, with purifying filters made of the hair of the sheep; drink the soma offered by the Hota_: piba hotra_da_ somam: in this and the following hymn, hotra_ (and the analogous potra_, agni_dhra) are explained, the ya_ga, or sacrifice of the Hota_, and the rest, those portions of the ceremony which are assigned to the different officiating priests, or the oblations which each is in turn to present].
2.036.02 Maruts, together worshipped with sacrifices, standing in the car drawn by spotted mares, radiant with lances, and delighted by ornaments, sons of Bharata, leaders in the firmament, seated on the sacred grass, drink the Soma presented by the Pota_. [Sons of Bharata: bharatasya su_navah, the first is said to be a name of Rudra, as the cherisher or sovereign, bharta_, of the world].
2.036.03 Do you, who are devoutly invoked, come to us together, and, seated on the sacrificial grass, enjoy your rest; and then, Tvas.t.a_, who head a brilliant cohort (come) with the gods and their wives, and rejoice being pleased with the (sacrificial) food. [Yajus. 26.24; addressed to devapatnyah, the wives of the gods, and then to Tvas.t.a_ along with them].
2.036.04 Sage Agni, bring hither the gods, and sacrifice to them; invoker of the gods, propitious to us, sit down in the three altars; accept the libation of Soma that is offered to you, from the Agnidhra and be satisfied with your portion. [In the three altars: those of ga_rhapatya, a_havani_ya and daks.in.a_ fires].
2.036.05 This (libation), Indra, is the augmenter of your bodily (vigour), favourable of old to the resistless strength of (your) arms; it is effused, Maghavan, for you; it is brought to you from the Bra_hman.a; do you drink and be satisfied.
2.036.06 Mitra and Varun.a, both be gratified with the sacrifice; hear my invocation as the seated Hota_ repeats in succession the ancient praises; the (sacrificial) food encompassed (by the priests), attends the royal pair drink, both of you, the sweet Soma libation, offered by the Pras'a_sta_.

r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_: a_pri_su_kta (1 idhma agni or samiddha agni, 2 tanu_napa_t, 3 il.a, 4 barhi, 5 devi_dva_ra, 6 us.a_sa_nakta_, 7 divya hota_ pracetas, 8 tisro devyah: sarasvati_, il.a_, bha_rati_, 9 tvas.t.a_, 10 vanaspati, 11 sva_ha_kr.ti; chanda: tris.t.up

3.004.01 Repeatedly, kindled, (Agni), wake up favourably disposed; (endowed) with reiterated lustre, entertain the kind purpose of (granting us) wealth; bring, divine Agni, the gods to the sacrifice; do you, the friend (of the gods), minister, well-affected, to (your) parents. [Repeatedly kindled: samit sama = samiddha; or, susamiddha, an appellative of Agni in the preceding su_ktas].
3.004.02 Tanu_napa_t, whom the deities, Mitra, Varun.a and Agni, worship daily thrice a day, render this our sacred rain-engendering sacrifice productive of water.
3.004.03 May the all-approved praise reach the invoker of the gods; may Il.a_ first proceed to worship and to praise with prostrations the showerer (of benefits) in his presence; may the adorable (Agni), instigated (by us), worship the gods. [Il.a_ = the il.ita of preceding su_ktas].
3.004.04 An upward path has been prepared for you both in the sacrifice; the blazing oblations soar aloft; the invoker of the gods has sat down in the centre of the radiant (hall); let us strew the sacred grass for the seats of the gods. [You both: Agni and the Barhis, or sacred grass, to which, as in the parallel pages, the hymn is addressed].
3.004.05 The gods who gratify the universe with rain are present at the seven offerings (of the ministering priests), when solicited with (sincerity of) mind; may the many deities who are engendered in sensible shapes at sacrifices come to this our rite. [Deities in sensible shapes: in preceding su_ktas, the doors of the hall of sacrifice, are the personifications specified; here, the divinities presiding over the doors are implied].
3.004.06 May the adored Day and Night, combined or separate, be manifest in bodily form, so that Mitra, Varun.a, Indra, or (the latter), attended by the Maruts, may rejoice us by their glories.
3.004.07 I propitiate the two chief divine invokers of the gods; the seven offerers of (sacrificial) food, expectant of water, gratify (Agni) with oblations; the illustrious observers of sacred rites have saluted him in every ceremony as (identifiable), verily, with water. [As identifiable with water: r.tam it ta a_huh = agnim eva r.tabhu_tam a_huh, they have called Agni, verily, r.ta; r.ta is usually rendered water but it may mean truth; in the preceding phrase, r.tam s'ansanta = udakam, desirous or expectant of water].
3.004.08 May Bha_rati_, associated with the Bha_rati_s; Il.a_ with the gods and men; and Agni, and Sarasvati_ with the Sa_rasvatas; may the three goddesses sit down upon the sacred grass (strewn) before them. [bha_rati_bhih, with the connections of Bharata, or the Sun: bharatasya su_ryasya sambandhini_bhih, perhaps intending the solar rays; Bha_rati_ = va_k, speech; Il.a_ = bhu_mi, the earth; sarasvati_ = ma_dhyamika_ va_k; the sa_rasvatas are the madhyamastha_nas, the middle regions, or the firmament; Agni whose name is rather unconnectedly inserted, is thus identified through their several personifications as goddesses, with heaven, mid-heaven, and earth, or with speech or sound in the three regions].
3.004.09 Divine Tvas.t.a_, being well pleased, give issue to our procreative vigour, whence (a son), manly, devout, vigorous, wielder of the (Soma-bruising) stone, and reverencing the gods, may be born.
3.004.10 Vanaspati, bring the gods nigh; may Agni, the immolator, prepare the victim; let him who is truth officiate as the ministering priest, for, verily, he knows the birth of the gods. [May Agni the immolator: agnir havih s'amita_ su_daya_ti: cf. RV 2.3].
3.004.11 Agni, kindled into flame, come to our presence in the same chariot with Indra and with the swift-moving gods; may Aditi, the mother of excellent sons, sit down on the sacred grass, and may the immortal gods be satisfied with the reverentially-offered oblation. [May the immortal gods: sva_ha_ deva_ amr.ta_ ma_dayanta_m: sva_ha_ = sva_ha_ka_ren.a yuktah, joined with or addressed by the exclamation, sva_ha_].

r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_: agni; chanda: tris.t.up

3.007.01 The (rays) of the blackbacked, all-sustaining (Agni) have arisen, and pervaded the parents (earth and heaven) and the flowing rivers; the surrounding parents co-operate with him, and bestow long life for the sake of assiduous worship. [s'itipr.s.t.hasya dha_seh: agni is implied; so is ras'mayah, rays; dha_si = sarvasya dha_rayita_; sapta va_n.i_h = sarpan.asvabha_va_ nadi_h].
3.007.02 The sky-traversing steeds of the showerer (of benefits) are the kine (of Agni); as he attains the divine (rivers), bearers of sweet (water). One sacred soudn glorifies you (Agni), who are desirous of repose, pacifying your flames) in the abode of the water (the firmament). [The kind: dhenavah; this is considered an adjective equivalent to pri_n.ayitryah, propitiators, pleasers].
3.007.03 Their lord has mounted on his well-trained mares the sagacious selector of treasures, the blackbacked, many-limbed (Agni) has granted them a place of rest for the cherishing of (their) rapid speed. [atasasya dha_seh = s'atata gamanasya pos.ana_rtham, for the sake of cherishing of the perpetual going].
3.007.04 The flowing (rivers) invigorating him, bear along the great son of Tvas.t.a_, the undecaying upholder (of the world), radiant with various forms in the vicinity (of the firmament); Agni is associated with heaven and earth, as (a husband with) one only wife. [One only wife: the text has eka_m iva, like one, the pronoun being feminine; the additions are: yatha_ puma_n eka_m pravis'ati, as a man cohabits with one woman].
3.007.05 Men comprehend the service of the uninjurable showerer (of benefits), and exult in the commands of the mighty (Agni); their frequent and earnest hymns of praise, bright and radiant, are illuminating heaven.
3.007.06 Verily (men) bring great delight to Agni by glorifying aloud the mighty parents (heaven and earth), when the shedder of rain approximates his own radiance to the worshipper, (wherewith) to invest the night.
3.007.07 Seven sages with five ministering priests attend the station that is prepared for the rapid (Agni); the undecaying divine (sages), with their faces to the east, sprinkling (the libations), rejoice as they celebrate the worship of the gods. [Five ministering priests: adhvaryubhih pan~cabhih sapta vipra_h, this excludes the udga_ta_ and his class].
3.007.08 I propitiate the two first divine offerers of sacrifices; the seven (priests) rejoice with the libation; the illustrious celebrators of holy worship, reciting (his) praises, have called Agni the true (object) of every rite.
3.007.09 Divine invoker of the gods, the vast and widespreading rays shed (moisture) for you, the mighty, the victorius, the wonderful, the showerer (of benefits); do you who are all knowing, joy-bestowing, bring hither the great gods, and heaven and earth.
3.007.10 Ever-moving (Agni) may the mornings rise for us, abounding with oblations, with pious prayers, and with auspicious signs, and conferring wealth; and do you with the might of your (diffusive flame), consume all sin on behalf of your respectable (worshipper).
3.007.11 Grant, Agni, to the offerer of the oblation, the earth, the bestower of cattle, the means of many (pious rites), such that it may be perpetual; may there be to us sons and grandsons, and may your good-will ever be upon us (productive of benefit to us). [This hymn is the refrain of several su_ktas in the preceding as.t.aka. In one instance il.a_ is translated as bhu_mi, earth; here, she is called a female divinity in the form of a cow: goru_pa_m devata_m; vija_va_ is connected with sumati, good-will; which is explained: avandhya_, may it be not barren, productive].

r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_: indra; chanda: tris.t.up

3.048.01 May the showerer (of rain), who, as soon as born, is the object of affection, protect the offerer of the effused libation; drink at will, Indra, before (the other gods), of the pure Soma mixed with milk.
3.048.02 On the day on which you were born, you did drink at will the mountain-abiding nectar of this Soma, for your youthful parent mother (Aditi), in the dwelling of your great sire (Kas'yapa), gave it to you before she gave the breast.
3.048.03 Approaching his mother he asked for food, and beheld the acrid Soma upon her bosom; eager he proceeds, dislodging the adversaries (of the gods); and, putting forth manifold (energy), he performed great (deeds).
3.048.04 Fierce, rapid in assault, of overpowering strength he made his form obedient to his will; having overcome Tvas.t.a_ by his innate (vigour), and carried off the Soma, he draink it (deposited) in the ladles. [Made his form obedient to his will: According to su_kta 3.8, ru_pam ru_pam maghavan bobhavi_ti, Maghavan is repeatedy of various forms; he can take what form he wills].
3.048.05 We invoke for our protection the opulent Indra, distinguished in this combat, the leader in the food-bestowing (strife), hearing (our praises), terrible in battles, the destroyer of foes, the conqueror of wealth.

r.s.i: praja_pati vais'va_mitra or prja_pati va_cya; devata: vis'vedeva_: chanda: tris.t.up

3.054.01 They recite repeatedly this gratifying praise to the great product of sacrifice (Agni); may he who is (endowed) with domestic radiance hear us; may the imperishable Agni, (endowed) with divine radiance, hear us.
3.054.02 Knowing their greatness, offer worship to the vast heaven and to the earth; my desire, wishing (for felicity) proceed (to them), in whose praise the gods,desirous of adoration, delight together with their worshippers at the sacrifice. [My desire proceeds: ka_ma me icchan carati = lit., my desire wishing goes, or exists; added to icchan, sarva_n bhoga_n, all enjoyments].
3.054.03 Heaven and earth, may your truth be ever inviolable; be propitious to us for the due completion of the rite; this adoration (Agni) is offered to heaven and earth; I worship (them) with (sacrificial) food; I solicit of them precious (wealth).
3.054.04 Heaven and earth, endowed with truth, they who are the ancient declarers of the truth, have obtained from you (what they desired); and so, earth, men cognizant (of the greaness of you both) have worshipped you for the sake of triumphing over (hostile) heroes in battle.
3.054.05 Who knows what is the truth, or who may here declare it? What is the proper path that leads to the gods? Their inferior abiding places are beheld, as are those which (are situated) in superior mysterious rites. [Abiding places are beheld: as the constellations; superior mysterious rites: in the latter they are made known, it is said, by the Veda].
3.054.06 The far-seeing beholder of mankind (the sun), surveys this heaven and earth, rejoicing when deficient in moisture in the womb of the waters (the firmament), both concurring in community (of function), although they occupy various dwellings, like the diversified nests of a bird. [In community of function: in the interchange of moisture].
3.054.07 Common (in function), disjoined, of distant termination, they remain vigilant in a permanent station; being, as it were, sisters, and ever young; they therefore address each other by twin appellations. [Heaven and earth are the personifications here alluded to; address each other by twin appellations: a_du bruva_te mithuna_ni na_ma; heaven and earth are designated together by urvi and other duplicate terms: urvya_dibhir dvandva na_ma_bhir dya_va_pr.thivyavucyate].
3.054.08 These two keep all born things discrete, and, although comprehending the great divinities, are not distressed; all moving and stationary beings rest upon one (basis), whether animals, or birds, or creatures of various kinds. [Keep all born things discrete: heaven and earth all that is born distinct, by furnishing interval or space, avaka_s'aprada_nena].
3.054.09 I consider at present the eternal and ancient sisterhood to us of you, our great protectress and progenitrix, within whose vast and separated path your eulogists, the gods, travel in their chariots. [Protectress and progenitrix: mahah pitur janitur ja_mi tan nah = mahatyah pa_layitryah janayitryastava, of you, that is, of the heaven; ja_mi = ja_mitva, or bhaginitvam, sisterhood, the condition of a relative sister; this will not allow of pita_ and janita_ being rendered father and progenitor].
3.054.10 I repeat this hymn, heaven and earth, to you; and may the soft-bellied, fire-tongued Mitra, royal Varun.a, the youthful A_dityas, all cognizant of the past, and proclaiming (their own acts), hear it. [Proclaiming: papratha_na_h = sva_ni sva_ni karma_n.i prathayantah].
3.054.11 The golden-handed, soft-tongued Savita_ is descending from heaven (to be present) thrice (daily) at the sacrifice; accept, Savita_, the praise (recited) by the worshippers, and thereupon grant to us all our desires.
3.054.12 May the divine Tvas.t.a_, the able artificer, the dextrous-handed, the possessor of wealth, the observer of truth, bestow upon us those things (which are necessary) for our preservation; r.bhus, associated with Pu_s.an, make us joyful, as they (the priests), with uplifted stones, prepare the sacred libation.
3.054.13 May the Maruts, whose cars are the lightning, who are armed with spears, resplendent, destroyers of foes, from whom the waters proceed, (who are) unresting and adorable, and may Sarasvati_ hear (my prayer); and may you (maruts), speedy in your liberality, bestow (upon us) riches and good offspring.
3.054.14 May (our) praises and prayers, the causes of good fortune, attain at this sacrifice Vis.n.u, the object of many rites; he, the wide-stepping; whose commands the many-blending regions of space, the generators (of all beings), do not disobey.
3.054.15 Indra, invested with all energies, has filled both heaven and earth with his greatness; do you, who are the destroyer of cities, the slayer of Vr.tra, the leader of a conquering host, collect cattle and bestow them abundantly upon us.
3.054.16 Na_satyas, my protectors, inquirers (after the wishes) of your kinsman, beautiful is your cognate appellation of As'vins; be to us the liberal donors of riches; do you, who are irresistible, protect the offerer (of the oblation) with unblameable (defences).]
3.054.17 Sages acquainted with the past, excellent is that beautiful appellation under which you have both become gods in (the sphere of) Indra; do you, Indra, the invoked of many, a friend, (associated) with the beloved r.bhus, shape this prayer for our benefit. [That beautiful appellation: ca_ru na_ma = agreeable or acceptable act or devotion, na_makarma na_ma_na_m va_, ca_ru, manoharam, by which the As'vins attained deification, yena devatvam pra_pnutha; in the preceding verse, saja_tyam ca_ru na_ma is explained as saja_te bhavam kamani_yam, desirable cognate appellation].
3.054.18 May Aryaman, Aditi, the adorable (gods), and the unimpeded functions of Varun.a (protect) us; keep us from (following) the course unpropitious to offspring, and may our dwelling be abundant in progeny and cattle. [Keep us from the course: yuyota no anapatya_ni gantoh: anapatya_ni = putra_n.a_m ahita_ni karman.i tanma_rga_t pr.thak kuruta].
3.054.19 May the messenger of the gods, engendered in many places, everywhere proclaim us void of offence; may earth and heaven, the waters, the sun, and the vast firmament, with the constellation, hear us.
3.054.20 May the (divine) showerers (of benefits), the deities of the mountains, and those abiding in fixed habitations, propitiated by the sacrificial food, hear us; may Aditi, with the A_dityas, heqar us; may the Maruts grant us auspicious felicity. [Abiding in fixed habitations: dhruvaks.ema_sah nis'calastha_nah, those of fixed places; it may be an epithet of parvata_sah].
3.054.21 May our path ever be easy of going, and provided with food; sprinkle, gods, the plants with sweet water; (safe) in your friendship, Agni, may my fortune never be impaired, but may I occupy a dwelling (abounding) with riches and ample food.
3.054.22 Taste (Agni) the oblations, make manifest (for us) abundant food measure out the viands before us; you overcome all those (who are) our enemies in conflict; favourably inclined towards us lighten up all our (ceremonies) day by day.

r.s.i: praja_pati vais'va_mitra or praja_pati va_cya; devata_: vis'vedeva; chanda: tris.t.up

3.055.01 When the preceding dawns appear, the great imperishable (light) is engendered in the (firmament, the) sphere of the waters, and then the worshipper is alert to perform the rites (due to) the gods, for great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [mahad deva_na_m asuratvam ekam: this is the burden of this and following verses; asuratvam is the abstract form of asura, explained strong, powerful, prabala_, from asyati, who or what throws or impels all things or beings, asyati, s'ipati sarvan: the abstract ispra_balyam or ais'varyam, might or sovereigny; ekam = one, is explained mukhyam, chief].
3.055.02 Let not the gods, Agni, now do us harm, nor the ancient progenitors, who have come to know the degree (of divinity); nor the manifester of light between the two ancient dwellings (earth and heaven, the sun); for great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.03 Variously do my manifold desires alight; present at the solemnity, I recite ancient (hymns); when the fire is kindled we speak indeed the truth, for great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.04 The universal sovereign is conveyed to many directions; he sleeps in the places of repose; he is connected with the forests; one mother (heaven) nourishes the child; the other (earth) gives him a dwelling; great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [The universal sovereign: sama_na_ ra_ja may imply either Agni or the Soma].
3.055.05 Existing in ancient plants, abiding afterwards in new, he enters into the young (herbs) as soon as they are produced; unimpregnated they become pregnant and bear fruit; great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
[Existing in ancient plants: Said of either Agni or the Sun].
3.055.06 The child of two mothers sleeps in the west, but (in the morning) the single infant proceeds unobstructed (through the sky); these are the functions of Mitra and Varun.a; great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [Mitra and Varun.a: Mitra presiding over day; Varun.a over the night, both being forms of one Agni].
3.055.07 The child of two mothers, the invoker of the gods at sacrifices, the universal sovereign, proceeds thenceforward (in the sky); the root (of all), he abides (in the houses of the pious); the reciters of pleasant (words) offer him agreeable (praises); great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.08 All (creatures) approaching too near his confines are beheld with their faces turned away as (an enemy) flies from a combatant; obvious (to all), he penetrates the water for its destruction; great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.09 In those (plants) the aged messenger (of the gods) constantly abides; mighty, he presses with the radiant (sun) through the region of space; assuming various forms, he looks (complacently) upon us; great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.10 Pervading and protecting (all), possessing grateful and immortal radiance, he preserves the supreme path (or the rains), for Agni knows all these worlds; great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.11 The twin pair (day and night) adopt various forms; one of them shines brightly, the other is black; twin sisters are they, one black and the other white; great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.12 Where the mother and daughter, two productive kine, unite, they nourish each other; I worship them both in (the firmament), the dwelling of the waters great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [They nourish each other: earth and heaven by the interchange of moisture].
3.055.13 Licking the calf of the other, one of them lows aloud; the cow offers her udder for the one that is without mosture (the earth), and she (the earth) is refreshed by the milk of the rain; great and unequalles is the might of the gods. [Licking the calf: the calf is said to be Agni, the cow with milk is the sky, whose udder is the cloud, whence the rain of which the earth is in want descends: r.tasya sa_ prayasa_ pinvatel.a_ = jalavarjita_ pr.thivy a_dityasyodakena sikta_ bhavati vars.a_ka_le (a_ditya_jjayte vr.s.tih--Manu 3.76), the earth without water is sprinkled by the water of the sun in the rainy season].
3.055.14 The earth wears bodies of many forms; she abides on high cherishing her year and a half old (calf); knowing the abode of the truth (the sun), I offer worship; great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [The earth: padya in the text is explained as bhu_mi, deriving it from pad, or foot, the earth, i.e. having been created from the feet of the Creator; abides on high: on the altar; year and a half old calf: tryavim sardha_ sam.vatsara vayasko vatsah, a calf a year and half old; i.e, the sun of that period, or it may apply to the sun, as the protector (avih) of the three (tri) worlds; the abode of truth: r.tasya sadman, satyabhu_tasya_dityasya stha_nam, the place of the sun, who is one with the truth].
3.055.15 Like two (distinguishing) impressions, they (day and night) are placed visible in the midst (between heaven and earth), one hidden, one manifest; the path (of both) is common, and that is universal (for good and evil) great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.16 May the kine without their young, abiding (in the heaven), and though unmilked, yet yielding milk and ever fresh and youthfu,l be shaken (so as to perform their functions); great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [The kind: either the regions of space of the clouds].
3.055.17 When the showerer roars in other (regions) he sends down the rain upon a different herd, for he is the victor, the auspicious, the sovereign; great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [Upon a different herd: anyasmin yu_the, a herd, or troop,of regions, dis'a_m vr.nde].
3.055.18 We proclaim, people, the wealth of the hero, (Indra), in horses; the gods know his (affluence); six, or five and five, harnessed to his car, convey him; great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [Six or five: s.ol.ha_ yukta_h pan~capan~ca vahanti = either the six seasons of the year, or, by combining the cold and dewy seasons, five; these are figurately Indra's horses.
3.055.19 The divine Tvas.t.a_ the impeller (of all), the multiform, has begotten and nourished a numerous progeny, for all these worlds are of him; great and unequalled is the might of the gods.
3.055.20 He has filled the two vast receptacles (heaven and earth) united (with creatures); they are both penetrated by his lustre; the hero spoiling the treasures (of the foe) is renowned; great and unequalled is the might of the gods. [The two vast receptacles: camvau, the two vessels in which gods and men and men eat, camanty adanty anayor devamanus.ah; this would imply vessels or ladles, but the explanation is that the two that are or enjoyed by living beings, i.e. heaven and earth].
3.055.21 Our king, the nourisher of all, abides (in the firmament) nearest to this earthlike a benevolent friend; the valiant (Maruts) precede him (when abroad), and dwell in his mansion; great and unequalles is the might of the gods.
3.055.22 The plants, Indra, come to perfection by you; from you the waters (flow); earth bears her treasures for you; may we, your friends, be sharers of these blessings; great unequalled is the might of the gods.

r.s.i: va_madeva gautama; devata_: r.bhugan.a; chanda: tris.t.up

4.033.01 I send my prayer as a messenger to the r.bhus; I solicit (of them) the cow, the yielder of the white milk, for the dilution (of the Soma libation); for they, as swift as the wind, the doers of good works, were borne quickly across the firmament by rapid steeds. [WSere borne quickly: as applicable to the deified mortals, the allusion is to their being transported to the sphere of the gods; if the reference is to the rays of the sun, it implies merely their dispersal through the sky].
4.033.02 When the r.bhus, by honouring their parents with renovated (youth), and by other works, had achieved enough, they thereupon proceeded to the society of the gods, and, considerate, they bring nourishment to the devout (worshipper).
4.033.03 May they who rendered their decrepid and dropsy parents, when, like two dry posts, again perpetually young, Va_ja, Vibhavan, and R.bhu associated with Indra, drinkers of the Soma juice, protect our sacrifice.
4.033.04 Inasmuch as for a year the R.bhus preserved the (dead) cow, inasmuch as for a year they invested it with flesh, inasmuch as for a year they continued its beauty they obtained by their acts of immortality.
4.033.05 The eldest said, let us make two ladles; the younger said, let us make three: Tvas.t.a_, R.bhus, has applauded your proposal.
4.033.06 The men, (the R.bhus), spoke the truth, for such (ladles) they made, and thereupon the R.bhus partook of that libation; Tvas.t.a_, beholding the four ladles, brilliant as day, was content.
4.033.07 When the R.bhus, reposing for twelve days, remained in the hospitality of the uncealable (sun) they rendered the fields fertile, they led forth the rivers, plants sprung upon the waste, and waters (spread over) the low (places).
4.033.08 May those R.bhus who constructed the firm-abiding wheel-conducting car; who formed the all-impelling multiform cow; they who are the bestowers of food, the doers of great deeds, and dexterous of hand, fabricate our riches.
4.033.09 The gods were pleased by their works, illustrious in act and in thought; Va_ja was the artificer of the gods, R.bhuks.in of Indra, Vibhavan of Varun.a.
4.033.10 May those R.bhus who gratified the horses (of Indra) by pious praise, who constructed for Indra his two docile steeds, bestow upon us satiety of riches, and wealth (of cattle), like those who devise prosperity for a friend.
4.033.11 The gods verily have given you the beverage at the (third sacrifice of the) day, and its exhilarqation, not through regard, but (as the gift of one) wearied out (by penance); R.bhus, who are so (eminent), grant us, verily, wealth at this third (diurnal) sacrifice. [Wearied out by penance: r.te s'ra_ntasya sakhya_ya = na sakhitva_ya bhavanti deva_h, the gods are not through friendship, s'ra_nta_t tapo yukta_t r.te except one wearied by penance; ete s'ra_nta ato saduh, they, wearied out, therefore gave].

r.s.i: trasadasyu paurukutsa; devata_: trasadasyu (a_tmastuti), 7-10 indra_varun.a; chanda: tris.t.up

4.042.01 Twofold is my empire, that of the whole ks.atriya race, and all the immortals are ours; the gods associate me with the acts of Varun.a; I rule over (those) of the proximate form of man. [Twofold is my empire: mama dvita_ ra_s.t.ram ks.atriyasya vis'vayoh; an allusion to the military and regal order; all the immortals are ours: vis've amr.ta_ yatha_ nah, therefore he is king also over svarga; the gods associate me with the acts of Varuna: kratum sacante varun.asya deva_ ra_ja_mi kr.s.t.er upamasya vavreh: vavreh = ru_pa, form; ra_ja_mi = ra_jatirais'varya karma_].
4.042.02 I am the king Varun.a; on me (the gods) bestow those principal energies (that are) destructive of the asuras; (they) associate me with the worship of Varun.a; I rule over (the nets) of the proximate form of man.
4.042.03 I am Indra, I am Varun.a, I am those two in greatness; (I am) the vast, profound, beautiful, heaven and earth; intelligent, I give Tvas.t.a_-like animation to all beings; I uphold earth and heaven].
4.042.04 I have distributed the moisture-shedding waters; I have upheld the sky as the abode of the water; by the water I have become the preserver of the water, the son of Aditi, illustrating the threefold elementary space. [As the abode of the water: sadane r.tasya may imply, for the place or sphere of the sun, the word r.ta is used for udaka or a_ditya; illustrating the three-fold elementary space: i.e., for me the creator has made the three worlds, madartham eva ks.itya_dilokatrayam aka_rs'it parames'varah; or, simply, the earth with three ore-elements, tridha_tu].
4.042.05 Warriors well mounted, ardent for contest invoke me; selected (combatants invoke) me in battle; I, the affluent Indra, instigate the conflict, and, endowed with victorious prowess, I raise up the dust (in the battle).
4.042.06 I have done all these (deeds); no one resists my divine, unsurpassed vigour; and when the Soma juices, when sacred songs, exhilarate me, then the unbounded heaven and earth are both alarmed.
4.042.07 All beings recognize you (Varun.a), and your, worshipper, address these (encomiums) to Varun.a; you, Indra, are renowned as slaying Vr.tra; you have set the obstructed rivers free to flow.
4.042.08 The seven r.s.is were the protectors of this our (kingdom) when the son of Durgaha was in bonds; performing worship they obtained for (his queen) from the favour of Indra and Varun.a, Trasadasyu, like Indra the slayer of foes, dwelling near the gods. [Trasadasyu: Purukutsa, son of Durgaha, being a prisoner, his queen propitiated the seven r.s.is to obtain a son who might take his father's place; they advised her to worship Indra and Varun.a, in consequence of which Trasadasyu was born].
4.042.09 The wife of Purukutsa propitiated you two, Indra and Varun.a, with oblations and prostrations, and therefore you gave her the king Trasadasyu, the slayer of foes dwelling near the gods. [Dwelling near the gods: ardhadevam = deva_na_m sami_pe vartama_nam (yat sarves.a_mardhamindrah : Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 5.4.8.3); or, Indra is declared to be one half of all the gods, and therefore, entitled to the largest share of offerings, yat sarves.a_m ardham indrah prati tasma_d indro devata_na_m bhuyis.t.ha bha_ktmah].
4.042.10 May we, glorifying you both, be delighted by riches; may the gods be pleased by oblations, the cows by pasture; and do you, Indra and Varun.a, daily grant us that same cow, (riches) free from any imperfection. [Yajus. 7.10; free from any imperfection: anapasphurantim = ahim.sitam, unharmed; or, not going to another, ananyaga_minam].

r.s.i: vasus'ruta a_treya; devata_: a_pri_ su_kta (1 idhma or samiddha agni; 2 nara_s'a3msa, 3 il.a, 4 barhi, 5 devi_dva_ra, 6 us.a_sa_nakta_, 7 divya hota_ pracetasa, 8 sarasvati_, il.a_, bha_rati_, 9 tvas.t.a_, 10 vanaspati, 11 sva_hakr.ti); chanda: ga_yatri_

5.005.01 Offer abundant butter to the replendent Susamiddha, to Agni, to Ja_tavedas. [Susamiddha, an epithet of Agni].
5.005.02 Nara_s'am.sa animates this sacrifice he who is uninjurable, who verily is wise and sweet-handed.
5.005.03 Agno, who are I_l.ita, bring hither the wonderful and friendly Indra, with his easy going chariots for our protection.
5.005.04 (Grass), soft as wool, be spread; the worshippers praise you; be to us radiant (grass the source of) liberality. [(Grass): the barhis].
5.005.05 Open divine doors, our passages to preservation; fill full the sacrifice (with its rewards).
5.005.06 We glorify the evening and the morning lovely, food-bestowing, mighty, the mothers of sacrifice.
5.005.07 Praised (by us), divine invokers of the gods, come moving on the path of the wind, to this sacrifice of our patron. [On the path of the wind: va_tasya patman = with the swiftness of the wind, or through the firmament; to this sacrifice of our patron: manus.o no yajn~am = lit., to the sacrifice of our man, i.e. of the yajama_na].
5.005.08 May Il.a_, Sarasvati_, Mahi_, the three goddesses who are the sources of happiness, sit down, benevolent, upon the sacred grass.
5.005.09 Tvas.t.a_, being propitious, you who are diffusive in kindness, come to your own accord protect us in repeated sacrifices.
5.005.10 Wherever you know, Vanaspati, the secret forms of the gods to be, thither convey the oblations. [yatra vettha deva_na_m guhya_ na_ma_ni: na_ma_ni = ru_pa_n.i, forms; it is not soecufued as a faculty of vanaspati in any preceding hymn to the a_pris, although vanaspati, in the preceding hymns and also here represents Agni, as identified with the sacrificial post, or yu_pa, or the deity presiding over the post: yu_pa_bhima_ni_ deva].
5.005.11 The oblation is offered with reverence to Agni, to Varun.a; with reverence to Indra, to the Maruts; with reverence to the gods. [To Agni: the term is sva_ha_, who is an a_pri, or personification of Agni].

r.s.i: avasyu a_treya; devata_: indra, 8 tr.ti_yapa_da indra or kutsa, caturthapa_da indra or us'ana_, 9 indra and kutsa; chanda: tris.t.up

5.031.01 Indra, the possessor of opulence, directs downwards the car over which, intended (to receive sacrificial) viands, he presides; he proceeds unimpeded, the first of the gods, driving (his enemies before him), as a herdsman drives the herds of cattle.
5.031.02 Hasten to us, lord of horses; be not indifferent to us; distributor of manifold wealth, befriend us; for there is nothing else that is better, Indra, than you; you have given wives to those who were without women. [You have given wives: amena_m s'cijjanivatas' cakartha: mena_ = stri_, woman; jani = wife; apagatastri_ka_m.s'ca ja_ya_vatah karos.i, you make sundry persons, from whom women are separated, possessed wives].
5.031.03 When the light (of the sun) overpowers the light (of the dawn) Indra grants all (sorts of) wealth (to the worshipper); he has liberated the kine from the interior of the obstructing (mountain); he dissipates the enveloping darkness with light.
5.031.04 The R.bhus have fabricated your car, Indra, the invoked of many, adapted to its horses; Tvas.t.a_ (had made) your radiant thunderbolt; the venerable (An:girasas), praising Indra with hymns, have given him vigour for the destruction of Ahi. [The R.bhus: anavah is the text, explained manus.yah and applied to r.bhavah; the venerable an:girasas: bra_hman.a_h, bra_hman.as is the text, explained as an:girasah].
5.031.05 When the Maruts, the showerers (of benefits), glorify you, Indra, the showerer (of desires), with praises, and the exulting stones delight (to bruise the Soma), then, without horses, without chariots, they, the purifying (Maruts), dispatched by Indra, have overcome the Dasyus.
5.031.06 I celebrate, Maghavan, your ancient exploits, and those which you have newly achieved; wielder of the thunderbolt, subjugating both heaven and earth, you have distributed the wonderfully bountiful waters to man.
5.031.07 Handsome and sagacious Indra, this is your deed, that, slaying Ahi, you have here displayed your vigour; you have arrested the devices of S'us.n.a urging the combat; you have overcome the Dasyus.
[Have arrested the devices of S'us.n.a: s'us.n.asya cit pari ma_ya_ agr.bhn.a_h: mayah = yuvatih, young damsels, you have seized upon, or carried off, the young women of S'us.n.a].
5.031.08 You, Indra, (abiding on the further bank), have rendered the fertilizing waters agreeable to Yadu and Turvas'u; you two, (Indra and Kutsa), have assailed the fierce (S'us.n.a), and (having slain him), you have conveyed Kutsa (to his dwelling), and Us'ana_s and the gods have therefore honoured you both.
5.031.09 May your steeds bring you both, Indra and Kutsa riding in one chariot, to the worshipper; you have expelled him (S'us.n.a) from the waters, from his proper abode; you have driven the glooms (of ignorance) from the heart of the affluent (adorer). [To the worshipper: karn.e vahanta: karn.a = stota_, praiser, stotra_n.i karoti, or yajama_na, the institutor or maker of the rite].
5.031.10 The sage Avasyu has obtained docile horses, endowed (with the speed) of the wind; all your adorers, Indra, in this world, your friends, augment your vigour by their praises.
5.031.11 He, (Indra), has formerly arrested in battle the rapid chariot of the sun; Etas'a has born away the wheel, and (with it Indra) demolishes (his foes); may he, giving us precedence, be propitiated by our rite. [Etas'a has borne away the wheel: bharaccakram etas'ah: etas'ah is put for etasaya, he, Indra, has taken the wheel for Etas'a].
5.031.12 Indra, oh people, has come to see you, wishing to behold his friend the offerer of the libation; let us creaking stones, for whose rotation the priests hasten, supply the altar.
5.031.13 Immortal (Indra), let not the more wishing, anxiously wishing for you, fall into sin; be indeed pleased with the sacrificers, and grant vigour to those men among whom may we be (especially) yours.

r.s.i: atri bhauma; devata_; vis'vadeva_; chanda: tris.t.p, 6-17 atijagati_, 20 ekapada_ vira_t.

5.041.01 Who, Mitra and Varun.a, desiring to sacrifice to you, (is able to do so)? do you, whether (abiding) in the region of heaven, or of the vast earth, or of the firmament, protect us, and give to the donor (of the oblation), and to the sacrificer, cattle and food.
5.041.02 May those divinities, Mitra and Varun.a, Aryaman, A_yu, Indra, R.bhuks.in, the Maruts who accept pious praise, be pleased by our adorations, partaking of the gratification afforded to Rudra, the showerer (of benefits). [Divinities who accept pious praise: divinities are of two orders, those who share praises, stotrabha_jah, and those who share oblations havirbha_jah, the first is here alluded to; Rudra the showerer: the last clause may allude to the Maruts as the sons of Rudra].
5.041.03 I invoke you, As'vins, the restrainers (of desire), for the acceleration ofyour chariot with the swiftness of the wind; (priests) offer praise and oblations to the celestial destroyer of life, to the accmplisher of the sacrifice. [Celestial destroyer of life: divo asura_ya = dyotama_na_ya pra_n.a_pahartre, that is, to Rudra; yajyave = ya_gasa_dhaka_ya; asura = pra_n.ada_ta_, the giver, of life, when it will imply Su_rya or Va_yu].
5.041.04 May the divine accepter of sacrifice, of whom the Kan.vas are the priests, Tr.ta, Va_yu and Agni, concurring in satisfaction with (the ruler of) heaven, or (Su_rya and) Pu_s.an and Bhaga, and they who are the protectors of the universe, (come quickly) to the sacrifice, as the fleet course rush to battle. [Trita: may be an epithet of Va_yu; the threefold, pervading the three regions of heaen, mid-air and earth].
5.041.05 Maruts, do you bring wealth comprising horses; to acquire and preserve riches the wise man offers you praise; may the ministrant priest, (Atri), of the son of Us'ij (Kaks.i_vat), be made happy by those swift-going (horses) which are the swift-going (horses), Maruts, of you who are rapid in motion.
5.041.06 Prevail, (priests), by your prayers, on Va_yu, the divine, the fulfiller of desires, the adorable, to harness his chariot; may the light-moving accepters of sacrifice, the lovely and excellent wives (of the gods), come hither to our rite.
5.041.07 Mighty Day and Night, to you, along with the adorable (deities) of heaven, I present (the oblation) with prayers delighting and explicit; knowing, like two sages, all (that is required), do you bring (it) to the worshipper for his sacrifice.
5.041.08 I glorify you, leaders (of rites), cherishers (of many), gratifying (with oblation, you) Tvas.t.a_ the lord of foundations, and the goddess of speech, bestower of opulence, and share in the satisfaction (of the other divinities); also the lords of the forest, and the herbs, that I may obtain riches.
5.041.09 May the Parvatas be (bountiful) to us in liberal donations; may they be favourable (to us) who are the establishers (of the world) like heroes; may the adored and adorable (deity), who is accessible (to all), who is friendly to man, ever grant us increase, being propitiated by our praise. [The Parvatas: the clouds; in liberal donations: tuje nastane: tane = vistr.te, expanded; tuje = da_ne, gift; or, tuje = son; tane = grandson; accessible to all: a_ptyo yajatah: a_ptyo = a_ptavyah sarvaih, to be obtained by all; yajatah = yajani_ya, to be worshipped, that is, A_ditya; propitiated by our praise: nah s'am.sam abhis.t.au = our praise in seeking or approaching].
5.041.10 I glorify with unqualified praise the embryo of the earth-fertilizing rain, the grandson of the waters, Agni, who is threefold, who rages (upon me) not, when travelling with (his) withering rays, but, bright-haired consumes the forests. [Earth-fertilizing rain: vr.s.n.o bhu_myasya garbham: bhu_mya = suited to the earth or the firmament, bhu_mir antarks.am; in the latter case, the embryo of the firmamental rain will mean Agni as the lightning; with his withering rays: gr.n.i_te agni etari_ na s'u_s.aih = mayi gantari na krudhyati sukhakarai ras'mibhih, who is not angry upon me when going with his agreeable rays; but, s'us.a = drying up].
5.041.11 Howcan we offer (fit praise) to the mighty posterity of Rudra, or to the all-knowing Bhaga, for (the sake of obtaining) riches; may the waters, may the plants, protect us, and the heaven, the woods, and the mountains, whose tresses are trees.
5.041.12 May the lord of vigour, (Va_yu), hear our prayers, he who traverses the firmament, the circumambient; may the waters hear, bright as cities, flowing round the towering mountains. [Bright as cities: puro na s'ubhra_h = pura_n.i iva dipta, shining like cities].
5.041.13 Mighty Maruts, of goodly aspect, quickly hear (the praises) that we who repair to you repeat, offering acceptable (oblations); (the Maruts) coming hither, well disposed, come down to us, (destroying) with their weapons the mortals opposed to them, (overcome) by agitation.
5.041.14 I offer adoration to the company of the Maruts deserving of sacred sacrifice, to obtain the waters, whether born of heaven or earth; may my praises prosper; may the joy-bestowing heavens (flourish); may the rivers cherished (by the Maruts) be filled with water.
5.041.15 My praise has been continually proffered as a protectress, powerful with (the means of) preservation; may the maternal and venerable earth accept our (praises), and, (pleased) with her pious (worshippers) be (to us) straight-handed, and the giver of good. [As a protectress: varu_tri_ = asmad upadravavarayitri_, what or who keeps off oppression upon us].
5.041.16 How may we (duly) worship the liberal (Maruts) with praise, how adore the Maruts with present praise in a fitting manner, the glorious Maruts with present praise? may Ahirbudhnya contrive nor for our harm; may he be the destroyer (of our enemies).
5.041.17 The mortal (sacrificer) worships you, gods, at all times for progeny and cattle; verily, gods, the mortal worships you; may Nirr.ti, on this occasion, sustain my body with salutary food, and keep off decay.
5.041.18 Divine Vasus, may we obtain from the adorable cow invigorating and mind-sustaining food; may that liberal and benignant goddess, hastening (I, her), come for our felicity.
5.041.19 May Il.a_, the mother of the herd, and Urvas'i_ with the rivers, be favourable to us; may the bright-shining Urvas'i_ (come), commanding our devotion, and investing the worshipper with light. [Il.a_ and Urvas'i_: il.a_ = the earth, or the daughter of Manu, in the form of a cow, the mother of the herd, yu_thasya ma_ta_; or, the latter may be applied to the company of the Maruts, when Il.a_ may be madhyamika_ va_k, middle, articulate or human speech; or, the latter sense may be applied to Urvas'i_; investing the worshipper with light: abhyu_rn.arva_na_ prabhr.thasya_ yoh: the latter term should be read ayum, in the accusative, man or the yajama_na; prabhr.ta = light, tejas, or water, udakam (Nirukta 2.49) and being in the genitive, requires da_nena, by the gift of; or, the ellipse may be filled up by yajn~am, when the sentence will be: covering or protecting the sacrifice of the man making the offering].
5.041.20 May she cherish us (as the servants) of our patron U_rjavya. [sis.aktu na u_rjavyasya pus.t.eh: urjavya is the name of a ra_ja_; pus.t.eh = pos.akasya, one who cherishes or patronizes; the nominative to the verb may be either Urvas'i_ or Il.a_ or the Marudgan.ah, the company of the Maruts].

r.s.i: pratiks.atra a_treya; devata_: vis'vedeva_, 7-8 devapalyah; chanda: jagati_, 2,8 tris.t.up

5.046.01 The sage, (Pratiks.atra), has, of his own accord, attached himself to the burden (of sacrifice), like a horse (to a chariot); I support that transcendent and preservative load; I do not desire release from it, nor yet its reiterated imposition; the sage, going first, conducts (men) by the right path.
5.046.02 Agni, Indra, Varun.a, Mitra, gods, confer (upon us) strength; or, company of the Maruts, or Vis.n.u, (bestow it); and may both the Na_satyas, Rudra, the wives of the gods, Pu_s.an, Bhaga, Sarasvati_, be pleased (by our adoration).
5.046.03 I invoke for protection Indra and Agni, Mitra and Varun.a, Aditi, Svar, Earth, Heaven, the Maruts, the clouds, the waters, Vis.n.u, Pu_s.an., Brahman.aspati and Savita_. [Yajus. 33.49; Svar = a name of A_ditya].
5.046.04 Or may Vis.n.u grant us felicity, or the innoxious wind, or Soma the bestower of riches; or may the R.bhus, the As'vins, Tvas.t.a_, or Vibhvan be favourably disposed to our enrichment.
5.046.05 Or may the adorable, heaven-abiding company of the Maruts, come to us to take their seats on the sacred grass; or may Br.haspati, Pu_s.an., Varun.a, Mitra, Aryaman, bestow upon us domestic happiness.
5.046.06 Or may the glorious mountains, the beneficient rivers, be to us for our preservation; may Bhaga, the apportioner of wealth, come with abundance and protection; may this wide-pervading Aditi hear my invocation.
5.046.07 May the wives of the gods, desiring (our homage), defend us; may they so protect us that (we may obtain) vigorous (offspring) and abundant food; whether terrestrial, or those in charge of the waters (in the firmament), do you, goddesses, earnestly invoked, bestow upon us felicity.
5.046.08 Or may the goddesses, the wives of the gods, accept (the offering); Indra_n.i_, Agna_yi_, the radiant As'vini_ Rodasi, Varun.a_ni, may each hear (our prayer); may the goddesses partake (of the oblation); may the (personified) season of the wives of the gods, accept it. [Rodasi: wife of Rudra; earlier, she had been referred to as the bride of the Maruts; may the goddesses partake: vyantu devi_h, may the goddesses eat (Nirukta 12.46); the seacon of the wives of the gods: ya r.tur jani_na_m that which is the time of the wives of the gods, that is, the goddesses presiding over it: yo devajayanam ka_lastadabhima_na devyah].

r.s.i: bharadva_ja ba_rhaspatya; devata_: indra; chanda: tris.t.up, 15 dvipada_ tris.t.up

6.017.01 Fierce Indra, glorified by us, drink of the Soma, (animated) by which you have discovered the vast herd of cattle (stolen by Pan.is), and, overcomer of enemies, wielder of the thunderbolt, you have slain, by your strength all opposing foes.
6.017.02 Drink it, Indra, you who enjoy the flavourless Soma; you who are the preserver, the handsome-chinned, the showerer (of benefits) on those who praise you; who are the breaker of mountains, the wielder of the thunderbolt, the curber of steeds, do you bestow upon us various food.
6.017.03 Drink it as of old, and may it exhilarate ou; hear our prayer, and be exalted by our praises; make the sun visible, nourish us with food, destroy our enemies, rescue the cattle.
6.017.04 Abounding in food, Indra, let these exhilarating draughts copiously bedew you, the resplendent; let the inebriating juices delight you who are mighty, deficient in no (excellence), powerful, manifold, the overcomer of foes.
6.017.05 By which (juices) being exhilarated you have appointed the sun and the dawn (to their offices), driving away the solid (glooms); you have penetrated, Indra, the mountain, unmoved from its own seat, concealing the cattle.
6.017.06 By your wisdom, by your deeds, through your power, you have developed the mature (milk) in the immature (udders), you have opened the strong doors for the cattle (to come forth); associated with An:girasas, you have liberated the cows from their fold.
6.017.07 You have filled the wide earth, Indra. With (the power of) your deeds; you, the mighty one, have propped up the vast heaven; you have sustained the heaven and earth, whose children are the gods, (and who are) the old and mighty parents of sacrifice. [The old and mighty: pratne ma_tara_ yahvir r.tasya = the ancient parents, the offspring or Brahma_; r.tasya, brahman.a yahvi purtyau yahu = A_patya (Nighan.t.u 2.2)].
6.017.08 All the gods then placed you, Indra, as their mighty chief in front for battle; when the impious (asuras) assailed the deities; the Maruts supported Indra in the conflict. [The Maruts: according to the legent the gods ran away, the Maruts alone stood by Indra].
6.017.09 The heaven bowed down in the two-fold dread of your thunderbolt, and your individual wrath, when Indra, the giver of food, struck to the sleep (of death) the assailing Ahi.
6.017.10 Fierce Indra, Tvas.t.a_ constructed for you, the mighty one, the thousand-edged, the hundred-angled thunderbolt, wherewith you have crushed the ambitious audacious, loud-shouting Ahi.
6.017.11 For you, Indra, whom all the Maruts, alike pleased, exalt, may Pu_s.an and Vis.n.u dress for you a hundred buffaloes, and to him may the three streams flow with the inebriating, foe-destroying Soma. [Dress for you a hundred buffaloes: pacat s'atam mahis.a_n tubyam, may he cook for you a hundred male animals; pum-pas'u_n pacet; three streams: trin.i sara_m.si = three cups or vessels called a_havanis, holding the soma which has been purified or filtered into the pitcher, the dron.akalas'a].
6.017.12 You have set free the greatly obstructed and arrested water of the rivers, the flux of the waters; you have directed them, Indra, upon their downward paths; you have sent them rapidly down to the ocean.
6.017.13 May our new prayer bring to our protection you, Indra, who are the maker of all these (things that exist); who are mighty, fierce, undecaying, the giver of strength, having excellent descendants, the Maruts, well-armed, the bearer of the thunderbolt.
6.017.14 Do you, resplendent Indra, uphold us who are devout, for (the obtaining of) food, of sustenance, of nourishment, of wealth; bestow upon Bharadva_ja pious posterity, with numerous attendants; be with us, Indra, every future day. [For food: va_ja_ya, s'aravase, is.e ca ra_ye, the first three are synonyms, meaning food].
6.017.15 May we, by this (praise), obtain food granted by the deity; may we, blessed with excellent male descendants, be happy for a hundred winters.

r.s.i: garga bha_radva_ja; devata_: indra, 1-5 soma, 20 devabhu_mi, br.haspati-indra, 22-25 sa_m.rjya prastoka (da_na stuti), 26-28 ratha, 29-30 dundubhi, 31 dundubhi and indra; chanda: tris.t.up; 14 br.hati_; 23 anus.t.up; 24 ga_yatri_, 25 dvipada_ tris.t.up; 27 jagati_

6.047.01 Savoury indeed is this (Soma); sweet is it, sharp, and full of flavour; no one is able to encounter Indra in battles after he has been quaffing this (Soma).
6.047.02 The savoury Soma, drunk on this occasion, has been most exhilarating; by drinking of it Indra has been elevated to the slaying of Vr.tra, and it has destroyed the numerous hosts of S'ambara and the ninetynine cities. [dehyah = dehih; digdhah = smeared or plastered, implying purih, cities, as if thy consisted of stucoed or plastered houses].
6.047.03 This Soma inspires my speech; this develops the desired intelligence; this sagacious (Soma) has created the six vast conditions, from which no creature is distinct. [Six vast conditions: heaven, earth, day, night, water, and plants].
6.047.04 This it is which formed the expanse of the earth, the compactness of the heaven; this Soma has deposited the ambrosia in its three principal (receptacles), and has upheld the spacious firmament. [Three principal receptacles: plant, water and cows; has upheld the spacious: Soma as the moon and Soma as a product; cf. svamima_ os.adhi_h vis'va_stva_mapo ajanayastvam ga_h tvama_ tatanthorvantariks.am: RV 1.091.22].
6.047.05 This makes known the wonderfully beautiful and inspiring (solar) radiance) at the appearance of the dawns, whose dwelling is the firmament; this mighty (Soma) has sustained the heaven with a powerful support, th sender of rain, the leader of the winds.
6.047.06 Hero, Indra, who are the slayer of foes in contests for (the acquisition of) treasures, drink boldly from the pitcher; drink copiously at the noonday rite; receptacle of rices, bestow riches upon us.
6.047.07 Like one who goes before us, Indra, (on the road), look out, bring before us infinite wealth; be our conductor beyond the bounds (of want), convey us safely over (peril); be our careful guide, our gude to desirable (affluence). [Look out: pra n.ah pura eteva pas'ya, like one who is preceding us, look; look after the travellers under the charge of the ma_rgaraks.aka, the protector of the road, an escort, or perhaps, the leader of a ka_fila_].
6.047.08 Do you, Indra, who are wise, conduct us to the spacious world (of heaven), to a blessed state of happiness, light, and safety; may we recline in the graceful, protecting, and mighty arms of you the ancient one.
6.047.09 Place us, possessor of riches, in your ample chariot, (behind) your powerful horses; bring to us from among all viands the most excellent food; let not, Maghavan, any opulent man surpass us in wealth.
6.047.10 Make me happy, Indra; be pleased to prolong my life; shapen my intellect like the edge of a metal sword; whatsoever, desirous (of propitiating) you, I may utter, be pleased by it; render me the object of divine protection.
6.047.11 I invoke, at repeated sacrifice, Indra, the preserver, the protector, the hero, who is easily propitiated, Indra, the powerful, the invoked of many; may Indra, the lord of affluence, bestow upon us prosperity.
6.047.12 May the protecting, opulent Indra be the bestower of felicity by his protections; may he, who is all-knower of felicity by his protections; may he, who is all-knowing, foil our adversaries; may he keep us out of danger, and may we be the possessors of excellent posterity.
6.047.13 May we continue in the favour of that adorable (deity) even in his auspicious good-will; may that protecting and opulent Indra drive far from us, into extinction, all those who hate us.
6.047.14 To you the praises and prayers of the worshipper hasten like a torrent down a declivity; and you thunderer, aggregate the immense wealth (of sacrificial offerings), copious libations, and milk, and the Soma. [apo ga_h yuvase samindu_n: apo = vasati_vari_ which is said by Ka_tya_yana Su_tra 8.9.7-10 to be portions of water taken from a running stream on the evening previous to the ceremony, and kept in jars in different parts of the sacrificial chamber, to be mixed with the Soma; cf. Taittiri_ya Yajus. , Prapa_t.haka III. Anuva_ka XII).
6.047.15 Who may (adequately) praise him? Who may satisfy him? Who offer worthy adoration? Since Maghava is daily conscious of his own terrible (power); by his acts he makes first one and then the other precede and follow, as (a man) throws out his feet (alternately in walking). [Make first one and then: that is, Indra, at his pleasure, makes the first of his worshippers the last, and the last the first].
6.047.16 The hero Indra is renowned; humiliating every formidable (foe), and repeatedly changing the place of one (worshipper) with that of another; Indra, the enemy of the arrogant, the soverign of both (heaven and earth), calls again and again (to encourage) the men who are his worshippers.
6.047.17 Indra rejects the friendship of those who are formost (in pious acts), and, depositing them, associates with (their) inferiors; or (again) shaking off those who neglect his worship, Indra abides many years with those who serve him.
6.047.18 Indra, the prototype, has assumed various forms, and such is his form as that which (he adopts) for his manifestation; Indra, multiform by his illusion, proceeds (to his many worshippers), for the horses, yoked to his car are a thousand. [Indra has assumed: Indra presents himself as Agni, Vis.n.u, or Rudra, or any other deity who is the actual object of worship, and is really the deity tobe adored; he is identifiable with each; Horses yoked: Indra's chariots and horses are multiplied according to the forms in which he manifests himself; Indra is here identified with Parames'vara, the supreme first cause, identical with creation].
6.047.19 Yoking his horses to his car, Tvas.t.a_ shines in many places here in the three worlds; who (else), sojourning daily among his present worshippers, is their proector against adversaries? [In this r.ca,Tvas.t.a_ is an appellative of Indra, the ancient artificer!].
6.047.20 We have wandered, gods, into a desert where there is no track of cattle; the vast extant earth has become the protectress of murderers; direct us, Br.haspati, in our search for cattle; show the path, Indra, to your votary being astray. [Garga, the author of this su_kta, is said to have lost his way in a desert; he repeated this r.ca to Br.haspati and Indra, who enabled him to regain his road; no track of cattle: agavyu_ti ks.etram = gosan~cararahitam des'am, a place devoid of the grazing of cattle].
6.047.21 Indra, becoming manifest from his abode (in the firmament), dissipates, day by day, the resembling glooms, (so that he may distinguish) the other portion, (or the day); and the showerer has slain the two wealth-seeking slaves, Varcin and S'ambara, in (the country of) Udavraja. [udavraja, des'a vis'es.ah, a sort of country, one into which the waters flow, udaka_ni vrajantyasmin].
6.047.22 Prastoka has given to your worshipper, Indra, ten purses of gold, and ten horses, and we have accepted this treasure from Divoda_sa, the spoil won by Atithigva from S'ambara. [Ten purses of gold: das'a kos'aih suvarn.a pu_rn.am das'akos'a_n, the ten bags or chests full of gold; atithigva: prastoka, divoda_sa and atithigva, are different names of the same person, a ra_ja_, the son of Sr.n~jaya].
6.047.23 I have received ten horses, ten purses, clothes, and ample food and ten lumps of gold from Divoda_sa.
6.047.24 As'vattha has given to Pa_yu ten chariots with their horses, and a hundred cows to the priests. [To the priests: atharvabhyah = r.s.is of the atharvagotra; pa_yu is the brother of Garga; As'vattha = Prastoka].
6.047.25 The son of Sr.n~jaya has reverenced the Bharadva_jas who have accepted such great wealth for the good of all men.
6.047.26 (Chariot made of the) forest lord, be strong of fabric; be our friend; be our protector, and be manned by warriors; you are wrapped with cow-hides; keep us steady; and may he who rides in you be victorious over conquered (foes). [Be manned by warriors: suvi_ro bhava = s'u_rabhat.t.aih putra_dibhir va_ yuktah, joined with warriors, or with sons and the rest; you are wrapped with cow-hides: gobhih sannaddhosi = you are bound together by cow; govika_raih, by what are formed from cattle; in the next r.ca, gobhira_vr.tam = carmabhih parita aves.t.itam, encompassed round with hides, as if the exterior of the war-chariot especially were so strengthened; or, encompassed with rays of light, or with splendours, gobhih, tejobhih].
6.047.27 Worship with oblations the chariot constructed of the substance of heaven and earth, the extracted essence of the forest lords; the velocity of the waters; the encompassed with the cow-hide; the thunderbolt (of Indra).
6.047.28 Do you, divine chariot, who are the thunderbolt of Indra, the precursor of the Maruts, the embryo of Mitra, the navel of Varun.a, propitiated by this our sacrifice, accept the oblation. [The precursor of Maruts: maruta_m ani_kam mitrasya garbho varun.asya na_bhih: ani_kam = agrabhu_tam, being before, out-stripping in speed; or, mukhyam, principal or leader; garbha of Mitra: the car is said to be contained by Mitra, the ruler of the day, as moving by day; na_bhi of Varun.a: it is a fixed point or centre for the deity ruling over the night, when the car of Indra or Su_rya stands still; another interpretation: garbha is from gr., to praise; mitrasya garbha = su_ryen.a stu_yama_na, to be praised by the sun; na_bhi is from na_bh, to injure; hence, the weapon of Varun.a].
6.047.29 War-drum, fill with your sound both heaven and earth; and let all things, fixed or moveable, be aware of it; do you, who are associated with Indra and the gods, drive away our foes to the remotest distance.
6.047.30 Sound loud against the (hostile) host; animate our prowess; thunder aloud, terrifying the evil-minded; rapid, drum, those whose delight is to harm us; you are the fist of Indra; inspire us with fierceness.
6.047.31 Recover these our cattle, Indra; bring them back; the drum sounds repeatedly as a signal; our leaders, mounted on their steeds, assemble; may our warriors, riding in their cars, Indra, be victorious. [Yajus. 29, 55-57 has this and thr preceding two r.cas].

r.s.i: r.jis'va_ bha_radva_ja; devata_: vis'vedeva_; chanda: tris.t.up, 15 s'akvari_

6.049.01 I commend with new hymns the man observant of his duty, and the beneficent Mitra and Varun.a; may they, the mighty ones, Varun.a, Mitra, and Agni, come to our rite, and listen (to our praises). [The man observant: stus.e janam suvratam = daivyam janam, the divine people, devasan:gham, the company of the gods].
6.049.02 (I incite the worshipper) to offer worship to Agni, who is to be adored at the sacrifices of every ma; whose acts are free from arrogance; the lord of the two youthful (brides, heaven and earth); the child of heaven, the son of strength, the briliant symbol of sacrifice.
6.049.03 May the two daughters of the radiant (sun) of various form, of whom one glitters with stars, the other (is bright) with the sun, mutually opposed, proceeding diversely, purifying (all things), and entitled to our laudation, be pleased by the praise they hear (from us). [The two daughters: day and night, the daughters of the sun, directly or their cause, indirectly].
6.049.04 May our earnest praise proceed to the presence of Va_yu, the possessor of vast riches, the desired of all, the filler of his chariot (with wealth for his worshippers); most adorable (Va_yu), who are riding in a radiant car, and driving your Niyut (steeds), do you, who are far-seeing, show favour to the sage, (your adorer). [kavim iyaks.asi prayajyo: prayajyo is applied to the priest, the adhvaryu; worship, venerable priest, the wise Va_yu...]
6.049.05 May that splendid car of the As'vins, which is harnessed at a thought, clothe my form (with radiance); that (car) with which, Na_satya_s, leaders of (rites), you go to the dwelling (of the worshipper) to fulfil his desires for his posterity and himself.
6.049.06 Parjanya and Va_ta, showerers of rain, and from te firmament available waters; sage Maruts, hearers of the truth, establishers of the world, multiply the moveable (wealth of him) by whose praises (you are propitiated). [Multiply: jagad a_kr.n.udhvam = jagat: fixed as well as moveable, all living things, jagat stha_vara jan:gama_tmakam sarvam pra_n.ija_tam].
6.049.07 May the purifying, amiable, graceful Sarasvati_, the bride of the hero, favour our pious rite; may she, together with the wives of the gods, well pleased, bestow upon him who praises her a habitation free from defects and impenetrable (to wind and rain), and (grant him) felicity. [Amiable: kanya_ = a maiden (gna_h ga_yajya_di_ni chanda_m.si, chanda_m.si vai gna_h: Taitiri_ya Sam.hita_ 5.1.7.2); kamani_ya_, to be desired or loved; vi_rapatni_ = the wife of the hero (Praja_pati or Brahma_); or, simply, the protectress of heroes or of men].
6.049.08 May (the worshipper), influenced by the hope (of reward), approach with praise the adorable (Pu_s.an), protector of all path; may he bestow upon us cows with golden horns; may Pu_s.an bring to perfection our every rite. [Protector: pathaspathah paripatim: Pu_s.an is the lord of the paths].
6.049.09 May the illustrious Agni, the invoker of the gods, worship (with this oblation), Tvas.t.a_, the first divider (of forms), the renowned, the giver of food, the well-handed, the vast, the adored of householders, the readily invoked. [The adored: yajatam pastya_na_m: pastyam = house, and by metonymy used for householder, gr.hasthair yajani_yam].
6.049.10 Exalt Rudra, the parent of the world, with these hmns by day; (exalt) Rudra (with them) by night; animated by the far-seeing, we invoke him, mighty, of pleasing aspect, undecaying, endowed with felicity, (the source of) prosperity.
6.049.11 Ever youthful wise, and adorable Maruts, come to the praise of your adorer; thus augmenting, leaders (of rites), and spreading (through the firmament), like rays (of light), refresh the scanty woods (with rain). [Like rays of light: naks.anto an:girasvat = an:girasah gamanas'i_la_ras'mayah, rays endowed with motions; te yatha s'i_ghram nabhastalam vya_pnuvanti tad vat, as they spread quickly through the sky, so) do the winds; or, if an:girasa is a reference to a r.s.i, the property of rapid movement is assigned to the r.s.is: yad va r.s.ayastad vacchi_ghraga_minah].
6.049.12 Offer adoration to the valiant, powerful, swift-movig (company of the Maruts), as the herdsman (drives his) herd to their stall; may that (company) appropriate to its own body the praises of the pious worshipper, as the firmament (is studded) with stars.
6.049.13 May we be happy in a home, in riches, in personn, in children, bestowd upon us by you, Vis.n.u, who with three (steps) made the terrestrial reions for Manu when harassed (by the asuras).
6.049.14 May Ahirbudhnya (propitiated) by (our) hymns, and Parvata and Savita_ give us food with water; may the bountiful (gods supply us), addition, with vegetable (grains); and may the all-wise Bhaga be propitious (to us) for (the acquisition of) riches. [Ahirbudhnya: budhna = antariks.a, firmament; budhnya = what or who is there born; ahi = he who goes, i.e., in the sky; parvata: the filler, pu_rayitri_, or the wielder of the thunderbolt, parvavad-vajram tadva_n; or, enemy of the mountain, gireh s'atru; in either sense, the reference is to Indra; with vegetable grains: tad os.adhibhir abhi = os.adhayas tila ma_s.a_dayah, the vegetables are sesamum, pulse and the like].
6.049.15 Grant us, (universal gods), riches, comprehending chariots, numerous dependants, many male offspring, (wealth) the giver of efficiency to the solemn rite, and a dwelling free from decay, wherewith we may overcome malevolent men and unrighteous (spirits), and afford support to those people who are devoted to the gods.

r.s.i: r.jis'va_ bha_radva_ja; devata_: vis'vedeva_; chanda: tris.t.up

6.050.01 I invoke with adorations, for the sake of felicity, the divine Aditi ad Varun.a, Mitra and Agni, Aryaman, the overthrower of foes, worthy of devotion, Savita_ and Bhaga, and (all) protecting divinities.
6.050.02 Radiant Su_rya, render the luminous deiies, who have Daks.a for their progenitor, void of offence towards us; they who are twice born, desirous of sacrifice, observant of truth, possessors of wealth, deserving of worship, whose tongue is Agni. [Who have Daks.a: Daks.apitr.n = daks.ah pita_maho yes.a_m, they of whom Daks.a is the grandfather; the grandchildren of Daks.a were sentiments and passions; pitara, therefore, is understood only in the general sense of priority or seniority; they who are twice born: dvijanma_nah, they who have two births, i.e. they who are manifest or present in two spheres, heaven and earth].
6.050.03 Or bestow, Heaven and Earth, vast strength; give us, Earth and Heaven, a spacious habitation for our comfort; so arrange, that infinite wealth may be ours, remove, beneficent deities, iniquity from our abode.
6.050.04 May the sons of Rudra, givers of dwellings, the unsubdued, invoked on this occasion, stoop down to us, inasmuch as we call upon the divine Maruts that they may be our helpers in difficulty, great or small.
6.050.05 With whom the divine Heaven and Earth are associated; whom Pu_s.an, the rewarder (of his worshippers) with prosperity, honours; when, Maruts, having heard our invocation, you come hither, then on your several paths all beings tremble.
6.050.06 Praise, worshipper, with a new hymn, that hero, Indra, who is deserving of praise; may he, so glorified hear our invocation; may he, so lauded, bestow upon us abundant food.
6.050.07 Waters, friendly to mankind, grant uninterrupted (life) preserving (food) for (the perpetuation of our) sons and grandsons; grant us security and the removal (of all evil), for you are more than maternal physicians; you are the parents of the stationary and moveable universe. [Security and the removal of all evil: s'am.yoh: s'amanam upadrava_n.a_m, the appeasing of oppressiosn or violences; ya_vanam pr.thakkartavya_na_m, the making separate of those things which are to be kept off].
6.050.018 May the adorable, golden-handed Savita_, the preserver, come to us; he, the munificent, who, like the opening of the dawn, displays desirable (riches) to the offerer of the oblation.
6.050.09 And do you, son of strength, bring back today the deities to this our sacrifice; may I be ever in (the enoyment of) your bounty; may I, through your protection, Agni, be blessed with excellent male descendants.
6.050.10 Wise Na_satya_s come quickly to my invocation (united) with holy acts; (extricate us) from thick darkness, as you did extricate Atri; protect us, leaders (of rites) from danger in battle.
6.050.11 Be unto us, gods, donors of splendid, invigorating riches, comprising male descendants, and celebrated by many; celestial A_dityas, terrestrial Vasus, offspring of Pr.s'ni, children of the waters, granting our desires, make us happy. [Celestial A_dityas: divya_, the celestial, that is, the A_ dityas; pa_rthiva_sa_h, terrestrial, that is, the Vasus; go-ja_ta_h, cow-born, born of Pr.s'ni, the Maruts; apya_h, the aquatic, born in the firmament, the Rudras].
6.050.12 May Rudra and Sarasvati_, alike well pleased and Vis.n.u and Va_yu, make us happy, sending rain; and Ribhuks.in, and Va_ja, and the divine Vidha_ta_; and may Parjanya and Va_ta grant us abundant food.
6.050.13 And may the divine Savita_ and Bhaga, and the grandson of the waters, (Agni), the prodigal of gifts, preserve us; and may Tvas.t.a_ with the gods, and Earth with the seas, (preserve us).
6.050.14 May Ahirbudhnya, Aja-ekapa_d, and Earth and Ocean, hear us; may the universal gods, who are exalted by sacrifice, they who are invoked and praised (by us), to whom mystical prayers are addressed, and who have been glorified by (ancient) sages, preserve us.
6.050.15 Thus do my sons, of the race of Bharadva_ja, worship the gods with sacred rites and holy hymns; and so, adorable (deities), may you, who are worshipped and glorified, the givers of dwellings, the invincible, universal gods, ever be adored, (together with your) wives.

r.s.i: r.jis'va_ bha_radva_ja; devata_: vis'vedeva_; chanda: tris.t.up, 7-12 ga_yatri_, 14 jagati_

6.052.01 I do not regard it as worthy (of the gods) of heaven, or (those) of earth, as (fit to be compared) with the sacrifice (I offer) or with these (our) sacred rites; let, then, the mighty mountains overhelm him; let the employer of Atiya_ja be ever degraded. [r.jis'van pronounces an imprecation upon Atiya_ja, a rival priest].
6.052.02 Maruts, may the energies of that man be enfeebled; may heaven consume that impious adversary who thinks himself superior to us, and who pretends to deprecate the worship that we offer. [That impious adversary: brahmadvis.am: the next verse has brahmadvis.e; tam s'atrum, that enemy, with reference to the word brahma, which has occurred before, religious act or praise, the enemy or obstructer of prayer or praise; brahmadvis.e = bra_hamn.a dves.t.a_, the hater or enemy of the bra_hman.a].
6.052.03 Why have they called you, Soma, the protector of pious prayer? Why (have they called you) our defender against calumny? Why do you behold us subjected to reproach? Cast your destroying weapon upon the adversary of the brahman.
6.052.04 May the opening dawns preserve me; may the swelling rivers preserve me; may the firm-set mountains preserve me; may the progenitors (present) at the invocation of the gods preserve me.
6.052.05 May we at all seasons be possessed of sound minds; may we ever behold the rising sun; such may the affluent lord of riches, (Agni), render us, ever most ready to come (at our invocation), charged with our oblation to the gods.
6.052.06 May Indra be most prompt to come nigh for our protection, and Sarasvati_ dwelling with (tributary) rivers; may Parjanya, with the plants, be a giver of happiness; and may Agni, worthily praised and earnestly invoked, (be to us) like a father.
6.052.07 Come, universal gods, hear this my invocationl; sit down upon this sacred grass.
6.052.08 Come, gods, to him who honours you with the butter drippling oblation.
6.052.09 May the sons of the immortal hear our praises, and be to us the givers of felicity. [Sons of the immortal: amr.tasya su_navah: sons of Praja_pati, the Vis'vadevas; cf. Yajus. 33.77].
6.052.10 Universal gods, augmenters of sacrifice, listening to praises (uttered) at due seasons, accept your appropriate milk-offering. [yuyam payas, a mixture of milk and curds, termed a_miks.a_: cf. tapte payasi dadhya_nayat vais'vadevya_miks.a_, when the milk is boiled he brings the curds, that is, the a_miks.a_, proper for the Vis'vadevas. a_miks.a_: a mixture of boiled and coagulated milk , curd AV. x , 9 , 13 TS. VS. S'Br. ]
6.052.11 Indra, with the company of the Maruts, Mitra, with Tvas.t.a_ and Aryaman, accept our praise and these our oblations.
6.052.12 Agni, invoker of the gods, cognizant (which of) the divine assembly (is he honoured), offer this our sacrifice according to the proper order.
6.052.13 Universal gods, hear this my invocation, whether you be in the firmament or in the heaven; you who (receive oblations) by the tongue of Agni, or are to be (otherwise) worshipped; seated on this sacred grass, be exhilarated (by the Soma).
6.052.14 May the adorable, universal deities, and both heaven and earth, and the grandson, of the waters, hear my praise; let me not utter words to be disregarded, but let us, (brought) most nigh unto you, rejoice in the happiness (you bestow).
6.052.15 May those mighty deities, having power to destroy, whether they have been manifested upon earth or in heaven, or in the abode of the waters, bestow upon us and our posterity abundant sustenance both by night and day. [Having power to destroy: ahima_ya_h = a_hantr. prajn~a_H, having the wisdom or knowledge that kills; our posterity: asmabhyam is.aye: is.i is derived from is., to wish, and is explained putra_di, sons and the rest, asmabhya_m tasmai ca, to us and to it, that is, posterity, as the object of desire.
6.052.16 Agni and Parjanya, prosper my pious acts; (accept), you who are reverently invoked, our praise at this sacrifice; one of you generates food, the other posterity; grant us, therefore, food productive of descendants. [One of you generates: il.a_m anyo janayat garbham anyah: Parjanya, by sending rain, causes the growth of corn, and Agni, as the main agent in digestion, produces the vigour necessary for procreation].
6.052.17 When the sacred grass is strewn, when the fire is kindled, and when I worship (you) with a hymn, and with profound veneration, then, adorable universal gods, rejoice in the oblation (offered) today at this our sacrifice.

r.s.i: vasis.t.ha maitra_varun.i; devata_: a_pri_ su_kta (1 i_dhma, samiddha agni, 2 nara_s'am.sa, 3 i_l.a, 4 barhi, 5 devi_dva_ra, 6 u_s.a_sa_nakta_, 7 divyahota_ pracetas, 8 sarasvati_, bha_rati_, i_l.a_-tisro devya, 9 tvas.t.a_, 10 vanaspati, 11 sva_ha_kr.ti; chand: tris.t.up

7.002.01 Be gratified, Agni, by the (sacred fire) kindled by us today, emitting abundant adorable smoke; touch with your scorching flames the celestial summit; combine with the rays of the sun. [Kindled: samiddham; implies one of the A_pris, or forms of fire, although used as an epithet].
7.002.02 We celebrate with sacrifices the greatness of the adorable Nara_s'am.sa among those who are divinities, the performers of good works, the bright-shining, the upholders of rites, who partake of both kinds of oblations. [Oblations of ghi_ and libations of Soma, or other offerings: Niruktaviii.6].
7.002.03 Let us ever worship the Agni who is to be adored by us; the mighty, the dextrous, the messenger passing between heaven and earth, the speaker of truth, kindled (of old) by Manu, as now by men, that (he may come) to the solemnity. [Tanu_napa_t, is omitted; the su_kta is called an A_pri_ su_kta, apra s'abdoktatva_n idam tanu_napa_d rahitam; Agni who is to be adored by us: i_l.enyam agnim is the i_l.ita of the other a_pri_ su_ktas; mahema = to you (priests) worship].
7.002.04The worshippers bearing the sacred grass offer it with reverence, upon their knees, to Agni; worship him, priests, with oblations, invoking him to (sit down) on the spotted (grass), smeared with clarified butter.
7.002.05 The devout performers of holy rites, desirous of chariots, have had recourse to the doors (of the sacrificial chamber); (the ladles), placed to the east, are plying the fire with ghee at sacrifices, as the mother cows lick the calf, or as rivers (water the fields). [The doors: among the A_pris; pu_rvi_ s'is'um na ma_tara riha_n.e samagruvo na samanes.u an~jan = the prio (or eastern) calf like two mothers licking rivers, like in sacrifices tey anoint = pu_rvi_ pra_gagre juhu_pabhr.tau, the two ladles -- the juhu and upabhr.t-- placed at sacrifices with their ends to the east].
7.002.06 May the two youthful females, the divine and mighty day and night, the invoked of many, the possessed of wealth, seated on the sacred grass, enitled to adoration, be with us like an easily-milked cow for our welfare.
7.002.07 I am minded to adore you two sages, the ministrants at sacrifices of men, from celebrated, convey our offspring aloft, and acquire (for our use) the precious (treasures preserved) among the gods.
7.002.08 May Bharati, associated with the Bharatis; Il.a_ with gods and men; and Agni and Sarasvati_ with the Sa_rasvatas; may the three goddesses sit down before us upon this sacred grass. [Il.a_ with gods and man: il.a_ devabhir manus.yebhir agnih; Il.a_ is associated with men; Agni is associated with the goddesses. This and the three following verses are repeated from the second as.t.aka].
7.002.09 Divine Tvas.t.a_, being well-pleased, give issue to our procreative vigour, whence (a son) manly, devout, vigorous, wielder of the Soma-bruising stone, and reverencing the gods, may be born.
7.002.10 Vanaspati, bring the gods night; may Agni, the immolator, prepare the victim; let him who is truth officiate as the ministering priest, for verily he knows the birth of the gods.
7.002.11 Agni, kindled (into flame), come to our presence in the same chariot with Indra, and with the swift moving gods; may Aditi, the mother of excellent sons, sit down on the sacred grass, and may the immortal gods be satisfied with the reverentially-offered oblation.

r.s.i: vasis.t.ha maitra_varun.i; devata_: vis'vedeva_, 16 ahi, 17 ahirbudhnya; chanda: dvipada_ vira_t., 22-25 tris.t.up

7.034.01 May pure and divine praise proceed from us (to the gods) like a swift well-constructed chariot.
7.034.02 The flowing waters having known the origin of earth and heaven; may they now hear (our praises). [Waters: an allusion perhaps to the subsequently received cosmogony, as in Manu, that water was the first of created things].
7.034.03 The vast waters offer nourishment to Indra; fierce warriors (combating) with foes, glorify him.
7.034.04 Yoke for him the horses of his chariot, the Indra is the wielder of the thunderbolt, the golden-armed.
7.034.05 Proceed to the sacrifice like one who goes along the road; proceed of your own accord.
7.034.06 Go of your own accord to battle; celebrate the significant and expiatory sacrifice for (the good of) mankind.
7.034.07 From the force of this (sacrifice) the sun rises; it sustains the burden (of the world) as (earth) supports many (beings).
7.034.08 I invoke the gods, Agni, propitiating them by an inoffensive rite, I celebrate a pious act. [Inoffensive rite: aya_tuh sa_dhanr.tena: aya_tuh = aya_tuna, an epithet of r.tena, ahim.sakena, yajn~ena, intending perhaps one without animal victims].
7.034.09 Offer (worshippers) your heavenly worship; earnestly address your praises to the gods.
7.034.10 The fierce Varun.a, the thousand-eyed, contemplates the water of these rivers.
7.034.11 He is the king of kings; the beauty of the rivers his all-pervading strength is irresistible.
7.034.12 Protect us, gods, among all people; render extinct the calumny of the malevolent.
7.034.13 May the blazing (weapons) of foes pass by innocuous; separate, (gods), universally (from us) the sin of our bodies.
7.034.14 May Agni, the feeder on oblations, propitiated by our homage, protect us; to him has our praise been addressed.
7.034.15 Glorify along with the gods our friend, the grandson of the waters; may he be propitious to us.
7.034.16 I glorify with hymns the disperser of the clouds in the firmament; the water-born, sitting among the waters of the rivers. [Disperser of the clouds: ahim gr.n.i_se budhne, dividing two words usually put together: ahirbudhna: ma_gha_na_ma_hanta_ram, the firmament, or the region in which the waters of rains are bound or retained, baddha_ asmin dhr.ta_ a_pa viti vyutpatteh (Nirukta. 10.44); in the next r.ca the words are united as a name of Agni].
7.034.17 Let not Ahirbudhnya be disposed to work us harm; let not the sacrifice of the worshipper be disregarded.
7.034.18 May (the gods) bestow food upon our people; let foes contending for our riches perish.
7.034.19 Leaders of great armies, by the power of these (divinities), consume their foes, as he sun (scorches) the regions. [Of these divinities: es.a_m, of these; deva_na_m or maruta_m, of these Maruts].
7.034.20 When the wives (of the gods) come before us, may the dextrous Tvas.t.a_ grant us male progeny.
7.034.21 May Tvas.t.a_ be propitiated by this our praise; may he who is of comprehensive understanding be inclined to give us wealth.
7.034.22 May they who are the givers of gifts bestow upon us the treasure (we desire); may Rodasi_ and Varun.a_ni_ hear (our supplications); may the generous Tvas.t.a_ together with these (our) protectresses, be our sure refuge; may they give us riches.
7.034.23 May the mountains, the waters, the liberal (wives of the gods), the plants, also the heaven and the earth, consentient with the forest lords and both the heaven and earth, preserve for us those (coveted) riches.
7.034.24 Let the vast heaven and earth consent, let the brilliant Varun.a, of whom Indra is the friend consent; let all the victorious Maruts consent that we may be a recepacle for the retention of riches.
7.034.25 May Indra, Varun.a, Mitra, Agni, the waters, the herbs, the trees, be pleased by our (praise); may we, (reclining) on the lap of the Maruts, enjoy felicity; and do you ever cherish us with blessings.

r.s.i: vasis.t.ha maitra_varun.i; devata_: vis'vedeva_: chanda: tris.t.up

7.035.01 May Indra and Agni be (with us) with their protections for our hapiness; may Indra and Varun.a, to whom oblations are offered, (be with us) for our happiness; may Indra and Soma be (with us) for our happiness, our prosperity, our good; may Indra and Pu_s.an be (with us) in battle for our triumph. [May Indra and Agni be wih us: The leading refrain is the same in 13 r.cas: s'am na bhavata_m, sometimes slightly varied: may they two be our happiness; s'am = s'antyai, for our peace of happiness].
7.035.02 May Bhaga (promote) our happiness; may S'am.sa be our happiness; may Purandhi be (with us for) our happiness; may riches be (a source of) happiness; may the benediction of the true and virtuous yield us happiness; may the variously-manifested Aryaman be (with us) for our felicity. [S'am.sa = Naras'am.sa; purandhi = the possessor of much intelligence].
7.035.03 May the creator be to us for happiness; may the discriminator (between virtue and vice, Varun.a) be (with us) for our happiness; may the wide earth (contribute) with sustenance to our happiness; may the vast heaven and earth be (to us for) happiness; may the mountains (yield) us happiness; may our pious invocations of the gods secure us happiness.
7.035.04 May Agni, whose countenance is light, be (with us) for our happiness; may Mitra and Varun.a, may the As'vins be (present) for our felicity; may the virtuous be (promotive of) our happiness; may the restless wind blow for our happiness.
7.035.05 May heaven and earth, the first invoked, (promote) our happiness; may the firmament be happiness to our view; may the herbs, the trees, (yield) us happiness; may the victorious lord of the world, (Indra), be (favourable to) our felicity.
7.035.06 May the divine (Indra), with the Vasus, grant us happiness; may the justly-praised Varun.a, with the A_dityas, be (friendly to) our happiness; may the grief-assuaging Rudra, with the Rudras, be (for) our happiness; may Tvas.t.a_, with the wives of the gods, be (with us) for our happiness, and hear us at this solemnity.
7.035.07 May the Soma be (offered for) our happiness; may the prayer be (uttered for) our happiness; may the stones (grind the Soma), the sacrifice be (solemnized for) our happiness; may the measured lengths of the sacrificial posts be (conducive to) our felicity; may the sacred grass be (strewn) for our happiness; may the altar be (raised for) our happiness.
7.035.08 May the wide-seeing sun rise (for) our happines; may the four quarters of the horizon (exist for) our felicity; may the firm-set mountains be (for) our happiness; may the rivers, may the waters, be (diffused) for our happiness.
7.035.09 May Aditi, with holy observances, be (for) our happiness; may the glorified Maruts be (friendly to) our felicity; may Vis.n.u, may Pu_s.an, be (promoters of) our happiness; may the firmament be propitious to us; may Va_yu (blow for) our happiness.
7.035.10 May the divine preserving Savita_ be (radiant for) our happiness; may the opening dawns (break for) our happiness; may Parjanya be (the granter of happiness) to our posterity; may S'ambhu, the lord of strength, be (the conferrer of) happiness upon us. [S'ambhu = sukhasya bha_vayita_, the cause of the condition of pleasure; ordinarily, it is a name of S'iva].
7.035.11 May the divine universal gods be (favourable) to our felicity; may Sarasvati_, with holy rites, be happiness; may those who assist at sacrifices, those who are liberal of gifts. Be (conducive to) our happiness; may celestial, terrestrial and aquatic things be (subservient to) our happiness.
7.035.12 May the lords of truth be (propitious to) our happiness; may horses, may cattle, (contribute to) our happiness; may the virtuous, the dexterous R.bhus, be to us (for) felicity; may the progenitors be (promoters of) our happiness at the seasons of worship.
7.035.13 May the divine Aja-Ekapa_d be (favourable to) our happiness; may Ahirbudhnya, may the firmament, be (promotive of) our happiness; may the grandson of the waters, the protector, be (the securer of) our felicity; may Pr.s'ni, of whom the gods are the guardians, be to us (a granter of) happiness.
7.035.14 May the A_diyas, the Rudras, the Vasus, be gratified by this new and now repeated praise; may celestial and terrestrial (beings), the progeny of the cow, (Pr.s'ni), and those who were entitled to worship, hear our (invocations).
7.035.15 May those who are the most adorable divinities, those who were the adored of Manu, those who are immortal, the observers of truth, bestow upon us this day (a son), of wide-spread renown; and do you ever cherish us with blessings.

r.s.i: apa_la_ a_treyi_; devata_: indra; chanda: anus.t.up, 1-2 pan:kti

8.091.01 A young woman going to the water found Soma in the path; as she carried it home she said, I will press you for Indra, I will you for S'akra. [This r.ca is said by Apa_la_. S'a_t.ya_yan.a Bra_hman.a has a legend: Apa_la_, the daughter of Atri, being afflicted with a disease of the skin, was repudiated by her husband; she returned to her father's hermitage, and there practised penance. One day she wen out to bathe, intending to make a Soma offering to Indra, and as she was returning, she found some Soma stalks on the road. She gathered them and ate them as she walked. Indra, hearing the sound of her jaws, thoght it was the sound of the Soma stones, and appeared before her, asking whether there were any Soma stones bruising there. She explained the reason for the sound, and Indra turned away. She called after him, "why do you turn away? You go from house to house to drinkt he Soma, now then drink the Soma ground by my teeth and eat fried grains of barley". She then added, without paying him respect, " I knownot whether you are Indra, but if you come to my house I will pay you due honour". Feeling however sure that it was really Indra, she addressed the latter half of the third verse to the Soma in her mouth. Indra then, falling in love with her drank the Soma as she wished. She then triumphantly exclaimed (r.ca 4): " I have been repudiated by my husband and yet Indra comes to me". Indra then granted her a bon and she thus hose, "my father's head is bald, his field is barren, and my body is destitute of hair; make these things grow". Indra granted the three boons].
8.091.02 You who go from house to house a hero bright in your splendour, drink this Soma pressed by my teeth together with fried grains of barley, the karambha, cakes and hymns. [karambha = mixture of fried barley meal and butter or curds].
8.091.03 We wish to know you, but here we know you not, O Soma, flow forth for Indra first slowly, then quickly. [First slowly: s'amair iva s'anakair iva].
8.091.04 May (Indra) repeatedly make us powerful, may he do abundantly for us, may he repeatedly make us very rich; often hated by our husband and forced to leave hi, may we be united to Indra.]
8.091.05 These hree places-- do you cause them all to grow-- my father's (bald) head, his (barren) field, and my body.
8.091.06 This field which is our (father's), and this my body and he head of my father-- do you make all these bear a crop. [Crop: i.e., make them all hairy, romas'ani].
8.091.07 Thice, S'atakratu, did you purify Apa_la_, in the hole of the chariot, in the hole of the cart, and in the hole of the yoke, and you did make her with a skin splendent like the sun. [Thrice did you purify: Indra dragged her through the wide hole of his chariot, the narrower hole of the cart, and the small hole of the yoke, and she cast off three skins. The first skin became a hedge-hog, the second an alligator, the third a chameleon].

r.s.i: asita ka_s'yapa or devala ka_s'yapa; devata_: a_pri_su_kta (1 idhma or samiddha agni, 2 tanu_napa_t, 3 il.a_, 4 barhi, 5 devi_ dva_ra, 6 us.a_sa_nakta_, 7 divya hota_gan.a pracetas, 8 sarasvati_, il.a_, bha_rati_-- tisro devya, 9 tvas.t.a_, 10 vanaspati, 11 sva_ha_kr.ti

9.005.01 The pure-flowing (Soma) shines forth in its brightness, the universal lord, the showerer of blessings, the rejoicer, uttering a loud sound. [The deities, samidh and others are severally invoked in the successive verses. Soma is praised in the form of the A_pris, and samiddhah is explained as samyagdi_ptah].
9.005.02 The pure-flowing Tanu_napa_t, rushes sharpening its splendour on the height and hastens through the sky. [Tanu_napa_t = a name of Soma, abhyo ams'avo ja_yante tatah somo ja_yate, from the waters are born beams, from these is born Soma; hastens through the sky: that is, to the dron.akalas'a, according to the text, 'he takes a_grayan.a libation with two streams'].
9.005.03 The pure-flowing bright (Soma), the bounteous giver, worthy of all praise, shines forth in its might with the streams of water.
9.005.04 The bright golden-hued pure-flowing one rushes in its might, strewing the sacred grass in the sacrifice with its points towards the cast.
9.005.05 The bright golden doors, praised by the priests together with the Soma, rise up from the vast horizon.
9.005.06 The pure-flowing (Soma) longs for the fair-formed wide-reaching mighty Night and Dawn not yet visible.
9.005.07 I invoke the two divine priests, the two deities who behold men-- the pure-flowing (Soma) is radiant and the showerer (of benefits). [The pure-flowing Soma is radiant: perhaps, an identification of Soma with Indra, just as in the next verse, Indu (i.e. Soma) is identified with Indra.
9.005.08 May the three beautiful goddesses, Bha_rati_, Sarasvati_, and mighty Il.a_, come to this our offering of the Soma.
9.005.09 I invoke Tvas.t.a_, the first-born, the protector, the leader; the golden-coloured pure-flowing Indu is Indra, the showerer, the lord of all creatures.
9.005.10 Pure Soma, consecrate with your streaming ambrosia the green bright golden-hued Vanaspati with its thousand branches.
9.005.11 O all ye gods, come together to the consecration of the Soma-- Va_yu, Br.haspati, Su_rya, Agni and Indra.

r.s.i: vasu bha_radva_ja; devata_: pavama_na soma; chanda: jagati_, 5 tris.t.up

9.081.01 The graceful waves of the purified Soma flow into Indra's belly when being effused and drawn forth (together) with the potent curds of the kine, they excite the hero to bestow (gifts to the worshippers). [The hero: i.e., Indra].
9.081.02 The flows towards the pitchers, like a darught horse, lightly moving, the showerer; and knowing both races of gods-- those who come to (the sacrifice) from the other world and those who (come) from this world. [as'noti is a predicate of yat; somah as the subject of as'noti: 'he acquires what is in the world above and what is in this world; 'he acquires from the next world what is there and from this world what is here'].
9.081.03 Soma, when purified, strew upon us wealth; Indu, who are possessed of affluence, be (the donor) of ample riches; dispenser of food, grant to Vasu prosperity through (your) intelligence, scatter not our riches far from us. [Our riches: no gayam, i.e., asmabhya_m pradeyam dhanam, the wealth to be bestowed on us].
9.081.04 May the generous (gods) meet together to us-- Pu_s.an, Pavama_na, Mitra, Varun.a, Br.haspati, the Maruts, Va_yu, the As'vins, Tvas.t.a_, savita_, and beautiful Sarasvati_. [Beautiful Sarasvati_: suvigraha, having a fair body].
9.081.05 The all-pervading couple heaven and earth, the divine Aryaman, Aditi, Vidha_ta_, Bhaga deserving the praise of men, the spacious firmament, all the gods honour the purified (Soma).

r.s.i: trita a_ptya; devata_: agni; chanda: tris.t.up

10.002.01 Agni, youngest (of the deities), propitiate the desiring gods; lord of seasons, cognizant of seasons, here offer worship; worship with those who are the priests of the celestials; among the ministrant priests you are the best offerer. [The priests: daivya_ r.tvijah: Agni the hota_, As'vins the adhvaryus, Tvas.t.a_ the agni_dh and Mitra the upavakta_ (A_s'vala_yana Gr.hyasu_tra 1.23.8-9); or, Candramas the brahma_, A_ditya the adhvaryu and Parjanya the udga_ta_; these are the priests of the gods in heaven: Taittiri_ya A_ran.yaka3.3].
10.002.02 Whether, Agni, you prefer the office of hota_ or pota_ among men, you are wise, the giver of wealth, the observer of truth, let us offer the oblations with the (sacred) sva_ha_, and may the most excellent and divine Agni present them to the gods.
10.002.03 May we pursue the path that leads to the gods to convey that (worship) which we may be able (to offer). May that wise Agni minister, for he verily is the ministrant priest, and let him prescribe the ceremonies and the seasons.
10.002.04 O gods, when we who are most ignorant neglect the offices addressed to you who are wise, may the wise Agni complete the whole by (appointing) those seasons by which he regulates the worship of the gods. [May the wise Agni: may Agni complete the whole, knowing at what seasons he should appoint the gods (to be worshipped); lit. = with what seasons he shoudl fix the gods].
10.002.05 Since men of feeble energies, with mind yet immature, are unacquainted with (the ritual of) the sacrifice, may Agni, the invoker (of the gods), the skilled in rites, well-knowing (what is to be done), the best offerer, offer worship according to the fit season to the gods. [Are unacquainted with the sacrifice: do not think of (remember) the sacrifice].
10.002.06 The progenitor has engendered you the chief of all sacrifices, variegated, illuminating (all); do you offer (to the gods) the desirable all-sustaining praise-accompanied viands growing upon man-occupied earth. [The progenitor: either Praja_pati or the sacrificer, the yajama_na; (viands) prepared by men, placed on the earth, i.e., the altar].
10.002.07 Do you, Agni, whom the earth and heaven, whom the waters, whom Tvas.t.a_, the glorious creator, engendered, who are cognizant of the path, the road of the Pitr.s, shine brilliantly, being kindled. [pitr.ya_n.am pitaro yena ma_rgena gacchanti].

r.s.i: trita a_ptya; devata_: agni; chanda: tris.t.up

10.008.01 Agni traverses heaven and earth with a vast banner; he roars (like) a bull; he spreads aloft over the remote and proximate (regions) of the sky; mighty, he increases in the lap of the water. [Agni traverses: as the lightning in the firmament].
10.008.02 THe embryo (of heaven and earth), the showerer (of benefits), the glorious, rejoices; the excellent child (of morn and eve), the celebrator of holy rites calls aloud; assiduous in exertions at the worship of the gods, he moves chief in his own abodes.
10.008.03 They have placed in the sacrifice the radiance of the powerful Agni, who seizes hold of the forehead of his parents, gratifying his cherished, radiant, and expanding limbs, in their course, in their chamber of sacrifice. [His parents: the parents are either heaven or earth, or the two pieces of touchwood; gratifying...of sacrifice: as'vabudhna_h = vya_ptamu_la_H, with outspread bases, i.e., broad at the bottom and tapering to the top, the usual shape of a fire; in his fight the dawns, drawn by horses, rejoice their bodies in the source of truth (i.e., the sun)].
10.008.04 Opulent Agni, you precede dawn after dawn. You are the illuminator of the twin (day and night); engendering Mitra from your own person, you retain seven places for sacrifice. [Mitra: the sun; seven places: the seven altars for the fire: dhisn.ya_ etc.]
10.008.05 You are the eye, the protector of the great sacrifice; when you proceed to the rite, you are Varun.a; you are the grandson of the waters, Ja_tavedas; you are the messenger (of him) whose oblation you enjoy.
10.008.06 You are the leader of the sacrifice and sacrificial water to the place in which you are associated with the auspicious steeds of the wind; you sustain the all-enjoying (sun) as chief in heaven; you, Agni, make your tongue the bearer of the oblation. [The place: i.e., the firmament; you sustain in heaven: you raise your glorious head in heaven; you make...oblation: yada_; when, Agni, you have so done, you are the leader...; you are the leader of the sacrifice and of water (rain) in the firmament and in heaven (Yajus. 13.15)].
10.008.07 Trita by (his own), desiring a share (of the sacrifice), for the sake of taking part in the exploit of the supreme protector (of the world), chose (Indra as his friend); attended (by the priests) in the proximity of the parental heaven and earth, and reciting appropriate praise, he takes up his weapons. [Legend: Indra said to Trita, 'You are skiled in the weapons of all; aid me in killing Tris'iras the son of Tvas.t.a_'. Trita agreed on condition of having a share in the sacrifices offered to Indra. Indra gave him water to wash his hands with and a share in the sacrifice, whereby Trita's strength increased; seven-rayed: i.e., seven-tongued, seven-rayed, like the sun, or seven-handed].
10.008.08 He, the son of the waters, incited by Indra, skilled in his paternal weapons, fought against (the enemy), and slew the seven-rayed, three-headed (asura); then Trita set free the cows of the son of Tvas.t.a_.
10.008.09 Indra, the protector of the virtuous, crushed the arrogant (foe), attaining vast strenth; shouting, he cut off the three heads of the multiform son of Tvas.t.a_ (the lord) of cattle. [Shouting: s'abdam kurvan; gona_m acakra_n.ah, appropriating the cattle].

r.s.i: 1,3,5,7,11,13 yami_ vaivasvati_ (r.s.ika_); 2,4,8-10,12,14 yama vaivasvata; devata_: 1,3,5,7,11,13 yama vaivasvata; 2,4,12,14 yami_ vaivasvati_; chanda: tris.t.up

10.010.01 (Yami speaks). I invite my friend to friendship, having come over the vast and desert ocean; may Vedhas, after reflecting, place in the earth the offsprig (of you) the father, edowed with excellent qualities. [Place in...qualities: may Praja_pati bestow offspring for the sake of you becoming the father of a son to be born to us; adhi ks.ami (upon the earth) = in my womb].
10.010.02 (Yama speaks). Your friend desires not this friendship, for although of one origin, she is of different form; the hero sons of the great asura (are) the upholders of heaven, enjoying vast renown. [Your friend...different from: your friend longs not for a frienship in which (etad yat) a kinswoman is treated as one of different family; the hero sons of the great asura: mahas putra_so asurasya: asurasya = pra_n.avatah prajn~a_vato va_; enjoying vast renown: urviya_ pari khyan = they can see from afar].
10.010.03 (Yami speaks). The immortals take pleasure in (a union) like this which is forbidden to every mortal; let your mind then concur with mine, and as the progenitor (of all) was the husband (of his daughter), do you enjoy my person. [Which is forbidden: tyajasam = that which is to be left or avoided, illicit, such as the intercourse of brahma_ with his daughter; ekasya = Praja_pati, as chief of the whole world; tyajasam = that which is abandoned or given to another, viz., women, daughters etc. The word may also mean descendants, lit. those who are left, scions, offshoots, and so, the reading may be: this is what the gods themselves desire offspring from one alone of mankind].
10.010.04 (Yama speak). We have not done what was done formerly; for how can we who speak truth, utter now that which is untrue? Gandharva (the sun) was in the watery (firmament), and the water was his bride. She is our common hence our near affinity.
10.010.05 (Yami speaks). The divine omniform generator Tvas.t.a_, the progenitor, made us two husband and wife, even in the womb: none frustrate his undertaking; earth and heaven are conscious of this our (union).
10.010.06 (Yama speaks). Who knows anything of this (his) first day (of existence)? Who has beheld it? Who has here revealed it? The dwelling of Mitra and of Varun.a is vast. What say you, who punishes men with hell? [Dwelling of Mitra and Varun.a: the revolution of day and night; what say...hell: what say you, wanton one, falsely about men? Who punishes: ahanah is a male; therefore, Yami_ is made the speaker of the last part of the verse].
10.010.07 (Yami speaks). The desire of Yama has approached me Yami_, to lie with him in the same bed; I will abandon my person as a wife to her husband; let us exert ourselves in union like the two wheels of a wagon.
10.010.08 (Yama speaks). The spies of the gods, which wander upon earth, never stop, never close their eyes. Associate quickly, destructress, with some other than with me, and exert yourselves in union, like the two wheels of a wagon. [Destructress: i.e., causing unhappiness by your shameful conversation].
10.010.09 (Yami speaks). To him (Yam) let every worshipper sacrifice both day and night, on him let the eye of the Sun repeatedly rise; (for him may) the kindred pair (day and night unite) with heaven and earth. Yama will adhere to the non-affinity of Yama. [Yama will adhere: or, may Yami_ bear patiently Yama's unbrotherly (refusal)].
10.010.10 (Yama speaks). The subsequent ages will come, when sisters will choose one who is not a brother (as a husband); therefore, auspicious one, choose another husband than me, and make your arm a pillow for your mate.
10.010.11 (Yami speaks). Is he a brother whose sister has no lord? Is she a sister (whose brother) misfortune approaches? Overcome by desire, I strongly urge this one request; unite your person with mine. [Misfortune: decay; Nirr.ti is a personification. The meaning is, a true brother will not let his sister lack a husband, and a true sister will not let her brother lack a wife].
10.010.12 (Yama speaks). I will not unite my person with yours; they call him who approaches a sister, a sinner. Enjoy pleasure with some other than me; your brother, auspicious one, has no such desire.
10.010.13 (Yami speaks). Alas, Yama, you are feeble; we understand not your mind or your heart. Some other female embraces you as a girth a horse, or as a creeper a tree. [Alas! bato bata_si = you are feeble, feeble; the pada text is: bata asi; bata = pitiable, anukampyas'ca_si, or, alas!]
10.010.14 (Yama speaks). Do you, Yami_, embrace another; and let another embrace you as a creeper a tree; seek his affection, let him seek you; and make a happy union.

r.s.i: sam.kusuka ya_ma_yana; devata_: 1-4 mr.tyu, 5 dha_ta_, 6 tvas.t.a_, 7-13 pitr.medha, 14 pitr.medha or praja_pati; chanda: tris.t.up, 11 prasta_ra pan:kti, 13 jagati_, 14 anus.t.up
10.018.01 Depart, Mr.tyu, by a different path; by that which is your own, and distinct from the path of the gods; I speak to you who have eyes, who have ears; do no harm to our offspring, nor to our male progeny. [Offspring: praja_m = female offspring; or, santatim, descendants, family successors].
10.018.02 If, avoiding the path of death, you go (on the path of he gods), assuming a longer and better life, (my friends), then may you, (O sacrificers), diligent in sacrifice, enriched with progeny and affluence, be cleansed and pure. [Be cleansed and pure: s'uddhah = pure from the decay caused by the sins accumulated in a former life; pu_tah = pure from the decay caused by the sins of the present life].
10.018.03 May those who are living remain separate from the dead; may our invocation of the gods today be successful; let us go forward to dancing and laughter, assuming a longer and better life. [Go forward: or, with our faces to the east].
10.018.04 I erect this circle (of stones) for (the protection of) the living, that none other of them may approach this limit; may they live a hundred years, occupied by many holy works, and keep death hidden by this mound. [I erect this circle of stones: after the burning of the body, the Adhvaryu is to raise a bank or lump or earth betwen the village where the deceased lived and the cemetery, as a rampart against death (Mahi_dhara, Yajus. 35.15); paridhi = a stone rampart (pa_s.a_n.am)].
10.018.05 As days pass along in succession; as season are duly followed by seasons; as the successor does not abandon his predecessor, so, Dha_ta_, support the lives of these (my kinsmen). [As the successor: i.e., as a son does not leave his father by dying first].
10.018.06 (You kinsmen of the dead man), choosing old age, attain length of life, striving one after the other, how many soever you may be; may Tvas.t.a_, the creator. [Striving one after the other: the eldest first; of good races of men, being at one (with you), grant you (busy) at this (sacrifice), a long life].
10.018.07 Let these women who are not widows, who have good husbands, enter (anointed) with unguent and butter. Let women without tears, without sorrow, and decorated with jewels, first proceed to the house.
10.018.08 Rise, woman, (and go) to the world of living beings; come, this man near whom you sleep is lifeless; you have enjoyed this state of being the wife of your husband, the suitor who took you by the band. [This verse is to be spoken by the husband's brother, etc., to the wife of the dead man, and he is to make her leave her husband's body: (A_s'vala_yana Gr.hya Su_tra, 4.2); go to beings = go to the home of the living, i.e., your sons, grandsons etc.]
10.018.09 Taking his bow from the hand of the dead man, for the sake of our vigour, energy and strength, (I say) you are there; may we (who are) here, blessed with male offspring, overcome all the enemies who assail us.
10.018.10 Go to this your mother-earth, the wide-spread, delightful earth; this virgin (earth is) as soft as wool, to the liberal (worshipper) may she protect you from the proximity of Nirr.ti. [The r.cas from 10 to 13 are to be repeated at the death of a di_ks.ita (initiated person), and cites A_s'vala_yana Gr.hya Su_tra6.10, 4.5; on the repetition of verse 10, the bones which have been collected are to be placed in the grave].
10.018.11 Earth, rise up above him; oppress him not; be attentive to him (and) comfortable; cover him up, earth, as a mother covers her child with the skirt of her garment. [Earth, rise up above him: i.e., so as to give him breathing room; while reciting this verse, dust is to be scattered over the grave; comfortable: su_pavan~cana_ = deceiving well; treat him kindly for the sake of the sacrifice; fondle him, lull him to rest; supratis.t.ha_ bhava = be a good resting-place].
10.018.12 May the earth heaped over him lie light; may thousands of particles (of dust) envelop him; may these mansions distil ghi_ (for him); may they every day be an asylum to him in this world.
10.018.13 I heap up the earth around you, placing (upon you) this clod of earth; may I not be injured; may the Pitr.s sustain this your monument; may Yama make you a dwelling here. [ I heap up the earth around you: O urn, I keep off the earth above you with your lid, he asthikumbha tavopari tvadi_yena kapa_lena pr.thivi_m pratibadhna_mi: this is addressed to the urn, containing the bones and ashes. The urn is buried after the corpse has been burnt. This verse is to be recited when the bones are covered with the lid: A_s'vala_yana Gr.hya Su_tra 4.5].
10.018.14 At the decline of the day they have placed me (in the grave) like the feathers of an arrow; I have restrained my declining voice as (they check) a horse with a bridle.

r.s.i: vatstpri bha_landana; devata_: agni; chanda: tris.t.up

10.046.01 A mighty ministrant priest, one cognizant of heaven, though abiding with men, having been born, is seated on the lap of the waters; may he, the upholder (of sacrifice), who has been stationed (on the altar), be to you when offering worship, the giver of food and riches, the protector of your person. [agnestrayo jya_ya_m.sah: Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 2.6.6].
10.046.02 The r.s.is worshipping him, (when hiding) in the midst of the waters, followed him by his footprints (as men follow) an animal that is lost; the wise Bhr.gus desiring his presence, and anxious (to find him), discovered him by their prayers lurking in the cave. [The wise Bhr.gus: cf. RV 2.4.2].
10.046.03 Trita, the son of Vibhuvas, searching (for him), found mighty Agni on the head of the cow; he the augmenter of happiness manifested in the dwellings (of the pious), the youthful (connecting ) bond of the resplendent (Sun).
10.046.04 (The priests) desirous (to propitiate him), detaining him among men, have by their adoration made him lord over all people, him the exhilarator, the presenteer of burnt offerings, the migrator, the object of sacrifice, the leader of rites, the purifier, the bearer of oblations. [Lord over all people: or, the goer, i.e. being always in the house of the worshipper; vis'a_m = for the sake of the worshippers; the migrator = lit., in front; pra_n~cam = going towards, i.e., towards the a_havani_ya from the ga_rhapatya].
10.046.05 Be competent, (priest, to glorify) the victorious mighty Agni, the sustainer of the wise, (even) fools (adore) him, the exempt from folly, the demolisher of cities; conducting the embryo of touchwood, (Agni). Like a golden-haired, swift-moving (horse), loving praise and wealth, they bring him to the sacrifice.
10.046.06 Occupying three (satations), consolidation (the dwelling of the worshipper), surrounded (by flames), he sits down upon the altar in the chambers (of sacrifice); from there, having accepted (the oblations) of the people, with intent to give (them to the gods), in various ways, he (Agni) goes to the gods holding (his foes) in check. [Goes to the gods: ayantrai i_yate nr.n = lit., by non-restraints he goes to men; s'atru_n.a_m niyamanaih saha = with restraints on his foes, deva_n gacchati].
10.046.07 The undecaying fires of the worshipper, the rescuers from the humiliated (spirits of ill), having adorable smoke, purifying, becoming white, swift, bearing (the oblation), sitting in the wood, (are) like the fast-flowing Soma. [dama_m aritra_h = protector of the houses].
10.046.08 Agni, who bears off (the oblation) with his tongue (of flames), who bears off the hymns of praise with (favourable) mind (for the preservation) of the earth; him men appointed as the shining, purifying, exulting hota_, the most entitled to worship.
10.046.09 Agni, whom heaven and earth engendered, (whom) the waters and Tvas.t.a_, and the Br.ghus by their powers (begot),; the adorable one, whom Ma_taris'van first, and the gods fabricated as the object of worship of Manu.
10.046.10 You, whom the gods appointed as the bearer of oblations, whom men, desiring manifold blessings, regard as the object of worship; do you, Agni, bestow food upon him who praises you at the sacrifice; for the devout worshipper verily obtains great renown.

r.s.i: indra vaikun.t.ha; devata_: indra vaikun.t.ha; chanda: jagati_, 7,10-11 tris.t.up

10.048.01 I am the principal lord of wealth; I conquer the treasure of many (adversaries); living beings call upon me as (sons call upon) a father; I bestow food on the donor of oblations.
10.048.02 I, Indra, amd the strtiker off of the head of the son of Atharvan, I generated the waters from above the cloud for the sake of Trita. I carried off their wealth from the Dasyus; taming the clouds for Dadhyan~c, the son of Ma_taris'van. [Son of Atharvan: named Dadhyan~c: S'atapatha Bra_hman.a 14.5.16; RV 1.116.12; Trita = Tria A_ptya, who had fallen into a well; RV 10.33.2; Dadhyan~c, son of Ma_taris'van: different from another Dadhyan~c the son of Atharvan; ma_taris'vanah putrah: S'atapatha Bra_hman.a 14.2.5.16].
10.048.03 For me Tvas.t.a_ fabricated the metal thunderbolt; in me the gods have concentrated pious acts; my lustre is insurmountable, like that of the Sun; men acknowledge me as lord in consequence of what I have done, and of what I shall do. [My lustre is the Sun: my army is hard to overcome, like the sun's lustre; ani_ka = lit., face].
10.048.04 (I conquered) by my shaft this (wealth) comprehending kine, horses, herds, water, and gold; I give many thousands to the donor (of the oblation) when libations and praises have afforded me delight.
10.048.05 I, Indra, am not surpassed in affluence; I never yield to death; pouring forth the Soma libation, ask of me wealth; O men, forfeit not my friendship.
10.048.06 I destroy those powerful (enemies) two by two who defy the (wielder of the) thunderbolt, Indra, to battle, I slew them challenging (me to fight) with (great) slaughter, the unbending (slaying) the bending, the uttering stern (menaces). [Indra: indram, the destroyer of foes].
10.048.07 Single, I overcome my single (adversary); (over-powering them) I overcome two foes; what can three effect (against me)? I smite numerous (adversaries) like sheaves (of grain) on the threshing-floor; can my enemies who know not Indra revile me?
10.048.08 I prepared Atithigva for (the protection of) the Gun:gus, I upheld him, the destroyer of enemies, as sustenance among the people; when I gained renown in the great Vr.tra-battle, in which Parn.aya and Karan~ja were slain.[I prepared: is.karam = the preparer; Atithigva: i.e., the r.s.i divoda_sa, the son of Atithigu; or, atithigva = hospitable; gun:gus = name of a people; parn.aya and karan~ja = names of asuras].
10.048.09 My praiser, the refuge (of all), was food to enjoy; (him, men) use in two ways, to search for their cattle, and to be their freiend, when I bestow upon him a weapon in his battles, and make him worthy of celebrity and praise. [When I bestow: when I appropriate].
10.048.10 The Soma is seen in one of the two (combatants); the cowherd (Indra) manifests the other with his thunderbolt; the latter warring against the sharp-horned bull, remains in great (darkness) bound by the victor. [nema = part, half; or, one of two (combatants); the combatants are the yas.t.a_ who offers libations and the yas.t.a_, one who does not; the latter assails the bull, Indra].
10.048.11 The divine (Indra) abandons not the abode of the deities, the A_dityas, the Vasus, and the Rudriyas; may they fashion me for auspicious vigour, undefeated, unharmed, unconquered.

r.s.i: devagan.a, 4-5 agni sauci_ka; devata_: agni sauci_ka, 4-5 devagan.a; chanda: 1-5, 8 tris.t.up, 6-7, 9-11 jagati_

10.053.01 (The gods). He whom we sought with (anxious) minds has arrived; he who understands the sacrifice and is acquainted with its different parts; may he who is most skilled in worship, sacrifice for us at the worship of the gods, being seated (at the altar), taking place among (the priests), and preceding us. [He...has arrived: i.e., the fire is kindled, and then the gods are worshipped].
10.053.02 The hota_, most skilled in worship, has been sanctified by his seat (at the altar); he contemplates the sacred offerings reverently placed (before him); let us speedily worship with ghi_ the gods to whom worship is due; let us praise those who are entitled to praise.
10.053.03 He has today made our banquet to the gods efficacious; we have obtained the mysterious tongue of sacrifice; he has come, fragrant, clothed with life; he makes our oblation to the gods today auspicious. [The mysterious tongue: Agni is the tongue of the gods, by means of him they drink the oblations].
10.053.04 (Agni speaks). I communicate today the best advice by which we gods may overcome the asuras; do you who are the eaters of sacrificial food, who are entitled to worship, and you five orders of men, be pleased by my (discharge of) the office of hota_.
10.053.05 May the fiver orders of men, may those who were born for the sake of ghi_, may those who are entitled to worship be pleased by my (discharge of) the office of hota_; may earth preserve us from all earthly sin; may the firmament preserve us from heavenly (sin).
10.053.06 (The gods) spreading out the sacrifice, follow the illuminator of the world (the sun); protect the luminous paths (of the gods) constructed by sacred acts; may Agni render the pious works of the worshipper free from defect; become Manu, generate the people of heaven. [Become Manu: be deserving of praise; manu = mantavya stutya].
10.053.07 (The gods to one another). Drinkers of the Soma, bind (the horses) that are to be fastened to the pole; prepare the reins; caparison (the steeds); accompany everywhere (in your cars) the chariot which has eight seats with which the gods bring us acceptable (wealth).
10.053.08 The as'manvati_ flows along; be alert; rise up, cross over, may friends; here let us leave those who are unhappy, so that we may cross over to auspicious sacrificial viands. [A_s'vala_yana Gr.hya Su_tra 1.8: if a marriage procession comes to an unfordable river, the first half of this ttanza is to be repeated, when the bride is put into the boat; the second half when she has crossed; Yajus. 35.10: the r.ca is part of the ceremony of digging the ground for the situation of the funeral pile. a_s'eva_h = the unhappy; or, the evil beings, ra_ks.asas].
10.053.09 Tvas.t.a_ knows the arts of fabricating (drinking vessels), the most skilful of artificers bearing the sacred drinking cups out of which the gods drink-- verily he sharpens his axe of good metal, wherewith the white-complexioned brahman.aspati cuts them.
10.053.10 Verily being sages, (R.bhus) sharpen the instruments with which you fabricate the cups for the nectar. Do you, who are wise, prepare the mysterious paths whereby tte gods have attained to immortality.
10.053.11 (The Maruts) placed a female in the enveloping hide (of a dead cow), and a calf in the mouth (of a dead cow), with mind and tongue, aiming (at deification); daily the generous (fraternity of the R.bhus) offers suitable praises (to the gods), granting victory over our foes.

r.s.i: gaya pla_ta; devata_: vis'vedeva_; chanda: jagati_; 12,16,17 tris.t.up

10.064.01 In what manner, and of which of the gods, who hear (our praises) at the sacrifice, may we enunciate the venerable name? Who will show us compassion? Which of them will grant us happiness? Which of them comes for our protection? [Compassion: mr.l.atirupadaya_karma_: Nirukta 10.15].
10.064.02 The desires cherished in my heart strive to offer worship; (our) wishes long for (the gods) and expressed (by us) go forth to (the gods); no other bestower of happiness exists except them; upon the gods are my desire concentrated.
10.064.03 Adore with praises Na_ra_s'am.sa and Pu_s.an, and the unapproachable Agni kindled by the devout (r.s.is); and the sun and the moon, the two moons, Yama in heaven, Trita, Va_ta, the dawn, the night and the As'vins. [Trita: tritam = stretched, i.e., diffused through his own might over the three worlds, i.e., Indra; va_ta = va_yu].
10.064.04 How is the sage(Agni) adored by multitudes, and by what praises? Br.haspati is magnified with sacred hymns; Aja, walking alone, is magnified with solemn invocations and prayers; may Ahirbudhnya hear us at the season of invocation. [Ahirbudhnya: ahih budhnyah, the deep dragon].
10.064.05 At the birth of Daks.a, at his sacred rite, you, Aditi, worshipped the royal Mitra and Varun.a at the sacred rite. Aryaman, whose course is not hurried, the giver of delight to many, having seven ministering (rays), (proceeds) in his multiform births. [Daks.a = the sun; Aryaman = the sun; Aditi = earth (Nirukta11.23); having seven ministering rays: saptahota_ = hymned by the seven r.s.is, Bharadva_ja etc.; or seven seasons, i.e., the six seasons, and the intercalary month; his multiform births: i.e., his daily risings and settings].
10.064.06 May those universal horses (of the deities), who listen to invocations, who are vigorous, swift roadsters, hear our summons; they who spontaneously are the givers of thousands, as if at sacrifice; they who have won great wealth in battles. [As if at sacrifice: medhasa_ta_v iva tvamana_ = medhasa_ta_ sanis.yavah = desiring to give in the hall of sacrifice (Yajus. 9.17); ahavarvai mitro ra_trirvarun.ah: Aitareya Bra_hman.a 4.10].
10.064.07 Importune, (worshippers), with praises, Va_yu, harnessing his chariot, and Purandhi and Pu_s.an for their friendship, for these considerate and consentient deities, attend the sacrifice upon the birth of Savita_.
10.064.08 We invoke for protection the thrice seven flowing rivers, (their) great waters, the trees, the mountains, Agni, Kr.s'a_nu, the archers, and Tis.ya, to the assembly; (we invoke) Rudra, worthy of the praise of the Rudras, for the good of the praisers. [Kr.s'a_nu: the gandharva so named; the archers are the gandharvas accompanying him; they are the guardians, of the Soma; Tis.ya: naks.atra, a heavenly-archer like Kr.s'a_nu? some of the other expressions denote the articles of sacrifice: the water, the ladles, the grinding stones, the Soma; for the good of the praisers: among the Rudras].
10.064.09 May the very great rivers, Sarasvati_, Sarayu, Sindhu, come with their waves for (our) protection; may the divine maternal animating waters grant us their water mixed with butter and honey.
10.064.10 May the bright shining mother (of the gods) hear us; may father Tvas.t.a_, with the gods, and their wives, (hear our) words; may R.bhuks.an, Va_ja, Rathaspati, Bhaga, may the joyous adorable (company of the Maruts) protect us their praisers.
10.064.11 Pleasant of aspect (is troop of Maruts), like a house well stored with provisions; fortunate is the favour of the Maruts, the sons of Rudra; may we (thereby) be famed among men for cattle, and so, gods, ever approach (you) with sacrificial food.
10.064.12 Maruts, Indra, gods, Varun.a and Mitra, reward the worship, which you have given as (men fatten) the (newly-delivered) cow with milk, you have repeatedly put my praises on your car.
10.064.13 Maruts, repeatedly acknowledge us, so that (you may make us the objects) of this relationship; and may Aditi grant us affinity (with men) on the navel of the earth, where we first assemble (to offer oblations).
10.064.14 They, two, the maternal heaven and earth, mighty, divine, adorable, attain to the gods upon their birth; they both cherish the two (races, human and divine) (gods), they shed abundant moisture.
10.064.15 That voice of invocation, the protectress of the mighty, never ceasing, the panegyrist (of the gods), obtains all desirable wealth; on uttering which, the great grinding-stone expressing the sweet Soma is eulogized; the pious, by their praises, make the god desirous (of the sacrifice).
10.064.16 The pious sage, Gaya, eloquent in laudation, conversant with sacred rites, wishing for wealth, eager for wealth, propitiates the celestial people with prayers and praises.
10.064.17 Universal deities and Aditi, thus has the prudent son of Plati magnified you; the celestial people, the immortal (company of the gods) through whom (when praised) men become the bonds (of wealth), have been glorified by Gaya.

r.s.i: vasukarn.a va_suka; devata_: vis'vedeva-: chanda: jagati_, 15 tris.t.up

10.065.01 Agni, Inda, Varun.a, Mitra, Aryaman, Va_yu, Pu_s.an, Sarasvati_, the A_dityas, Vis.n.u, the Maruts, the mighty heaven, Soma, Rudra, Aditi, Brahman.aspati with one consent.
10.065.02 Indra, and Agni, the lords of the virtuous, standing in the same place, mutually invigorating each other with might in the Vr.tra-slaying battles, and the ghi_-glorified Soma putting forth his greatness have filled the vast firmament with their strength. [Ghi_-glorified: ghr.tas'ri_ = having recourse to the Vasati_vari water].
10.065.03 Skilled in pious rites, I recite the praises of these (deities), mighty through (their own) might, unassailable, exalted by sacrifice; may those (gods) who possessed of various wealth, (rain down) the beautiful water-cloud, acting in friendly wise, grant us (wealth) for our honour (among men).
10.065.04 They have sustained by their strength the leader of all (the sun), the luminaries of the firmament, heaven and earth, the outstretched (firmament), honouring (their worshippers) like those who give food (to the poor), the generous gods bestowing wealth on man are glorified (at this sacrifice). [Those who give food to the poor: bringing riches into contact with the poor; derived from pr.c, to touch].
10.065.05 Worship the liberal Mitra and Varun.a, the two royal deities who are never negligent in their thoughts, whose vast body is resplendent through their functions, upon whom the two solicitous worlds (heaven and earth) remain (dependent). [Their functions: of illuminating the world; two solicitous worlds: na_dhasi = solicitous; or, abounding in gods and men].
10.065.06 May that cow, the leader of the rite, which yielding her milk proceeds uncalled to the consecrated place (of sacrifice), may she, propitiated by me, yield her milk to (me), the offerer of oblations to liberal Varun.a and the (other) gods. [Milk: of strength, gauh = thunder, ma_dhyamika_ va_k; cf. RV 8.100.11; offer of oblations: vivasvati = madhyam deva_n paricarate; da_s'us.e = an epithet of Varun.a].
10.065.07 Pervading heaven (with their radiance), having Agni as their tongue, the augmenters of sacrifice, (these deities) sit contemplating the place of sacrifice; sustaining heaven they have produced the waters by their power; having generated sacrifice, they have decorated their persons (with it). [i.e., they partake of the oblation].
10.065.08 The encompassing parents (heaven and earth), born of old, having a common dwelling, sit down upon the place of sacrifice; engaged in a common observance they sprinkle upon the adorable Varun.a water mixed with butter.
10.065.09 The two showerers (of desires), Parjanya and Va_ta, the two senders of water, Indra and Va_yu, Varun.a,m Mitra, Aryaman; we invoke the divine A_dityas, Aditi, and the gods, who dwell on the earth, or in heaven, or in the waters.
10.065.10 Desirous of wealth, we solicit that Soma, the fried of Indra, who for your welfare, R.bhus, brings (hither) Tvas.t.a_,Va_yu, the two divine sacrificers (the As'vins), Dawn, Br.haspati, and the wise slayer of Vr.tra.
10.065.11 Generating food, cows, horses, plants, trees, the earth, mountains and waters, elevating the sun in heaven, munificent, promoting sacred observances upon the earth, (they abide everywhere). [Generating food: brahman = vr.dh to sustain, foster].
10.065.12 You, As'vins, extricated Bhujyu from calamity, you gave to Vadhrimati_ her son S'ya_va; you gave Kamadyu (as a wife) to Vimada; you restored (the lost) Vis.n.a_pu to Vis'vaka. [From calamity: from the sea, cf. RV 1.118.6; Vidhrimati_: son is called hiran.yahasta; cf. RV 1.117.24; kamadhyu = light of love, ka_masya di_pti; vis.n.a_pu: cf. RV 1.116.23; vis.n.va_pya?].
10.065.13 May the armed and thundering (voice of mid-heaven), the upholder of heaven, Aja Ekapa_d, the ocean, the waters of the firmament, the universal gods and Sarasvati_, accompanied by sacred rites, and abundant wisdom, hear my words.
10.065.14 May the universal gods, accompanied by sacred rites and abundant wisdom, adorable (at the sacrifice) of men, immortal, the knowers of truth, waiting on the oblation to be given, arriving together (at the sacrifice), omniscient, graciously accept all our praises and abundant food with well-sung hymns.
10.065.15 (Descendant of) Vasis.t.ha, I have glorified the immortal gods who preside over all worlds; may they this day bestow upon us widely-famed food; do you always cherish us with blessings.

r.s.i: vasukarn.a va_sukra; devata_: vis'vedeva_: chanda: jagati_, 15 tris.t.up

10.066.01 I invoke for the success of the sacrifice the gods, who bestow abundant food, the diffusers of light, the extremely wise who flourish mightily, abounding in all riches, having Indra as their chief, immortal, augmented by sacrifice.
10.066.02 We offer praise to the company of the Maruts, the attendants upon Maghavan, who, encouraged by Indra, and instructed by Varun.a, have acquired a portion of the light of the sun; the wise worshippers beget the sacrifice.
10.066.03 May Indra with the Vasus guard our dwelling; may Aditi with the A_dityas grant us felicity; may the divine Rudra with the Rudras make us happy;may Tvas.t.a_ with the wives of the gods be favourable to us for our prosperity.
10.066.04 Aditi, heaven and earth, the mighty Truth (Agni), Indra, Vis.n.u, the Maruts, the great sun-- (these) we invoke for our protection, as well as the divine A_dityas, the Vasus, the Rudras, and Savita_, the accomplisher of good works.
10.066.05 May Sarasvati_, (endowed) with intelligences, Varun.a the observer of oblations, Pu_s.an, Vis.n.u, the mighty Va_yu, the As'vins, (may these) the bestowers of food upon worshippers, immortal, the possessors of all wealth, grant us a habitation triply-guarded from evil. [Triply-guarded: am.hasas, an epithet of the deities, the destroyers of enemies in the form of sin; s'arma trivaru_tham = a house with three courts, or the hall of sacrifice, containing the three Soma vessels, dron.a, a_havani_ya and pu_tabhr.t].
10.066.06 May our sacrifice be the showerer (of benefits); may the gods who are worthy of sacrifice be the showerers (of benefits); may the priest, may the presenters of the oblation, be the showerers (of benefits); may heaven and earth receiving adoration be the showerers (of benefits); may Parjanya be the showerer (of rain); may those who praise (the gods) with showers be showerers.
10.066.07 I glorify for the obtaining of food the two showerers (of benefits), Agni and Soma, the many-lauded showerers (of benefits), may these two whom the priests have worshipped with divine worship bestow upon us a triply-guarded dwelling.
10.066.08 The (gods) observing obligations endowed with vigour, developers of sacrifice, possessed of abundant brightness, the defenders of sacrifices, having Agni for their priest, enjoying truth, unassailable, set free the waters at the combat with the Vr.tra. [Vigour: ks.atriyah = of the ks.atriya clan; or, strong].
10.066.09 The gods engendered the heaven and earth with their respective functions, the waters, the plants, the sacred trees; they filled the whole firmament (with lustre) for its protection; they graced the desirable (sacrifice) in their own persons.
10.066.10 May the upholders of the sky, the radiant with truth, the well-armed deities, Va_ta and Parjanya, (the utterers) of the mighty thunder, the waters, the plants, amplify our praises; may the liberal Bhaga and Va_jins come to my invocation. [The radiant with truth: R.bhus; suhastah = dexterous, having their hands furnished with good weapons, thunderbolts and the like; va_jins = Agni; Va_yu = the sun: Taittiri_ya Bra_hman.a 1.6.3.9].
10.066.11 May the flowing Sindhu, the atmosphere, the firmament, Aja Ekapa_d, the rain-bearing thunder-cloud, and Ahirbudhnya hear my words; may the wise universal gods (listen to) my (praises).
10.066.12 May we men be (diligent in providing) for your food, (O gods); conduct our ancient sacrifice to a successful end, A_dityas, Rudras, and generous Vasus, graciously accept these hymns which are being recited.
10.066.13 I follow the two chief priests the divine offerers of burnt sacrifices, (I follow) successfully the path of sacrifice; we solicit (wealth of) the contiguous lord of the field, and the immortal and not unheeding universal deities. [The two chief priests: i.e., Agni and A_ditya].
10.066.14 They Vasis.t.has like their progenitor have uttered praise glorifying the gods like (former) r.s.is for their well-being; having come to us, gods, at our desire, bestow wealth upon us like affectionate relations.
10.066.15 (Descendant of) Vasis.t.ha, I have glorified the immortal gods who preside over all the worlds; may they this day bestow upon us widely-famed food; do you always cherish us with blessings.

r.s.i: sumitra va_dhryas'va; devata_: a_pri_su_kta (1-idhma or samiddha agni, 2-nara_s'am.sa, 3-il.a_, 4-barhi, 5-devi_ dva_ra, 6-us.a_sa_nakta_, 7-divya hota_gan.a pracetas, 8-sarasvati_, il.a_, bha_rati_: devi_traya, 9-tvas.t.a_, 10-vanaspati, 11-sva_ha_kr.ti); chanda: tris.t.up
Previous A_pri_ hymns: 1.12; 1.13.; 1.188; 2.3; 2.4; 5.5; 7.2; 9.5

10.070.01 Graciously accept, Agni, this my fuel (placed) on the place of libation (the altar); delight in the butter-laden (spoon); most wise, rise up upon the lofty place of the earth for the propitiousness of the days through the worship of the gods.
10.070.02 May Nara_s'am.sa, the preceder of the gods, come here with his horses of various forms; deserving of adoration, chief of the gods, may he effuse (oblations) to the gods by the path of the sacrifice with praise.
10.070.03 Men offering oblations adore the eternal Agni to (induce him to perform) the duty of messenger (to the gods); do you with your stalwart draught horses and your well-turning chariots bear (our offering) to the gods, and sit down here as the ministrant priest.
10.070.04 May our (sacred grass) acceptable to the gods, twining crookedly be stretched out, may it be long, lengthy, and fragrant; with mind free from wrath, divine Barhis, offer worship to the gods desiring (the sacrifice), of whom Indra is the chief.
10.070.05 Be in contact, doors, with the lofty height of heaven, or expand according to the measure of the earth; desiring the gods, desiring a chariot, sustain without might the shining chariot (that is mounted) by the mighty gods.
10.070.06 Radiant daughters of heaven, Dawn and Night, sit down on the place of sacrifice; O you, who are desirous and possessed of affluence, may the gods desirous (of oblations) sit down on your spacious lap.
10.070.07 (When) the grinding-stone is uplifted, the mighty Agni kindled, the acceptable vessels (ready) on the lap of earth; (then), most learned priests, who take the foremost place, bestow wealth upon us at this sacrifice.
10.070.08 Sit down, you three goddesses, upon this broad barhis, we have spread it out for you; Il.a_, radiant (Sarasvati_) and bright-footed (bha_rati_) accept our sacrifice and well-presented oblations as if they were Manu's.
10.070.09 Divine Tvas.t.a_, since you have attained to beauty (through our oblations), and have become the associate of the An:girasas, do you, the bestower of wealth, possessed of precious treasure, and knowing (to whom each portion belongs), offer the food of the gods (to them).
10.070.10 Vanaspati, who are intelligent, having fastened it with a rope, convey the food of the gods; may the divine (Vanaspati) taste it, may he take the oblations (to the gods); may heaven and earth protect my invocation. [Vanaspati: the sacrificial post or stake (yu_pa)].
10.070.11 Bring, Agni, to our sacrifice Varun.a and Indra from heaven, and the Maruts from the firmament, may the adorable universal gods sit down on the sacred grass, and may the immortal deities rejoice in (the oblation presented with) the sva_ha_.

r.s.i: s'a_rya_ta ma_nava; devata_: vis'vedeva_; chanda: jagati_

10.092.01 You (gods, adore) the charioteer of the sacrifice, the lord of men, the invoker of the gods, the guest of night, the resplendent (Agni). Blazing amid the dry (bushes) preying upon the green, the showerer of desires, the banner (of light), the adorable, he reposes in heaven.
10.092.02 Both (men and gods) have made Agni the speedy protector, the upholder of duty, the accomplisher of the sacrifice; they have recourse to him (who is) vast as the sun, the precursor of the dawn, the son of the brilliant (Va_yu). [Speedy protector: an~jas pa_m = an~jasa_ raks.akam = speedily protecting; or, perhaps, the drinker of the Soma (or butter)].
10.092.03 We desire that our notion of that adorable (Agni) may be true, and that our oblations may be to him for food. When his formidable (flames) attain immortality, then may our priests scatter (oblations for the benefit) of the divine being.
10.092.04 The vast heavven, the spacious firmament, the glorious unbounded earth, (do) homage (to the Agni) of the sacrifice; and Indra, Mitra, Varun.a, Bhaga, and Savita_, whose strength is purified, unite to recognize (his excellence).
10.092.05 The rivers flow along with rushing (son of) Rudra, they sweep over the boundless earth; and with them the circumambient (Indra) sweeping over a wide space, roaring in the belly (of the firmament), sprinkles the whole world. [With them: yebhih = a reference to the Maruts, the sons of Rudra, who is referred to in the first line of the verse].
10.092.06 The Maruts, the sons of Rudra, mixing with men, the hawks of the sky, the inhabitants of the cloud, (are) performing (their functions); with those horse-owing deities, Varun.a, Mitra, Aryaman, and Indra, the lord of horses contemplates (the rite). [Horse-owning: or, possessing Soma].
10.092.07 Those who praise him find protection in Indra; (those who praise him find) universal vision in the sun; (those who praise him find) manly vigour in the vigorous (Indra); those worshippers who diligently offer adoration to Indra (acquire) the thunderbolt as their ally in the dwellings of men.
10.092.08 The sun urging his steeds (in obedience to) his (commands) delights (in his presence); every (god) is in fear of the powerful Indra; from the belly of the formidable sighing showerer (of benefits) the all-enduring irresistible (deity) thunders day by day. [Every god is in fear: cf. Taittiri_ya Upanis.ad 2.8].
10.092.09 Address praise today with reverence to Rudra the powerful destroyer of the heroes, (who is accompanied) by the mounted (Maruts), the granters of wishes, together with whom he, propitious, possessing kinsmen, besprinkles (the worshippers) from heaven.
10.092.10 Inasmuch as Br.haspati, the showerer (of benefits) and the kindred of Soma (the Visvedeva_s), bestow food (for the support) of people, Atharvan was the first to invigorate (the gods) with sacrifices; with strength the gods and Bhr.gus discovered (the cattle). [With strength: i.e., with the strength acquired from the sacrifice which they had eaten; having gone to the sacrifice made by Atharvan, they discovered the cattle; cf. RV 1.83.5].
10.092.11 They the heaven and earth, abounding with waters, the Nara_s'am.sa rite with its four fires, Yama, Aditi, the divine Tvas.t.a_, (Agni) the giver of wealth, the R.bhus, Rodasi_, the Maruts, and Vis.n.u are worshipped (by us).
10.092.12 And may the wise Ahi of the firmament hear the copious (pulse) of us eager (worshippers) at the offering of oblations. May the revolving sun and moon dwelling in heaven, the earth and sky, comprehend by their intelligence (the purport) of this (our praise).
10.092.13 May Pu_s.an protect all our moveable (property); may Va_yu, the friend of the Vis'vedeva_s, the grandson of the waters, preserve us for the celebration of the sacrifice. Worship the wind, the soul of all, (to obtain) excellent (food); As'vins, who are worthy to be invoked, hear us on your way.
10.092.14 We glorify with praises Agni, the self-famous, who dwells among these fearless beings; we praise the irresistible Aditi, together with all the wives (of the gods); we praise the young (lord) of night (the moon), we praise the friend of man (the sun), we praise (Indra) the lord (of all).
10.092.15 An:girasa, the prior in birth, praises (the gods, here); the uplifted stones behold (the Soma of) the sacrifice, through which (stones) the sage Indra has been exalted, (and his) thunderbolt brings forth excellent water, (producing) food on watery way.

r.s.i: jamadagni bha_rgava or ra_ma ja_madagnya; devata_: a_pri_su_kta (1 idhma or samiddha agni, 2 tanu_napa_t, 3 il.a_, 4 barhi, 5 devi_dva_ra, 6 us.a_ sa_nakta_, 7 divya hota_gan.a pracetasa, 8 sarasvati_, il.a)_, bha_rati_: three devi_s, 9 tvas.t.ha_, 10 vanaspati, 11 sva_hakr.ti); chanda: tris.t.up

10.110.01 Kindled today, Ja_tavedas, in the dwelling of the worshipper, you who are divine, sacrifice to the gods. Bear (the oblation), you who respect your friends, who are intelligent; you are the wise, far-seeing messenger (of the gods).
10.110.02 Pure-tongued Tanu_napa_t, flavour the paths of the sacrifice which lead (to success), moistening them with the sweet (Soma); elevating our praises and our rite by understanding, convey our sacrifice to the gods. [Tanu_napa_t: Agni; tanu = a cow that has calved and yields milk, whence comes butter, and from butter fire-- Agni is thus the grandson of the cow; or, grandson of the waters, because from rain come the trees and trees supplying fuel propagate Agni].
10.110.03 Agni, who are the invoker (of the gods), and are to be solicited and praised, come, being propitiated, along with the Vasus; you, O mighty (Agni), are the invoker of the gods; do you, who are most entitled to worship, solicited by us, offer them adoration.
10.110.04 In the beginning of the day the sacred grass, pointing eastwards, is strewn with the prescribed (text) as a covering for the earth (of the altar); they spread it out far and wide as a pleasant (seat) for the gods and Aditi.
10.110.05 Expanding wide, let the doors give access as gracefully decorated wives give access to their husbands, divine doors, spacious and admitting all, be easy of entry for the gods.
10.110.06 May the adorable Day and Night, the givers of sound repose, having approached, sit down in the place (of sacrifice), two divine females, majestic and richly ornamented, bearing beauty of a bright form.
10.110.07 Divine ministers, prior (to those of earth), repeaters of pious praise, instituting the sacrifice at which men are to worship, (sit down) stimulating (the priests) at the sacrifices, makers (of praises), indicating the eastern fire with the prescribed (text). [Eastern fire: A_havani_ya. The two divine ministers, of Hota_ are Agni and A_ditya].
10.110.08 May Bha_rati_ come quickly to our sacrifice, and Il.a_ thinking (of what she has to do), like a human being; may Sarasvati_ also-- the three gracious goddesses, sit down upon this pleasant sacred grass.
10.110.09 To the divine Tvas.t.a_, who decked the parental heaven and earth and all the worlds with living forms, to him, O priest, who are venerable and wise, being solicited byu us, offer oblation here today.
10.110.10 Offer of your own will in due season the food (and other) oblations of the gods besmearing it. Let Vanaspati, S'amita_, the divine Agni, sweeten the oblation with honey and butter. [Vanaspati_ = the deified yu_pa, or sacrificial post; or, the r.ca may be addressed to the priest; S'amita_: immolator of the victim. The post, the immolator and the fire are here deified as the chief instruments or agents of the sacrifice].
10.110.11 As soon as he was born, Agni constructed a sacrifice, he was the preceder of the gods; may the gods partake of the oblation presented with the sva_ha_ through the voice of him the hota_ of the sacrifice at the eastern station.

r.s.i: va_ga_mbhr.n.i_; devata_: va_ga_mbhr.n.i_ (a_tmastuti); chanda: tris.t.up, 2 jagati_

10.125.01 I proceed with the Rudras, with the Vasus, with the A_dityas, and with the Vis'vedeva_s; I support both Mitra and Varun.a, Agni and Indra, and the two As'vins.[Deity Prama_tma_: the word, or first of creatures].
10.125.02 I support the foe-destroying Soma, Tvas.t.a_, Pu_s.an and Bhaga; I bestow wealth upon the institutor of the rite offering the oblation, deserving of careful protection, pouring forth the libation.
10.125.03 I am the sovereign queen, the collectress of treasures, cognizant (of the Supreme Being), the chief of objects of worship; as such the gods have put me in many places, abiding in manifold conditions, entering into numerous (forms.
10.125.04 He who eats food (eats) through me; he who sees, who breathes, who hears what is spoken, does so through me; those who are ignorant of me perish; hear you who have hearing, I tell that which is deserving of belief.
10.125.05 I verily of myself declare this which is approved of by both gods and men; whomsoever I will, I render formidable, I make him a Brahma_, a r.s.i, or a sage. [A Brahman: Brahma_, the creator].
10.125.06 I bend the bow of Rudra, to slay the destructive enemy of the Bra_hman.as, I wage war with (hostile) men. I pervade heaven and earth.
10.125.07 I bring forth the paternal (heaven) upon the brow of this (Supreme Being), my birthplace is in the midst of the waters; from thence I spread through all beings, and touch this heaven with my body.
10.125.08 I breathe forth like the wind giving form to all created worlds; beyond the heaven, beyond this earth (am I), so vast am I in greatness.

r.s.i: tvas.t.a_ garbhakarta_ or vis.n.u pra_ja_patya; devata_: lin:gokta devata_ (vis.n.u, tvas.t.a_, praja_pati, sini_va_li_, sarasvati_ and as'vini_kuma_ra); chanda: anus.t.up

10.184.01 May Vis.n.u construct the womb, may Tvas.t.a_ fabricate the members, may Praja_pati sprinkle (the seed), may Dha_ta_ cherish your embryo.
10.184.02 Sustain the embryo, Sini_va_li, sustain the embryo, Sarasvati_, may the divine As'vins, garlanded with lotuses, sustain your embryo.
10.184.03 We invoke your embryo which the A'vins have churned with the golden pieces of touchwood, that you may bring it forth in the tenth month.

In RV 3.53.12 presented below, Vis'vamitra says that the mantra will protect

Bhāratam Janam:

3.053.01 Indra and Parvata, bring hither, in a spacious car, delightful viands (generative of) good progeny; partake, deities, of the oblations (offered)at (our) sacrifices, and gratified by the (sacrificial) food, be elevated by our praises.
3.053.02 Tarry a while contentedly, Maghavan (at our rite); go not away; for I offer to you (the libation) of the copiously-effused Soma; powerful Indra, I lay hold of the skirts (of your robe) with sweet-flavoured commendations, as a son (clings to the garment) of a father.
3.053.03 Adhvaryu, let us two offer praise; do you concur with me; let us address pleasing praise to Indra; sit down, Indra, on the sacred grass (prepared by) the institutor of the rite; and may our commendations be most acceptable to Indra. [Do you concur with me: prati me gr.n.i_hi; the Hota_ is supposed to speak to Adhvaryu to direct their joint performance of some part of the ceremony].
3.053.04 A man's wife, Maghavan, is hiw dwelling; verily she is his place of birth; thither let your horses, harnessed (to your car), convey you; we prepare the Soma at the fit season; may Agni come as our messenger befor eyou. [His place of birth: ja_ya_ id astam sedu yonih: astam = gr.ham (gr.hin.i_ gr.ham ucyate iti smr.teh; na gr.ham gr.hamisya_hurgr.hi.n.o gr.hamucyate)].
3.053.05 Depart, Maghavan; come Indra; both ways, protector, there is a motive for you whether it be standing in your vast chariot, or liberating your neighing steed. [Both ways: ubhayatra te artham: Indra's wife awaits his return, the Soma libation invites his stay; protectorL bhra_ta_ = lit., brother; but here explained as pos.aka, nourisher].
3.053.06 When you have drunk the Soma, then, Indra, go home; an auspicious life (abides) pleasantly in your dwelling; in either (case) there is the standing in your car or liberating the steeds for provender.
3.053.07 These (sacrificers) are the Bhojas, of whom the diversified An:girasas (are the priests); and the heroic sons of the expeller (of the foes of the gods) from heaven, bestowing riches upon Vis'va_mitra at the sacrifice of a thousand (victims), prolong (his) life. [These sacrificers are the Bhojas: ime bhoja_ an:giraso viru_pa_: bhoja_ = ks.atriya descendants of Suda_s, suda_sah ks.atriya, ya_gam kurva_n.ah, instituting the sacrifice at which the latter, Medha_tithi, and the rest of the race of an:giras were their ya_jakas, or officiating priests; the expeller: rudra, his sons are the maruts; sacrifice of a thousand victims: sahasrasave = the as'vamedha].
3.053.08 Maghavan becomes repeatedly (manifest) in various forms, practising delusions with respect to his own peculiar person; and invoked by his appropriate prayers, he comes in a moment from heaven to the three (daily rites), and, although observant of seasons, is the drinker (of the Soma) irrespective of season.
3.053.09 The great r.s.i the generator of the gods, the attracted by the deities, the overlooker of the leaders (at holy rites), Vis'va_mitra attested the watery stream when he sacrificed for Suda_s; Indra, with the Kus'ikas was pleased. [The generator of the gods: devaja_h = the generator of radiances or energies, tejasa_m janayita_; arrested the watery stream: astabhna_t sindhum arn.avam: he is said to have stoped the current of the confluence of the vipa_s/a_ and s'utudri rivers; indra with the kus'ikas was pleased: apriyayata kus'ikebhir Indra = kus'ikagotrotpannair r.s.ibhih saha, with the r.s.is of the kus'ika lineage, or it might be rendered, pleased by the Kus'ikas].
3.053.10 Sages and saints overlookers of the leaders (of sacred rites), Kus'ikas, when the Soma is expresssed with stones at the sacrifice, then exhilarating (the gods) with praises, sing the holy strain (aloud) like (screaming) swans, and, together with the gods, drink the sweet juice of the Soma.
3.053.11 Approach, Kus'ikas, the steed of Suda_s; animate (him), and let him loose to (win) riches (for the raja); for the king (of the gods) has slain Vr.tra in the East, in the West, in the North, therefore let (Suda_s) worship him in the best (regions) of the earth.
3.053.12 I have made Indra glorified by these two, heaven and earth, and this prayer of Vis'va_mitra protects the race of Bharata. [Made Indra glorified: indram atus.t.avam-- the verb is the third preterite of the casual, I have caused to be praised; it may mean: I praise Indra, abiding between heaven and earth, i.e. in the firmament].
3.053.13 The Vis'va_mitras have addressed the prayer to Indra, the wielder of the thunderbolt; may he therefore render us very opulent. [The Vis'va_mitras: The bharatas, or descendants of Bharata, are descendants of Vis'va_mitra; Bharata is the son of S'akuntala_, the daughter of the sage, Visva_mitra (Maha_bha_rata A_diparva); Vasis.t.ha is the family priest of the Bharats and was the restorer to dominion from which they had been expelled by the Pan~ca_las].
3.053.14 What do the cattle for you among the Ki_kat.as; they yield no milk to mix with the Soma, they need not the vessel (for the libation); bring them to us; (bring also) the wealth of the son of the usurer, and give us Maghavan, (the possessions) of the low branches (of the community). [The Ki_kat.as: (Nirukta 6.32) are people who do not perform worship, who are infidels, na_stikas; in countrie sinhabited by ana_ryas (ki_kat.a_ na_ma des'ona_ryaniva_sah); na tapanti gharma_n.i: harmyam = a house; gharma_n.i = a vessel termed maha_vi_ra used at the rite called pragr.hya: pragr.h ya_khya_ karmopa yuktam maha_vi_rapa_tram, which the cattle do not warm by yielding their milk to it; usurer: a_ bhara pramagandasya vedas: maganda = kusidin, or usurer, one who says to himself, the money that goes from me will come back doubled, and pra = a patronymic; low branches of the community: naica_s'a_kham, that which belongs to a low (ni_ca) branch, or class (s'a_kha); the posterity born of S'u_dras and the like].
3.053.15 The daughter of Su_rya given by Jamadagni gliding everywhere and dissipating ignorance, has emitted a mighty (sound), and has diffused ambrosial imperishable food among the gods. [Given by Jamadagni: jamadagni datta_ = given by the r.s;is maintaining a blazing jamat-jvalat, fire, agni; mighty sound: the sound of thunder or the like in the sky; food among the gods: as the prayers or exclamation which accompanies the burnt offering].
3.053.16 May she, gliding everywhere, quickly bring us food (suited) to the five races of men; may she, the daughter of the sun whom the grey-haired jamadagnis gave to me, (be) the bestower of new life. [Five races of men: pan~cajanya_su kr.s.t.is.u: five distinctions are restricted to human beings; hence, the reference may be to four castes and barbarians; daughter of the sun: paks.ya_, the daughter of Paks.a: paks.a nirva_hakasya, the distributor of the parts (of the year?), i.e. su_ryasya, of the sun; bestower of new life: navyam a_yur dadha_na, having new life or food: mama kurvan.a_ bhavatu].
3.053.17 May the horse be steady, the axle be strong, the pole be not defective, the yoke not be rotten; may Indra preserve the two yoke-pins from decay; car with uninjured felloes, be ready for us. [The horses: ga_vau gaccheta iti ga_vau as'vau: ga_va_ implies those who go, or, in this place, horses; car be ready for us: Vis'va_mitra being about to depart from the sacrifice of Suda_s, invokes good fortune for his conveyance].
3.053.18 Give strength, Indra, to our bodies; give strength to our vehicles; (give) strength to our sons and grandsons; that they may live (long); for you are giver of strength.
3.053.19 Fix firmly the substance of the khayar (axle), give solidity to the s'is'u (floor) of the car; strong axle, strongly fixed by us, be strong; cast us not from out of our conveyance. [khayar and s'is'u: khadirasya sa_ram is the text; khadira = mimosa catechu of which the bolt of the axle is made; while the s'im.s'apa, dalbergia sisu furnishes wood for the floor; these are still timber-trees in common use].
3.053.20 May this lord of the forest never desert us nor do us harm; may we travel prosperously home until the stopping (of the car), until the unharnessing (of the steeds). [This lord of the forest: vanaspati, i.e. the timber of which the car is made].
3.053.21 Indra, hero,possessor of wealth, protect us this day against our foes with many and excellent defences; may the vile wretch who hates us fall (before us); may the breath of life depart from him whom we hate.
3.053.22 As (the tree) suffers pain from the axe, as the s'imbal flower is (easily) cut off, as the injured cauldron leaking scatters foam, so may mine enemy perish. [The ellipse: as the tree is cut down by the axe, so may the enemy be cut down; as one cuts off without difficulty the flower of the s'imbal, so may he be destroyed; as the ukha_ (cauldron) when struck (prahata), and thence leaking (yes.anti_, sravanti_), scatters foam or breath from its mouth, so (dves.t.a madi_ya, mantra sa_marthyena prahatah san, phenam mukha_d udgirtu), may that hater, struck by the power of my prayer vomit foam fromhis mouth].
3.053.23 Men, (the might) of the destroyer is not known toyou; regarding him as a mere animal, they lead him away desirous (silently to complete his devotions); the wise condescend not to turn the foolish into ridicule, they do not lead the ass before the horse. [Legend: Vis'va_mitra was seized and bound by the followers of Vasis.t.ha, when observing a vow of silence. These were the reflections of the sage on the occasion: disparaging the rivalry of Vasis.t.ha with himself, as if between an ass and a horse: sa_yakasya = of an arrow;here explained, to destroy, avasa_naka_rin.ah; lodham nayanti = they lead the sage; lodha = fr. lubdham, desirous that his penance might not be frustrated, tapasah ks.ayo ma_ bhu_d iti, lobhena tus.n.i_m sthitam r.s.im pas'um manyama_na, thinking the r.s.i silent through his desire, to be an animal, i.e., stupid; another interpretation in Nirukta:lubdham r.s.im nayanti pas'um manyama_nah, they take away the desiring r.s.i, thinking him an animal; na ava_jinam va_jina_ ha_sayanti: va_jina = fr. vac, speed, with ina affix; interpreted as srvajn~a, all knowing; the contrary avajina = mu_rkha, a fool].
3.053.24 These sons of Bharata, Indra, understand severance (from the Vasis.t.has), not association (with them); they urge their steeds (against them) as against a constant foe; they bear a stout bow (for their destruction) in battle. [Sons of Bharata: descendants of Vis'va_mitra whose enmity to the lineage of Vasis.t.ha is here expressed; the enmity reportedly occurred on account of Vis'va_mitra's disciple the Ra_ja_ suda_s; Anukraman.ika_ states that Vasis.t.has hear not the inimical imprecations: antya abhis'aparthas ta vasis.t.adevas.in.yah na vasis.t.hah s'r.n.vanti; Niruktam: sa vasis.t.hadves.i_ r.k-aham ca kapis.thalo vasi.s.hah atas tana nirbravi_mi, this and the previous verse are inimical to the Vasis.t.has and he is of the race of Vasis.t.ha, of the Kapis.t.hala branch].

Rigveda Devanagari text source: http://www.sanskritweb.net/rigveda

Translation based on Sayana and Wilson (Kalyanaraman)

S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center
June 16, 2015

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Tvaṣṭā metal artificer was a Meluhha (mleccha) who mispronounced indra-śatro resulting in Vr̥tra being born NOT as a killer of Indra

June 16, 2015, 11:20 pm

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/phmmt74

There are intimations in the Rigveda about Tvaṣṭā as a metalsmith producing weapons. These are ancient indicators of archaeometallurgical, historical events hazily seen through the mists of time of the Bronze Age of Ancient Near East.

The divinity Tvaṣṭṛ is mentioned in the Mitanni treaty, which establishes him as a Proto-Indo-Iranian divinity. Tvaṣṭr is Śukrācārya's son, Śukrācārya (the weapons' mentor of the asura) is Bhṛgu's grandson and Vāruṇibhṛgu's son. Tvaṣṭr is the fathe of ViŚvarupa. "There is a possible link with Tuisto who is, according to Tacitus's Germania (98 CE), the divine ancestor of the Germanic peoples -- a narrative of ca. 2000 BCE of Proto-Indo-European peoples."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuisto

"This map shows the approximate locations of the major Germanic tribes in and around the geographical region of Germania, as mentioned in Tacitus' work the Germania."Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuisto

Tvaṣṭṛ (Sanskrit: त्वष्टृ) is the first born creator of the universe.

10.090.01 Purus.a, who has a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet, investing the earth in all directions, exceeds (it by a space) measuring ten fingers. [purus.a = embodied spirit; or, vira_j, the aggregate of all living beings, spirit embodied in the egg of Brahma_, i.e., the universal spirit animating all creation. Thousand = an infinite number; the human soul, extending from the navel, takes upits abode in the heart or the human breast; the supreme soul, having animated the universe, is present in man, either in a minute form or of definite dimensions].

10.090.02 Purus.a is verily all this (visible world), all that is, and all that is to be; he is also the lord of immortality; for he mounts beyond (his own condition) for the food (of living beings). [He mounts: lit., since he rises beyond by food; or, he is that which grows by nourishment; or, that which expands by nourshment; annena = pra_n.ina_m bhoghena_nnena nimittabhu_tena; "inasmuch as he assumes the condition of the world in order that sentient beings may enjoy the fruit of their acts (pra_n.ina_m karmaphalabhoga_ya), that is not his true nature": the supreme spirit, which in its own state is inert and undiscernible, becomes the visible world, that living beings may reap the fruit of their acts since they acquire moks.a or final liberation, the supreme spirit is the lord of immortality; anna = matter (Mun.d.aka Upanis.ad 1.8].

10.090.03 Such is his greatness; and Purus.a is greater even than this; all beings are one-fourth of him; his other three-fourths, (being) immortal, (abide) in heaven. [Such is his greatness: i.e., the greatness of Purus.a is as vast as the world of past, present, and future beings].

10.090.04 Three-fourths of Purus.a ascended; the other fourth that remained in this world proceeds repeatedly, and, diversified in various forms, went to all animate and inanimate creation. [Proceeds repeatedly: either in individuals by death and birth, or in the world by its temporary dissolution and renovation; sa_s'ana_nas'ane = those who eat and those who do not; i.e., the two classes of created things, those capable of enjoyment etc., as gods, men, animals, or incapable thereof, as mountains and rivers -- conscious and unconscious creation].

10.090.05 From him was born Vira_t. and from Vira_t. Purus.a; he, as soon as born, became manifested, and afterwards (created) the earth (and) then corporeal forms. [From him: tasma_t = from that one-fourth; or, from the a_dipurus.a; vira_t. purus.a: the first man, a_dipurus.ah; or, purus.ah = presiding male or spirit, life; the supreme spirit who by his delusion created the body of Vira_t., i.e., the egg of Brahma and entered into it in the form of life].

10.090.06 When the gods performed the sacrifice with Purus.a as the offering, then Spring was its ghi_, Summer the fuel, and Autumn the oblation. [Apparently a reference to an imaginary sacrifice (ma_nasam)].

10.090.07 They immolated as the victim upon the sacred grass Purus.a, born before (creation); with him the deities who were Sa_dhyas and those who were R.s.is sacrificed. [Sa_dhya = competent to create, i.e., Praja_pati and the rest].

10.090.08 From that victim, in whom the universal oblation was offered, the mixture of curds and butter was produced, (then) he made those animals over whom Va_yu presides, those that are wild, and those that are tame. [Va_yu: va_yuvyan: Taittiri_ya Bra_hman.a3.2.1.3; or, who are governed by instinct].

10.090.09 From that victim, in whom the universal oblation was offered, the r.ccas and sa_mans were produced; from him the metres were born; from him the yajus. was born. [tasma_d yajn~a_t = from that simple portion surnamed the universal sacrifice, sarvahu_tah, meaning Purus.a as the world; yajn~a = yajn~asa_dhana, the material of sacrifice, i.e., the victim. Purus.a is the spiritual cause and effect of material creation; it is from him, not from the ideal or real sacrifice, that all things originate].

10.090.10 When they immolated Purus.a, into how many portions did they divide him? What was his mouth called, what his arms, what his thighs, what were his feet called?

10.090.11 His mouth became the Bra_hman.a, his arms became the Ra_janya, his thighs became the Vais'ya; the S'u_dra was born from his feet. [The Bra_hman.a was his mouth; the Ra_janya was made his arms; that which was the Vais'ya was his thighs; the S'U_dra sprang from his feet: Muir, Sanskrit Texts, vol. 1, p.9].

10.090.12 The moon was born from his mind; the sun was born from his eye; Indra and Agni were born from his mouth, Va_yu from his breath. [Or, air and breath proceeded from his ear and fire rose from his mouth: Yajus.].

10.090.14 From his navel came the firmament, from his head the heaven was produced, the earth from his feet, the quarters of space from his ear, so they constituted the world.

10.090.15 Seven were the enclosures of the sacrifice, thrice seven logs of fuel were prepared, when the gods, celebrating the rite, bound Purus.a as the victim. [Seven enclosures: sapta paridhayah = seven metres, ga-yatri_ etc., and also as meaning the shallow trenches, three of which were dug round the A_havani_ya fireplace, three round the northern altar, and the seven ideally dug round the sun to keep off evil spirits. paridhayah = moats; or, the seven oceans; thrice seven pieces of fuel = twelve months of the year, the five seasons, the three worlds and the sun; or the three classes of seven metres eaach: Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_5.1.10.3].

10.090.16 By sacrifice the gods worshipped (him who is also) the sacrifice; those were the first duties. Those great ones became partakers of the heaven where the ancient deities the Sa_dhyas abide.

Some additions are used in tradition of Vaishnavanuvaka, to this Sukta and invoke Tvaṣṭṛ (Sanskrit: त्वष्टृ). The expanded Purusha sukta refers to the Purusha as Tvaṣṭṛ, who is the visible form of creativity emerged from the navel of the invisible Viswakarma.:

अ॒द्भ्यः सम्भू॑तः पृथि॒व्यै रसा॓च्च । वि॒श्वक॑र्मणः॒ सम॑वर्त॒ताधि॑ । तस्य॒ त्वष्टा॑ वि॒दध॑द्रू॒पमे॑ति । तत्पुरु॑षस्य॒ विश्व॒माजा॑न॒मग्रे॓ ॥

adbhyaḥ sambhū’taḥ pṛthivyai rasā”cca | viśvaka’rmaṇaḥ sama’vartatādhi’ | tasya tvaṣṭā’ vidadha’drūpame’ti | tatpuru’ṣasya viśvamājā’namagre” ||

The Viratpurusha manifested Himself from out of (the all-pervading) water as also the essence of the element of earth. This Viratpurusha was born out of the greatness of the Paramapurusha, the Creator. The (Paramapurusha, known as) Tvashta engaged Himself in the act of creating (the fourteen planetary systems), (which form of the expanded) figure (of the Viratpurusha). (Thus) the entire creation (related to the Viratpurusha) came into existence in the very beginning of creation.

वेदा॒हमे॒तं पुरु॑षं म॒हान्तम्॓ । आ॒दि॒त्यव॑र्णं॒ तम॑सः॒ पर॑स्तात् । तमे॒वं वि॒द्वान॒मृत॑ इ॒ह भ॑वति । नान्यः पन्था॑ विद्य॒तेஉय॑नाय ॥

vedāhametaṃ puru’ṣaṃ mahāntam” | ādityava’rṇaṃ tama’saḥ para’stāt | tamevaṃ vidvānamṛta’ iha bha’vati | nānyaḥ panthā’ vidyateஉya’nāya ||

"I have known that great Purusha (Supreme Being) who is brilliant like the sun and who is beyond all darkness. One who knows Him thus becomes immortal (even) here. There is no other path for liberation than this."

प्र॒जाप॑तिश्चरति॒ गर्भे॑ अ॒न्तः । अ॒जाय॑मानो बहु॒धा विजा॑यते । तस्य॒ धीराः॒ परि॑जानन्ति॒ योनिम्॓ । मरी॑चीनां प॒दमिच्छन्ति वे॒धसः॑ ॥

prajāpa’tiścarati garbhe’ antaḥ | ajāya’māno bahudhā vijā’yate | tasya dhīrāḥ pari’jānanti yonim” | marī’cīnāṃ padamicchanti vedhasa’ḥ ||

Prajapati (the Supreme Creator) moves inside the cosmic womb. (Though) unborn He takes birth in a variety of ways. The wise ones know His (real nature) as the origin (of the universe). The (secondary) creators desire to attain the positions of Marichi and others.

यो दे॒वेभ्य॒ आत॑पति । यो दे॒वानां॓ पु॒रोहि॑तः । पूर्वो॒ यो दे॒वेभ्यो॑ जा॒तः । नमो॑ रु॒चाय॒ ब्राह्म॑ये ॥

yo devebhya āta’pati | yo devānā”ṃ purohi’taḥ | pūrvo yo devebhyo’ jātaḥ | namo’ rucāya brāhma’ye ||

Obeisances to Him, the self-luminous Brahman, who shines for the (demi)gods, who is the leader of the rituals of the gods and who was born even before the gods.

रुचं॑ ब्रा॒ह्मं ज॒नय॑न्तः । दे॒वा अग्रे॒ तद॑ब्रुवन् । यस्त्वै॒वं ब्रा॓ह्म॒णो वि॒द्यात् । तस्य॒ दे॒वा अस॒न् वशे॓ ॥

ruca’ṃ brāhmaṃ janaya’ntaḥ | devā agre tada’bruvan | yastvaivaṃ brā”hmaṇo vidyāt | tasya devā asan vaśe” ||

In the beginning of creation, the gods, manifesting the light of Brahman, addressed Brahman thus: "That brahmana who realizes (You) thus, all the gods will come under his control."

ह्रीश्च॑ ते ल॒क्ष्मीश्च॒ पत्न्यौ॓ । अ॒हो॒रा॒त्रे पा॒र्श्वे । नक्ष॑त्राणि रू॒पम् । अ॒श्विनौ॒ व्यात्तम्॓ । इ॒ष्टं म॑निषाण । अ॒मुं म॑निषाण । सर्वं॑ मनिषाण ॥

hrīśca’ te lakṣmīśca patnyau” | ahorātre pārśve | nakṣa’trāṇi rūpam | aśvinau vyāttam” | iṣṭaṃ ma’niṣāṇa | amuṃ ma’niṣāṇa | sarva’ṃ maniṣāṇa ||

O Purusha! The goddesses Hri (modesty) and Sri (Lakshmi, wealth) are Your consorts. Day and night are Your lateral limbs. The stars are Your form. The Ashvins are your widely opened (mouth). (O Purusha) fulfill our desire for self-knowledge as also our desire for the enjoyments of this world (like longevity, cows, and horses). Give us all that we need.

तच्चं॒ योरावृ॑णीमहे । गा॒तुं य॒ज्ञाय॑ । गा॒तुं य॒ज्ञप॑तये । दैवी॓ स्व॒स्तिर॑स्तु नः । स्व॒स्तिर्मानु॑षेभ्यः । ऊ॒र्ध्वं जि॑गातु भेष॒जम् । शं नो॑ अस्तु द्वि॒पदे॓ । शं चतु॑ष्पदे ।

We seek that which gives us peace from sorrows, present and future. We seek growth for the rite of sacrifice and growth for patron of the rite, the

We seek that which gives us peace from sorrows that are, and those that are yet to occur. May sacrifices performed to please the lord and their performers flourish. May the grace of the Lord be with all mankind. May the earth be covered with blossoming plants, medicinal herbs and vegetation. Good come unto us from those with two feet, four feet and all creatures.

http://wikikrishna.com/index.php?title=Purusha_Suktam

10.082.01 The maker of the senses, resolute in mind, engendered the water, (and then) these two (heaven and earth) floating (on the waters); when those ancient boundaries were fixed, then the heaven and earth were expanded. [The maker of the senses: lit., the father of the eye; manasa_ dhi_rah = reflecting that there was no one equal to himself; a_po va_ idam agre; a_pa eva sasarja_dau: Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 7.1.5.1; Manu 1.8].
10.082.02 Vis'vakarman, of comprehensive mind and manifold greatness, is all-pervading, the creator, the arranger and the supreme supervisor; him in whom the desires of their (senses) are satisfied with food, they call (him) supreme beyond the seven r.s.is. [The devata_: is Prama_tma_ or A_ditya, the sun; cf. Nirukta 10.26. The second line of the r.ca: him in whom they delight their forms (or places) with water, him, those who are skille din mantras call the A_ditya single, superior to the seven r.s.is; or, the wise make the seven r.s.is one with Vis'vakarman; Nirukta notes that at the universal sacrifice Vis'vakarman Bhauvana offered up all beings and then himself].
10.082.03 He who is our preserver, our parent, the creator (of all), who knows our abodes (and knows) all beings, who is the name-giver of the gods-- he is one; other beings come to him to inquire. [i.e., to ask, 'who is the supreme lord?' or, they ask, what their offices are, and he appoints them their several functions].
10.082.04 Those ancient R.s.is who adorned (with light) these beings in the animate and inanimate world, offer to him wealth (of sacrifice) as praisers with abundant (laudation).
10.082.05 What was that embryo which was beyond the heaven, beyond this earth, beyond the gods, beyond the asuras, which the waters first retained, in which all the gods contemplated each other?
10.082.06 The waters verily first retained the embryo in which all the gods were aggregated, single deposited on the navel of the unborn (creator), in which all beings abide. [The embryo is Vis'vakarman. arpitam an.d.am = mundane egg; or, bi_jam].
10.082.07 You know not him who has generated these (beings); (his life) is another, different from yours; wrapped in fog, and foolish speech (do they) wander (who are) gluttonous and engaged in devotion. [Sa_yan.a: "The assertion that we know Vis'vakarman in the same way as men say, 'I am devadatta, I am yajn~adatta', is false, for the essence (tattva) of Vis'vakarman Parames'vara is not endowed with conscious individual existence, but he is a different entity from you who are sentient beings, who have individual consciousness, and so forth". Wrapped in foolish speech: jalpya_: i.e., saying I am god, I am man etc.; ukthas'a_sah = singing hymns with a view to gaining felicity in a future state: you are merely anxious for enjoyment in this world and in the next, therefore you know nothing of Vis'vakarman; or, you who are engaged in enjoyment of this world or the next, being subject to false knowledge or ignorance, have no knowledge of the Truth].

The Samhita mentions associations with Vr̥tra and Dadhici, episodes later elaborated in Bhagavata Purana. See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2015/06/tvastr-is-metaphor-for-veneration-of.html Tvaṣṭr̥ is a metaphor for veneration of metalwork artificers, Bhāratam Janam, in Rigveda.

RV 1.80.16 refers to Dadhyanc, son of Atharvan; RV 1.80.1 refers to Indra wielding the metal vajra thunderbolt weapon against VRtra. RV 1.85.9 refers to Indra slaying VRtra using the vajra made by TvaSTA and releasing the water of oceans. RV 1.32.1, RV 1.32.5 to 14, RV 1.52.2 to 15, RV 1.61.6 to 12, RV 1.80.3 to 5, RV 1.80, 3 to 13, RV 1.85.9, RV 1.86.6, RV 2.1.11, RV 3.54.15, RV 4.42.7, RV 6.47.2, RV 10.48.8, RV 10.65.2, RV 10.65.10, RV 10.66.8 also refers to Indra's battle against VRtra and as the slayer of VRtra. The gloss vRTrhA of RV 2.1.11 is also explained by Sayana as 'destroyer of sin'.

These references reinforce the role of Tvaṣṭā as a metal artificer who made metallic weapons. This gets elaborated in a narrative in the Bhagavata Purana related to a son of Tvaṣṭā called Vis'varupa who was killed in battle.

There is a remarkable episode of mispronunciation by Tvaṣṭā, making him a mleccha. This mispronunciation with a wrong accent on the phrase: Indra-śatro resulted in the birth of Vr̥tra who, instead of becoming a slayer of Indra, gets killed in battle by Indra.

In deciphering the Indus Script Corpora at catalogus catalogorum of metalwork as rebus-metonymy layered cipher of Meluhha (mleccha) speech, the outlines of Meluhha glosses with variant pronunciations (deemed mispronunciations according to the Vedic chandas rules and prosodic chanting tradition) become apparent while cataloguing metalwork artifacts traded across civilizational contact areas.

It is suggested that that archaeometallurgical references in the Rigveda related to the forging of metal weapons should be correlated with the artifacts attested archaeologically in the civilizational contact areas which extended along the Tin Road from Hanoi, Vietnam to Haifa, Israel.

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

June 17, 2015

Srimad Bhagavatam 6.9.11

http://vedabase.net/sb/6/9/11/en2

http://prabhupadabooks.com/pdf/SB6.2.pdf

"While the gods Indra and Agni stood for Power and Wisdom, the gods PUSan and Bhaga, Rbhus, TvaSTA and Vis'vakarman presided over the economic activities of the people. The technical and the ritual aspects of productive activity were closely united just as the forms of wealth were conceived in close connection with the favour of the gods...All rUpas are of TvaSTA (the divine fashioner). TvaSTA inherited them from Agni or, as Aitareya has it, TvaSTA is nothing but speech. In other words, all forms are originally contained in divine wisdom, the ultimate illuminer. It is from there that the artificing and fashioning mind derives them. Reality is conceived as a luminous powere which creates things or forms out of itself. The human mind is capable of responding to the Light and apperceiving the forms in which it expresses itself. The forms which man perceives, thus, are not phantasms produced by the senses or the mind but created things rooted in reality."(Pande, GC, 1990, Foundations of Indian culture: spiritual vision and symbolic forms, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, p.61, p.344)

"According to the Bhagavat Purana, he chanted: “Indra-satro vivardhasva ma ciram jahi vidvisam” (“O enemy of Indra, flourish to kill your enemy without delay”). (Bhagavat Purana 6.9.11). Tvasta intended to chant the word indra-satro, meaning, “O enemy of Indra.” Instead of chanting those words short, Tvasta chanted it long, and its meaning changed from “the enemy of Indra” to “Indra, who is an enemy.” Consequently, instead of a son who would kill the king of the gods, he had a son who would die at Indra’s hands. The smallest mistake in pronunciation led to his plans being foiled." -- Nimai Agarwal http://kidspiritonline.com/2014/12/the-power-of-words-in-my-tradition/

[quote]hata-putras tatas tvasta

juhdvendraya satrave
indra-satro vivardhasva
ma ciramjahi vidvisam

TRANSLATION

After Visvarupa was killed, his father, Tvasta, performed ritualistic ceremonies to kill Indra. He offered oblations in the sacrificial fire, saying, "O enemy of Indra, flourish to kill your enemy without delay."

PURPORT

There was some defect in Tvasta's chanting of the mantra because he chanted it long instead of short, and therefore the meaning changed. Tvasta intended to chant the word indra-satro, meaning, "O enemy of Indra." In this mantra, the word indra is in the possessive case (sasthi), and the word indra-satro is called a tat-purusa compound (tatpurusa-samasa) . Unfortunately, instead of chanting the mantra short, Tvasta chanted it long, and its meaning changed from "the enemy of Indra" to "Indra, who is an enemy." Consequently instead of an enemy of Indra's, there emerged the body of Vrtrasura, of whom Indra was the enemy.

Bhag. 6.9.11

In the compound word indra-satro, the ending of the word satro is uttered short when it is in the possessive case (sasthi) and long when it is in the vocative case (sambodhana) . Tvasta mistakenly uttered it long. He expected "Indra's killer" to be born from the sacrifice, but the mantra he uttered meant "Indra is the killer of the person to be born."

In the above scenario, "long" and "short" do not denote dirgha and hrasva (see section 2.4.2 on vowels), but long (udatta) and short (anudatta) pitch accents on vowels (also in 2.4.2). Tvasta spoke Vedic Sanskrit (vaidika bhasa or vaidika samskrta), in which the word meaning can change depending on the pitch in which a vowel is accented. Vedic Sanskrit occurs only in the sruti-sastra, the four Vedas, and it is also called srauta bhasa. The rest of Sanskrit literature is written in classical Sanskrit (laukika bhasa or laukika samskrta), which is not altered by vowel pitch accents.

The commentaries by Sridhara Svami and Varhsidhara on Bhagavatam 6.9.11 explain this incident in more detail. They say that the version of the mantra given in 6.9.11 is different from the mantra used by Tvasta. The mantra given in the Vedas and described by Sridhara Svami and Vamsidhar was indra-satrur vardhasva, and their explanations of the mistake are based on this. It was customary to change a Vedic mantra a bit when mentioning sruti texts in writing because the audience did not necessarily have qualifications (adhikara) in sruti. Hence the mantra from the Veda was changed in 6.9.11. Or it was changed owing to considerations of the verse meter. Hence we see that there is no actual vocative in the Vedic mantra. Sridhara Svami mentions that the mistake was in the svaras, vowel pitch accents. As far as the letters were concerned, they were accurately chanted. The mistake in the svaras (vowel pitch accents) was that he chanted "indra" with the udatta accent, which changed it from what was intended (a tatpurusa meaning "Indra's enemy") to something else (a bahuvrihi) meaning Tndra is the killer of the person to be born." [unquote]

https://archive.org/stream/Samskrtoccharanam.LS/samskrtoccharanam.%20LS_djvu.txt

Vritra is also mentioned in the Rig Veda, where he is the demon of drought, who imprisons all the strom clouds and causes drought. Indra slays him with his thunder-bolt (Vajra) and frees the strom-clouds, bring bountiful rain to end the famine.

Slaying of Vritra

This story is taken from B.P. and Bhagavata Purana (Canto 6, Chapter 7-13).
Brihaspati was the Guru of the Devas. He was very learned and was first among the Brahmanas. Everyone used to respect him. It so happened, that when he visited the court of Indra, the King of the Gods was busy watching his beautiful Apsaras sing and dance, saw his Guru arrive. However, in his arrogance, he did not rise from his throne, nor did he utter the customary words of welcome and worship.

The sage felt insulted. He resolved that he will no longer grace the councils of the Devas, and went away to perform penance. Too late, Indra realized his mistake. H searched high and low for his perceptor, but could not find him. Without their Guru to guide them, the Devas could not survive for long. Besides, their traditional foes, the Asuras, will seek to exploit this opportunity to and cash in on their weakened state.

Acting on the advice of Lord Brahma, the Devas installed Vishwarupa, the son of the God Tvashta as their new Guru. He was also a Brahmana renowned for his learning and yogic power. As time progressed, Vishwarupa started to notice that Indra and the Devas spent an inordinate amount of time in pursuit of pleasure. Besides, his mother was aAsura woman, and his loyalty was divided. Secretly, he started giving a portion of the sacrificial oblations (Havis) to the Asuras. As a result, their strength increased.

When Indra came to know of this treachery, he became very angry. Without pausing to think the consequences of his actions, he struck off the three heads of Vishwarupa. The first head, that was used for drinking Soma, became a francolin partridge, the second head, used for drinking wine turned into a sparrow and the third, used for eating, turned into a partridge. the head of his teacher with his sword. Since he had killed a Brahmana, that too his Guru, he became guilty of the sin of Brahma-Hatya. However, he escaped his punishment by distributing the sin among the land, water, and women. (Other accounts say that his lusture diminished and he had to regain it by doing penance, during which time he was exiled from heaven.) In return for ridding Indra of the sin, earth got water to fill its empty holes, trees got re-growth of cut branches, waters became purifying, and women obtained undiminished sexual desire. As a result of their share of the sin, earth has wastelands, trees have sap, waters have froth, and women have menstruation.

Now, Tvashta wanted revenge for the murder of his son. He began arrangements for a sacrifice that would give him a son who could slay Indra. The sacrifice was duly performed, but there was a small problem. When it was time for the final incantations, Tvashta ought to have said, "May this son of mine be the slayer of Indra", but he stressed the wrong syllables in the Mantra, and the meaning changed to "May Indra be the slayer of this son of mine."
From the sacrificial fire, there rose a terrible Asura. He was named Vritra, 'the encloser'. He immediately grew immensely big and was as large as the largest mountain. His hair was like molten copper, he had a mustache and beard of the same color and had eyes blazing like the midday sun. He was armed with a magical trident. He derived his immense strength from the incantations chanted at the sacrifice. His father then ordered him to go and slayIndra. Obedient to the command, the demon began to seek the slayer of his elder brother.

Some time before this, the Asuras had been thoroughly defeated by the Devas in battle. Peace reigned for a while. The Devas needed a place to store their weapons safely, for they feared treachery. They then remembered that the Asuras dared not approach the hermitage of the sage Dadhichi, such was the yogic power of the hermit. They entrusted all their weapons to his safekeeping.

When Dadhichi's wife Lopamudra came to know about this, she was not pleased. She said to her husband, "An ascetic should not take sides in a war. Now the Asuras will think that you are their enemy and seek to harm you. Besides, the Gods have not mentioned how long you are to take care of their weapons. If something were to happen to them in your custody, will they not blame you. We have renounced all worldly possessions and attachments, you were wrong to have taken this responsibility."

Dadhichi saw the force of her arguments. He said, "What you say certainly makes sense. However, I have given my word. It is important to stand by ones promise. Besides, the Asuras were always the enemies of us sages, so the question of neutrality does not arise. What is fated will happen, and no one prevent it."

Years passed, and Dadhichi was alarmed to note that the lusture of the divine weapons was beginning to diminish. Their power was slowly dissolving in air. The sage then used his yogic power to dissolve all the weapons in water and then he drank it all up. Their power was then lodged in his bones.

Now, with Vritra threatening at their doorsteps, the Devas wanted their weapons back. Dadhichi said, "I have bad news for you. Your weapons are no longer there. Their power now resides in my bones. I shall give up my life. You can then have new weapons made from my bones."

The Gods naturally balked at the thought of the Rishi's death. However, no other choice was available, for they needed the weapons to battle Vritra. Dadhichi gave up his life. Vishwakarma made Indra the weapon Vajra from the back bone of the hermit. This weapon was the most powerful weapon of all.

The armies of the Devas and Asuras met in the battlefield. From the furious onslaught of the Asura army, theDevas were initially driven back, but they redoubled their efforts and slowly gained the upper hand.

Seeing his forces retreating, Vritra was extremely angry. He charged ahead and stopped the advance of the Devas single-handedly. He let out a mighty roar, which caused many of the Devas to faint. Under his purposeful tread, the heavens began to shake. He picked up his immense mace and struck Iyravata with it. Indra revived his mount with a touch of Amrit.

At this point, angry words were exchanged between Vritra and Indra.

The Asura taunted Indra for having slain his brother, a defenseless Brahmana.

Angered, Indra struck off one hand of Vritra with his sword. In retaliation, theAsura made his mouth immensely huge and swallowed Indra whole.

Though he was swallowed by the Asura, Indra did not die, for he was protected by the grace of Vishnu. He judged it to be time to use his Vajra. He used the great weapon and sliced open the abdomen of the demon, and emerged victorious.

However, having slain the creature emerged from a holy sacrifice, he was once again weighed down with sin. Unlike before, he could not get rid of it easily. He retired to the banks of Manasarovar and performed a penance for thousand years to expiate his sins and to regain his lusture.

http://web.archive.org/web/20070105054802/http://members.cox.net/apamnapat/articles/SlayingOfVritra.html

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Tvaṣṭr̥, Meluhha of Bhāratam Janam (Rigveda) is Tuisto, divine ancestor of Germanic peoples (Tacitus), legacy of Proto-Indo-Aryan superstrate & Mitanni Treaty

June 17, 2015, 8:37 am

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/ousoon5

This can be seen as a pilgrimage, a journey of Meluhha artisans/sea-faring merchants in Eurasia, during the Bronze Age, along the Maritime Tin Road from Hanoi, Vietnam to Haifa, Israel.

This journey also explains why many Proto-Indo-Aryan words like those present in Mitanni Treaty occur on Indus Script Corpora which is a veritable catalogus catalogurm of metalwork by metalcasters in the tradition of Tvaṣṭr̥, Tuisto.

Picture of Cambodian Brahma, Paris Museum.

Cambodian Brahma or Triśiras? Paris Museum.

How Tvaṣṭr̥ forged discus of Viṣṇu, Triśūla of Śiva and other weapons of divinities from solar disc, Sun divinity

Links with metalwork are clear from the meanings provided in Samskritam which extend from workman to copper to creative power: tvāṣṭra त्वाष्ट्र a. Belonging or coming from त्वष्टृ; त्वाष्ट्रं यद् दस्रावपिकक्ष्यं वाम् Rv.1.117.22. -ष्ट्रः Vṛitra; येनावृता इमे लोकास्तमसा त्वाष्ट्रमूर्तिना । स वै वृत्र इति प्रोक्तः पापः परमदारुणः ॥ Bhāg.6.9.18;11.12.5. -ष्ट्री 1 The asterism Chitra. -2 A small car. -ष्ट्रम् 1 Creative power; तपःसारमयं त्वाष्ट्रं वृत्रो येन विपाटितः Bhāg.8.11.35. -2 Copper. tvaṣṭṛ त्वष्टृ m. [त्वक्ष्-तृच्] 1 A carpenter, builder, workman, त्वष्ट्रेव विहितं यन्त्रम् Mb.12.33.22. -2 Viśvakarman, the architect of the gods. [Tvaṣtṛi is the Vulcan of the Hindu mythology. He had a son named Triśiras and a daughter called संज्ञा, who was given in marriage to the sun. But she was unable to bear the severe light of her husband, and therefore Tvaṣtṛi mounted the sun upon his lathe, and carefully trimmed off a part of his bright disc; cf. आरोप्य चक्रभ्रमिमुष्णतेजास्त्वष्ट्रेव यत्नो- ल्लिखितो विभाति R.6.32. The part trimmed off is said to have been used by him in forming the discus of Viṣṇu, the Triśūla of Śiva, and some other weapons of the gods.] पर्वतं चापि जग्राह क्रुद्धस्त्वष्टा महाबलः Mb.1.227. 34. -3 Prajāpati (the creator); यां चकार स्वयं त्वष्टा रामस्य महिषीं प्रियाम् Mb.3.274.9. -4 Āditya, a form of the sun; निर्भिन्ने अक्षिणी त्वष्टा लोकपालो$विशद्विभोः Bhāg.3.6.15. आदित्य a. [अदितेरपत्यं ण्य P.IV.1.85.] A son of Aditi; a god, divinity in general. (The number of Ādityas appears to have been originally seven, of whom Varuṇa is the head, and the name Āditya was restricted to them (देवा आदित्या ये सप्त Rv.9.114.3.). In the time of the Brāhmaṇas, however, the number of Ādityas rose to 12, representing the sun in the 12 months of the year; धाता मित्रो$र्यमा रुद्रो वरुणः सूर्य एव च । भगो विवस्वान् पूषा च सविता दशमः स्मृतः ॥ एकादशस्तथा त्वष्टा विष्णुर्द्वादश उच्यते ।); आदित्यानामहं विष्णुः Bg.1.21; Ku. 2.24. (These 12 suns are supposed to shine only at the destruction of the universe; cf. Ve.3.8; दग्धुं विश्वं दहनकिरणैर्नोदिता द्वादशार्काः).(Samskritam. Apte)

Meluhha of the Indian sprachbund, is the spoken form of chandas, the prosody of Rigveda. Tvaṣṭr̥ is the metal artificer par excellence, who forges the vajra (thunderbolt) weapon for Indra, a narrative celebrated in exquisite metaphors of Rigvedic chandas.

"King Shaushtatar (ruled c. 1430) extended the boundaries of Mitanni through the conquest of Alalakh, Nuzi, Assur, and Kizzuwatna. Egypt, under Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 BCE), defeated the Mitanni at Aleppo after a long period of contention over control of the region of Syria. Later Egyptian dynasties entered into pacts and treaties with Mitanni and the daughter of the Mitanni King Tushratta, the princess Taduhepa, was given in marriage to Amenhotep III (1391-1353 BCE) as part of a treaty which balanced power between the two nations.This treaty was put to the test during a power struggle in Washukanni between Tushratta and a relative of the previous king, Shuttarna, known as Artatama II. Egypt backed Tushratta in this conflict while the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I backed Artatama II. Tushratta seemed poised to succeed when Egypt, fearing the growing power of the Hittites, withdrew its support. Suppiluliuma I, tired of diplomacy and now free to do as he pleased without fear of Egyptian reprisal, led his forces on Washukanni and sacked it. Tushratta was assassinated by his son, perhaps in an effort to save the city. Following this conquest, Mitanni was ruled by Hittite kings."http://www.ancient.eu/Mitanni/ The name Tushratta may also be a phonetic variant of Tvaṣṭr̥, Tuisto. Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is postulated.

"In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni (between Suppiluliuma and Shattiwaza, ca. 1380 BC), the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked.Kikkuli's horse training text (circa 1400 BC) includes technical terms such as aika (Vedic Sanskrit eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pañca, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, round). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper (Vedic Sanskrit eka, with regular contraction of /ai/ to [eː]) as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has *aiva; compare Vedic eva "only") in general. Another text has babru(-nnu) (babhru, brown), parita(-nnu) (palita, grey), and pinkara(-nnu) (pingala, red). Another text has babru(-nnu) (babhru, brown), parita(-nnu) (palita, grey), and pinkara(-nnu) (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya (Hurrian: maria-nnu), the term for (young) warrior in Sanskrit as well;^[1] note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (Mayrhofer II 358). Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaišaratha, Vedic Tveṣaratha "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer I 686, I 736). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_superstrate_in_Mitanni

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvastr-is-metaphor-for-veneration-of.html Tvaṣṭr̥ is a metaphor for veneration of metalwork artificers, Bhāratam Janam, in Rigveda

Tvaṣṭṛ is sometimes associated or identified with deities,such as Savitṛ, Prajāpatī, Viśvakarman and Puṣan. He is the father of Saraṇyū, who twice bears twins to Vivasvat (RV 10.17.1), Yama and Yami, also identified as the first humans to be born on Earth. He is also the father of Viśvarūpa or Triśiras who was killed by Indra, in revenge Tvaṣṭṛ created Vrtra a fearsome dragon. Tvaṣṭṛ is a solar deity in the epic of Mahābhārata and the Harivaṃśa. He is mentioned as the son of Kāśyapa and Aditi, and is said to have made the three worlds with pieces of the Sun god Surya. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvastar

Invocation to Tvaṣṭr̥.

RV 1.113.10 I invoke the chief and multiform Tvas.t.r. (= Vis'vakarma_); may he be solely ours. Sayana explains: Tvas.t.a_ = Vis'vakarma_, artificer of the gods, the fabricator of the original sacrificial vase or ladle. tvas.t.a_ vai pas'u_na_m mithuna_na_m ru_kakr.t---iti s'ruteh (Taittiri_ya.Sam.hita_ 6.1.8.5): Tvas.t.a_ forms in animals in pairs. This remarkable elucidation seems to anticipate the characteristic hieroglyphic multiplex forms -- particularly antithetical, pairs -- of composite animals used repeatedly in Indus Script Corpora. This characteristic pairing seems to be reflected in the explanation for the cognate word Tuisto in Germania -- as derived from tvai 'two':

Tvastar, Tuisto, Ymir. According to Tacitus's Germania (98 CE), Tuisto is the divine ancestor of the Germanic peoples...Tuisto, is commonly connected to the Proto-Germanic root tvai ("two") and its derivative tvis ("twice"; "doubled")...Jacob argues that the Germanic Tuisto (assuming a connection with Tvastr) must originally have been the grandfather of Ymir (cognate to Yama). Incidentally, Indian mythology also places Manu (cognate to Germanic Mannus), the Vedic progenitor of mankind, as a son of Vivaswān, thus making him the brother of Yama/Ymir.(Jacob, Alexander (2005). Ātman: A Reconstruction of the Solar Cosmology of the Indo-Europeans. Georg Olms Verlag., p.232)...According to Rives (1999), the fact that the ancient Germanic peoples claimed descent from an earth-born god was used by Tacitus to support his contention that they were an indigenous population: the Latin word indigena was often used in the same sense as the Greek autochthonos, meaning literally '[born from] the earth itself' (from χθών – chthōn "earth").(Rives, J. B. (1999) (Trans.) Tacitus' Germania. Oxford University Press, pp. 111-112.) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuisto

Portrait of Tuisco (or Tuisto), identified by Tacitus as the ancestor of the Germans, after an illustration in Wolfgang Lazius' De aliquot gentium migrationibus. https://www.flickr.com/photos/58558794@N07/7725732342

Tacitus wrote:"In ancient lays, their only type of historical tradition, they celebrate Tuisto, a god brought forth from the earth. They attribute to him a son, Mannus, the source and founder of their people, and to Mannus three sons, from whose names those nearest the Ocean are called Ingvaeones, those in the middle Herminones, and the rest Istvaeones. Some people, inasmuch as antiquity gives free reign to speculation, maintain that there were more sons born from the god and hence more tribal designations- Marsi, Gambrivii, Suebi, and Vandilii- and that those names are genuine and ancient." (2.2) loc. cit. http://celto-germanic.blogspot.in/2014/04/tuisto-god-tiwaz.html

Richard North notes that tuisto may be 'two-standing' or 'standing twice'. Mannu is the son of Tuisto who is 'born from the earth'. (North, Richard, 1997, Heathen gods in old English literature, Cambridge University Press, pp.27, 270).

Týr (/ˈtɪr/; Old Norse: Týr [tyːr]) is a god associated with law and heroic glory in Norse mythology... If a warrior carved the rune Tîwaz on his weapon he would be dedicating it to Týr and strengthen the outcome of a battle to be in his favor. After a warrior has dedicated his weapon to Týr he should not lose it or break it. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BDr

The identification with metalsmiths provides a possible link of Tyr to Tvaṣṭr̥, Tuisto.

Surya with consorts Saranyu (Sanjna) and Chhaya. Saranyu is the daughter of Tvastar

Saranya (Saraṇyū) or Saraniya (also known as Saranya, Sanjna, or Sangya) is the consort of Surya, and the divinity of clouds in Hindu tradition. She marries Vivasvat and is mother of Revanta, the twin Asvins, Manu, the twins Yama and Yami. Saraṇyū is the female form of the adjective saraṇyú, meaning "quick, fleet, nimble", used for rivers and wind in the Rigveda. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saranyu

RV 10.17.1-2:

Tvastar prepares the bridal of his Daughter: all the world hears the tidings and assembles.

But Yama's Mother, Spouse of great Vivasvat, vanished as she was carried to her dwelling.

From mortal men they hid the Immortal Lady, made one like her and gave her to Vivasvat.

Saranyu brought to him the Asvin brothers, and then deserted both twinned pairs of children.

10.017.01 Tvas.t.a_ celebrates the marriage of his daughter; therefore, the whole world is assembled; but the mother of Yama, the newly-married wife of the mighty Vivasvat, disappeared. [Deity Saran.yu_: The legend: Saran.yu_, the daughter of Tvas.t.a_, was given in marriage to Vivasvat, and had by him Yama and Yami_. Intimidated by his ardour, she substituted another female, her shadow, Cha_ya_, for herself, and going to Uttarakuru, changed herself to a mare. Vivasvat begot Manu by Cha_ya_, when, finding his error, he set off to look for his wife. Discovering her disguise, he transformed himself to a horse, and had by his wife the two As'vins].
10.017.02 The gods concealing the immortal (Sarn.yu_) for th esake of mortals and having formed her, gave her to Vivasvat. She bore the two As'vins when this had happened and then Saran.yu_ gave birth to two twins. [For the sake of mortals: maryebhyah = manus.yebhyas tadutpattyartham, for men, i.e. that men might be born. Manu was the offspring of Vivasvat and the woman resembling Saran.yu_ and all men are descended from Manu; the two twins: Yama and Yami_, but dva_ mithuna_, may mean two pairs of twins, Yama and Yami_, the first pair and the As'vins the second].
10.017.03 May the discriminating Pu_s.an, whose cattle are never lost, the protector of all beings, transfer you hence (to a better world); may he give you to these Pitr.s; may Agni (give) you to the beneficent gods. [This and the following three r.cas are to be recited at the funeral rites of a man who has been duly initiated, di_ks.ita].
10.017.04 May the all-pervading Va_yu protect you, may Pu_s.an (preserve) you, (going) first on the excellent path (to heaven); may the divine Savita_ place you, where the virtuous abide, whither they have gone. [a_yu = Va_yu].
10.017.05 Pu_s.an knows all these regions severally; met him conduct us by (the path) that is most free from peril; let him precede us, who is the giver of prosperity, endowed with radiance, accompanied by all pious men, ever vigilant, and knowing our (deserts).
10.017.06 Pu_s.an has been born on the best path of paths, on the best path of heaven on the best path of earth, he goes forward and backward over both (worlds), the assemblies longed for by all, discriminating (the merits of the dead). [Pu_s.an has been born: i.e., manifested in order to conduct men after death to their destination, according to their merits; he goes forward: i.e., favourably to the virtuous to show the fruit of good owrks, backward, i.e., he walks adversely to the wicked; discriminating the merits: i.e., he walks adversely to the wicked].
10.017.07 The devout invoke Sarasvati_; they worship Sarasvati_ at the strewn sacrifice; the virtuous call upon Sarasvati_; may Sarasvati_ bestow blessings upon the donor (of the oblation).
10.017.08 Divine Sarasvati_, who rides in the same chariot with the Pitr.s, and delighted (along with them) by the (sacrificial) viands, seated on the sacred grass gratified (by our offering, and grant us wholesome food.
10.017.09 Sarasvati_, whom the Pitr.s invoke when circumambulating sacrifice on the right, bestow upon the worshippers at this sacrifice a portion of food fit for thousands, and increase of riches.
10.017.10 May the maternal waters, purify us; may the shedders of water purify us with the effusion; for the divine (waters) bear away all sin; I come away from them purified (to heaven). [Shedders of water...with effusion: ghr.tena no ghr.tapvah punantu: waters which purify others by water; ghr.ta = effused water; ghr.tapvah = divinities presiding over effused water; or, ghr.ta = oiled butter (Yajus. 4.2); udemi = I go to heaven (S'atapatha Bra_hman.a3.1.2.11)].
10.017.11 The Soma has risen to the earthly and heavenly (worlds), both this visible world, and that which (existed) before (it); I offer that Soma flowing through the common region (of heaven and earth) after the sacrifice (offered by the) seven (officiating priests). [drapsam = a name of the Sun (S'atapatha Bra_hman.a: 8.4.1.20); hotra_h = ditah, which are seven: zenith, nadir, centre and four cardinal points].
10.017.12 Soma, which escapes (from the hide), your filaments which let fall from the hands (of the priest escape) from the vicinity of the planks (of the press), or (from the hand) of the Adhvaryu, or from the filter; I offer it all with my mind (to Agni) with the word vas.at.
10.017.13 Your juice and your filaments, (Soma), which escape, and which fall from the ladle on this side or on that; may this divine Br.haspati sprinkle it for our enrichment.
10.017.14 (Waters)! the plants flourish by means of water my prayer is effectual through water; the essence of water is vigorous through water; purify me with it. [payasvat = having water; or, sa_ravat, having pith or vigour; being vigorous b\y means of water in the shape of rain].

List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts

c. 2900 BC Sumerian "proto-literate" period from about 3500 BC

c. 2700 BC Egyptian "proto-hieroglyphic" from about 3300 BC (2nd Dynasty, Narmer Palette)

c. 2400 BC Akkadian from about 2800 BC.[probably the 1st extensive use of writing]

c. 2400 BC Eblaite - They love not commenting this 1. [Proto-Ugaric, Hittite, Canaanite-ish]

c. 2250 BC Elamite - [Most closely related to Indo-Iranian group, developed east of mesopotamia in Susa]

c. 2000 BC Hurrian - fragmentary, known only from a few glosses in Hittite texts

c. 1800 BC Luwian - hieroglyphs [closely tied to Hittite]

c. 1700's BC Minoan archival documents written in Cretan hieroglyphs c. 1625 BC:

c. 1650 BC Hittite Various cuneiform texts and Palace Chronicles written during the reign of Hattusili I

c. 1500 BC Canaanite-Proto-Sinaitic alphabet

Map of the Near East ca. 1400 BCE showing the Mitanni kingdom at its greatest extent https://en.wiki2.org/wiki/Mitanni

Šauštatar's royal seal

http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/ranghaya/hittites.htm Hittites. Rulers of Hatti, Asia Minor 1900-800 BCE Katpatuka/Cappadocia, KE Eduljee: Hittite's Aryan Connections

The Hittites were the people who ruled the central Anatolian kingdom of Hatti from c. 1900 - 800 BCE. They formed the earliest known Anatolian civilization and employed an advanced system of government based on an established legal system. Their military was well trained, well equipped, and employed chariots that were the lightest and fastest of their time.

Map of Anatolia / Asia Minor. Hittite Hatti occupied land in the centre of this map. Base image courtesy Microsoft Encarta

Site map of Anatolia. /Asia Minor, the Hittite Hatti heartland occupied land in the centre of this map. Microsoft Encarta

Together with their southern neighbours, the Mitanni, the Hittites acknowledged Aryan (Indo-Iranian) deities such as Mitra, Varuna, Indra and used names with Aryan roots. Both apprear on the historical stage in the Upper Euphrates basin, the Hittites to the north of the Euphrates and the Mitanni to the south. At different periods, they were allies or rivals. The land of the Hittites was called Katpatuka (Cappadocia) during Persian Achaemenian times (675 - 330 BCE). Strabo in the first century ACE, noted that the magi of Cappadocia "... have Pyraetheia (fire-houses), noteworthy enclosures...", the first record of Zoroastrian fire temples. Katpatuka / Cappadocia - the old Hittite land - could have been the western extent of Ranghaya, the sixteenth and last Aryan land in the Vendidad - the last land mentioned before the Avestan canon was closed.

While the Hittites may have been immigrants to the land of Hatti, they peacefully adapted to the language, custom and religion of the aboriginal Hattians with whom they enjoyed a mutually profitable and amicable relationship. They brought with them various technologies including Metal Age manufacturing methods such as the smelting and casting of iron. History

Hittites first appear in the historical stage (though we use the word 'first' cautiously as this relates only to archaeological evidence) as rulers of the city of Kussara in south-eastern Anatolia somewhere between Nesa (Central Turkey today, see map below) and Aleppo (Northern Syria). The earliest known member of a Hittite speaking dynasty, Pithana, was based in Kussara. Pithana conquered the town of Nesa (or Nesha), near present-day Kayseri in central Turkey, and the city which the Hittites considered their city of origin. Shortly after 1800 BCE Pithana's son Anitta extended these conquests, capturing Hattusa, near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. Under subsequent kings of the Old Kingdom, Hattusa would become the future Hittite capital. Anitta, left records indicating his achievements, but he does not appear to have created an empire or to have founded a dynasty. The period after him was characterized by power struggles. It was the Hittite king Labarna, or Tabarna, (r. 1680-1650 BCE) who established what some call the Old Kingdom (c. 1680 - 1400 BCE), and from the time of its establishment, the Hittite kingdom rapidly grew in size. The establishment of the kingdom and the dynasty are chronicled in the Proclamation of Telepenus (c. 1525-1500 BCE). The Proclamation states that King Labarna consolidated power among the disparate Hittite city states and then proceeded to conquer nearly all of central Anatolia up to its shores. His successor Labarna II also known as Hattusili I (c. 1650-1620 BCE) continued to consolidate the kingdom as well as a dynastic line. Hattusilis' (adopted son or grandson?) successor, Mursili I (r. 1620-1590 BCE), further extended Hittite rule by conquering Aleppo (what is Halab today) in Assyria, and then went on to raid, but not rule, Babylon c.1595 BCE.

The consolidation and expansion of the Hittite kingdom into an empire (sometimes known as the New Kingdom or Empire c. 1400 - 1180 BCE) took place during the reign of Prince Suppiluliuma (r. c.1380-1346 BCE), a reputed usurper of the Hittite throne. Suppiluliuma rebuilt the capital at Hattusa and reorganized the government. He built on his military successes by defeating the Mitanni King Tusratta with whom his relations had become advesarial. In Tusratta's place, he installed his Mitanni ally Prince Shattiwaza, who had fled Mitanni and sought sanctuary in Hatti. The two kings concluded a treaty c. 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty, the result of which gave Suppiluliuma control over various Mitanni vassal states including parts of Assyria. With his acquisition of Assyrian lands, Hattusa's empire now rivalled the power of Egypt under pharaoh Amenhotep IV, or Akhenaton, as well as that of Babylonia and Assyria. During the 15th and 14th centuries BCE, subsequent Hittite kings extended the extent of their empire westward to the Aegean Sea, eastward into Armenia, south-eastward into upper Mesopotamia, and southward as far as the mouth of the Litani River (a territory known as Amqu) in present-day Lebanon.

The Hittite king Hattusili III (r. 1289-1265 BCE) concluded a treaty of peace and alliance with Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses and gave Ramses his daughter in marriage. In c.1200 BCE the Hittite Empire fell to invaders called the Sea Peoples in Egyptian records, and shrank to collection of Neo-Hittite city states such as Carchemish and Milid (present-day Malatya). Sources of Information

Information about the Hittites comes from a 1906 discovery of the Hittite's royal archives during excavations at Boğazkale. Another source is Egyptian records. The Hittites may also be mentioned in the Jewish scriptures as the sons of Heth, but this theory is disputed. Hittite Languages

The royal Hittite archives at Bogazkale contain over 10,000 tablets whose cuneiform inscriptions are written in eight different languages:

1. Hittite (most of the texts were written in the Hittite language which the authors called Nesili (or Kanesili). The earliest examples of Nesili were found in the Hittite settlement of Nesa, also known as Kanesh (near Kültepe and about 20 km southwest of modern Kayseri) in the record of trade between Assyrian merchants and the 'land of Hatti'), 2. Mitanni,

3. Native Hurrian (the native language of neighbouring Mitanni. Significantly, the Hurrian language was used for non-official texts to a far greater extent than native Hattian, Luwian or Palaic, leaving the impression that native Hattian was used only for religious purposes in the same manner Sanskrit and Avestan are used today),

4. Native Hattian (the native language of the Hittite lands, Hatti, and a language completely different from Hittite. It was used for religious texts only),

5. Akkadian (the international language of the region that was used for treaties and state letters),

6. Luwian (also spelt Luvian - a language closely related to Hittite and spoken in Arzawa and Kizzuwatna to the southwest of Hatti - an area called Luwia and later Lydia. By the end of the Hittite Empire, the population of most of the Hittite Empire spoke Luwian dialects),

7. Palaic (Palaumnili - language of the people of Pala who appear to have lived to the west of the Hittite core area between modern Kayseri and Sivas), and 8. Sumerian.

Online pages for information:

» Hittite Language Lesson at University of Texas » The Hittite Grammar Homepage

The use of eight different languages spoken throughout the region is significant and indicate the intended readership of both local and international visitors to the Hittite capital. Of the eight languages, for their official documents, the Hittite kings used only the Nesili Hittite and Akkadian.

In multi-lingual texts found in Hittite locations, passages written in the Hittite language are preceded by the phrase "in Nesumnili ( i.e. language of the people of Neša, otherwise called Nesili, Nasili or Nisili)". In one case, the label is "in Kanisumnili (i.e. language of the people of Kanesh)". The religious native Hattian texts are introduced with the phrase "in Hatilli (i.e. language of the people of Hatti).

Satellite view of the ruins of the Hittite capital Hattusa next to the modern town of Bogazkale. Base image courtesy Google Earth

Satellite view of the ruins of the Hittite capital Hattusa next to the modern town of Bogazkale. Google Earth.

Aerial view of Lower Hattusa looking south. The town of Bogazköy is to the right (west)

Aerial view of Lower Hattusa (a) looking south. Upper Hattusa is in the background. Bogazkale (Bogazkoy) town is to right (west). Image at hattuscha.de

Aerial view of Upper Hattusa looking east. Bogazköy is to the left (north)

Aerial view of Upper Hattusa looking east. Bogazkale (Bogazkoy) is to the left (north). Image at hattuscha.de

Hoyuk or tepe, a mound on a plain caused by soil covering a buried site. Also called a tel in archaeology. Image at Anatolia External link: Hittite/Hurrian Mythology

In the Boğazkale archives, native Hurrian is used frequently for a wide range of non-official texts such as those on rituals and even the Epic of Gilgamesh - more so than native Hattian. Native Hurrian texts have been found throughout the region. One such text dated to 1750 BCE was found at Tell Hariri (ancient Mari), a Middle Euphrates site, and another at Ras Shamra (Ugarit) on the Syrian coast indicating Hurrian i.e. Mitanni influence in the region preceded the rise of Hittite power under Suppiluliuma. A similar language to Hurrian is the language of Urartu located to the west of the Hittite lands at the headwaters of the Euphrates and around Lake Van. According to the literature (cf. The Hittites by O. R. Gurney, Penguin Books 1981), The Hurrians were migrants to the Upper Euphrates and Habur basin from the Elburz Mountains east across the Taurus Mountains from about 2300 BCE onwards.

For a script, the Hittites used the cuneiform system and hieroglyphs. The cuneiform Hittites texts were written on clay tablets that were discovered during excavations at the end of the 19th century CE. Identification of the language had to wait until 1915 when Czech linguist Bedřich Hrozný, after examining tablets that had been brought to Vienna from the Istanbul Museum, identified the language of the Hittite tablets as Indo-European. He published his findings in a 1917 book titled Die Sprache der Hethiter. In 1951 a comprehensive Hittite grammar was presented in a book titled A Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language by Edgar H. Sturtevant.

As evidenced by the records discovered, the Hittites had a highly developed literature consisting of stories, religious texts, historical records, legal system and legal documents.

In the Hittite system of governance, the Hittite king acted as the supreme priest, military commander, and chief judge of the land. In the early years of the empire, the king was assisted by the pankus, an advisory council of nobles. The different provinces of the empire were administered by provincial governors. Certain states at the edge of the empires were ruled by vassal kings under terms of a formal treaty. Governance

In their legal code, the Hittites rarely resorted to the death penalty or to bodily mutilation as punishment for breaking the law - penalties that were frequently used by other ancient Middle Eastern kingdoms. Rather than relying on retribution or vengeance, the principle for redressing transgressions was restitution. For instance, the penalty for theft was restoration of the stolen property and payment of an additional recompense. In due course, restitution in kind was gradually replaced by payment of money. Economy

The Hittite economy was based on agriculture, trade and manufacture. The mineral resources that they processed were copper, lead, silver, and iron. Their metallurgical techniques were advanced for the time and parallel the metallurgical advances by Indo-Iranians in Central Asia.

Hittite weapons were made from bronze. Iron was so rare and precious that it was employed only for the manufacture of prestigious goods. Correspondence with other governments indicate international demand for Hittite iron goods. The evidence of iron tool production dates back at least as far as the 20th century BCE.

One example of Hittite technology skills is their skill in building and using chariots.

Hattusa - Hittite Capital (near Bogazkale). The ruins of the ancient Hittite city of Hattusa (known as Hattus in Hattic), capital of the Old Hittite Kingdom, can be found next to the village of Bogazkale (formerly Bogazköy), in Çorum Province and some 87 km. southwest of the city of Çorum. Bogazkale (Bogazköy) is located at the southern end of the Budaközü River valley, at an elevation of 300 metres, and where the northern plains enter a valley surrounded by rock outcrops.

Evidence of a settlement at Hattusa predates Hittite presence by thousands of years goes back to the sixth millennium BCE, when it was inhabited by the native Hatti people. The Hittite's initial capture of the city was destructive. A carbonized layer in the excavations that is dated at c. 1700 BCE, indicates a burning of the city - a burning credited to the Hittite king King Anitta who was then based in southern city of Kushar. After destroying the city, Anitta left behind an inscription stating, "At night I took the city by force. I have sown weeds in its place. Should any king after me attempt to resettle Hattush (the city's name in Hittite), may the Storm God of Heaven strike him down." This inscription known as the Proclamation of Anitta is the earliest text found at Hattusa and the earliest known text composed by a Hittite king.

A subsequent Hittite king, Labarna II (c. 1650-1620 BCE) seems to have ignored Anitta's curse and returned to the site to resettle Hattusa and make it his capital. He called himself Hattusili I.

Evidence in the form of cuneiform tablets, shows that in the 19th and 18th centuries BCE, merchants (apparently from Ashur (Assur) in Assyria), established a trading post and separate living quarters in Lower Hattusa. Among the goods they traded were tin, wool, foodstuffs, spices, and woven fabrics. Assyrian trading colonies in Anatolia were called kârum and the largest known karum and the centre of Hatti's trade network was at the ancient settlement of Kanesa (or Kanesh) - commonly contracted to Nesa (or Nesha) and located near the modern village Kültepe in Kayseri Province. Kültepe is about 200 km. southeast of Hattusa.

Upper Hattusas is about a kilometer square in size and was developed during the 13th century BCE. It was surrounded by a wall with several gates. A large part of the upper city consisted of temples and ritual areas. Excavations at Hattusa, Bogazkale

After Charles Dexter examined the ruins in 1834 and evoked interest in the significance of the ruins, Sayce made the first connection between with the ruins and the Hittite state. Until then, the Hittites were thought to have been based Syria. In 1882, Carl Human and Otto Puchstein visited Bogazkale with the intention of making a comprehensive study of the site. It was not until the years 1893-1894 that Ernest Chantre dug some explorative trenches.

In 1905-06 excavations of Hattusa were conducted under the supervision of Hugo Winckler and Theodor Makridi, members of Deutsche Orientgesellschaft (the German Oriental Society). These two archaeologists were joined in the following year by Otto Puchstein, and their work continued until 1912. After a hiatus due to the First World War, excavations were resumed in 1931 under the direction of Kurt Bittel - excavations that were again interrupted and resumed after the Second World War.

In 1917, the German excavators removed a sphinx from Hattusa and sent it to Germany. The Turkish Government has been unsuccessful in seeking its return and the sphinx remains on display in Berlin's Pergamon Museum.Sakje-Geuzi

Excavations conducted at the undisturbed tepe at Sakje-Geuzi revealed evidence of a continuous culture which began to flourish before 3000 BCE. Discovered buried in a lower layer were Neolithic Age yellow-painted pottery with black geometric designs. The painted design on the pottery resembles the design on painted fabrics found in Turkestan by the Pumpelly expedition, as well as the design on artefacts found at great distances from one another - at sites in Susa and its vicinity by De Morgan, in the Balkan peninsula by Schliemann, in a First Dynasty tomb at Abydos in Egypt by Petrie, and in the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age (Minoan) strata of Crete by Evans.

The similarity in design could be more than coincidental and could be the result of trade and other connections between nations from Egypt to Central Asia - nations that were on the Aryan trade roads.

Tushratta's letter to Amenhotep III of Egypt. British Museum WAA 29791

Tushratta's letter to Amenhotep III of Egypt Amarna

Despite Tusratta's problems, he was not beyond offering his daughter Tadukhipa in marriage to the King Amenhotep III of Egypt for a large quantity of gold. The tablet seen to the right is a letter from Tusratta to Amenhotep in which he asks for "gold in very great quantity" as a bride price, supporting his request with the comment, "Gold is as dust in the land of my brother...The beleaguered Tusratta was then murdered by his son in a palace coup. Tusratta's other son, Prince Shattiwaza, fled Mitanni and was eventually given sanctuary by the Hittite King Suppiluliuma with whom he concluded a treaty c. 1380 BCE, which we know as the Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty (discovered in 1907 CE in Hattusa, near present-day Bogazkale (Boğazkale, formerly Bogazköy) in north-central Turkey. In the treaty, the Hittite King Suppiluliuma agreed to assist Shattiwaza gain the Mitanni throne and invaded Mitanni. The Hittites captured the Mitanni capital Wassukanni after a second attempt and installed Shattiwaza as a vassal king...The Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza Treaty is a source of considerable information about the Mitanni. In addition, it gives us some astonishing information about the religious practices of the Mitanni for it invokes the Indo-Iranian pantheon of asuras and devas Mitras(il) (Mitra), Uruvanass(il) (Varuna), Indara (Indra) and the Nasatianna (Nasatyas) (Ashwins)...Famed Charioteers

note wheels with spokes Map of the Kurdish speaking areas of the Middle East and Anatolia

Mitanni Chariot

The Mitanni were famed charioteers. They are reported to have spearheaded the development of the light war chariot with wheels that used spokes rather than solid wood wheels like those used by the Sumerians. The Mitanni name for chariot warriors was maryanna or marijannina, a form of the Indo-Iranian term marya meaning 'young man," used in the Rig Veda when referring to the celestial warriors assembled around the Vedic deity Indra...Expertise in Horse Training

The Hittite archives of Hattusa, near present-day Bogazkale contained what is the oldest surviving horse training manual in the world. The elaborate work was written c. 1345 BCE on four tablets and contains 1080 lines by a Mitanni horse trainer named Kikkuli. It begins with the words, "Thus speaks Kikkuli, master horse trainer of the land of Mitanni" and uses various Indo-Iranian words for horse colours, numbers and names. Examples are:

assussanni a form of the Sanskrit asva-sani meaning 'horse trainer',

aika wartanna meaning one turn (cf. Vedic Sanskrit ek vartanam),

tera wartanna meaning three turns (cf. Vedic Sanskrit tri vartanam),

panza wartanna meaning five turns (cf. Vedic Sanskrit panca vartanam),

satta wartanna meaning seven turns (cf. Vedic Sanskrit sapta vartanam), and

navartanna meaning nine turns (cf. Vedic Sanskrit nava vartanam).

[Regrettably, writers do not mention the Old Iranian equivalents.]

A Hurrian text from Yorgan Tepe also uses Indo-Iranian words to describe the colour of horses, words such as babru for brown, parita for grey, and pinkara for a reddish hue.

The Kikkuli manual for training chariot horses highlights the links between the Mitanni and Hittites. Even though they were rivals at times, the two groups also collaborated frequently. The fact that the Hittites employed a Mitanni as a master trainer of horses may indicate that it was the Mitanni who were the regional experts in horse training especially for military purposes (in a manner similar to the Sogdians in the East) and that the Mitanni in turn had brought the expertise with them in their migration westward.

The methods used in the Kikkuli method enabled horses to be trained without injury. The text detailed a 214-day training regime using interval training and sports medicine techniques such as the principle of progression, peak loading systems, electrolyte replacement, fartlek training, intervals and repetitions and was directed at horses with a high proportion of slow-twitch muscle fibres. the Kikkuli horses were stabled, rugged, washed down with warm water and fed oats, barley and hay at least three times per day.

Kikkuli's interval training technique stressed the leading of horses at a trot, canter and gallop, before subjecting them to the weight bearing stress of a rider, driver or chariot. Workouts sometimes numbered three a day with scheduled rest days. Kikkuli's interval training contained three stages - the first two for developing strong legs and a strong cardio-muscular system, and the third for increasing neuromuscular conditioning. His workouts included brief recoveries to lower the heart rate. Swimming was also included in intervals of three to five sessions, with rest periods after each session. The horses were also subject to warming down periods and the method's example of cantering included intermediate pauses to lower the heart rate partially and as the training advanced the workouts included intervals at the canter. Mitanni Indo-Iranian Names

The names of the Mitanni kings and their capital city were of Indo-Iranian origin. For instance, Tueratta was a form of the Indo-Iranian Tvesa-ratha meaning 'Possessor of a Chariot'. The name S'attuara was a form of Satvar meaning 'warrior' and the name of the Mitanni capital Wassukanni, was a form of Vasu-khani meaning 'wealth-mine'.

The names of proto-Indo-Iranian dieties are also found to form the names of the Kassite rulers of Babylonia. Arta

Several Mitanni names contained the Old Persian term arta, a derivative of asha via arsha, meaning cosmic order and truth (arta transforms to the Sanskrit r'ta). Arta is found used in Old Persian Achaemenian names (e.g. Artakhshassa c.450 BCE) and in the Sogdian Avesta as well. Asha is the central ethical concept of the Avesta.

Philologists trace the Mitanni names to the Vedic equivalents. For instance, they note that the royal name Artatama was a form of the Indo-Iranian R'ta-dhaanman meaning 'the abode of rta', and the name Artas's'umara was a form of Rta-smara meaning 'remembering r'ta'.However, for some reason, none of the writers that we have come across link the name to their Old Iranian or Old Persian equivalents - equivalents that will be closer to the Mitanni names as we have demonstrated with the use of arta above...According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, "glass was produced on a large scale for the first time around 1600 BCE, perhaps in the Mitanni state of northern Mesopotamia."Trade. Trade in the Euphrates-Tigris basin was conducted using the extensive river network and the Mitanni controlled the river trade routes down the River Habur to Mari and from there up the River Euphrates to Carchemish. They also controlled trade along the upper Tigris River and its headwaters at Nineveh, Arbil, Ashur and Nuzi. "

The Mitanni treaty between the Hittite ruler Suppiluliuma and the Mitanni king, Mattiwaza,(Mattiraja) about 1370 BCE mentions: "Mitra-ash, Uruwana, Indra, and the Nashatiyanu gods, the very Mithra, Varuna, Indra, and the Nasatya gods of the Vedic pantheon "

Suppiluliuma (Hittite) -Shattiwaza (Mitanni) Treaty Excerpts

Source: Beckman Indo-Iranians of Asia Minor c. 1475-1275 BCE Zoroastrian Heritage, KE Eduljee:

"Mitanni's north-western border with the Hattian kingdom of the Hittites was fluid and constantly subject to aggression except when the two rivals concluded a peace treaty - one that invoked the Indo-Iranian pantheon of Mitra, Varuna, Indra and the Nasatyas - but also one that marked the decline of the Mitanni kingdom and a decrease in size. The Mitanni and Hittites were closely related. The Hittites used the Hurrian language extensively in their inscriptions. They also shared in the development of the light chariot whose wheels used spokes.The Hurrian lands are today a part of Greater Kurdistan...The name Washukanni is similar to the Kurdish word bashkani, bash meaning good and kanî meaning well or source (Kurdish has the same name, kani, for well and source). The Luwian word vasu also means good. The name is similar to the Sanskrit word vasukhani meaning 'mine of wealth'. "

from Tell el-Amarna. Housed at British Museum WAA 29791

KBo 1 1

A Obv. 1-16: When My Majesty, Suppiluliuma, Great King, Hero, King of Hatti, Beloved of the Storm God, and Artatama, king of the land of Hurri, made a treaty with one another, at that time, Tushratta, king of the land of Mitanni, called for attention from the Great King, King of Hatti, Hero. And I, Great King, King of Hatti, Hero, turned my attention to Tushratta, king of the land of Mitanni: I plundered the lands of the west bank of the River [Euphrates] and I annexed Mount Lebanon...

A Rev 35-53: the Storm-god, Lord of Heaven and Earth, the Moon-god and the Sun-god, the Moon-god of Harran, heaven and earth, the Storm-god, Lord of the kurinnu of Kahat, the Deity of Herds of Kurta, the Storm-god, Lord of Uhušuman, Ea-šarri, Lord of Wisdom, Anu, Antu, Enlil, Ninlil, the Mitra-gods, the Varuna-gods, Indra, the Nasatya-gods, Lord of Waššukanni, the Storm-god, Lord of the Temple Platform (?) of Irrite, Partahi of Šuta, Nabarbi, Šuruhi, Ištar, Evening Star, Šala, Belet-ekalli, Damkina, Išhara, the mountains and rivers, the deities of heaven and the deities of earth.

http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/ranghaya/suppiluliuma_shattiwaza_treaty.htm

That is, Mithra, Varuna, Indra and the twin Nasatyas. The Hittite kings also invoked the Sun-god.

State Archives of the Hittite Empire presents in Boghaz-keui in modern Turkey, a treatise on chariot racing. The manual uses Sanskrit words such as "Aikavartana=One Turn, Teravartana=Three Turns, Panchavartana=Five Turns, Sattavartana=Seven Turns."

El-Amarna excavations resulted in the discovery that ca. 2nd millennium BCE, names of rulers of the region (of modern Syria) were: Artamanya, Aryavirya, Yashodatta, Suttarna. These names are clearly Bharatiya names. Mitanni name Shuwardatta evokes Surya worshipped as Suryash by Kassites. Artatama ruled Mitanni kingdom of Upper Euphrates river; His daughter was married to Egyptian emperor Menkheperura or Thutmose the IV. Dushratta, the grandson of Artatama wrote a letter to Akhnaton referring to the request made six times by Thotmose IV. Source: http://www.salagram.net/VWHAfrica.html Vrin Parker, 1999, Vedic Africa.

RV 7.63

7.063.01 The auspicious Su_rya rises, the eye of all, the common (parent) of men; the divine eye of Mitra and Varun.a, who breaks through the glooms as through (investing) skin.

7.063.02 The animator of men arises, the great rain-shedding banner of Su_rya rolling on the universal wheel, which the white steeds yoked to his car drag along. [Great rain-shedding: maha_n ketur arn.avah su_ryasya, the banner or emblem of Su_rya is Su_rya; su_ryasya = suryah].

7.063.03 Delighted by the praises (of his worshippers), the radiant sun rises from the lap of the dawns; that divine sun gratifies my desires, who limits not the lustre that is common (to all).

7.063.04 The bright and glorious sun rises from the firmament far-going, traversing (the heavens), diffusing light; verily all beings animated by Su_rya proceed and execute their assigned labours.

7.063.05 He travels the path which the immortals have prepared for his course, darting along like a hawk; we worship you, Mitra and Varun.a, when the sun has risen, with praises and oblations.

7.063.06 May Mitra, Varun.a and Aryaman grant affluence to us and to our posterity; may all paths be easy of access to us, and do you ever cherish us with blessings.

Two views of Mitanni Storm Divinity, Teshub. Axe (paras'u) in his upraised right hand and a vajra (thunderbolt) in his left hand. The trident is also pictured in Mitanni seals. He wears a short fringed tunic with a wide belt. His horned helmet is reminiscent of the bull figures often associated with him. The photo on the left is from the Hittite capital in Turkey.

Teshub was the divinity of the sky, weather and storms (Hurrian).

Hittite cities in Turkey

Hittites (Hebrew Hittim), ancient people of Asia Minor and the Middle East, inhabiting the land of Hatti on the central plateau of what is now Anatolia, Turkey, and some areas of northern Syria. The Hittites, whose origin is unknown, spoke an Indo-European language. They invaded the region, which became known as Hatti, about 1900 BC and imposed their language, culture, and rule on the earlier inhabitants, a people speaking a non-Indo-European agglutinative language. The first town settled by the Hittites was Nesa, near present-day Kayseri, Turkey. Shortly after 1800 BC they conquered the town of Hattusas, near the site of present-day Boðazkale. Nothing more is known of Hittite history until, in the 17th century BC, the so-called Old Hittite Kingdom was founded by the Hittite leader Labarna (reigned about 1680-1650 BC), or Tabarna, and Hattusas became its capital. Labarna conquered nearly all of central Anatolia and extended his rule to the sea. His successors extended Hittite conquests into northern Syria. Mursili I (reigned about 1620-1590 BC), the second ruler after Labarna, conquered what is now Aleppo, Syria, and raided Babylon about 1595 BC. Mursili’s assassination was followed by a period of internal strife and external weakness that ended during the reign of King Telipinu (reigned about 1525-1500 BC). To ensure the stability of the kingdom, he issued strict rules governing the royal succession. The law code may also have been compiled during his reign. Of Telipinu’s successors only the names are known.

Text from Microsoft Encarta

Bogazkoy

Yazilikaya

storage area and jars

http://www.galenfrysinger.com/hittite_cities_turkey.htm

http://www.maravot.com/Hittite_Treaties.html

Mitanni Seals of Teshub(from http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/contacts/mitanni.htm)

Cylinder Seal impression of Ithi-tess'up, son of Kipi-te's'up, from Nuzi, Iraq. Concerning a property decree, "Ithi-Teshub, son of Kip-Teshub, king of Arrapha (Kirkuk), rolls out this seal on a legal decision about fields and houses. Forevermore let no one break (the tablet). 5.1 cm; (D. Stein; Collon, 1987, Fig. 269). The moon crown with the solar cross recalls the Celtic cross. Instead of holding a trident the god, standing upon a lion, holds a two-pronged staff.

Winged standard of the Sun-god. The two dieties might be theNasatyas in the Treaty of Mitanni.

Cylinder seal impression of S'uttarna, son of Kirta (Collon, 1975), tel Atchana (Alalakh IV), Turkey. "Suttarna, son of Kirta, King of Maittani. The symbol with the solar disk with wings is the Aedicula, a symbol of Hittite royalty. In Hittite inscriptions it is supported by two pillars. Note the two eagles perched on the backs of the two lions. The symbol of the winged sun mounted on a pillar appears to be the prototype of the caduceus, Latin, Heralds staff, a symbol of Hermes, the messenger of the gods. This symbol got wrapped with snakes and became the emblem of the medical profession (caduceus). Note a snake appears adjacent to the Aedicula.

Seal, Marduk standing on the back of Tiamat "The invincible weaponry given to Marduk is common to the magic weaponry given to Indra, in the Rig Veda, and Achilles, in theIlliad. The master craftsman of the gods in the Rig Veda was Tvastar and in the Illiad Hephaistes (Vulcan in Roman mythology). The fearsome image that no one could bear to look upon is also in the Greek Gorgons, of whom Medusa's snake dressed head was used on the shield of Achilles. Anyone looking upon her image would be turned immediately to stone." http://www.maravot.com/Hittite_Treaties.html

Seal of Assyrian origin found in the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) shipwreck between 1984-1994. See http://ina.tamu.edu/ub_main.htm; Uluburun, Turkey. Another seal with the sickel-armed warrior in company with the winged monster was found on the wreck.

Was Nefertiti, An Aryan Princess?
by K. Gajendra Singh

(In Search of Wassukkani – Capital of Pre-Vedic Aryan Kingdom of Mitannis from 1500 BC to 1200 BC in Upper Mesopotamia)
During the 1993 Navruj (spring) cease-fire by Kurdish rebel leader Abdullah Ocalan's PKK, then fighting a savage war since 1984 against cultural discrimination in south-east Turkey, I decided to renew my knowledge of the region, known as Mesopotamia, Assyria, the Fertile Crescent in history. Home of over 40 civilizations, known as Asia minor and Anatolia in the past, Turkey has more Greek sites than Greece and more Roman monuments than Italy.

From its capital Ankara I made my night halt 700 kms away in S at Antakya (Antioch), capital of Selucus Nikator's empire, Alexander's infantry commander against Porus in India, but when he tried to reclaim Alexander's domains he was defeated and fobbed off with 500 elephants by Chandra Gupta Maurya. Next day I reached Urfa 300 kms east, where and at nearby Harran in the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, Patriarch Abraham had halted on his way from Ur (in Iraq) to Hebron in Canaan (Palestine). Local legend has it that he was born here making it a centre of pilgrimage.

Located at a strategic pass linking Anatolia to Mesopotamia, this ancient city was renamed Edessa by the Macedonians on way to Gaugamela where Alexander inflicted the final defeat on Darius III in 331 BC, terminating the Persian Achaemenean Empire.

Edessa, along with Antioch was one of the first major centers of Christianity, latter going over to the Monophysite heresy. Persecuted by Western Christians and then Muslim Arabs and Persians, many migrations took place from Edessa and the region to the Malabar coast specially in 4th, 5th and 9th centuries AD spreading the Christain Orthodox Church in Kerala. The relationship, though complicated by the arrival of the Portuguese, Dutch and the British, still continues between Kerala and east of Edessa in the Tur Abdin region, with Mardin, Midyat and Cizre dotted with old Churches and monasteries where Suryani, akin to Aramaic spoken by Jesus Christ, is still being taught . But now in the grip of Kurdish Turkish strife the numbers of Christians is fast dwindling. For centuries Mar Zaffran near Mardin was the seat of the Orthodox Church, now located in Syria.

In Urfa, ancient works and Greek classics, the basis of Western civilization, were translated into Aramaic and Syriac which when the Arabs came over, were translated into Arabic. After the Crusaders took over the city, they were retranslated and 'recovered' for Europe, where they had been destroyed by barbarian invasions. Edessa survived many rulers and wars but like other cities it never recovered from the Mongol destruction.

Just south of Urfa is Harran of bee-hive houses, centre of the Moon cult, human sacrificing Sabbians and ancient Carrhae, where tablets inscribed with parts of the legends of Gilgamesh were discovered. Nearby the Parthians had captured Roman Emperor Crassus. It was the stomping ground of prophets like Elijah, Job, Shuyab and Jacob with the well where Rebecca gave him water. From Mardin, an ancient city at the edge on the hills one can see the immense Mesopotamian plains spread southwards to the Gulf . A series of hydro-electric projects, on the Euphrates, now under construction in the region will once again bring wealth and prosperity to upper Mesopotamia but the water diversion and implied threat of strategic flooding does not amuse the Syrians.

But I was not looking for Abraham's transit halt, nor Guagamela or even Noah's tomb at Cizre (at the junction of Iran, Iraq and Turkish borders), but Wassukkani which between 1500 BC to 1200 BC was the capital of the Kingdom of Mitannis. They were an Indo-Aryan people, experts in chariot warfare, who worshipped the pre-Vedic Aryan Gods Indra, Natasya, Mitra and Varuna and used pre-Vedic Sanskrit.

Not that I expected to find Wassukkani. That I shall leave to archaeologists and their benefactors, but if it were located and diggings started in my life time, it would be a matter of great satisfaction. For, unfortunately, none of the sites of the Mitanni Kingdom itself has been located and knowledge about them is based on sites in El Amarna Egypt and Bogazkoy in north-west Turkey.

Wassukkanni was once thought to be Rais el Ain in Syria, just 80 kms east across from Harran, nowadays bristling with minefields and hostile sentries. But the Akkadian cuneiform tablets found at Amarna, when subjected to tests did not match. Wassukkanni is now believed to be up north in between Mardin, and 90 km up north from Diyarbakir (ancient Amida) now (culturally) a Kurdish city, an area I travelled up and down.

The upper Mesopotamia region around the middle reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris was rich agriculture land and therefore, much sought after. Throughout history, because of its excellent location, for caravans bringing goods from India and the east, for connecting the Arabian desert to the Mediterranean and Asia Minor, it was much fought over. It is now divided between Turkey, Syria and Iraq with Iran not far away. But during 16th to 13th century BC, the dynasty of Mitannis flourished in the rich grain growing valleys of the rivers Balikh and Khabur, tributaries of the Euphrates, with mostly adversarial relations with Indo-European Hittites in Bogazkoy and generally close relations with the Egyptian Pharaohs. Mitannis perhaps came to this region through the Caucasus and had splintered off in the Eurasian Steppes from the main stream which continued on to Iran and India. They became the ruling aristocracy among the confederation of Hurrian, Hanigalbat and other states of the region which extended from the Zagros mountains in Iran through Assyria, upper Mesopotamia and Syria to the Mediterranean.

Information on Mitannis and their Kingdom first surfaced at the end of the 19th century when letters from the Mitanni King sent to his Pharaoh son-in-law were discovered at El Amarna and deciphered. The Egyptians called the Mitannis Naharinas. The other extensive and important source material was discovered in early 20th century at Bogazkoy 250 Km north east of Ankara, the stronghold of Hittites. Among the documents discovered were treaties between the Hittites and Mitannis in which reference was made to the Indo-Iranian gods Indra, Natasya, Mitra and Varuna and a treatise on horse training and chariotry in Hittite written by Kikkuli, a Mitanni who used ancient Vedic Sanskrit technical terms, thus also confirming Mitannian superiority in matters of horsemanship.

The Egyptian Pharaohs had requested the Mitannis time and again for horses and chariots.

Other places where cuneiform documents in Akkadian and other languages throw light on Mitannis are Arraphka, Nuzi (near Kirkuk), Alalakh, a river port on Orontes (on the Turkish -Syrian border near Antioch), Ugarit (Ras Shamra in Syria) on the Mediterranean, Mari on the river Euphrates. Ugarit was perhaps one of the greatest international sea ports of that time; for, owing to its location, it controlled trade between Syria, its hinterland and the East with the Aegean and the Mediterranean, with merchants and sailors from Egypt, Cyprus, Crete, Mycene and other places mingling here for trade and commerce. Documents from Nuzi describe certain social and religious traditions which are reflected in Hebrew legends recorded in the Old Testament.

The fact that the gods in the Treaties are Hindu Vedic Daivya gods, Indra and Natasya along with Assura Iranian gods Mitra and Varuna, shows that the Aryan division into Iranians and Indians had yet not taken place; later on most of Daivya worshipping Aryans continued on to India and most of Assura worshipping Aryans stayed behind in Iran. Limiting the use of Indo-Aryan gods to the Treaties perhaps indicates that only the rulers were of Indo-Aryan origin. There is also evidence that the Royals were cremated. The chariot riding shock troops were called Marijannina linked with old Indian Vedic i.e. Marya=youngman, old Avestan= a member of a group. Later this land owning aristocratic group became hereditary, i.e. even without chariots. The technical terms used in horse training and chariotry like aika wartanna, navartanna etc (one turn, nine turns ) are like ek vartanam, nava vartanam as in Vedic Sanskrit. A Hurrian text from Yorgan Tepe uses Indo-Aryan words to describe the colour of horses, i.e. babru (brown) parita (grey), pinkara (reddish) etc. The beginnings of the Mitannis arrival are shrouded in mystery, but it seems that they took advantage of the collapse of the Empire established by Hammurabi (who gave the first code in human history, i.e. to protect the weak against the strong). There are reasons to believe that the Kings of the Ashur between 1500 BC to 1360 BC were the vassals of the Mitannis. The Mitannis also crossed the Euphrates and exercised influence over the Amorites and Canaanites in the South.

The first and most important Mitanni king was Saustatar (1450 BC to 1440 BC). The others were Artatama (1440-1420),Vedic rta -dhaman= whose abode is the Rta, Shutarna (1420 to 1395), Artashumara (1395 to 1385), Tushratta = Vedic Tvesh- ratha, one whose chariot moves forward violently and Sattiwaza; in old Indo-Aryan sati-vaja = acquiring booty, old Vedic vaja -sati. While the etymology of names of all Mitanni kings has not been done, they are very different from Hurrian names. Rulers with similar names ruled in South Syria and Palestine.

Shaustatar ruled around the same time as Pharaoh Thuthmosis III. In fact he made Thuthmosis's drive to conquer Syria, by supporting the small states there, very difficult leading to respect for each other. Later the Mitannis signed a peace treaty with the Pharaohs in order to counteract the Hittite threat from the North West . This was cemented with a Mitanni princess being married to a Pharaoh, but only after 7 requests. Shaustatar's son Artatama sent his daughter Mutema as wife to Pharaoh Thuthmosis IV, grandson of Thutmosis III Artatarna's successor Shutarna's daughter Gilukhepa was married to Amun hotep III . She went to her husband in style with 317 Mitannian maidens. Next, Tushratta gave his daughter Tadukhepa to Amun hotep IV, who also married Gilukhepa, youngest in his father's harem.

It is generally believed that Gilukhepa was no other than the beautiful and famous Nefertiti. It is known that Nefertiti fully supported her husband' s efforts to bring in monotheism.

It was from Egypt, where Moses was born and brought up that he led out the Jews with the idea of one God Jehovah.

The last semi-independent King was Mattiuzza, who was installed on the throne following a palace coup after the murder of Tushratha. He became a vassal of the Hittite king Shuppiluliuma who gave his daughter Mursil in marriage to Mattiuza. Thus the Mitanni dynasty came to be connected with both the Pharaohs and the Hittites. But after the alliance with the Hittites, the Mitannis were reduced to a smaller state with limited independence. As the Mitanni power decreased relations with the Pharaohs withered away. Some of its later kings were Shattwara and Wasasatta. Small Mitanni states lingered on for years.

The Assyrians took advantage of the situation to assert their independence. They even raided the Mitanni capital Wassukkanni and took back the golden and silver gates which the Mitannis had brought from Assyria 200 years ago. Assyrian king Ashur Uballit I (1365 BC to1338 BC) ended the Mittani independence completely by defeating Shuttarna II. Over 14000 Mitannis were blinded. After this defeat, the Mitannis either got absorbed in the region or some of them went up north to form part of the Urartu Kingdom. Something like that had perhaps also happened to another Indo Aryan people the Kassites, who ruled earlier over Assyria for nearly 5 centuries, but apart from 300 words of their language and 30 odd gods not much is known about them.

In the Kingdom of Mitannis, also known that of Hurrians, the latter probably formed the majority, i.e. the other backward classes of those days. The Hurrians, whose language is neither Indo-European nor Semitic, were a non-Indo-European people and are believed to have come from Armenia and present day north east of Turkey. They were well distributed in the region, even in the Hittite areas. They were culturally well developed and their religion and other practices were adopted by the Hittites. The Hurrians also transmitted the Assyrian culture to the Hittites. Perhaps it was too early for the castes to emerge, but the Mitannis certainly appeared to be like the Kshatriyas; a word which comes from ratharias - charioteers, having superimposed themselves over the Hurrians. The Mitannis used Hurrian language but inducted into it Indo-Aryan vocabulary, as the Turks did in Persia, India in a way and elsewhere, i.e. using the language of the subjects, but retaining the military terms.

The Hittites were an Indo-European people, the first to break away from the proto Indo-Europeans, who probably originated from the Black Sea coast of Russia and Ukraine. They had reached Asia Minor at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC via the straits of the Bosphorous and established a magnificent and impregnable capital at Hattusa, i.e. Bogazkoy next to Cappadocia (with its mysterious honeycombed underground cities and lunar landscape with eerie tall chimneys, where the earliest Christian communities built their churches).

The name Hittites (referred as such in the Bible) is taken from Hattis, an indigenous people, whom the Hittites displaced and who then formed the lower substrata. The Hittites called themselves Nes and their language Nesiti. The Hittite King Hattusilis (reign 1650 to 1620 BC) consolidated the Kingdom and extended its control over most of Asia Minor and Northern Syria. His grandson Mursilis I raided down along the Euphrates river and destroyed the Amorite dynasty of Babylon, then one of the most cosmopolitan, rich and cultured cities. The austere highlanders felt out of place and far away from Hattussa and returned to their capital. Then for some time they got embroiled in their own affairs and re-emerged as the new Empire in the 14th century BC. Under Suppililumas I it reached the height of its power, extent and culture. Tusharatta, the last independent Mitanni King, defeated the Hittites first time around, but Suppililuimas I then went north and east, taking Wassukkanni by surprise. Tushratta escaped to Carchemish, but the Mitanni power was broken and its glory came to an end. Suppliliumas put his sons as kings of Aleppo and Carchemish. Hittite king Muwatallis (1320 to 1294BC) fought at Kadesh (in Syria) one of the greatest battles of ancient times against Pharaoh Ramses II. It was probably indecisive, even though the latter claimed a victory. Later a peace treaty was signed and a marriage alliance concluded. The Hittites were tolerant in their religious outlook and their polytheism contained indigenous Anatolian, Syrian and Hurrian divinities. The Hittite King, deputy of the storm god, was also the commander in chief, chief judge and after death became a god.

The earliest Indo-Aryan writing in India occurs around 300 BC on Ashoka pillars, but it is really Prakrit. The ancient Sanskrit of Vedas, though transmitted orally was probably written down by 6th century BC. Thus the earliest written archaic Indo-Aryan/Indo-Iranian language has been found in Asia Minor and Syria. The Hittite language is the earliest known extinct form of Indo-European Language and the older Hittite texts (from 1650 BC to 1595 BC ) are the earliest texts found so far. In the later forms (1400 BC to 1190 BC) are to be found the Treaties and Treatise mentioned earlier, which are now on display at the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul along with other historical treasures, literally a sweep through time and history. But for a full and authentic account of the times and lives of the Mitannis and pre-Vedic Aryans, we have to wait till Wassukkanni is located, dug and its findings deciphered.
K Gajendra Singh, Indian ambassador (retired), served as ambassador to Turkey and Azerbaijan from August 1992 to April 1996. Prior to that, he served terms as ambassador to Jordan, Romania and Senegal. He is currently chairman of the Foundation for Indo-Turkic Studies.
Copy right with the author*. E-mail: Gajendrak@hotmail.com

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Turkic Languages: Their Contribution
in the Development of Hindustani by K. Gajendra Singh

The term Hindustan has been used consciously so as to include Pakistan in it, by which name the Sub-continent was known before its partition in 1947. This paper concentrates mainly on languages as spoken by the masses, with their natural variations and not so much the written and the literary forms. We will consider the two major languages, Hindi and Urdu, which are widely spoken in Hindustan, although claims have been made that Urdu evolved out of Hindi and that Hindi is only Urdu written inDevanagari script. But the fact of the matter is that both Urdu and Hindi have evolved from the same colloquial base of Hindustani which was the lingua franca of Hindustan till its partition. As the well- known scholar and outspoken historian Khushwant Singh says, since then the Indians have made Hindi moreSanskritized and Pakistanis Urdu more Persianized, with the result that it is difficult for a common man to understand either Hindi or Urdu, specially their Radio and TV broadcasts. However, in spite of politically motivated and necessary corrective measures which new ruling elites usher in to change the complexion of the official language, if not the language itself, as has happened both in India as well as in Pakistan, the lingua-franca spoken by the common man in Hindustan, specially those who are illiterate or semi-literate has not changed that much since 1947. The best proof of this is the language employed in Hindustani films made in Bombay (India) which really represents the spoken language of the masses in most of India, and which also remains equally popular in Pakistan. Whenever the film language became too Sanskritized, the films have not been very popular. At the same time, when a film on 'Razia' (a Turkish Queen of Delhi) utilized too Persianized Urdu, its lack of popularity could in some ways be attributed to the difficulty of the masses in understanding it. Hindustani with its vast vocabulary, form and literary variety provides the lyric and dialogue writer all the richness, elegance and nuances to express himself. Incidentally, according to Encyclopedia Britannica (1990 Edition), more than 35 million Indians declared Urdu as their mother-tongue while in Pakistan the number was less than one- fifth i.e. 6.7 million. (The compilation is old and estimates conservative.) Various forms of Hindustani are spoken or understood by over 70% of Indian population. The Bombay films have played a major role in spreading Hindustani in non-Hindi/Urdu speaking areas of South India and North-East.

The name Hindustani written as Hindoostanee was coined by an Englishman, Mr. J. B. Gilchrist (1759-1841), who was the first President of the Fort Christian College, Calcutta which trained British Civil Servants for service in India. Mr. Gilchrist also wrote a dictionary of Hindustani and its grammar. As mentioned earlier, from Hindustani have emerged two literary languages, Hindi in Devanagari script with literary and vocabulary borrowings from Sanskrit and Urdu in modified Arabic script with borrowings from Persian. Hindustani is much older form than Hindi or Urdu and many times it referred rather to the region and not so much to the race or religion. As a matter of fact before the advent of Muslims and others in India, the languages spoken in Hindustan were known as various Bhashas or Bakhas. Hindustani evolved out of a score of dialects which are inter-related among themselves and to it. Some of these dialects and languages are Hindi, Khariboli, Brij Bhasha, Awadhi, Bagheli, Chhatisgari, Bundeli, Kanauji, Bhojpuri, Maithili, Gujari, Rajsthani and when it was spoken in South it was known as Deccani That these languages are dialects of Hindi as claimed by some is not strictly true. Brij Bhasha was an important literary medium in 15th to 17th century. Both Brij Bhasha and many other dialects are genetically of different Prakritic origin than Khariboli. All earlier Hindi literature is in dialects other than Khariboli which became standardised and popular by the end of the 17th century and language of literature only in 19th century. Brij Bhasha continued as a medium of poetry till late 19th century. Thus, strictly speaking, the language of modern Hindi literature is different from that employed in earlier period. The same can be said about the Urdu which came to be written in the present form from 19th century onwards, although Urdu poetry flourished much earlier.

One of the earlier writers of Hindustani was Amir Khusarao (1253-1325) a remarkable scholar of Persian and Arabic but of Turkish origin. He is claimed both by the Hindi as well as Urdu protagonists. His dictionary, Khaliq-bari, in verse, of, Persian, Arabic and Hindi words helped spread Persian and Arabic words and development of Hindustani. In recent times, writers like Premchand have been claimed both by Hindi protagonists as well as Urdu spokesmen. The only difference was that the same writer wrote some times in modified Arabic (Persian) script and some times in Devanagari script. In this paper we would use the word Hindustani to include Hindi, Urdu and the other forms like Khariboli, Hindi, etc.

The general perception is that Hindustani and its earlier forms evolved out of interaction, since 11th century AD, between Muslim invaders, rulers, traders and religious men and others who had come and settled in Hindustan from the north-west and the local Indian population. Persian was then the language brought by sophisticated Muslim ruling elite from abroad, which was used for administration, courtly intercourse, etc. Thus the main interaction was between Persian and the Apbhramsa variation of Prakrit in North and West India, in particular the Suraseni variety spoken around Delhi and later with the Dravidian languages in Deccan, out of which Hindustani evolved and developed slowly and unevenly. Many of the books on the evolution and development of Hindustani were written by the Englishmen in 18th/ 19th century, who learnt and used it for administration as officers of the East India Company and the British Empire. It is doubtful if any of them knew Turkish as by the time they arrived on the scene, the pre-ponderence of Persian during the latter stages of Mughal empire was well established, although some Turkish was still taught in some Medrasas and households. Persian and Arabic continued to be taught at universities and schools during the British rule. Therefore, no credit at all except for some vocabulary is given to Turkish languages in the history of development of Urdu, Hindi or Hindustani. It is, of course, conceded that the word Urdu (Ordu in Turkish) itself is of Turkish origin and it means army or military establishment, which was inducted into Persian by 9l -Khanid historians and accepted in India by Sayyed ruler Khizr Khan for use by his army and the Court, under the Timurid influence. By 17th century, during the Mughal rule, the term, Urdu was generally applied to the imperial camp. The language Urdu/Lashkar Bhasha/Hindustani perhaps started developing seriously as a means of communication from end-12th century AD between the incoming Muslim rulers, soldiers, traders etc. and local population, for use in administration, for trading with native shop-keepers, in harems, where women and attendants were mostly of Hindustani origin. While Turks yielded to Persian words in matters of administration, poetry and social intercourse, they retained many Turkish words for military titles, weapons, military commands and organizations. Turkish derivations also exist in the hunt and hunting, also in terms expressing relationships and conduct in court among the ruling classes. We must not overlook the role played by Sufi saints in spreading Islam among the masses by using the new evolving Hindustani. Even today, tombs of Sufi saints are revered equally among Hindus. The objective of the paper is to advance the view that the Turkic languages apart from vocabulary, have contributed much more than is acknowledged, both in the basic structure as well as in the development of Hindustani languages.

The vast stretch of area comprising Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, north-west Hindustan, Anatolian Turkey, Northern Iraq etc. has seen intermingling of various races, cultures and languages throughout history. At least since the days of Mauryan Empire in India (4th century BC) many rulers with their capital in Hindustan had Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia in their domains. Therefore, the language of these rulers and their religion spread into Afghanistan, Central Asia and Eastern Iran. Mauryan Emperor Ashoka and others sent Buddhist preachers up to Central Asia and many of the tribes there became Buddhists. Turkic and Indo-Aryan tribes like Sakas, Kushanas, when they settled on India's borders and inside it also adopted languages and religions of Hindustan. They also adopted Indian scripts which were also transferred to Central Asia, specially Eastern Turkistan. The way for exchanges was well-known, through the valley of Kabul river, Peshawar, Jalalabad and through well known routes to Tarim basin. As a matter of fact this area provided links for commercial, cultural and political exchanges between China on one hand and India, Central Asia and Western Asia on the other, where intermingling of people with diverse culture, race, ethnicity, religion such as Indians, Turks and others took place. In this area, Buddhist stupas and shrines, a large number of Buddhist writings in Prakrit and writings in Sanskrit as well as in local languages of Central Asia, in Indian scripts like Brahmi and Devanagari have been discovered, apart from a large number of secular documents, written on wooden tablets, leather, paper and silk. There are also translations from Sanskrit in Kharosti script. Translations include astronomical and medicinal subjects. Documents discovered in 10th & 11th century from Turfan region which can be seen in Berlin cover subjects like medicines & calendar based on Indian sources. Of course, the Turkish in these documents is quite different from the present day Turkic languages (Uighur and Cagtai group) spoken in Eastern Turkistan i.e Kazakhstan, Kyrghystan, Uzbekistan and the Sinkiang region of China. As many philosophical, spiritual and religious terms of Bhudhism and even Hinduism did not exist, they were inducted from Pali & Sanskrit into Turkish. Thus Turkish acquired many words of Pali and Sanskrit origin, some of which have even gone into other languages; Ratan becoming Ardhani is an example. An example how words change is illustrated from the Buddhist word Dhyan (meditation), which became Jhan in Chinese and Zen in Japanese.

Although the influence of the Turkic languages on Indian languages began in all seriousness from 11th century AD onwards to which we will come to later, various Turkic tribes began their interaction with Hindustan much earlier than that. After the collapse of Mauryan Empire in 3rd century BC, a number of Central Asian Turkic tribes, known as Sakas in India and Scythians in West, came to Hindustan and settled down there. Sakas were actually forced towards Hindustan by Central Asian tribes, Yueh-chih, who also later entered Hindustan. Sakas ruled from Mathura (South East of Delhi) and their well-known Kings in 1st century BC were Rajuvala and Sodasa. They then shifted west to Rajasthan and Malwa. Yueh-chih's chief, Kujula-kara Kadphises conquered North India in 1st century AD. He was succeeded by his son Vima, after whom came famous Kanishka. Kanishka's tribe is known as Khushanas in Indian history. Their kingdom based with Peshawar as capital extended as far as Sanchi in Central India and Varanasi in East and also included large parts of Central Asia. Not surprisingly, administrative and political terms from north and west India influenced similar terms in Central Asia. Kushanas became Budhists and Kanishka spread this religion in Central Asia and elsewhere. Other major tribe which entered later in 6th Century AD were Huns, a branch of Hephthalis or white Huns, whose first king came to be known as Toramana in early 6th century and whose son Mihirakula was a patron of Shavism, a branch of Hinduism. It has been said that these and other tribes which had come earlier moved into Western and Central India i.e. in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Madhya Pradesh, especially after the break-up of the Gupta Empire. Many historians claim that by virtue of their valor and other qualities, these tribes were able to get themselves incorporated into the hierarchy of the Hindu caste system i.e. Khatriyas and are known as Rajputs (sons of Kings). It is no wonder that the Mongols and other Turkic speaking people were able to form relationships with Rajputs so very easily. It is possible that some words of Turkic languages might have been then absorbed in dialects or languages spoken in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Central India, where these tribes settled. A common word is 'kara' which in Turkish means 'black' and used for the same color in West India and as 'Kala' in the rest of the country. It is a moot point whether the word 'bai' which is written in Turkish as 'baci' and pronounced as 'baji' which means sister or elder woman has persisted from those days. But it was in areas of Rajasthan and nearby, closer to Delhi where the seeds for the development of Hindustani languages were sown.

After the expansion of Islam into Iran this religion soon spread to Central Asia. The Turks as they advanced towards Anatolia and Hindustan via Iran and Afghanistan were also Islamised. Being a simple but hardy people from the Eurasian steppes, where life was austere and without frills, once the Turks acquired kingdoms, they also acquired along with it symbols and ways of culture and civilization, including the use of more sophisticated Persian (and Arabic), the language of the people they conquered. (To begin with Omayands had also taken over Byzantine system lock stock and barrel in Damascus). It is noteworthy that except in Central Asia, which remains the home of Turks and Anatolia i.e. Republic of Turkey (and Azeri areas), in most of the other areas they ruled, the Turks adopted the language of the ruled, albeit they introduced some of their own vocabulary and influenced the grammar of the language of their subjects.

In the medieval history of Hindustan, the Turkic tribes played a major role among the Muslim conquers and rulers who came and made India their home. The Turkic raids began in the first half of 11th century starting with Sabuktgin and the process of establishment of their kingdoms in North & West of Hindustan started from late 12th century. Although Sindh was conquered by the Arabs, soon after the establishment of the Abbassid Khalifate in 8th Century AD, this played directly only a marginal role in influencing the culture and civilisation of Hindustan. It is interesting that in Malayalam (language of Kerala), Hindustani is known as Tuluk Bhasha and the word Tulukan used for Muslims and Tulukachi for Muslim woman. The languages spoken by the people of Turkey is called Tuluk Bhasha. This is interesting because the relations between the Kerala coast and the Arab world predate Islam and there has been constant interaction between the Malabar coast of Kerala and the Arab world but still the word for a Muslim is Tulukan.

The impact and embedding of Islam and Islamic and Turkish culture into Hindustan took place during the Turco-Afghan period of India's history from end-12th century to early l6th century (and continued during the Mughal period). Even if some of the Sultans and rulers claimed Arabic or Afghan descent, the majority of the elite consisted of people of Turkic & Turanian origins ( not many of these tribes and individuals came from the Rumi Seljuk or Ottoman territories.) Many of them came as simple soldiers and some period chieftains. From the very early days of the Islamic history (second half of Abbassid period), many non-Turkish kings and Sultans maintained Turkish households of slaves brought over from Central Asia which provided them loyal soldiers and military leaders. Many of them rose by hard work and merit and reached the top ranks of the ruling elite and King makers. Some even became Sultans.

Some of the prominent names of Turkish rulers in Hindustan are Mahmud of Ghazni, Muhammad Gori, Kutubuddin Aybak, Iltutmish, Balban, and of course, Khiljis (known as Halach, in Turkish kh becomes h) and Tughlaks. According to some estimates, the Turks comprised up to 60% or more of the ruling elite during the medieval period of Indian history. It should also be noted that Timurid King, Babar, founder of the Mughal dynasty, was a Cagtai Turk and wrote his Babarname in Ca tai and not in Persian. So did his sons Humayun and Kamran write poet in Turkish. However, by the time of Akbar's reign the percentage of Turkish chieftains in the ruling elite had been reduced to one-fourth. It was a conscious political decision, as Turks and specially Mongols, nomad by life style, are more independent by nature and believe in equality and freedom. The Turanian/Mongolian concept of rulership is vested in the family and not in an individual. Humayun and Akbar had great trouble in subduing and disciplining their Turanian/Mongol origin nobles. Preference was given to Persians, Afghans & converts.

It has been rightly claimed by many scholars in South India that a considerable process of development and even preservation of Hindustani took place in Deccan where it came to be known as Deccani, although the seeds of the birth of the language had been sown in North India from where it was taken to Deccan by Muslims conquers starting with Turkish Khilji (Halac) rulers and later Tughlak (again Turkish) rulers; Muhammed Tughlak even shifted his capital to the South for some time. Later a large number of kingdoms by Turkic tribes, in which they formed a fairly large proportion of the elite, were established in South India, i.e Bijapur, Golcunda, etc. When Allaudin Khilji conquered Deccan, the appointed Turks as chiefs for each villa e to look after its security, safety and administration. Most of them called their relatives to assist them. Thus both in the beginning of the evolution of Hindustani in the North and later in its further development in Deccan, a majority of the elite was of Turkic origin who while using Persian for administration must have used Turkish at inter-personal level and thus helped continue evolution of Hindustani in its various forms. The Deccani period also saw influx into Hindustani of not only Dravadian words but also its influence on its grammar and syntax and vice versa. We might even say that the Deccani period probably saved Hindustani from becoming totally Persianised as perhaps happened to it at many places in North India.

It has been estimated that Hindustani and Turkish have thousands of words in common, mostly from Persian and Arabic, Some estimates put them around three to four thousand, with over five to six hundred words of Turkish origin in Hindustani. The comparison is basically with the Republic of Turkey's Turkish (of Oguz family), which since 1930s has been purged of many Arabic and Persian words. Perhaps the number of common words between Hindustani and Turkish as spoken in East, i.e. Uzbekistan and East (Uighur and Cagtai family) could, perhaps, be more. Some examples of Turkish words in Hindustani are: Top, Tamancha, Barood, Nishan, Chaku, Bahadur, Begum, Bulak, Chadar, Chhatri, Chakachak, chikin (embroidery), Chamcha, Chechek, Dag, Surma, Bavarchi, Khazanchi, Bakshi (accountant), Coolie, Kanat, Kiyma, Kulcha, Korma, Kotwal, Daroga, Koka, Kenchi, Naukar, etc. Obviously, the number of Turkish words in Hindustani is not as large as that of Persian and Arabic, because, the latter was the language of the Holy Koran (although Seljuk Turk rulers in Asia Minor and Iran had discouraged use of Arabic except for religion), which exercised influence over all believers and the former was the language of administration and aristocracy. I presume studies on the influence of Turkish on the Persian language and Arabic, have been done.

Hindustani has surprising similarity in Grammar and Syntax structure with Turkish, though origins of both the languages are from different language families. For example, normally both in Hindustani and in Turkish first comes the subject, then the object etc. and finally the verb, i.e. SOV order unless emphasis is to be given, with somewhat similar stem endings. There are considerable resemblances in the declensions of the verb in Turkish and Hindustani. But, Turkish has only one gender while Hindustani has two. As I know soma Arabic, I can say that there appears no similarity at all between Hindustani and Arabic syntax and grammar. I know little Sanskrit or Persian grammar, but both languages belong to the same family of Indo-Iranian group and my feeling is that their syntax is also closer to Hindustani. While Persian like Turkish has one gender, Sanskrit has three, i.e. male, female and neuter. Sanskrit also allows more flexibility in the placing of subject, object, etc. It may be admitted that human beings while evolving speech patterns did not have much choice in shuffling subject, object, verb, etc. Still that Sanskrit/Persian syntax is somewhat similar to Turkish, is a somewhat strange coincidence, the latter belonging to the Ural-Altay group of languages. With Hindustani the similarity is further accentuated. It may also be noted that the areas from where Turkish and Indo-European languages emerged in Central Asia were not far from each other. Some similarities with Sanskrit are: dvihyrdaya (carrying two hearts, pregnant), in Turkish "iki canli" means, the same, two lives. In Hindi/Sanskrit, we have Chitrakar (painter), Murtikar. In Turkish we have "Sanatkar" (Artist), Curetkar (courageous). Sun in Sarhskrit/Hindi is Dinesha, while in Turkish it is "Gunes." First segment in both "din" and "gun" means day - perhaps linked with sunrise in cold climate. We may also note that the syntax of Germanic languages is quite different from Sanskrit and Persian, which are supposed to belong to the same family of Indo-European languages. We may now look at more similarities between Hindustani and Turkish. (Please note that in Turkish C is pronounced as J and C as Ch, G is silent when placed between vowels, which it accentuates. H: stands for Hindustani and T: for Turkish.)

There are no articles or declensions in Turkish or Hindustani; the relationship of the words are expressed through 'case endings' as well as post-positions. (It would be interesting to study if Turkish helped speedy change-over from declensions to post-positions from Apbhramsh to Hindustani). The infinite noun functions as nominative and as indefinite. The accusative has thus two forms: the definite (with accusative ending) and the indefinite (the same as the nominative). Thus, "call a girl" - H: "ek larki bulao" T: "bir kiz çagir" but "call my servant", H: "mere naukar ko bulao"- T: "Benim hizmetciyi çagir". The word order in Turkish and Hindustani is same (This is also so in the following examples).

The genitive comes before the agent e.g. 'the son of the teacher' T: 'ustanin oglu' H: 'ustad ka beta'. The genitive also expresses possession: 'whose house is this?' T. "Bu ev kimindir?", H: 'Woh ghar kiska hai?'. If a noun is in present, it goes into the genitive. It must therefore be constructed as: 'the man(he) has a house', T: "Adamin bir evi var", H: "Adami ka ek ghar hai". Also 'to have' as incidental possession is similarly expressed: "I have a book", T: 'Ben de bir kitab var', H: 'mere pas ek kitab hai'. The ablative is also used to express the comparative case: 'the elephant is larger than the horse' T: 'Fil attan buyuktur', H: 'Hathi ghore se bara hai'. For emphasis both languages use the Arabic adverb 'ziada' - for more. 'In addition it can be rendered as in T: 'daha' or in H: 'bhi'. The adjective is before the active or passive voice and does not change except in the case of (in H) adjectives ending with a. "The/a good girl, T: "iyi kiz", H: Achhi lardki". The adjective can be strengthened in both languages through simple repetition as well as through the adverb "very much " T:( pek çok); H:( bahut).In H:' Ahista ahista' (slowly), T:' yavas yavas'. Quickly becomes, T: "çabuk çabuk", H: 'Jaldi Jaldi'( not used in Arabic and Sanskrit perhaps). Sometimes alliteration is used, for example, H: 'ulta multa' mixed up. The alliterations are found especially in the passive or active voice (substantive) e.g.;. H: "kitab mitab" - books and suchlike and "bartan wartan"- dishes and suchlike, "Hara bhara"(Green), "Chota mota"(small). In Turkish, 'kötu mötu' (so-so), 'çocuk mocuk' (children etc), 'tabak mabak', (plates and suchlike). Popular in both languages are doubled substantives: Turn by turn or "again and again", becomes in T: "dizi dizi" and in H: 'bari bari'.

Distributive are also thus expressed: "each man", T: "bir bir (or tek tek) adam," H: "ek ek adami", the interrogative further contains the meaning of the indefinite: "whoever", T: "kim kim", H: "jo jo". With number it is, T: "iki defa" H: "do dafa" (twice); 40 doors, in H: "Chalis darwaza", T: kirk kapi. In both languages numbers are preferably expressed without 'and/or' e.g. 'five or ten', H: panch das, T: bes on. Post positions are characteristic in both languages; 'for the dog' in H: 'kutte ke vaste', T: 'köpek için'; and towards the house', H: 'ghar ke taraf', T: 'evin tarafina'. As mentioned earlier, the verb is always found at the end of the sentence. The normal sentence structure SOV is illustrated as follows: 'I give this thick book with pleasure to that good child', T: ben sevincle, o iyi çocuga bu kalin kitabi veriyorum, H: 'main khushi se us ache bacche ko yeh moti kitab deta hun'. In Turkish, verbs are often used with a Substantive or Participle e.g. 'etmek' to make and 'olmak' to be, in H: 'karna'- to do, and 'hona' -being. For 'search' T: 'telaÿ etmek', H: 'talas karna'. Or 'be present', T: 'dahil olmak' H: 'dakhil hona'. Factual verbs are also similarly constructed. H: 'bana' (made), 'banana' (make), 'banwana' (have it made); in T: 'Yapmak' (make), 'yaptirmak' (have it made), ;yapilmak' (to bo made); H: 'Badalna' (to change oneself), 'badlana' (changing), badalwana (to have it changed) becomes in T: 'degismek' (to change onself), 'degistirmek' (to change) and 'degistirtmek (to have it changed).

Indirect speech is made direct 'tell him to come here', H: 'Idhar ao usko bolo', T: 'buraya gelsin diye ona söyleyin'. The verb root ending - ip in Turkish and the simple verb root in Hindustani attached to the principal verb show the order of occurrence of an event. For example, 'they saw the thief and held him fast', H: 'chor ko dekh umon ne usko pakra', T: 'Hirsizi group yakaladilar'. The constructed verbal form (in Turkish)- arak and (Hindustani)-kar, -arke serves in the rendering of Subordinate or dependant clauses - 'in which, during' e.g. 'taking a vessel, he went to the well' H: 'bartan lekar kuan par gaya, T: 'Canak alarak kuyuya gitti'. Also common adverbial expressions such as 'he came running', T: 'Kosarak geldi', H: 'daurkar aya'. As in Turkish the twice repeated verb root plus e shows repeated or continuous action, as does the twice repeated verb of the present participle, H: 'main tairte tairte thak gaya', T: 'Yuze yuze yoruldum'. Both languages have a number of vowel compositions, (in Hindustani) as when the root as well as the (in Turkish) root plus a are set together with the declenated infinitive e.g. 'to be able to speak' T: 'konusabilmek', H: 'bol sakna', 'he began to say' H: 'woh bolne laga', T: 'Söylemege basladi'. Some similarities in idiomatic expressions are: the showing of suffering is pointed out through the expression of 'eating'- e.g. H: 'lakri or mar khana'; T: 'Sopa yemek'– to eat the stick - to get a beating. Endure suffering or to grieve, becomes in T: 'Gam yemek', H: 'gham khana'. (Note: Many of the above mentioned examples have been taken from a 1955 article by Otto Spies on the subject - the only paper on the subject I have come across since I published my earlier paper on 1.6.1994.)

The examples quoted above on the similarities of syntax, vocabulary, etc. Between Turkish and Hindustani are based on comparison with the Ottoman and the present- day Turkish i.e. Oguz branch as spoken in the Republic of Turkey. Syntax etc. of Turkish is quite similar to Eastern Turkish i.e. Uighur branch although there are variations. But certainly the Eastern Turkish must be closer to Hindustani as most of the Turkic tribes who came to Hindustan belonged to that area. It may also be mentioned that of the common words in Turkish and Hindustani, whether of Turkish origin or otherwise, 20% have quite different meanings and nuances when used in Hindustani. This, of course is, true of even languages which have developed and evolved in separate regions and are influenced by the environment and other factors and become quite different from the original. Even in Turkic countries, the same words have different meaning e.g. in Turkey or say in Sinkiang, Kazakhstan or Kyrghystan. It is for this reason that the Turkic governments have set up Commissions consisting of scholars from Turkic speaking countries of Central Asia, Turkey and Azerbaijan to prepare a comparative dictionary and grammar. (last such attempt was made by Mahmud AI Kashghari in the 11th century AD.) The newly independent countries in Central Asia feel that they must harmonize the syntax, grammar and vocabulary of their languages. This has been the objective of many get-togethers of Turkic people, scholars and academicians, which have started taking place. Perhaps some Sanskrit, Hindustani and Persian scholars could also join and discover further resemblance between Turkish and Hindustani languages.

We will leave it to linguists and philologists to work out how Hindustani languages evolved and developed but to a layman it is clear that people learn or try to learn the ruler's language or of a dominating power. It is for this reason that we see the dominance of English and French in their former colonies and the lasting influence of these languages on the languages of the latter. And it is for this reason alone that English continues to dominate international communications, earlier because of the British influence and now on account of the USA. I believe that even when languages were imposed, it is not as such the movement of races, as claimed, but only of the powerful elites; military, political or economic. There were Copts and Berbers in North Africa when the Arabs came and Byzantine Christians when Turks entered Asia Minor. Turkey sent over 1.5 million Christians to Greece in 1920s out of a population of over 11 million, in exchange for Muslim Turks; this was after 6 centuries of Islamisation and Turkification. (Ironically, these included many thousand Christian Turks, who had come to Asia Minor earlier than the Muslim Turks and had remained Christians.) Moldova's Turks called Gagaoz are Christians. Thus the languages and religions of the ruled do not change quickly and continue to interact and affect each other. So was the case in Hindustan and elsewhere.

According to linguists the evolution of Hindustani or any other language is a result of contact situation in which more than two languages interact on the basis of belonging to the ruler and the ruled. The socio-linguistic forces give power and prestige to the languages of the ruler with the result that it begins to exercise linguistic influence on the language of the ruled. First in the field of vocabulary and later on in some vulnerable areas of syntax. But linguistic resemblance, apart from common parentage, can also be based on geographical and physical proximity. Essentially different but geographically and physically proximate languages are often known to exhibit shared linguistic features. This probably explains similarities in Sanskrit and Turkish as these languages originated around Central Asia. This also explains the similarities between Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages or Persian, Turkish and Hindustani. This feature was studied in detail by Mr. Emeneau, which led him to develop the concept of linguistic areas. Perhaps Central Asia, Anatolia, lran, Afghanistan and North Hindustan could be said to belong to overlapping linguistic areas, where languages belonging to different families have acquired common traits following interaction, as a result of which, this vast area shows shared linguistic features like word-order, reduplication, inter-relations, negations, compound words etc. This also explains similarities between Deccani Hindi and Telgu in certain areas of syntax.

It is noteworthy that except for some inscriptions near Orhon river, which are in Turkish Rhunic script, which itself was derived from Aramaic (a fact contested by many experts), the mother script of Semitic languages, Turkish has been mostly written in the script of the ruled people. Brahmi, Kharoshti and Devanagri scripts, though not of the ruled, are perhaps the earliest of scripts used for writing Turkish as spoken by Uighur Turks in Eastern Turkistan. They were used in spite of many difficulties in expressing the Turkish vowels (not easier to write in Persian or Arabic script either) which do not exist in Hindustani languages. Brahmi script is of Indian origin; it might have been inspired by the Aramaic script, but is not related to it and was used widely in Hindustan even before the Buddhist era and was used by Mauryan King Ashoka for inscriptions in India and elsewhere. It was taken to Central Asia and other neighboring countries. Out of Brahmi have evolved most other North Indian scripts like Devanagari, Bengali, Gujarati etc. Apart from the modified Arabic script, the other scripts used for writing Turkish are Cyrillic, introduced by the Russians in what are now Central Asian Republics, although at one time it was written in the Latin script. This change-over to Cyrillic perhaps took place both because the Turkish Republic had adopted it in early 1930s and for reasons of state, i.e. maintaining a scriptal cohesiveness. The Russians wanted its citizens in Central Asia to use the same script as of the dominant Russian language for easy switch over. It has been alleged that during the Soviet days, differences in meanings of Turkish words in different republics were encouraged. Thus Turkic languages have evolved differently in Eastern Turkistan, i.e. Uzbekistan, Kyrghystan Kazakhstan etc. Sinkiang Turkish with reduced contacts has perhaps developed peculiarities of its own. To remedy the situation, the Government of Turkey has granted tens of thousands of scholarships to students and teachers from Turkic Republics. A large number of Turkish teachers have also gone to teach at schools and universities in these countries. Students coming from Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrghystan, etc. take a few months before they can fully master the Turkish as spoken in the Turkish Republic. The Turkic Republics have considered the question of change over from the Cyrillic to the Latin script. Azerbaijan has already done so after adding three more alphabets to the script used by Turkey. Turkmenistan had decided to switch over to the Latin script with some modifications from 1st January 1995. Others have not decided yet. The choice is not easy as switch-over to Latin script while opening a window to Turkey and all that Turkey has done through translations and assimilation of knowledge from the West, would cut these Republics from their immediate past, written in the Cyrillic script. Switch over to the Arabic script would be a political decision, as it will make access to the Persian-Arab Islamic world easier. Those responsible for the decision for the change-over have to consider political, cultural, religious, economic and other ramifications.

It would appear that the Turkic rulers were much more statesmen-like and liberal in interaction with those whom they ruled. They did not insist on their language being imposed on the new subjects, notwithstanding the fact that the languages of some of the ruled were much more developed than Turkish. (For beautiful, like, love; for example, Turkish has very few synonymous, unlike say Persian, Sanskrit, Arabic, etc.) It has also been suggested that many Turkish rulers became Muslim for political and state-reasons. It automatically combined the powers of the Sultan and the Khalifa, thus making it easier to rule the domains. Of course, as regards Turkish expansion of Ottoman Empire and into Hindustan, being a Gazi provided great incentive and booty. Some have even raised doubts whether Ertugrul, father of Osman who established the Ottoman (Osmanli) dynasty in Asia Minor (Anatolia) was Muslim by birth. It has been suggested that he converted to Islam when he married the daughter of a powerful Islamic Sheikh to strengthen his position. But there is no conclusive proof for this, notwithstanding the fact that many Turks like Gagaoz and others have remained Christians. Some suggestions have been made recently (Prof. Julian Raby of Oxford has done a PhD thesis on this subject) that Fetih, the Conqueror of Constantinpole, seriously considered in 1450s embracing Orthodox Christianity, as Westwards the population was mostly Christian and even in Asia Minor a fairly large percentage of population might still have been Christian. lt was nearly 15% in as late as 1920s. The generosity of the Turkish rulers and their political wisdom and acumen is proved by the fact that they allowed people of other religions i.e. Christians, Jews, Armenians to have their own millets. As long as they paid their taxes, they were allowed to run their own affairs and even contribute to the economic well-being of the state. As regards Turkey, then known as Asia Minor, it was part of the Byzantine Empire and the Turkish blood (if one can measure it?) among the residents of the present day Turkey may not be more than 20%. It may be recalled that the Ottoman rulers themselves used the slave households system called Devsirme, through which, for hundreds of years, they recruited young non-Muslim Christian boys, mostly from Balkans. Out of them emerged the Janissary corps and high level military and civilian leaders, including grand veziers. Only one-third of grand veziers could claim Turkish descent. Barring a few, mothers of most of the Ottoman Sultans were non-Turkish, a large number of them Christians. The former were allowed to have their religious entourage and many Ottoman princes were brought up almost as Christians. These examples have been given to state that Empires did not change their religious, ethnic or linguistic character suddenly. There were long periods of interaction between various religions, races, languages and cultures, one affecting the other. No wonder, in Istanbul, Ankara and elsewhere in Turkey, many resemble the peoples of Balkans and Yugoslavia who dominated the Ottoman elite. In fact, anthropologists have counted more than 20 ethnic groups in Turkey.

Similarly in India, once the Turks had decided to settle down, they started inter-mingling and inter-mixing. Allaudin Khilji and his sons married daughters of Hindu Kings and from the earliest period set an example. Hindus occupied positions of power in his court. The practice of marriages with families of Hindu Kings, especially in Rajasthan became very common after Mughal Emperor Akbar. Akbar and his descendents gave full honor and positions to their in-laws. Many of them were Mughal Commander-in-Chiefs and high officials. Accountants and many Veziers like Birbal were Hindus. If Mehmet, the Conqueror, thought of embracing Christianity, Akbar conversed with the sages of all religions, of which his populace consisted of and even evolved a new religion 'Din-e-Elahi'. In contrast, Aurangzeb following fanatic policies virtually destroyed the empire, built up by his forefathers. The inter-mixing and respect for others' languages, religions and culture co-existed with some equality and were able to influence each other.

The objective of this paper is to start discussions and further research on the question of influence of Turkic languages on Hindustani languages, especially on Hindi and Urdu and their various forms. Except from late 18th century till first half of 20th century there was constant exchange and interaction between the peoples of Hindustan and Central Asia. (After India's independence, she was able to maintain cultural and other contacts with Turkic people in the former Soviet Union.) Now that, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, countries in Central Asia like Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrghystan, Kazakhastan, have become independent, more contacts and cultural and literary interaction can and should be established. The new era provides an opportunity not only to discover old historical and cultural relationships between the peoples of Hindustan and Turkic Republics and others, based on archives available in newly emerged Turkic Republics and elsewhere and those lying unutilized and unread in the Hindustan; but also to build on them further.
(K Gajendra Singh, served as Indian Ambassador to Turkey and Azerbaijan in 1992-96. Prior to that, he served as ambassador to Jordan (during the 1990-91 Gulf war ), Romania and Senegal. He is currently chairman of the Foundation for Indo-Turkic Studies.
E-Mail.gajendrak@hotmail.com)

11-May-2003 - See more at: http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=762#sthash.oUu1kMvK.dpuf

Also see:

» Ranghaya, Sixteenth Vendidad Nation & Western Aryan Lands

» Mitanni

» Kassites

» Suppiluliuma (Hittite) - Shattiwaza (Mitanni) Treaty

» Lake Urmia & Atur-Patakan (Azerbaijan / Azarbaijan

» Kandovan (Troglodyte) Village

» Early Persian History - The Formation of Persia

Map of India, Iran, Turkiye. The dominant kingdom of Iran has at various times been Balkh (Bactria), Mada (Media), Parsa (Persia), Parthava (Parthia)and then Persia again.

The tree of life, omphalos and Nimrud

Posted by Fredsvenn on June 2, 2015

https://aratta.wordpress.com/page/3/

When ancient Armenians built Portasar about 12,000 years ago there was already some kind of level of sophisticated organization which was surely required to accomplish such a massive undertaken for its time period. Portasar is the old name of what is now called Gobekle Tepe which is a direct translation of Armenian “Portasar” which means Mountain Navel.

Portasar or Gobekli Tepe? Gobekle Tepe is a direct translation of Armenian “Portasar”

December 4, 2013

The temple was built over 9-11000 years ago, but turkish ethnic groups appeared in Armenian Highlands in 11th century.

When ancient Armenians built Portasar about 12,000 years ago there was already some kind of level of sophisticated organization which was surely required to accomplish such a massive undertaken for its time period. Here I need to mention that Portasar is the old name of what is now called Gobekle Tepe which is a direct translation of Armenian “Portasar” which means Mountain Navel. Ex. Big Hayq; Armenian Kingdom of Kilikia; Urfa(Urha), Last name was Edesia province

When the Treaty of Lausanne was signed in 1923, the Republic of Turkey was established. In its attempts to shroud the Armenian heritage of Turkey, the authorities of the republic began a systematic campaign to alter Armenian placenames. These attempts included the name change of the geographical expression “Armenian plateau” to “Eastern Anatolia.“

Turkey presents Armenian Portasar to the world as a Turkish Stonehenge.

Portasar is a great ritualistic-religious-scientific building, which is situated in the Western Armenia and has 18,500-years-old history. Vachagan Vahradyan, candidate of biological sciences, adviser and chief scientist to the Armenian scientific party of Oxford University’s ‘Stones and Stars’ project, said that the Turks ascribe the establishment of Portasar to themselves. According to Carl Schmidt, in the Armenian highland the haven was divided into constellations even 12-18 thousand years ago.

Vachagan Vahradyan says the Portasar was built in the eon of Scorpion. Griffon was painted on the huge building. This one and other resemblances come to prove that Portasar has a lot in common with Karahunj; the builders belonged to the same culture.

The scientist says the existence of such a monument creates basis for casting doubt on the opinion about the knowledge of the old civilization. Turkey organizes a number of exhibitions, representing the monument as a Turkish one before the world.

Portasar or Gobekli Tepe?

When ancient Armenians built Portasar about 12,000 years ago there was already some kind of level of sophisticated organization which was surely required to accomplish such a massive undertaken for its time period.

Portasar is situated in the South of the Armenian Highlands, 15 km south-east from the old city Urha/Edessa, Urfa/ of Armenian Mesopatamia. The discovery of the cultural layers/three layers/ of Portasar shows that it was a religious-ritual centre for sedentary people for several millenniums. The territory is in Armenian cultural area.

Armenian is one of the oldest languages of the region/Armenian Highlands and surrounding areas, Small Asia/which, according to the recent studies, was a spoken language 8000-9000 years ago. The name Portasar given to the monument means the centre of the Earth and life, navel, mountain. By the way, Portasar was named by people who knew it was a religious-ritual monument. They knew that life existed not only on the Earth, but also in Heaven, they worshiped Anggh/Angel/ as the God who connected these two worlds. And stone pillars/cross statues, stone obelisks, stone icons and later also xachqars/ existed in Armenia all the times. This about 12 thousand year-old monument, discovered in Armenian Mesopotamia, is the archeological proof which, along with comparative linguistics allows to say that Armenia is the cradle of modern civilization.

It’s worth to mention an interesting testimony preserved in Armenian historiography. Pavstos Buzand/V century/, telling about the deeds of the Armenian King Pap/353-374/, writes that he sent a delegation to the Greek king saying. “Cesaria and also ten other cities belonged to us. Give them back. Urha was founded by our ancestors, so if you don’t want disagreement between us, give them back. Otherwise we will wage a war.” (Pavstos Buzand, Armenian History, Yerevan, 1968, page 27, chapter ԼԲ). As it was mentioned above the monument could be named Portasar only by Hay-Armens, who were inhabitants of the region and knew about the religious-ritual nature of it. And the Turks, who appeared in those areas only 8-9 centuries ago, could not know that the mountain was a cultural monument.

So this is enough to conclude that it were Hay-Armens, the ancient inhabitants of the area who gave the name Portasar to the monument. Later, as in most other cases the Turks have simply translated the name and now are trying to introduce the monument to the world with the name Gobekli Tepe. We should note that there are a lot of placenames in Armenia which point the sense and purport of the words like Portasar /Gandzasar-gandz+sar(treasure mountain), Ukhtasar-ukht+sar( Mountain of Covenant), Yerkatasar-yerkat+sar(Iron Mountain). The same is in the case of Portasar.

The assemblage was built some 11,600 years ago dated 10th millennium BC, seven millennia before the Great Pyramid of Giza. It contains the oldest known temple. Indeed, Portasar (Göbekli Tepe) is the oldest known example of monumental architecture—the first structure human beings put together that was bigger and more complicated than a hut. When these pillars were erected, so far as we know, nothing of comparable scale existed in the world.
Portasar is located in Western Armenia, in the historic Armenian region of Urha, often referred in Turkish as Urfa or Riha. The letter “F” is very rarely used in the Armenian language, it is speculated that the sound “F” perpetuates is unholy or not a correct sound. By etymology the name “Urha” is Armenian, the word “Hurrian” HUR comes from Armenian “fire”, the Kingdom of Mitanni is considered to be one of several proto-Armenian Kingdom’s. AR, HAR, ER, HER, YER, HOR, KHAR, KHOR, UR, HUR, KHUR have the same meaning. And you have to know that the vocal can change, just the consonant keeps on. Ar, Ur, Er, Ir etc – and that word are made by one consonant and one or two vocals, which can change their place on either side of the consonant. According to a number of scholars, Ar, was a shorter version of Ara or Arar(ich), Creator. The worship of Ar was wide spread amongst early Armenians who worshipped this deity and simply called him the Creator (Ara or Ararich).

The first mentioning of Armenians in the region of Urha, was first mentioned in the epic of Naram Sin, where Naram Sin the Akkadian tyrant went to war against the neighboring Armeni tribes in2254–2218 BCE, whose King Armanum (Aram) had a powerful kingdom in the current day region of South-Eastern Turkey, and Northern Syria, with its heart in the city of Ebla.

The Armenians regard Urha as a holy city, because it is believed that Mesrop Mashtots revived the Ancient Armenian alphabet in this city.

This region has always had an historic Armenian presence, and since the times of historical documentation, whether it be on tablets or scrolls, the Armenians have been recorded more so in this region than any other known ethnic group since the beginning of historical documentation. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Armenians were still the majority as a single ethnic group in the city of Urha. It was only during the genocide, where local Turkish, and Kurdish muslim’s drove out the Armenian populace, and sought out to destroy them. The formation of Neolithic tribes in the Armenian Highland, gave birth to these advanced peoples who had strong national identity, and would later form the Proto-Armenian Kingdoms of the Armenian Highland, being Mitanni, and Ararat (Urartu) in particular.

So Portasar is the oldest name of the monument and truly demonstrates the sense, purport and meaning of this ancient monument of the Armenian Highlands.

Portasar has a direct connection with Karahunj, see https://narinnamkn.wordpress.com/wp-admin/post.php?post=357&action=edit

Sources:

A number of articles by Anjela Teryan, Joe Rogan, Duncan Trussell, Klaus Schmidt

1. (Archeological Perspectives on the Localization of Naram-Sin’s Armanum, Adelheid Otto, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 58, (2006), pp. 1–26).

https://narinnamkn.wordpress.com/2013/12/04/portasar-or-gobekli-tepe-portasar-is-the-old-name-of-what-is-now-called-gobekle-tepe-which-is-a-direct-translation-of-armenian-portasar/

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Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvákarma, kāru 'smith', cire perdue metalcaster, revealer of sthApatyaveda. Role of scribes, architects in Hindu civilization.

June 17, 2015, 8:19 pm

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/oh6s7nl

Role of scribes, architects in Hindu civilization is a saga of unparalleled splendor in the history of civilizations.

Many scribes and silpi or sthapati are unnamed since the tradition was to venerate the supreme, humbling oneself in veneration. The contributions made by scribes and sculptors are cherished as pilgrimage sites, temples and monuments in all parts of Bharatam.

The scribes who created the catalogus catalogorum of Indus Script with ca. 7000 inscriptions and perhaps also many hieroglyphs in cuneiform inscriptions on cylinder seals of Ancient Near East from Meluhha colonies of the region, clearly followed the characteristics of orthographic rendering of hieroglyphs associated with Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvákarma.

The metalworkers of the civilization viewed kole.l'smithy' as kole.l'temple. This tradition is traceable to the narratives related to Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvákarma in the Vedic tradition, dating from the Rigveda.

Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvákarma is a Rsi and a Silpi, designer of all the flying chariots of the gods, and all their weapons and divine attributes, creator of vajra (thunderbolt) missile for Indra from the bones of Dadhici. He is artisan, craftsman par excellence. (Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1979): Medieval Sinhalese Art, Pantheon Books Inc., New York., p.79). Kanya Sankranti after Ganesha Puja (ca. September) is a celebration of Viśvákarma.

Vishwakarma (or Visvakarma) community refer to themselves as the Viswabrahmin. The community comprises five sub-groups - carpenters, blacksmiths, bell metalworkers, goldsmiths and stonemasons - who believe that they are descendants of Vishwakarma. Lohars are also known as Vishwakarma, Sharma or Panchals.

Viśwákarma (Sanskrit: विश्वकर्मा "all-accomplishing, maker of all,""all doer"; Thai: Witsawakam ; Telugu: విశ్వకర్మ ; Kannada: ವಿಶ್ವಕರ್ಮ ; Tamil: (விசுவகர்மன்) Visuvakaruman ) is the personified Omnipotence and the abstract form of the creator God according to the Rigveda. He is the presiding deity of all craftsmen and architects. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvakarman

Tarkhan (Old Turkic Tarqan; Mongolian: Darqan or Darkhan; Persian: ترخان‎; Chinese: 達干; Arabic: طرخان‎; alternative spellings Tarkan, Tarkhaan, Tarqan, Tarchan, Turxan, Tarcan or Turgan) is an ancient Central Asian title used by various Indo-European (i.e. Iranian and Tokharian) and Turco-Mongol peoples, especially in the medieval era, and prominent among the successors of the Mongol Empire. It is also the title given to a community commonly found in the Punjab regions of India and Pakistan. Who are traditionally carpenters by occupation. ( Choi, Han-Woo (Oct 2005), A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN", KR: Handong University) http://www.iacd.or.kr/pdf/journal/05/5-10.pdf In Kyrghyz's tale Manas, the word Tarqan means a 'blacksmith', a possible borrowing from Mongolian.

Viśvákarma as Lohar, smiths are called by different community names in Bharatam:

Entrance to Viśvákarma cave temple, Ellora Cave No. 10

Segments of the sculpture showing: 1. scribe; 2. stacks of straw asociated with epigraphs (incribed ovals atop the stacks) and the row of seated artisans. There are two hieroglyphs on these segments: 1. scribe; 2. straw-stacks. Both can be read as Meluhha hieroglyphs.

The scribe shown on Amaravati sculpture is kaṇḍa kanka 'stone scribe'. The gloss is reinforced by the hieroglyph: stack of straw: kaṇḍa (See Meluhha glosses from Indian sprachbund appended).

Maya is a Koliya, i.e. she is a kole, a community working in iron. kol ‘working in iron’ (Tamil).

Smithy-forge in action depicted on a Sanchi sculptural relief. Artisans working in smithy.

Sivaramamurti, C., 1978, The painter in ancient India, Delhi, Abhinav Publications, p.5

An inscription on the Bharhut rail reads: "Buddharakhitasa riipakdrakasa ddnam", i.e. gift of Buddharakshita, the sculptor. Buddha Rakhitasa Rupakārakasa dānam." Gift of Buddha Rakshita, the sculptor."

Here we have the name of one of the sculptors of the Bharhut bas-reliefs.

http://www.jatland.com/home/Bharhut_inscriptions

The architect carries a garland in his left hand. The gloss is dāma a wreath or garland of fls. J i.397 (Pali); rebus: dhamma. The entire architecture of the Sanchi monuments is an offering, a puja by the sāṅgtarāś sangha. In his right hand is held ukkā; (dhamm -- okkā); ii.401; iv.291; v.322; Vism 428; ThA 287; DA i.148; DhA i.42, 205; PvA 154. Esp. as tiṇ˚ firebrand of dry grass M i.128, 365; Nd2 40Ie; DhA i.126; Sdhp 573. -- 2. a furnace or forge of a smith A i.210, 257; J vi.437. Rebus: he is dhammika (adj.) [=Sk. dharmya, cp. dhammiya] lawful, according to the Dh. or the rule; proper, fit, right; permitted, legitimate, justified; righteous, honourable, of good character, just, esp. an attr. of a righteous King (rājā cakkavattī dhammiko dhammarājā) D i.86; ii.16; A i.109=iii.149; J i.262, 263; def. by Bdhgh as "dhammaŋ caratī ti dh." (DA i.237) & "dhammena caratī ti dh., ñāyena samena pavattalī ti" (ib. 249). <-> Vin iv.284; D i.103; S ii.280 (dhammikā kathā); iii.240 (āhāra); iv.203 (dhammikā devā, adh˚ asurā); A i.75; iii.277; Sn 404; DhA ii.86 (dohaḷa); iv.185 (˚lābha); PvA 25 (=suddha, manohara). Also as saha -- dh˚ (esp. in conn. w. pañha, a justified, reasonable, proper question: D i.94; S iv.299 in detail) Vin iv.141; D i.161; iii.115; A i.174. -- a˚ unjust, illegal etc. Vin iv.285; S iv.203; A iii.243. (Source for the photograph: http://imagesvr.library.upenn.edu/a/aiis/thumb/A36-60.JPG)

Associated with the dharma glyph which adorns the Sanchi torana is the śilpi, the architect of the poems in stone. What was he called? Hindi. संगतरा/श (nm) sāṅgtarāś a stone- cutter/carver/dresser; ~शी stone cutting/carving/dressing. He works with sang, 'stone'. His signature tune is the composite glyph: sang makara 'water-elephant, water-crocodile'; ligatured with a mollusc, sangi and puccha 'fish-tail', the sanghi performs puja with his exquisite architectural forms of the temple, kole.l, guḍi .

Sanchi northern gate architrave is adorned with a sculpture of the architect of the monument, together with a hieroglyph multiplex, the elaboration of s'rivatsa symbol of Hindu-Bauddha dharma-dhamma.

http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017.2/A36-60

torana architraves carved in relief with devotional scenes

Sanchi torana architrave with a sculpture of the architect.

StateSurname

Bihar and Uttar PradeshVishwakarma, Sharma and Thakur

Andhra PradeshAchari, Chary, and Acharya

TamilnaduVishvabrahmins, Kamaalar, Aachari or Aasaari

MaharashtraDangre, Upankar, Mane, Ighe, Lohar, Koshe, Waghodekar, Kumbare, Panvalkar, Dhole, Pakhale. In Konkan Area Shemadkar, Katalkar, Gulekar, Shirvankar, Ghadi, Masurkar, Chapekar, Masurkar, Pomendkar

GujaratPanchal, Pitroda, Parmar, Pithva, Suthat, Mistry, Wadia, Gohil.

RajasthanSuthar and Jangid Brahmins

BengalKarmakar, Lohar, Raut, Majhi, Guli, Gulimajhi, Dandamajhi, Dalui, Sutar

OrissaMoharana, Mohapatra, Sutar, Sahu, Parida

http://www.lohars.org/strength.html

taṣṭṛ तष्टृ m. 1 A carpenter in general; रथं न तष्टेव तत्सिनाय Rv.1.61.4. -2 The architect of gods (विश्वकर्मन्) -3 One of the 12 Ādityas. kāru कारु -रुः 1 An epithet of विश्वकर्मन् the architect of the gods. -2 An art, a science.a. (-रू f.) [कृ-उण् Uṇ.1.1] 1 A maker, doer, an agent, servant; राघवस्य ततः कार्यं कारुर्वानरपुङ्गवः Bk.7.28. su सु ind.-कर्मन् a. 1 one whose deeds are righteous, virtuous, good. -2 active, diligent. (-m.) N. of Visvakarman. viśvákarman ʻ creating everything ʼ, m. ʻ the divine creator ʼ RV. [víśva -- , kárman -- 1] Pa. vissakamma -- m. ʻ the architect of the gods ʼ, Pk. vissayamma -- m., Si. vissam (< *visyam).(CDIAL 11963) विश्व--कर्मmfn. accomplishing everything , all-working RV. x , 166 , 4. in comp. for विश्व-कर्मन् (Monier-Williams)

Rigveda 10.166: A tribute to Viśvákarma as the armourer-warrior par excellence

10.166.01 Make me, Indra, (renowned like) a bull among my equals, victor over my rivals, the slayer of my enemies, a sovereign, a lord of cattle. [Like a bull: r.s.abham, a play upon the r.s.i's name].
10.166.02 I am the destroyer of my enemies, like Indra, unharmed and unwounded; may all these my foes be cast down under my feet.
10.166.03 I bind you here, like the two extremities of the bow the bowstring; restrain them, lord of speech, that they may speak humbly to me.
10.166.04 I have come triumphant with power, equal to any exploit; I seize upon minds, your pious observances, your prowess in war.
10.166.05 Seizing upon your goods and chattels, may I victorious; I walk upon your heads; cry aloud from beneath my feet, like frogs from (below) the water, like frogs from (below) the water.

Rigveda 10.81-82

10.081.01 The r.s.i, the hota_, our father who offering all these worlds has taken his seat; desiring wealth by pious benedictions, the first inventor has entered inferior (beinggs). [Offering all these worlds: i.e., destroying at the pral.aya, or dissolution of the world (Yajus. 17.17); asi_dat = had stopped, or has sat down in Agni. The 'wealth' desired by Vis'vakarma_ is heaven, which is to be obtained by hymns and the like. a_s'is.a_ = by the wish to become many; or, by the desire to create again and again; prathamacchad = assuming the principal form, or first investing, Agni with the worlds; Parames'vara is intended: a_tma_ va_ idam eka eva_gra a_si_t: Aitareya Bra_hman.a 2.4.1; Nirukta, 10.26: Vis'vakarman was at a sarvamedha, or universal sacrifice; he offered up all the worlds, and last of all offered up himself in sacrifice. The first line of the r.ca is a reference to the destuction of all things; the second line of the r.ca refers to their re-creation].

10.081.02 What was the station? What was the material? How was (it done)? So that the beholder of all, Vis'vakarman (was) generating and disclosed heaven by his might. [In the first r.ca, it is said that after the pral.aya, the creator made all things anew. In this r.ca, it is now asked: where was the scene of action, what were the materials, and how was thw work performed? In this world, a potter must have his shop, his clay, his wheel; so what does Is'vara have for site, matter and implements? The answer is negative. Is'vara does not need anything of this kjind. tatsr.s.t.va_ tadeva_nupra_vis'at: Taittiri_ya A_ran.yaka 8.6].

10.081.03 Having eyes everywhere, and having a face everywhere, having arms everywhere, and having feet everywhere, he traverses (heaven) with his arms, (earth) with his swift-moving (feet), and exists a god without companion generating heaven and earth. [Traverses: sam dhamati = he blows together, or inflates; a metaphor to denote the work of creation].

10.081.04 Which was the forest, which the tree, from which they fabricated heaven and earth? Inquire, sages, in your minds what (place) he was stationed in when holding the worlds. [They: i.e., the makers of the world, directed by Parames'vara].

10.081.05 Grant to your friends, Vis'vakarman, at the oblation, your best, your worst and your intermediate forms, and to these do you yourself, possessor of the oblation, becoming augmented in person (by oblations), offer worship. [Your best...forms: The best forms are the bodies of the gods, etc.; the intermediate forms are the bodies of men, etc.; the inferior forms are the bodies of worms, etc. Vis'vakarman, the creator is mixed up with Vis'vakarman, as Tvas.t.a_ or Agni. It means that man is incompetent to worship the creator, that is, in his forms, and it must be done by himself].

10.081.06 VIs'vakarman, magnified by the oblation, do you of yourself worship earth and heaven; let other men (who offer no oblations) be everywhere confounded; may he, rich in oblations, be the granter of heaven at this our (sacrifice). [Magnified by oblation: or, by me, Vis'vakarman, becoming an oblation. In the previous r.ca., havis.a_ = at the oblation = when I am made an oblation; cf. Nirukta10.27; Yajus. 17.22; su_rih = prajn~a_ta, knowing; or, may Indra be our adviser].

10.081.07 Let us this day invoke for our protection the lord of speech, the creator of all, who is swift as thought; may he, the bestower of all happiness, the doer of good works, be propitiated by all our oblations, (so as) to grant us his protection. [Lord of speech: all the epithets apply to Indra; Yajus. 8.45; 17.23].

Sukla Yajurveda Prapathaka: vii. 1. 5.

This was in the beginning the waters, the ocean.
In it Prajapati becoming the wind moved.
He saw her, and becoming a boar he seized her.
Her, becoming Visvakarma, he wiped.
She extended, she became the earth, and hence the earth is called the earth (lit.
the extended
In her Prajapati made effort.
He produced the gods, Vasus, Rudras, and Adityas.

takṣakaṉ , n. < takṣaka. 1. A divine serpent. See தக்கன்². 2. Artificer, carpenter; தச்சன். mayaṉ , n. < Maya. 1. A Daitya, the architect of the Asuras; அசுரத்தச்சன். மயன் விதித்தன்ன மணிக்கா லமளிமிசை (சிலப். 2, 12). 2. Carpenter; தச்சன். (சூடா.) 3. Artificer, architect; சிற்பி. (W.)vittakaṉ , n. < vidagdha. 1. Skilful, able person; வல்லவன். வித்தகர் நேர் விட்ட கோழிப் புறங்கண்டும் (பு. வெ. 12, வென்றிப். 6). 2. Mysterious person; அதிசயத்தன்மை யுடை யவன். பத்துடையடியவர்க் கெளியவன் பிறர்களுக் கரிய வித்தகன் (திவ். திருவாய். 1, 3, 1). 3. Bhairava; வைரவன். (சூடா.) 4. Artificer; கம் மாளன். (திவா.) takṣaṇam तक्षणम् (तक्ष् भावे-ल्युट्] Paring, cutting; दारवाणां च तक्षणम् Ms.5.115; Y.1 185. -णी A carpenter's adze. takṣan तक्षन् m. [तक्ष्-कनिन्] 1 A carpenter, wood-cutter (whether by caste or profession); तक्षा रिष्टं रुतं भिषग् Rv.9.112.1; तक्षाणः पलगण्डाश्च ... Śiva. B.31.18; अताक्षा तक्षा K. P. 'one not a तक्षन् by caste is called तक्षन् when he acts like or follows the profession of a तक्षन् (carpenter); Śi.12.25. -2 N. of the architect of the gods. तक्षक [p= 431,3] m. ( Pa1n2. 8-2 , 29 Ka1s3. ) " a cutter "» काष्ठ- , वृक्ष-a carpenter L.विश्वकर्मन् L.the सूत्र-धार or speaker in the prelude of a drama L. Sch.of a नाग prince (cf. °क्ष) AV. viii , 10 , 29 Ta1n2d2yaBr. xxv , 15 S3a1n3khGr2. iv , 18 , 1 Kaus3. MBh. &c takṣ तक्ष् a. (At the end of comp.) Paring, cutting &c.; also तक्ष; Bṛi. S.87.2,24; also तक्षक q. v.; R.15.89.तक्षकः [तक्ष् ण्वुल्] 1 A carpenter, wood-cutter (whether by caste or profession). -2 The chief actor in the prelude of a drama (i. e. the सूत्रधार). -3 N. of the architect of the gods. -4 N. of one of the principal Nāgas or serpents of the Pātāla, son of Kaśyapa and Kadru (saved at the intercession of the sage Āstika from being burnt down in the serpent-sacrifice performed by king Janamejaya, in which many others of his race were burnt down to ashes).

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An archaeological history of Indian Buddhism -- A new book by Lars Fogelin

June 17, 2015, 8:54 pm

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https://www.academia.edu/10942119/An_Archaeological_History_of_Indian_Buddhism This is an introduction to the book.

Bhaja 1st cent. BCE Rock cut monastery

Relief from North gate, Sanchi.Gandhara Buddha.

An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism (Oxford Handbooks in Archaeology) Paperback – April 1, 2015

by Lars Fogelin (Author)

An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism is a comprehensive survey of Indian Buddhism from its origins in the 6th century BCE, through its ascendance in the 1st millennium CE, and its eventual decline in mainland South Asia by the mid-2nd millennium CE. Weaving together studies of archaeological remains, architecture, iconography, inscriptions, and Buddhist historical sources, this book uncovers the quotidian concerns and practices of Buddhist monks and nuns (the sangha), and their lay adherents--concerns and practices often obscured in studies of Buddhism premised largely, if not exclusively, on Buddhist texts. At the heart of Indian Buddhism lies a persistent social contradiction between the desire for individual asceticism versus the need to maintain a coherent community of Buddhists. Before the early 1st millennium CE, the sangha relied heavily on the patronage of kings, guilds, and ordinary Buddhists to support themselves. During this period, the sangha emphasized the communal elements of Buddhism as they sought to establish themselves as the leaders of a coherent religious order. By the mid-1st millennium CE, Buddhist monasteries had become powerful political and economic institutions with extensive landholdings and wealth. This new economic self-sufficiency allowed the sangha to limit their day-to-day interaction with the laity and begin to more fully satisfy their ascetic desires for the first time. This withdrawal from regular interaction with the laity led to the collapse of Buddhism in India in the early-to-mid 2nd millennium CE. In contrast to the ever-changing religious practices of the Buddhist sangha, the Buddhist laity were more conservative--maintaining their religious practices for almost two millennia, even as they nominally shifted their allegiances to rival religious orders. This book also serves as an exemplar for the archaeological study of long-term religious change through the perspectives of practice theory, materiality, and semiotics.

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Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvákarma, kāru 'smith', cire perdue metalcaster. Continuing traditions of utsava bera in Bharatam.

June 17, 2015, 9:46 pm

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/nqmhvw7

The Hindu tradition of creating metal (pancaloha) utsava bera (images taken in processions on festival days from temples) continues -- a tradition that dates back to the days of Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvákarma, the metal weapon-maker par excellence, venerated in Rigveda.

The living tradition for millennia is a saga of Hindu civilization which should be cherished as the continuing protection of Sanatana Dharma, venerating the paramaatman in exquisite artistic, meaningful, aadhyatmika forms exemplified by the cosmic dancer form of Siva as Nataraja.

Sarasvati-Sindhu (Hindu) Civilization bronze artifacts from Chanhu-daro

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/01/meluhha-hieroglyphs-1-dhokra-lost-wax.html

A ‘Sheffield of Ancient India’: Chanhu-Daro’s Metal working Industry. Illustrated London News 1936 – November 21^st, p.909. 10 x photos of copper knives, spears , razors, axes and dishes.

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

June 18, 2015

See: https://www.academia.edu/10341674/Masters_of_Fire_-_Hereditary_Bronze_Casters_of_South_India Masters of Fire -- Hereditary bronze casters of South India (Publications of German Mining-Museum Bochum)

by Thomas Levy et al (2008)

Tools and crucibles of a bronze smith of Swamimalai

Palm-leaf scale to measure the cire perdue bronze casting coated with fine clay from the bed of River Kaveri

This book takes a look at the nature and 'health' of one of India's most unique and beautiful traditional craft traditions: the bronze icon industry of Tamil Nadu. The book is written from the perspective of an anthopologist and gives a view of human behavior through the lens of material culture. It is a most valuable contribution of ethnoarchaeology to archaeometallurgy. This book came about when Professor Thomas E. Levy, University of California, San Diego, and his wife, Alina Levy, native Indian, decided to seek out the hereditary bronze casters of Swamimalai with the aim trying to learn how traditional metal production and workshops were organized today. As an archaeologist interested in ancient metal production in the Middle East, Thomas E. Levy and his wife thought the living traditional metal craft industries of India could provide an opportunity to better understand ancient metal production found at sites he had excavated in Israel and Jordan. The Levys studied many workshops and decided to document the familiy-owned bronze icon manufactory of one of India's most distinguished hereditary bronze casters - Devasenapathy Sthapathy and Sons, Sri Jayam Industries. The great great grandfather of the three brothers who own this workshop was awarded a prize for excellence in handicrafts from Britain's Queen Victoria. The observation, interactions and study of the workshop family finally resulted in the joint venture of this book.

Published: April 13, 2012 18:41 IST | Updated: April 13, 2012 18:51 IST Tiruchy, April 13, 2012

Where the gods are born

ARUNA V. IYER

The Hindu

SKILLFUL: D.Srikanta Sthapathi of Swami Malai. Photo: M. Srinath

At Swamimalai’s idol workshops, ancient techniques, rituals and beliefs practiced since the 13th century remain untouched by the passage of time.

The centuries peel away in the workshop of D. Srikanda Sthapathy in Swamimalai: men who look like they could belong in a bygone era sit around a traditional mitham sculpting the bodies, fingers and faces of gods according to the shilpa sasthiram, passed on from father to son since the 13th century.

While the cobwebs cling to the past, tube lights, fans and the occasional blare of a mobile ringtone bring you back to present-day Swamimalai, home to the direct descendants of Kunjaramalla Rajaraja Perunthatchan. “He is the sthapathy who oversaw the casting of all the bronze images within the Brihadeeshwara Temple built by Rajaraja Chola in 1010 A.D.,” says Srikanda Sthapathy, who along with his two brothers runs the workshop their father, Devasenapathi Sthapathy, instituted 60 years ago.

Originally stone sculptors from Gingee near Vellore, the sthapathies were trained in the Chola kingdom to make bronze images using the lost wax method. When the Thanjavur Big Temple and the Gangaikondacholapuram Temple were completed, Agoraveerapathira Sthapathy came to Swamimalai, where he found the clay made from the fine silt in the Cauvery’s bend was exceptionally suitable for the making of moulds. He and his group of sthapathies settled here, and their descendants continue to make the famed Chola bronzes.

Seated in the front office, where every inch of the wall is covered by framed photos of award-winning moments and VIP visits, the sthapathy explains the process: “An equal mix of paraffin wax and resin fused with groundnut oil make the wax, which is exposed to heat and made into hard and soft wax slabs. It is on these wax slabs that the models of the gods are carved out according to fundamental proportions laid down by the shilpa sasthiram.”

Once the model is ready, it is covered with the special clay and dried in the sun, often supported by steel wires. “Next it is heated to melt the wax inside, which flows out through runners at the bottom, creating the hollow mould,” he says.

In the place where every idol is born, the wall of heat near the charcoal furnaces in the ground drowns out the symphony of metal chiseling metal. “The panchaloha (five-metal alloy) containing 82 per cent of copper, 15 per cent of brass and three per cent of lead and traces of gold and silver is fused into a molten lava here,” he says, pointing towards two profusely sweating men poking around the furnace with long-stemmed ladles. “The fire burns with green edges because of the copper,” he adds.

The divine birth

The mould is buried nearby and molten metal poured into it from graphite crucibles. “This stage is akin to the creation of life - though we have made all the efforts, the way the metal spreads through the mould and solidifies is completely out of our hands,” he says. Once the metal has cooled, the mould is hammered away and the prototype of the image emerges in all its leaden dullness.

“From here begins the arduous finishing process, which involves chiseling, filing, smoothing, engraving and polishing, and it could easily take up to six weeks,” says Srikanda. If there are air bubbles or breaks in the casting, the artists start all over again because what is divine cannot have defects.

In popular realms

It was the international Festival of India events that showed the world that authentic Chola bronzes were still being made in the same way for centuries, says Srikanda. With the Indian government’s patronage, the artists taught their skills even to those outside their community through training institutes. Today, Srikanda’s workshops are attended by several foreigners as well.

A few years back, the workshop at Swamimalai was featured in Michael Wood’s BBC documentary The Story of India, and in William Darymple’s book, Nine Lives. “I didn’t realise the import of these interviews back then, but today people from all over the world come looking for us to check if we are for real.”

King Saraboji apparently collected the palm leaf manuscripts written by Srikanda Sthapathy’s ancestors and housed them in the Thanjavur Saraswathi Mahal Library. They contain important ritualistic aspects of making bronze images: the admartha slokas (chanted while initiating the process) and the dhyana slokas (chanted while working on the image). It is according to the specifications in these slokas, he says, that a sthapathy envisions the divine form and its accessories. “Our profession is by itself a form of meditation for we cannot sculpt the gods without streamlining our thoughts with utmost discipline.”

The image they painstakingly fashion, he says, ceases to be their creation once its eyes are opened. “No piece of art is complete until the eyes are drawn or carved, and beyond the eye opening ceremony, the image becomes as much a deity to the sthapathy as it is to the devotee.”

In a photo album, Srikanda Sthapathy shows some of their largest images, many of which are now principal deities in Hindu temples in the U.S.A., Europe, Singapore, Mauritius and Sri Lanka. “The biggest image we have made is a 12 foot Nataraja (Asia’s biggest) for an ashram in Kerala, while we have made the processional and principal deities for several important temples within the state.”

Securing their work

Their technique is now patented to put an end to duplication, and Srikanda Sthapathy feels their profession is secure. Though the export of bronze images is subjected to scrutiny, he thinks that’s completely justified. “In the past several original images have been smuggled to other countries, but today you cannot export without the Non-Antiquity Certificate issued by the Archeological Survey of India and the Handicraft Certificate issued by the Handicrafts Board,” he says.

His life is impacted by his work in important ways, he says. “Though we create the gods, our own lives become shorter.” The dust near the furnace and casting area causes wheezing, many of the artists wear spectacles, and the immense stress on their hands leaves them sore, he says. “We have changed our lifestyles now…we do yoga and exercise these days.”
http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/where-the-gods-are-born/article3310846.ece?css=print

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Yes! Pakistanis practise yoga too. Rest assured, Allah is NOT swapped for Om.

June 18, 2015, 12:45 am

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From: Aslam Durani <aslamdurrrani@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, Jun 18, 2015 at 9:28 AM
Subject: Yes! Pakistanis practise yoga too
To: Aslam Durani <aslamdurrrani@gmail.com>

Yes! Pakistanis practise yoga too

Rest assured so called guardians of faith, we are not swapping Allah for Om

http://www.dailyo.in/politics/yoga-in-pakistan-suryanamaskar-in-schools-modi-yoga-day-dar-uloom-deoband/story/1/4346.html

Peace

Aslam

Yes! Pakistanis practise yoga too

Rest assured so called guardians of faith, we are not swapping Allah for Om.

POLITICS

| TARAR SQUARE | 6-minute read | 15-06-2015

MEHR TARAR

@mehrtarar

#International Yoga Day, #Suryanamaskar

A few years ago, upon the insistence of a friend, I signed up for a five-day course with Art of Living, clueless about what it was. Being a self-avowed couch potato in the hazy years of middle age, which seems to be on fast-forward mode, one of the rare occasions when I move my limbs in organised motion is when I do aerobics or strength-training exercises.

Ergo, the idea of an oh-it-will-do-your-body-and-mind-much-good, and interacting with some friends, long lost social acquaintances and mostly total strangers appealed to the inherently-extrovert me. And there I was, one pleasant evening, month forgotten, at one of my favourite places in Lahore - the Royal Palm Golf and Country Club, the floor to ceiling windows overlooking the immaculately tended and beautifully landscaped golf course.

I breathed, sighing in contentment. It felt good before it could even begin.

Chatting nineteen to the dozen with people I had not met in ages, with many a grunt and groan, I settled down on a mat, and thus began my short journey into a realm I had no idea about. And what an experience it turned out to be. In a very positive way. Seated in a certain posture calmed the ever restless me, and staying quiet worked well for the ever talkative me, with even the noise in my head taking a break. Now don't read too much into my last sentence, I'm not crazy or anything! However, like all those for whom internalisation of pain is second nature, and brooding about even the insignificant is a part of living, I'm no stranger to sleepless nights, chaotic days and pains that are so chronic they appear to be phantom. Those five days of Art of Living didn't save my soul, but they did open a door for me that revealed the accessibility of understanding and recovery.

Being genetically inflexible - physically - to my relief, I found most of the moves easy, and once familiar, very fluid. If done properly and regularly, the body gets toned, and super fit. Yes, try it. The talking/sharing sessions, huddled in a unisex group of five to six, helped understand, all over again, how some issues and dilemmas are common to all of us notwithstanding the differences in our outlook, background, thought processes and jeans sizes. The thread of pain and suffering that joins human beings across aisles, statuses, ethnicities, nationalities, faiths and borders.

It was comforting to see very shy people open up to complete strangers without any fear of judgment. And there were frequent dance sessions, much to the dismay of a closet dancer like me, where no one broke a leg but swayed and shimmied - giggling and proving that most Pappus or Bubblys could not dance!

The breathing exercises help to heal. They helped me. Being an asthmatic and having sometimes been in situations where I had to catch my breath - someone takes your breath away or some have the power to knock out your breath - the Sudarshan Kriya helped me to be responsive to the one bodily process that is most essential for our existence and yet breathlessly taken for granted: breathing. Practising Ujjayi (victorious) breathing made me focus on parts of my mind that remain untouched most of the time, shutting out images and memories that torment my inner peace and turn me into an insomniac many a starless night. My headache became less of a monster and I slept much better. I also learnt that things tasted better if we just slowed down the process of eating. A grape feels like a heavenly fruit - which it is to many - once savoured slowly. And a sip of pomegranate juice feels like angelic nectar once your mouth learns to enjoy its taste. Forget my melodrama and try it yourself. Email me your gratitude, or better still, tweet it to me!

Moral of the story, many Pakistanis are regulars, in one form or the other, at practising that wonderful Indian gift to the world: yoga. And most of them are practising Muslims. That is simply because yoga is considered a mental and physical discipline, which when practised, endows the mind and body with calmness, endurance, strength and fitness. All very remarkable traits. Many a time, while at the gym or during talks with healthy, glowing people, I discovered the elixir of their eternal youth or enviable stamina: yoga.

And nope, not one of them thought it had anything that clashed with their religious practices or beliefs. In fact, many who wake up for their fajr namaz either go for a morning walk in the nearby park, or open their yoga mats to spend an hour stretching this or that way. No one in Pakistan thinks yoga replaces any religious practice or that it helps you to get close to the divine. We are not that gullible, contrary to the perception our rigid clergy may wish to propagate about us. We say our prayers, and that is a very personal act, something between us and our God. Then come our worldly activities, one of which is yoga, for those who benefit from it.

Over the years, I have been advised by many to take up yoga over my lament about chronic headache or sleeplessness, or the lack of peace in my life. That, to me, is in the vein of: drink eight glasses of water, eat lots of green or work out regularly. It is not suggested as an or/either with my religious practices. Our namaz is mandatory, something that is as much a part of our lives as breathing. Yoga or any other exercise discipline is voluntary - it helps us streamline our minds and bodies.

Those who think that if you or me adopt yoga, it would denote our attempt to attain peace for our souls are merely habitual nitpickers who hate anything that emanates from that land called Hindustan. When a Muslim does a surya namasakar - the solemn high-five that's shared with the big, hot, orange orb that gives the world life and sustenance - most of us purely perform another physical move without attaching a great deal of thought to it.

Yoga helps, but rest assured, the so-called guardians of that very personal thing called faith, that we are not swapping Allah for Om. One is a divine entity and the other is a manmade intonation. Mutually exclusive. No acquired discipline takes the place of the ibadaat you do for your God, and this simple truth must be as clear as the midday sun on a scorching June day. Now exhale.

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Ancient weapons and soldiers of Bharatam -- a tribute to Tvaṣṭṛ त्वष्टृ

June 18, 2015, 2:14 am

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≪ Previous: Yes! Pakistanis practise yoga too. Rest assured, Allah is NOT swapped for Om.

Shanmukha (Karthikeya) on a peacock

Note that the name of the sculptor Mab-sanmab has been carved at the base

Image result for tvashta darasuram sculpture

Darasuram temple. Joined animals, a tribute to Tvaṣṭṛ (Sanmskritam: त्वष्टृ)

Elephant-bull composite animal. Badami cave temple.

Elephant-bull Tirubhuvnam temple.
elephant and bull fighting optical illusion

Elephant-bull composite animal. Maheshwar, Madhya Pradesh.

A comparable sculpture of composite animal at Krishnapuram temple.

Darasuram, Relief. Shield and sword.

Samudra manthan Angkor Wat.
A bas-relief at Preah Khan in Cambodia depicts the Battle of Lanka
Cosmic dancer Siva, Halebid
Madhya Pradesh - Khajuraho - sculpture of warriors. Lakshmana temple
Dasavatar temple. Gajendra Moksha panel.
Gajasura mardana, Cosmic dancer, Siva.
Cosmic dancer. Brass statue.
A relief sculpture of characters from the great Sanskrit epic the Mahabharata—the five Pandava brothers and their wife, Draupadi—is in the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh, India.
Kshatriya warrior, Bharhut. Indian Museum, Kolkata

2nd century BC
[IMG]

On the left side, just near the pilaster, where centaur figures have been cut, stands tall, a male guardsman carved as if he has half turned towards the door on his left. His face is long and oval with pointed chin, which looks like an Afghan face. I have not seen such a face in any of the rock cut temples in Deccan. He has shoulder length hair, on which he wears a unique kind of dome like headgear, which again reminds me of similar headgear worn in central Asia. He is holding a double spear of a short length in a sheath near his breast with his left hand. Ends of the double spear are seen below the sheath. His right hand rests on the handle of a broad bladed short sword with a slight curvature. The scabbard of the sword is tucked into the knot of the sash worn by him around his waist. The knotted ends of the sash, are seen in front of him. He appears to be wearing huge and heavy earrings of about 7 rings or coils in his ears and at least 3 necklaces of various lengths around his neck. The upper beaded necklace is like an amulet. Middle necklace is Elaborately carved and is heavily bejeweled. The lower necklace is the longest one and consists of four or six medals woven in a string. In the middle of the necklace, there is a curved pendant, again heavily bejeweled. On his arms, he is wearing heavily jeweled wrist bracers and armlets in the shape of 3 petals of a flower, again heavily bejeweled. He is wearing a cloth band across his left shoulder tied in a knot near his right waist. It is possible that this cloth band and the sash around his waist could be parts of a long cloth band worn in this fashion. The garment around his loins is very interesting. It is definitely not a dhoti but has number of split plaits and at least appears like a skirt or a Scottish kilt. Most probably it is a dhoti worn in a different fashion. He is wearing some kind of band on his left thigh above his knees, but it is difficult to make out what it actually is. From the aboe description, it would be clear that he is unlikely to be an ordinary guardsman. He could be a knight or someone higher up.
Click to expand...

http://chandrashekharasandprints.wordpress.com/2013/02/21/traces-of-an-empire-rock-cut-temples-of-bhaje-part-iv/#comment-1850

Warriors, armour, Khajuraho

Memorial stone, Karnataka. http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/what-do-106-memorial-stones-reveal/article5283553.ece

or the Kings of Ayutthaya, the elephant's most significant use was as a potent machine of war as this bronze statue portrays.

Ancient Indian bowman

CAMEL CAVALRY~MAN on CAMEL with MOUNTED GUN~INDIA~c1915

.

Date: 2nd -1st century B.C.E

Culture: North India (possibly Pataliputra, Bihar)

This miniature figure is among the earliest known representations in metal of a goddess with weapons radiating from her hair. The style suggests she was made in the Ganges basin region of northern Indiaâ€”probably at the ancient Magadha capital of Pataliputra (Patna)â€”and attests to this region being instrumental in the development of this iconography. About the early fifth century, the fully elaborated form of the goddess Durga appears, first in a rock-cut depiction at Udayagiri, displaying the same weapons. While the precise identity of our figure is unknown, she is clearly part of an emerging protector goddess tradition.
Lance Head

Axe

Harpoon

1500 - 500 B.C.E
Ganges basin region
.

Harpoon
Ancient Indian bowmen

Shield designs in Mauryan-post Mauryan

Hoysala warriors
http://defenceforumindia.com/forum/threads/ancient-indian-weapons-of-great-indian-culture.7479/page-3

Katar
Two Indian assassin Daggers

Knifes

India and Persian Maces
Ancient Indian bowmen

Ankyles -elephant goads

Cavalry Swords
Tridents
Royal Sickle
'A 19thc antique indian arit / indo persian'
Vijayanagar empire soldiers
This curved sword that looks looks like an over grown kukri was popular though out India. It was replaced by the Talwar in North India, but survived in S. India, Nepal, etc.
South Indian curved swords.

Ajanta cave soldiers with curved swords(Gupta era)
Ancient Andras were armed with mostly broad swords
10th Century AD

Gupta era, 4th-6th century AD

Kalingan spearmen, 2nd century BCE

Kalingan warriors, 2nd century BC

Kalingan guard armed with a broad sword, 2nd century BC

Atypical clothing for the period.
Gupta guard armed with two handed axe

Gupta emperor Samudragupta armed with a battle axe
cavalry with bow and lance, Sun temple

Bronze Age Antennae Sword
Date: 1500â€“500 B.C.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WpXiHJEVok

Ancient Indian Weapon

This video is in memory of our Brave Indian warrior and Kings and their contribution towards "Making Indian Rich in Heritage, Culture and History"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PbuVti5D4_Q

JOTHI SENTHIL KANNAN Grand Master (Aasan), Performer, International Referee and Coach Born in 1976, Jothi Senthil Kannan originates from Pondicherry, South India, where he has practised Silambam
Uploaded on Dec 10, 2007
ancient Indian armor and weapons part 2

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PNWnYjvrMx0 ancient Indian armor and weapons part 1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oOOn3rvDKsY Armored Indian Elephant part 1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IAHtMrT9Vgw Armored Indian Elephant part 2

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9td3DjC76oA Armored Indian Elephant part 3

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=In1MlczaG1M Weapon Masters - The Chakram

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sDNw2slOK3Y

one of great Indian Sikh Warrior Weapon. Real Chakram Throw

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hcT-LIEeoz4
Throwing my Chakram at a pine tree... for the skeptic ones: it does fly n cut Tipu Sultan (d.1799) Weapons Research, Warrior Empire

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HHnjq4-Ixck The Sword of Tipu Sultan (Real)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FvkR7Y3etVA

hoysalas

hoysalas
[IMG]

hoysalas
Image result for ancient indian warfare

Kalingan warriors, 2nd century BCE

Udayagiri caves

Rock-cut relief from the Mahisha Mardini cave, Arjuna's penance at Mahabalipuram

See: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/vimanas/esp_vimanas_11a.htm

↧

Rail badhe, desh badhe. Kudos to NaMo and Suresh Prabhu.

June 18, 2015, 3:53 am

≫ Next: Tvaṣṭṛ is takṣa 'engraver, cire perdue sculptor' He makes weapons and tools for Yajña. He is 'carpenter-smith', Viśvakarma 'artificer'.

≪ Previous: Ancient weapons and soldiers of Bharatam -- a tribute to Tvaṣṭṛ त्वष्टृ

RAILYATRI PAKHWADA 26.05.15 to 09.06.15

A historical Passenger Outreach Event by Indian Railways

Shri Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of India has outlined a vision for fast tracking country’s economic growth based on the intrinsic strength, capabilities and potential of its people. Prime Minister and his team of Ministers arrived at the centre stage at a time when the entire growth sentiment based itself on a rather clichéd sustainability model which more or less ensured, if anything – a certain stagnation in various important sectors of the economy. It was some cut out task and an unprecedented challenge to envisage a higher growth path with an attempt to take the long overdue ‘great leap forward’. With the ‘business as usual’ approach in both actions and thinking across bureaucracy, industry and services, it was time to convert ‘Rhetoric’ into ‘Reality’. A lot was required to be done across departments, sectors and enterprises. The growth output in many important sectors had to be doubled in the backdrop of closed mindsets, all pervasive synicism, severe resources crunch and lack of investment in to future. Indian Railways was not very different.

Policy reforms, initiatives and improved business sentiments in the country during last one year resulted in a robust growth output in terms of GDP for 2014-15 and is now poised towards further improvements during 2015-16.

Prime Minister rightly mentioned in one of his addresses that Railways was always considered “only as mode of transport in our country, we want to see Railways as a backbone of Indian economic development”. This statement has to be seen in perspective of the much needed growth required in the core sectors of economy, especially energy and transportation to provide the impetus to the desired growth trajectory.

Indian Railways which is one of the most important core sectors of economy, is the 3rd largest Railway network under single management with over 66000 route kms. It carries over 23 million passengers along with 3 million tons of freight loading daily. The network is served with over 7000 stations, moves over 21000 trains daily and supports 1.3 million employees. In addition to moving millions of passengers, Indian Railways moves sizable traffic of some of major essential commodities like Coal, POL, fertilizers, food grains, cement, iron ore etc. Transportation of passengers and freight on the same network, which suffered for want of expansion and lack of investments in last few decades makes the task of putting it back on rails all the more difficult. Both freight and passenger traffic, however, in spite of annual incremental growth continue to use same fixed infrastructure whose capacity is now over saturated on most of the important rail routes thereby prohibiting any further growth. The resource crunch and lack of investment continued to adversely affect various essential projects, the expansion plans and infrastructural/technological upgradation of its assets. During the last few decades investment in rail network in all major economies especially China increased manifold. But in India lack of investment not only impeded the progress of financially viable and operationally required projects but the thin spread of resources resulted in a huge shelf of projects languishing for want of funds. The result was saturation of capacity and stunted growth of traffic. During the last five years Indian Railway’s incremental growth in terms of originating freight loading remained stagnant at around 4% and that of number of passengers continued to slide down to a negative growth. This scenario indeed presented enormous challenges for the new Government.

Concerted efforts started during 2014-15 to take out Indian Railways from stagnation to a high growth path. The emphasis was on development of infrastructure which was the key for Indian Railway’s development. During 2014-15, 1983 kms. of railway lines and 1375 kms. of electrification commissioned, additional rolling stock inducted and a number of capacity augmentation works were completed. Operating ratio came down and revenue growth of over 12.6% was achieved. Record 1098 million tons of originating freight loading was achieved during 2014-15.

In Feb, 2015, it was time for presenting the Railway Budget for 2015-16 which was given a paradigm shift from the traditional approach in many ways. The biggest ever plan size of over 100,000 crore which is 53.5% higher than ever was envisaged. This involves outlays for capacity enhancement works increasing by 138% and for passenger amenity works by 67%. Apart from covering all aspects that impact the common passenger, the budget made special provisions for senior citizens, especially abled passengers, women passengers and students. It also provided a road map for skill development, travel capacity enhancement, altered travel experience, make in India, resource mobilization, private public partnership, governance, safety, environment, technological upgradation and international cooperation. For the first time the Budget also indicated a plan of action for growth for the next four years i.e. 2015-2019 which included expansion of network, technical upgradation, extensive use of information technology, system improvements and reforms, induction of improved variety of rolling stock and completion of Dedicated Freight Corridors. Higher projected growth for transportation output is being targeted during the years 2015-16 and onwards to match with the growth in various core sectors of national economy.

The NDA Govt. completed one year on 26th May, 2015. With all the new initiatives that have been taken during last one year, it was time for us to celebrate these achievements. However, on Indian Railways we decided to move into the new year by not only highlighting the performance of last one year but also by making a new beginning. We considered it fit to reach out to our passengers, the common public of the country whichtravels in millions by Indian Railways on a daily basis. How was this common passenger’s traveling experience? What amenities and services are expected by him/her and whether Indian Railways is able to meet those demands and aspirations, were some of the concerns that needed addressing. It was also the time to reach out to these passengers in order to obtain their suggestions and by ensuring that the basic services which the Indian Railways is supposed to provide to its customers are being provided. We, therefore, decided to organize a fortnight long programme which was called ‘Railyatri Upbhokta Pakhwada’ to mark the beginning of the new year of the Govt. from 26th May to 9th June all over Indian Railways.

This ‘Pakhwada’ has been organized not only to highlight the achievements of Indian Railways in all spheres during the last one year under the main theme of ‘Saal Ek Shuruaat Anek’ but also to rededicate ourselves in the service of our passengers and customers as we continue to relentlessly work towards improving various aspects of this biggest service provider.

It is our constant endeavour to provide efficient, economical and safe transportation services to our passengers and major customers.

The ‘Rail Yatri/Upbhokta Pakhwada’ from 26.5.2015 to 9.6.2015 has also been a countrywide attempt of Indian Railways to reach out to its customers and engage them in identified areas of interface. The enthusiasm and response of all stake holders including the railway staff in respect of the programmes conducted during the Pakhwada has been truly overwhelming. The initial response including media coverage, the feedback received on Face book & Twitter, etc. indicates that the ‘Pakhwada’ has not only encompassed a vast gamut of activities covering nearly all dimensions related to passenger/customer experience, but also engaged the railway staff, unions, senior officers, railway PSUs, NGOs, passenger associations, press and media across the length and breadth of the country at an unprecedented scale. The sheer dimension and reach of this effort makes it a historical event.

The fortnight long Railyatri Upbhokta ‘Pakhwada’ was based on the following themes:

• Seva (Services and amenities) – Improving services and amenities for passengers at stations and on trains.

• Samarpan (Dedication of projects to the nation) – Dedication, commissioning, inauguration and foundation/stone laying of 300+ projects across Indian Railways

• Sahyog (Co-operation and Participation) – Seeking co-operation of PSUs through MOUs, staff and trade unions through HR initiatives like health camp, yoga, colony improvement and of local public by engaging NGOs, passenger associations, etc.

• Sankalp (Commitment) – A commitment to provide quality service - punctual, efficient and transparent.

• Sampark (Awareness, Contact, Outreach) – reaching out to customers and passengers.

Some of the tangible outcomes of this historical passenger outreach effort of Indian Railways are as under:

1. 233 projects/works of passenger amenities and services ranging from escalators, foot over bridges, station buildings, reservation offices, new platforms, new train services etc. were commissioned/opened for the railway passengers at an approximate cost of Rs. 4000 crore.

2. Work on 73 projects connected with passenger amenities and augmentation of network capacity was commenced costing approx. Rs. 550 crore.

3. Over 7000 Railway stations were inspectedby railway officials and taken up for improvement in various passenger amenities.

4. 4000 road shows were undertaken by senior railway officers at railway station premises and in trains to interact with rail users, obtain their suggestions and taking feed back on the railway services provided.

5. Passenger outreach through railway officers and staff, unions, NGOs, scouts, guides, charitable organizations and through social media touched over 7 million passenger and public ( Face Book reach -5 million, Twitter Impressions- 1.3 million and .7 million passenger interactions at stations and in trains).

6. 7500 cleanliness and sanitation drives and inspections were undertaken at various stations, railway premises and colonies under ‘Swatch Bharat Abhiyan’ with the involvement of railway staff, passengers and NGOs.

7. 2700 catering services checks were undertaken in order to ensure quality of catering services and standards of hygiene at various stations and in trains.

8. 4600 intensive ticket checking drives were launched to curb the menace of ticket less traveling and to prohibit the entry of antisocial elements. These drives resulted in detection of 1.6 lakh cases and recovery of Rs. 9 crore of railway revenue.

9. 3000 inspections for improving punctuality of trains were undertaken during this period.

10. 126 Skill Development Programmes were organized in various Railway Workshops and Production Units to impart training to5500 persons.

11. Intensive safety awareness drives werelaunched on all Zonal Railways with focus on precautions to be taken by road users at unmanned level crossing gates. 8500 such inspections were conducted by railway officials.

12. 1400 inspections were conducted to check the presence of antisocial elements, touts and other irregularities by teams of vigilance officers.

13. MOUs were signed between Zonal Railways and 5 Railway PSUs for 10 identified railway stations for their participation in development of passenger amenities through CSR.

14. 1300 Medical and Health Camps were organized by the Zonal Railways at different locations which were attended by 55000 persons both railway employees and their families and also members of public.

15. 22000 staff quarters were taken up for repairs and maintenance in 450 identified railway staff colonies.

16. 590 Yoga camps were organized and attended by 19000 persons.

17. As an outreach effort 176 Press conferences were organized at Zonal HQs, divisional HQs State Capitals and District HQs. Over 6700 news items were published.

18. Participation of State Govts., FICCI, ASSOCHAM and CII was also obtained in Railway’s efforts and outreach exercises.

19. World Environment Day was celebrated on 5thJune, 2015 in Delhi and on all Zonal Railways.

Besides the tangible benefits attained through additional facilities created and specific drives launched to improve efficiency, some of the intangible but highly desirable benefits from the Pakhwada include the excellent bonhomie and spirit of cooperation that got generated between passengers and railway personnel. A rare built-up of much needed confidence of public at large in Indian Railways.

Above all this was just one of our efforts to reiterate Indian Railway’s commitment to become ‘Engine of Growth’ of the national development with our slogan ‘Rail Badhe, Desh Badhe’.

Passenger and Customer facilitation Fortnight- ‘Railyatri/ Upbhokta Pakhwada’ on Indian Railways from 26.05.15 to 09.06.15

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS
(RAILWAY BOARD)

No. 2015/E(LR)II/13/1
General Secretary,
All India Railwaymen’s Federation,
4, State Entry Road,
New Delhi-110055.
Dear Sir,

***

New Delhi, dated: 21.05.2015.

Sub.: Passenger and Customer facilitation Fortnight- ‘Railyatri/ Upbhokta Pakhwada’ on Indian Railways from 26.05.15 to 09.06.15.

***

Hon’ble MR has desired that a fortnight long programme should be organized from 26.05.2015 to 09.06.2015 all over Indian Railways primarily directed towards Passengers Amenities, Customer Care, Awareness about various achievements of lndian Railways during the preceding year and also the Budget 2015-16.
In this connection, Board (MS) vide D.O. letter No. AM(C&IS)/20 15/Railyatri Upbhokta Pakhwada dated 12.05.15(copy enclosed) has forwarded to all General Managers the details of the events to be organized during the Pakhwada Programme. Of the various events mentioned therein, General Managers are also to involve local union leaders as Brand Ambassadors of Railways to interact with passenger and other customers of Railways and highlight Railway’s achievements. It is, therefore, requested that necessary guidelines are issued to your affiliates so that the
Programme becomes a success.

Yours faithfully,
-sd-
Executive Director/IR

PDF file has been reproduced underneath:-

Download Link Here

http://www.airfindia.org/2015/05/30/passenger-and-customer-facilitation-fortnight-railyatri-upbhokta-pakhwada-on-indian-railways-from-26-05-15-to-09-06-15/

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Tvaṣṭṛ is takṣa 'engraver, cire perdue sculptor' He makes weapons and tools for Yajña. He is 'carpenter-smith', Viśvakarma 'artificer'.

June 18, 2015, 9:31 pm

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Tvaṣṭṛ takṣa 'engraver' is creator of takṣat vAk 'engraved speech'. Takṣa has made a significant contribution to the abhyudayam, 'welfare' of people: by creating a writing system which revolutionized and intensified peoples' contacts and resulted in exchanges of ideas and archaeometallurgical and other technological inventions for the benefit of mankind.

There is a synonym for Tvaṣṭṛ 'artificer' in Meluhha (mleccha). He is baḍhi, 'a carpenter-smith'.

Work, metalwork in particular, of Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvakarma 'artificer' is celebrated on Indus Script Corpora and sculptural tradition of Ancient Near East deploying hieroglyphs and in the continuing traditions of cire perdue techniques of lost-wax casting -- evidenced in Nahal Mishmar, Dong Son bronze drums, lamp-bearer lady of Mohenjo-daro or leopard bronze weight of Shahi-Tump (Baluchistan) -- for utsava bera (e.g Nataraja in Metmuseum) for celebrations in Hindu temples.
Image result for ancient cire perdue nahal mishmar

Image result for ancient cire perdue nahal mishmar

Image result for ancient cire perdue leopard weight

Rigveda explains that Tvaṣṭṛ makes not only vajra sanghAta (cementite, adamantine glue) as thunderbolt weapon for Indra, but also tools and vessels --yagna Ayudha--needed for the performance of yajna.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/05/identity-of-soma-as-apri-divinity-in.html Identification of Soma as Apri divinity. Tools and implements used for Soma yajna.
Bolsena Italy 700 BCE

Bolsena, Italy ( Etruscan, 700 BCE. Svastika, hamsa, dotted circles as hieroglyphs on a gold plaque.

A ‘Sheffield of Ancient India’: Chanhu-Daro’s Metal working Industry. Illustrated London News 1936 – November 21^st, p.909. 10 x photos of copper knives, spears , razors, axes and dishes.

As takṣa'engraver', he is he originator --using rebus-metonymy-layered cipher -- for writing systems.

As weapon-maker he should not be viewed as a participant in warfare. He should be viewed as an metals artificer. As Gitacharya explains to Arjuna in Bhagavadgita, war is prosecuted not as a denial of ahimsa as the eminent principle of a samajam, but as an affirmation of the vidhi, the natural laws and for protection of dharma. The creation of weapons also provides the seeds of a philosophical thought on the essential unity of all creative phenomena: metalwork was but a manifestation of the cosmic dance of the paramaatman, providing means for use of pancabhuta-s, 'five elements or dhatus' to produce artifacts of utility for living. Thus Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvakarma mimics the artifice of the Creator. Hence, the work in a smithy --kole.l -- gets represented as a mirror image of veneration of the Creator and his creative genius in a temple -- kole.l

Metal artifice is central to the performance of yajna which may include animal sacrifices for obtaining bone ash explained in making crucibles for creating alloys or hardening iron creating carbides. Crucibles made with bone ash remain stable --without melting or cracking--upto temperature of 1670 degrees C. This explains how crucible steel was produced in ancient Bharatam.

Weapons such as axes, hatchets are used to sacrifice animals to obtain bone ash for metallurgical processes. Bone ash is like cementite used as moulding or sealant for seams or cracks in metalwork. Bone ash has a melting point of 1670 degrees centigrade and is produced by calcining bones. It contains about 55.82% calcium oxide, 42.39% phosphorus pentoxide, and 1.79% water. ca2(OH)(PO4)3. Bone ash is a protective coating for metal equipment, tools The powder adheres to metal, has high thermal stability and does not cause much corrosion. For example, in bone china, 50% bone ash is derived from animal bones heated to 1000 degrees C.

With the following spectrum of Meluhha glosses providing hieroglyphs used on Indus Script Corpora, it should be possible to explain why specific glyphs or rhinoceros, tiger, ibex (markhor) etc. were used on metalwork such as Bactrian bronze or metal alloy axes.

In Indus Script Corpora, hieroglyph rhinoceros/boar signifies: kāṇḍā 'rhinoceros' Rebus: khāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans, and metal-ware’.

baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog (Santali) Rebus-metonymy-layered cipher

provides the signified, artificer: baḍhi ‘a caste who work both in iron and

wood’ (Santali) baṟea ‘merchant’.

kul ‘tiger’ (Santali); kōlu id. (Telugu) kōlupuli = Bengal tiger (Te.) कोल्हा [ kōlhā ] कोल्हें [kōlhēṃ] A jackal (Marathi) Rebus: kol, kolhe, ‘the koles, iron smelters speaking a language akin to that of Santals’ (Santali) kol ‘working in iron’ (Tamil)

ib'elephant' Rebus: ib'iron'

mindal markhor (Tor.wali) medho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) meD'copper' (Russian)

barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [bharata] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c.(Marathi)

कुठारु, kuThAru, m. monkey. Rebus: कुठारु, kuThAru, m. armourer.

Rudra Shilpa text –Sanathkumara Samhita (shiva-175-178) provides slightly different iconographic details of Rudra: as having a pearl, moon or jasmine like soothing–bright complexion; four arms; three eyes glowing like embers; and having a coiled mop of hair (jata-makuta) decorated with crescent moon. He is clad in tiger skin and garlands of Arka flowers and snakes. His front two hands bestow blessing (varada) and assurance or protection (abhaya).His upper two hands hold battle axe (parashu) and deer. See Amsumad bheda agama for 5 faced Rudra.
http://sreenivasaraos.com/category/iconography/

Bronze Age bowl with Mesopotamian bull decoration, Tepe Fullol. 2200–1900 BC. Source: Thierry Ollivier. Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures is at Queensland Museum 5 Sept 2013 - 27 Jan 2014.

A Bactrian bronze axehead Circa 2300-1900 B.C.E
03-07-01/ 5 Ceremonial axe from ...

Ceremonial axe from Daulatabad,Baktria,northern Afghanistan

Gold sheet and silver, Late 3rd/early 2nd millennium B.C.E.

L. 12.68 cm. Ceremonial Axe Baktria,Northern Afghanistan http://www.lessingimages.com/search.asp?a=L&lc=202020207EE6&ln=Collection+George+Ortiz%2C+Geneva%2C+Switzerland&p=1 "The whole cast by the lost wax process. The boar covered with a sheet of gold annealed and hammered on, some 3/10-6/10 mm in thickness, almost all the joins covered up with silver. At the base of the mane between the shoulders an oval motif with irregular indents. The lion and the boar hammered, elaborately chased and polished. A shaft opening - 22 holes around its edge laced with gold wire some 7/10-8/10 mm in diameter - centred under the lion's shoulder; between these a hole (diam: some 6.5 mm) front and back for insertion of a dowel to hold the shaft in place, both now missing.

Condition: a flattening blow to the boar's backside where the tail curled out and another to the hair between the front of his ears, his spine worn with traces of slight hatching still visible, a slight flattening and wear to his left tusk and lower left hind leg. A flattening and wear to the left side of the lion's face, ear, cheek, eye, nose and jaw and a flattening blow to the whole right forepaw and paw. Nicks to the lion's tail. The surface with traces of silver chloride under the lion's stomach and around the shaft opening." https://www.flickr.com/photos/antiquitiesproject/4616778973

See: Metropolitan Museum, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, James N. Spear and Schimmel Foundation, Inc. Gifts, 1982.5 (L: 15 cm): Pittman, H.: Art of the Bronze Age, Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia and the Indus Valley. The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, 1984), p. 66 ff., fig. 36. Amiet, P.: L'âge des échanges inter-iraniens 3500-1700 avant J.-C. (Paris, 1986),
pp. 195 ff., 317 fig. 173. Potts, T.: Mesopotamia and the East. An Archaeological and Historical Study of Foreign Relations 3400-2000 BC. Oxford Committee for Archaeology Monograph 37 (Oxford, 1994), p. 170 ff., fig 27.

Shaft-hole axe head Date: ca. late 3rd–early 2nd millennium B.C.E Culture: Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex Medium: Copper alloy Dimensions: 6.3 in. (16 cm) Classification: Metalwork-Implements. Metmuseum.

Tell AsmarCylinder seal modern impression [elephant, rhinoceros and gharial (alligator) on the upper register] bibliography and image source: Frankfort, Henri: Stratified Cylinder Seals from the Diyala Region. Oriental Institute Publications 72. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, no. 642. Museum Number: IM14674 3.4 cm. high. Glazed steatite. ca. 2250 - 2200 BCE. ibha 'elephant' Rebus: ib 'iron'. kāṇḍā 'rhinoceros' Rebus: khāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans, and metal-ware’. karā 'crocodile' Rebus: khar 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri)

Image result for bharhut ancient makara sculptures

Makara Bharhut, Thailand, Cambodia (Bakong, Roluos) sculptural friezes ca. 3rd cent. BCE. Makara = mahA kara (Great kara, 'crocodile')

The makara sculptures which adorn many temples is a hieroglyph multiplex of elephant, crocodile, fish: ibha 'elephant' rebus: ib 'iron'; mahAkara, karā 'crocodile' Rebus: khar 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri); aya 'fish' Rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati); ayas 'metal' (Rigveda). It is a hieroglyphic celebration of metalwork as the exemplar of creativity which is the quintessence of the temple-smithy: kole.l

puccha 'fish tail' Rebus: puja 'worship'.

Late Uruk and Jemdet Nasr seal; ca. 3200-3000 BC; serpentine; cat.1; boar and bull in procession; terminal: plant; heavily pitted surface beyond plant.

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/05/composite-animal-meluhha-hieroglyph.html

A LURISTAN BRONZE AXE HEAD CIRCA LATE 2ND-EARLY 1ST MILLENNIUM B.C. The flaring downward-curving blade with central relief arrow emerging from stylised lion's jaw, the ribbed shaft with four butt-spikes 8¼ in. (20.9 cm.) long khaNDa 'arrow' Rebus: khaNDA 'metalware'.
08-02-14/21 Lessing, Erich, photographer. Ceremonial axe of ki...

08-02-14/21 Lessing, Erich, photographer. Ceremonial axe of ki...

Ceremonial axe (inscribed with name) of king Untash-Napirisha, from his capital Tchoga Zambil. Back of the axe adorned with an electrum boar; the blade issues from a lion's mouth. Silver and electrum, H: 5,9 cm Sb 3973 Louvre, Departement des Antiquites Orientales, Paris, France

Shaft-hole axe head with bird-headed demon, boar, and dragon.Bronze Age, ca. late 3rd–early 2nd millennium B.C.,Bactria-Margiana metmuseum.org

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2011/09/central-asian-seals-seal-impressions.html
The pattern of double-heading in artistic representation and duplication of signs or glyphs (e.g. two bulls facing each other) in an inscription have been explained in decoded Indus script as connoting dula 'pair'; rebus: dul 'casting (metal)'. If the eagle is read rebus using a lexems of Indian linguistic area to connote pajhar 'eagle' (rebus: pasra 'smithy'), the double-headed eagle can be read as: dul pajhar = metal casting smithy. The body of a person ligatured to the double-headed eagle can denote the smith whose metalworking trade is related to casting of metals.
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2011/09/central-asian-seals-seal-impressions.html

Cast axe-head; tin bronze inlaid with silver; shows a boar attacking a tiger which is attacking an ibex.ca. 2500 -2000 BCE Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex. Length: 17.8 cm (7 in). Weight: 675.5 g (23.82 oz). British Museum.ME 123268 (1913,0314.11913,0314.1) R. Maxwell-Hyslop, 'British Museum “axe” no. 123628: a Bactrian bronze', Bulletin of the Asia Institute, NS I (1987), pp. 17-26
Curator's comments: See RL file 6616 (29/6/1995); also Research Lab file 4992 of 12/09/1983 where XRF analysis of surface indicates composition as tin bronze with approx 10% tin and traces of arsenic, nickel, silver and lead. Dalton's inclusion in the 'Catalogue of the Oxus Treasure' among a small group of comparative items has unfortunately led to recurrent confusion over the date and provenance of this piece. It was first believed to be Achaemenid in date (Dalton, 'Catalogue of the Oxus Treasure', p. 48), labelled as such in 1975 in the former Iranian Room and thus suggested to be an Achaemenid scabbard chape (P R S Moorey CORRES 1975, based on an example said to have been excavated by P. Bernard at Ai Khanoum or seen by him in Kabul Bazaar, cf. P. Bernard CORRES 1976). It has also been assigned a 4th-5th century AD Sasanian date (P. Amiet, 1967, in 'Revue du Louvre' 17, pp. 281-82). However, its considerably earlier - late 3rd mill. BC Bronze Age - date has now been clearly demonstrated following the discovery of large numbers of objects of related form in south-east Iran and Bactria, and it has since been recognised and/or cited as such, for instance by H. Pittmann (hence archaeometallurgical analysis in 1983; R. Maxwell-Hyslop, 1988a, "British Museum axe no. 123628: a Bactrian bronze", 'Bulletin of the Asia Institute' 1 (NS), pp. 17-26; F. Hiebert & C.C. Lamberg-Karlovsky 1992a, "Central Asia and the Indo-Iranian Borderlands",' Iran' 30, p. 5; B. Brentjes, 1991a, "Ein tierkampfszene in bronze", 'Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran' 24 (NS), p. 1, taf. 1).
http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=367862&partId=1

Eagle incised on a ceremonial axe made of chlorite. Tepe Yahya. (After Fig. 9.6 in Philip H. Kohl, 2001, opcit.)

BACTRIAN BRONZE AXE HEAD

The narrow blade decorated with incised chevrons, cut-away socket with banded edges, the shaft decorated with two squatting figures each wearing short tunic, one wrestling a seated feline the other with arms around the feline and a standing quadruped.

2nd Millennium BC

L. 6 3/4 in. (17.2 cm.)

Ex London art market, late 1990s.

Published: J. Eisenberg, Art of the Ancient World, 2012, no. 251.

CLT168
$27,500 http://www.royalathena.com/PAGES/NearEasternCatalog/Bronze/CLT168.html

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvastr-is-metaphor-for-veneration-of.html

Tvaṣṭr̥ is a metaphor for veneration of metalwork artificers, Bhāratam Janam, in Rigveda

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvastr-meluhha-of-bharatam-janam.html Tvaṣṭr̥, Meluhha of Bhāratam Janam (Rigveda) is Tuisto, divine ancestor of Germanic peoples (Tacitus), legacy of Proto-Indo-Aryan superstrate & Mitanni Treaty

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/ancient-weapons-and-soldiers-of-bharatam.html http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/ancient-weapons-and-soldiers-of-bharatam.html

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvastr-as-visvakarma-karu-smith-cire_17.html

Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvákarma, kāru 'smith', cire perdue metalcaster. Continuing traditions of utsava bera in Bharatam.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/tvastr-as-visvakarma-karu-smith-cire.html Tvaṣṭṛ as Viśvákarma, kāru 'smith', cire perdue metalcaster, revealer of sthApatyaveda. Role of scribes, architects in Hindu civilization.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/vajra-ayasam-vajram-metal-weapon-rv.html Vajra, Ayasam vajram, 'metal weapon' (RV 10.48.3), a metaphor for vajrasanghAta cementite on iron carbide used in Art traditions of Bharatam and Ancient Near East.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/iron-age-of-bharatam-janam-dates-to-3rd.html Iron age of Bhāratam Janam dates to 3rd millennium BCE. Researches on cementite, carbide nanotube technologies validate the ancient writing system

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/04/two-newly-discovered-seals-from.html Two newly discovered seals from Dholavira; decipherment as metalwork catalogues

वज्र[p= 913,1] a kind of hard mortar or cement (कल्क) VarBr2S. (cf. -लेप) mn. " the hard or mighty one " , a thunderbolt (esp. that of इन्द्र , said to have been formed out of the bones of the ऋषि दधीच or दधीचि

त्वष्टा वज्रम् अतक्षद आयसम्(RV 10.48.3)-- metal vajra weapon in a smithy-forge.
The Meluhha gloss is kole.l; the same gloss also means 'temple' -- Smithy is a temple.
Hence, divinities in temples are adorned with weapons made in the smithy as armoury.

To engrave:  त्वक्ष, त्वष्ट are synonyums in Samskritam: தச்சன் taccaṉ, n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter; மரத்தில் வேலை செய்பவன். மரங்கொஃ றச்சரும் (மணி. 28, 37). 2. Person of carpenter caste; தச்சுவேலைசெய்யும் சாதியான். 3. The 14th nakṣatra, as pertaining to Višvakarma; [விசுவ கர்மாவுக் குரியது] சித்திரை நாள். (பிங்.) தச்சாசாரியம் taccācāriyam, n. < id. +. Status or position of a master-carpenter; தச் சத் தலைமை. (S. I. I. ii, 278, 17.)தச்சு taccu, n. < takṣa. 1. Carpenter's work; தச்சன்றொழில். தச்சு விடுத்தலும் (திருவாச. 14, 3). 2. Day's work of a carpenter; தச்சனது ஒருநால் வேலையளவு.கல்லுளித்தச்சன் kal-l-uḷi-t-taccaṉ, n. < id. +. Sculptor, stone-cutter; கல்வேலை செய் யுந் தச்சன். (W.)ترکانړ tarkāṟṟṉ, s.m. (5th) A carpenter. Pl. ترکانړان tarkāṟṟṉān. (Panjābī).دروزګر darūz-gar, s.m. (5th) A carpenter, a joiner. Pl. دروزګران darūzgarān (corrup. of P درود گر). (Pashto) त्वक्ष् 1 P. (त्वक्षति, त्वष्ट) 1 To pare, hew, peel -2 To make thin. -3 To cover. त्वष्ट p. p. Made thin, pared, peeled &c. त्वष्टिः f. Carpentry. -m. N. of a mixed tribe (?).त्वाष्ट्र a. [त्वष्टा देवता अस्य अण्] Belonging to Tvaṣṭṛi; U.6.3. (v. l.). -ष्ट्री 1 The asterism चित्रा. -2 A small car. -ष्ट्रम् The creative power.(Samskritam) Synonym of lekha: त्वष्टा
विवस्वन्तमिवोल्लिलेख Ki.17.48.-4 To carve. (Samskritam) <uzra> {V} ``to ^engrave (cut incised designs)''. !literally. @V0282. #25401.Gu<uzra> {V} ``to ^engrave (cut incised designs)''. !literally (Munda) Taccha1 [Vedic takṣan, cp. taṣṭṛ, to takṣati (see taccheti), Lat. textor, Gr. te/ktwn
carpenter (cp. architect), te/xnh art] a carpenter, usually as ˚ka: otherwise only in cpd. ˚sūkarathe carpenter -- pig (=a boar, so called from felling trees), title & hero of Jātaka No. 492 (iv.342 sq.). Cp. vaḍḍhakin. Tacchati [fr. taccha1, cp. taccheti] to build, construct; maggaŋ t. to construct or repair a road J vi.348.Taccheti [probably a denom. fr. taccha1=Lat. texo to weave (orig. to plait, work together, work artistically), cp. Sk. taṣṭṛ architect =Lat. textor; Sk. takṣan, etc., Gr. te/xnh craft, handiwork (cp. technique), Ohg. dehsa hatchet. Cp. also orig. meaning of karoti & kamma] to do wood -- work, to square, frame, chip J i.201; Miln 372, 383. (Pali) Konḍa (BB) taṟh- (i.e. taR-) to scrape. Pe.treh- (trest-) id., plane, cut with adze Manḍ. teh- (-t-) to shave. Kui tahpa (taht-) to smooth off, level down, chip, scrape; n. act of smoothing off. Kuwi (Su.) tah- (tast-) to scrape, plane; (S.) tah'nai to engrave. (DEDR 3146) takṣa in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ VarBr̥S., vṛkṣa -- takṣaka -- m. ʻ tree -- feller ʼ R. [√takṣ] Pa. tacchaka -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, taccha -- sūkara -- m. ʻ boar ʼ; Pk. takkha -- , °aya -- m. ʻ carpenter, artisan ʼ; Bshk. sum -- tac̣h ʻ hoe ʼ (< ʻ *earth -- scratcher ʼ), tec̣h ʻ adze ʼ (< *takṣī -- ?); Sh. tac̣i f. ʻ adze ʼ; -- Phal. tērc̣hi ʻ adze ʼ (with "intrusive" r).(CDIAL 5618) takṣaṇa n. ʻ cutting, paring ʼ KātyŚr. [√takṣ]Pa. tacchanī -- f. ʻ hatchet ʼ; Pk. tacchaṇa -- n., °ṇā -- f. ʻ act of cutting or scraping ʼ; Kal. tēčin ʻ chip ʼ (< *takṣaṇī -- ?); K. tȧchyunu (dat. tȧchinis) m. ʻ wood -- shavings ʼ; Ku. gng. taċhaṇ ʻ cutting (of wood) ʼ; M. tāsṇī f. ʻ act of chipping &c., adze ʼ.Pk. tacchaṇa -- n. ʻ cutting ʼ; Kmd.barg. taċə̃ři ʻ chips (on roof) ʼ GM 22.6.71.(CDIAL 5619) tákṣati (3 pl. tákṣati RV.) ʻ forms by cutting, chisels ʼ MBh. [√takṣ]Pa. tacchati ʻ builds ʼ, tacchēti ʻ does woodwork, chips ʼ; Pk. takkhaï, tacchaï, cacchaï, caṁchaï ʻ cuts, scrapes, peels ʼ; Gy. pers. tetchkani ʻ knife ʼ, wel. tax -- ʻ to paint ʼ (?); Dm. taċ -- ʻ to cut ʼ (ċ < IE. k̂s NTS xii 128), Kal. tã̄č -- ; Kho. točhik ʻ to cut with an axe ʼ; Phal. tac̣<-> ʻ to cut, chop, whittle ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) thačoiki ʻ to fashion (wood) ʼ; K.tachun ʻ to shave, pare, scratch ʼ, S. tachaṇu; L. tachaṇ ʻ to scrape ʼ, (Ju.) ʻ to rough hew ʼ, P. tacchṇā, ludh. tacchanā ʻ to hew ʼ; Ku. tāchṇo ʻ to square out ʼ; N. tāchnu ʻ to scrape, peel, chip off ʼ (whence tachuwā ʻ chopped square ʼ, tachārnu ʻ to lop, chop ʼ); B. cã̄chā ʻ to scrape ʼ; Or. tã̄chibā, cã̄chibā, chã̄cibā ʻ to scrape off, clip, peel ʼ; Bhoj.cã̄chal ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ; H. cã̄chnā ʻ to scrape up ʼ; G. tāchvũ ʻ to scrape, carve, peel ʼ, M. tāsṇẽ; Si. sahinavā, ha° ʻ to cut with an adze ʼ. <-> Kho. troc̣ik ʻ to hew ʼ with "intrusive" r.Kmd. taċ -- ʻ to cut, pare, clip ʼ GM 22.6.71; A. cã̄ciba (phonet. sãsibɔ) ʻ to scrape ʼ AFD 216, 217, ʻ to smoothe with an adze ʼ 331.(CDIAL 5620) tákṣan (acc. tákṣaṇam RV., takṣāṇam
Pāṇ.) m. ʻ carpenter ʼ. [√takṣ]Pk. takkhāṇa -- m., Paš. ar. tac̣an -- kṓr, weg. taṣāˊn, Kal. kaṭ -- tačon, Kho. (Lor.) tačon, Sh. thac̣&oarcacute;ṇ m., kaṭ -- th°, K. chān m., chöñü f., P. takhāṇ m., °ṇī f., H. takhānm.; Si. sasa ʻ carpenter, wheelwright ʼ < nom. tákṣā. -- With "intrusive" r: Kho. (Lor.) tračon ʻ carpenter ʼ, P. tarkhāṇ m. (→ H. tarkhān m.), WPah. jaun. tarkhāṇ. -- With unexpl.d -- or dh -- (X dāˊru -- ?): S. ḍrakhaṇu m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; L. drakhāṇ, (Ju.) darkhāṇ m. ʻ carpenter ʼ (darkhāṇ pakkhī m. ʻ woodpecker ʼ), mult. dhrikkhāṇ m., dhrikkhaṇī f., awāṇ.dhirkhāṇ m.(CDIAL 5621)

S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center
June 19, 2015

Addendum: Semantics of cutting, sharpening, forging, armour. Sumerian:  nangar'carpenter'; Akkadian: naggaru, najar, nagoro

త్వష్ట [ tvaṣṭa ] tvashṭa. [Skt.] n. A carpenter, వడ్లవాడు. The maker of the universe. విశ్వకర్త. One of the 12 Adityas, ద్వాదశాదిత్యులలో నొకడు.వడ్రంగి, వడ్లంగి, వడ్లవాడు [ vaḍraṅgi, vaḍlaṅgi, vaḍlavāḍu ] or వడ్లబత్తుడు vaḍrangi. [Tel.] n. A carpenter. వడ్రంగము, వడ్లపని, వడ్రము or వడ్లంగితనము vaḍrangamu. n. The trade of a carpenter. వడ్లవానివృత్తి. వడ్రంగిపని. వడ్రంగిపిట్ట or వడ్లంగిపిట్ట vaḍrangi-piṭṭa. n. A woodpecker. దార్వాఘాటము. వడ్లకంకణము vaḍla-kankaṇamu. n. A curlew. ఉల్లంకులలో భేదము. వడ్లత or వడ్లది vaḍlata. n. A woman of the carpenter caste. వర్ధకి [ vardhaki ] vardhaki. [Skt.] n. A carpenter. వడ్లవాడు.

Ta. taṭṭu (taṭṭi-) to knock, tap, pat, strike against, dash against, strike, beat, hammer, thresh; n. knocking, patting, breaking, striking against, collision; taṭṭam clapping of the hands; taṭṭal knocking, striking, clapping, tapping, beating time; taṭṭāṉ gold or silver smith; fem. taṭṭātti. Ma. taṭṭu a blow, knock; taṭṭuka to tap, dash, hit, strike against, knock; taṭṭān goldsmith;
fem. taṭṭātti; taṭṭāran washerman; taṭṭikka to cause to hit; taṭṭippu beating.
Ko. taṭ- (tac-) to pat, strike, kill, (curse) affects, sharpen, disregard (words); taṭ a·ṛ- (a·c) to stagger from fatigue. To. toṭ a slap; toṭ- (toṭy-) to strike (with hammer), pat, (sin) strikes; toṛ- (toṭ-) to bump foot; toṭxn, toṭxïn goldsmith; fem. toṭty, toṭxity; toṭk ïn- (ïḏ-) to be tired, exhausted. Ka. taṭṭu to tap, touch, come close, pat, strike, beat, clap, slap, knock, clap on a thing (as cowdung on a wall), drive, beat off or back, remove; n. slap or pat, blow, blow or knock of disease, danger, death, fatigue, exhaustion. Koḍ. taṭṭ- (taṭṭi-) to touch, pat, ward off, strike off, (curse) effects; taṭṭë goldsmith; fem. taṭṭati (Shanmugam). Tu. taṭṭāvuni to cause to hit, strike. Te. taṭṭu to strike, beat, knock, pat, clap, slap; n. stripe, welt; taṭravã̄ḍu goldsmith or silversmith.Kur. taṛnā (taṛcas) to flog, lash, whip. Malt. taṛce to slap. Cf. 3156 Ka. tāṭu. / Cf. Turner, CDIAL, no. 5490, *ṭhaṭṭh- to strike; no. 5493, *ṭhaṭṭhakāra- brassworker; √ taḍ, no. 5748, tāˊḍa- a blow; no. 5752, tāḍáyati strikes. (DEDR 3039)

vr̥ddhi1 f. ʻ cutting off ʼ W. [√vardh]Or. buṛiā ʻ small axe ʼ: very doubtful. -- P. vāḍh, bāḍh f. ʻ cutting, killing ʼ, vāḍhī, bā° f. ʻ harvesting, harvest ʼ prob. P. derivatives of vaḍḍhṇā < vardhayati1 or poss. < *vārddhrī -- s.v. *varddhr̥-(CDIAL 12075)

*varddhr̥ ʻ cutter, knife ʼ. [√vardh] *varddhrī -- : N. bāṛ ʻ blade of khukri ʼ; Bi. bāṛh ʻ bookbinder's papercutter ʼ; H. bāṛh, bāṛ f. ʻ edge of knife ʼ, G. vāḍh f.; -- P. vāḍh, bāḍh f. ʻ cutting edge ʼ poss. < *vārddhrī -- . *vardharī -- , *vardhā̆ra -- : Bi. badhrī, °riyā, °rā, badhārū ʻ knife with a heavy blade for reaping with ʼ; <-> WPah.bhad. bardhāṇū ʻ to shear sheep ʼ < *badhār -- ṇū? (CDIAL 11371) VARDH ʻ cut ʼ: vardha1 m. ʻ a cutting ʼ W. [√vardh] S. vaḍhu m. ʻ a cut ʼ; L. vaḍḍh m. ʻ ears of corn remaining in a field after sheaves have been removed ʼ; P. vaḍḍh, ba° m. ʻ a cut in a piece of wood, chip, stubble of grain (wheat, maize, &c.) ʼ, vaḍḍhā, ba° m. ʻ cut, mark ʼ; G. vāḍh m. ʻ cut, wound, reaping a field ʼ; Si. vaḍa -- ya ʻ act of cutting off ʼ; -- K. broḍu m. ʻ septum of nose ʼ?(CDIAL 11372) vardhaka in cmpd. ʻ cutting ʼ, m. ʻ carpenter ʼ R. [√vardh] Pa. cīvara -- vaḍḍhaka -- m. ʻ tailor ʼ; Kho. bardog, °ox ʻ axe ʼ (early → Kal. wadók before v -- > b -- in Kho.); <-> Wg. wāṭ ʻ axe ʼ, Paš.dar. wāˊṭak (ṭ?).(CDIAL 11374) vardhaki m. ʻ carpenter ʼ MBh. [√vardh] Pa. vaḍḍhaki -- m. ʻ carpenter, building mason ʼ; Pk. vaḍḍhaï -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, °aïa -- m. ʻ shoemaker ʼ; WPah. jaun. bāḍhōī ʻ carpenter ʼ, (Joshi) bāḍhi m., N. baṛhaï, baṛahi, A. bārai, B. bāṛaï, °ṛui, Or. baṛhaï, °ṛhāi, (Gaṛjād) bāṛhoi, Bi. baṛahī, Bhoj. H. baṛhaī m., M. vāḍhāyā m., Si. vaḍu -- vā. WPah.kṭg. báḍḍhi m. ʻ carpenter ʼ; kṭg. bəṛhe\i, báṛhi, kc. baṛhe ← H. beside genuine báḍḍhi Him.I 135), J. bāḍhi, Garh. baṛhai, A. also bāṛhai AFD 94; Md. vaḍīn, vaḍin pl. (CDIAL 11375)†*vardhakikarman -- ʻ carpentry ʼ. [vardhaki -- , kár- man -- ] Md. vaḍām ʻ carpentry ʼ. (CDIAL 11375a) vardhana1 n. ʻ cutting, slaughter ʼ Mn. [√vardh]S. vaḍhiṇī f. ʻ cutting ʼ, Si. väḍun.(CDIAL 13377)*vardhira ʻ axe, hammer ʼ. [Cf. *varddhr̥ -- . - √vardh]Kho. bəḍīˊr ʻ sledgehammer (?) ʼ (→ Gaw. bäḍíl), Bshk. baḍīˊr; Phal. baḍhīˊr ʻ axe (?), sledgehammer ʼ AO xviii 227: very doubtful.(CDIAL 11385) cf. várdhra m. ʻ leather thong ʼ AV., vardhrī -- f. lex., vadhra -- m.n. MBh. 2. badhra -- (v.l.) MBh. (X √bandh?). [√vardh]1. Pa. Pk. vaddha -- m.n. ʻ thong ʼ; S. vaḍhī, vāḍhĭ̄ f.; L. vaddhar m., vadhrī f., (Shahpur) vadhar m. ʻ shoulder -- strap ʼ; P. vahdar, vaddhrī, baddharī f., ludh. baddhī f. ʻ leather thong ʼ; Or. badhī ʻ dog's collar, leather thong round a drum ʼ; Bi. bādhā ʻ strings of a balance ʼ, bādhī ʻ ties fastening bamboo poles to body of cart ʼ; Bhoj. Aw.lakh. bādh ʻ rope, string ʼ; OG. vādhra n. ʻ leather ʼ, . varadhi, vādhar,
vādhrī, vādharṛī f. ʻ leather strap ʼ; M. vād, vād(h)ī f. ʻ strap ʼ, vādā m. ʻ whiplash ʼ; Si. vada ʻ leather strap ʼ; -- Kal.badrí ʻ leather belt ʼ, Phal. ḍāk -- badhrḗi (rather than with NOPhal 34 < *baddhrikā -- ); -- Paš.weg. walāˊ ʻ tie, band ʼ IIFL iii 3, 185 (< *vardh -- tra -- ?). 2. Pa. baddha -- n. ʻ thong ʼ. [< IE. *werdhro -- ~ vārdhrī -- f. ʻ strap ʼ < IE. *wordhrī -- T. Burrow BSOAS xxxviii 65, but rather like vāˊrdhra -- ʻ fit for strap ʼ Pāṇ., n. ʻ strap ʼ vr̥ddhi of várdhra -- ]Md. vadu ʻ strap ʼ.(CDIAL 11387) cf. várman n. ʻ armour ʼ RV. [√vr̥1]
Pa. Pk. vamma -- n. (Pk. also m.) ʻ armour ʼ; WPah. kiũth. bāmū ʻ clothes ʼ, roh. bamṇõ ʻ to dress ʼ; Si. vam -- a ʻ armour ʼ.WPah.poet. bamṇo, bamhṇo ʻ to wear ʼ, J. bāmṇu.(CDIAL 11389) Cf.  vaṭāraka -- , varāṭaka -- m. ʻ string ʼ MBh. [vaṭa -- 2Pa. sa -- vaṭākara -- ʻ having a cable ʼ; Bi. baral -- rassī ʻ twisted string ʼ; H. barrā m. ʻ rope ʼ, barārā m. ʻ thong ʼ.(CDIAL 11217)

bāḍhōī ʻ carpenter ʼ, (WPah.) toṭxn, toṭxïn goldsmith (Toda) వడ్లబత్తుడు, వడ్రంగి (Telugu); vardhaki (Samskritam): All three glosses are ultimately derivable from the root: Tvaṣṭṛ Taccha1 [Vedic takṣan, cp. taṣṭṛ, to takṣati (see taccheti), Lat. textor, Gr. te/ktwn carpenter (cp. architect), te/xnh art] a carpenter, usually as ˚ka: otherwise only in cpd. ˚sūkarathe carpenter -- pig (=a boar, so called from felling trees), title & hero of Jātaka No. 492 (iv.342 sq.). Cp. vaḍḍhakin. (Pali)

cf. வார்த்திகம்³ vārttikam , n. < vārttaka. Loc. 1. Trade; வியாபாரம். 2. Means of livelihood; சீவனம். (Tamil) baRea 'merchant' (Munda)

The ancient Meluhha (Indian sprachbund, speech) form could be Bi. baṛahī, Bhoj. H. baṛhaī m., signified by the hieroglyph: baḍhi 'boar, rhinoceros'; variant: varAha 'boar' (Samskritam) वराह [p= 923,2] m. (derivation doubtful) a boar , hog , pig , wild boar RV. &c (ifc. it denotes , " superiority , pre-eminence " ; » g. व्याघ्रा*दि) varāhá -- , varāˊhu -- m. ʻ wild boar ʼ RV Pa. Pk. varāha -- m. ʻ boar ʼ; A. B. barā ʻ boar ʼ (A. also ʻ sow, pig ʼ), Or. barāha, (Sambhalpur) barhā, (other dial.) bā̆rihā, bāriā, H. bā̆rāh m., Si. varā. varāhamūla n. ʻ name of a place in Kashmir ʼ Rājat. [varāhá -- , mūˊla -- ?] K. warahmul ʻ a town at west end of the valley of Kashmir ʼ.(CDIAL 11325, 11326)

Kalyanaraman

↧

Ramayana is real, say experts -- Amar Tejaswi

June 18, 2015, 9:43 pm

≫ Next: Ramachandra Guha's Jinnah worship in NCERT XII textbook. Demand withdrawal of Fukuoka Prize to Guha for misleading school children

≪ Previous: Tvaṣṭṛ is takṣa 'engraver, cire perdue sculptor' He makes weapons and tools for Yajña. He is 'carpenter-smith', Viśvakarma 'artificer'.

See: Ramayana not a work of fiction -- Kumar Chedllappan. Kudos to Gyaneshwer Chaubey's and Saroj Bala's team and the reaffirmation through genetic and literary studies

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/ramayana-not-work-of-fiction-kumar.html

Ramayana is real, say experts

New research carried out by anthropological scientists from the Estonian Biocentre and the University of Delhi claims that events of the mythological epic Ramayana occurred in reality thousands of years ago.

Hyderabad: New research carried out by anthropological scientists from the Estonian Biocentre and the University of Delhi claims that events of the mythological epic Ramayana occurred in reality thousands of years ago. Scientists say that results of their genetic studies, with existing data, show genetic signatures of tribal groups featured in the Ramayana such as the Gonds, Kols and Bhils. Gonds are a prominent group in Adilabad district of Telangana.

Researchers claimed that populations in the Indian subcontinent can trace their ancestors to more than 60,000 years back. Scientists say that this is proof of the authenticity and actual occurrence of the events described in Ramayana, which would have occurred more than 12,000 years ago. The Gonds, Kols and Bhils are believed to be the ancient tribal groups of the region and have found mention in the Ramayana. Authenticity of the mythological text has been questioned several times. While there have been voices proclaiming the authenticity of the Ramayana, research to prove it has increased in recent times.

Dr Vadlamudi Raghavendra Rao, professor of anthropology, University of Delhi, and one of the authors of the study, said, “Definitely, the events described in Ramayana occurred in real. Our research has showed close genetic affinity of these tribes to other ethnic groups. We have shown that there is continuity in the populations groups living here. Other researchers are working to prove other angles of this.”

The study was carried out by Estonian Biocentre researcher Gyaneshwar Chaubey, Institute of Scientific Research on Vedas, Dr Saroj Bala and Dr Raghavendra Rao. The Bhil, Kol and Gond are three major Indian tribes that have been widely acknowledged in the epic Ramayana, particularly in the chapters Ayodhyakanda, Aranyakanda and Kishkindhakanda. Gonds are prominently found in Adilabad district and other states and number about 40 lakh.
The research study says since these tribes are inhabitants of the country since the Stone Age, their genetic affinity to existing populations show the authenticity of the Ramayana.
Researchers said these tribal groups form a closed cluster with Dravidian groups, known as inhabitants of South India.

http://www.deccanchronicle.com/150618/nation-current-affairs/article/ramayana-real-say-experts

↧

Ramachandra Guha's Jinnah worship in NCERT XII textbook. Demand withdrawal of Fukuoka Prize to Guha for misleading school children

June 20, 2015, 10:41 pm

≫ Next: Only performance can change perceptions -- Madhav Nalapat. NaMo, perform, restitute kaalaadhan, the nation trusts you.

≪ Previous: Ramayana is real, say experts -- Amar Tejaswi

NCERT Class XII Textbook: A Case Study of Progressive History Writing

Should we still carry on with such substandard textbooks and teach distorted history to our children?

Saradindu Mukherji

June 21, 2015

Of late, a large section of the Indian media has been going out of the way to flaunt their latest obsession with what normal people would consider non-issues. These large sections of the media seek to project it as the greatest ever threat faced by India. However, on closer examination, we would be shocked to know that this kind of media blitzkrieg is actually a pre-emptive tactic, and a pathetic attempt to prevent any discussion on the officially sponsored historical studies in India, and its substitution by a more balanced presentation of India’s historical narrative. The tactic and the aim is to stall the eventual rejection of substandard history textbooks imposed by the UPA I and II governments.

For example, we can examine this news item that appeared in the Economic Times on 12 June 2015: “Forget Zealotry, Focus on Reform. MHRD must focus on education, not past glory,” warning and sermonising the Ministry of Human Development Resources of “stuffing research councils and educational planning and administration bodies with zealots of India’s ancient glory.” In fact, there has been a continuous barrage of accusations about the “Rightists” and their agenda of saffronisation in the media.

Obviously they feel so rattled that they keep reminding the world of dangerous consequences if Indians just get a rare opportunity of looking at an alternative version of their own historical narrative. After all, it is as urgent a matter to clear this decades-old historical garbage, more odious than the uncollected garbage currently lying on Delhi streets.

To expose the fallacy of this genre of media propaganda, this brief essay takes up just one chapter from a NCERT history textbook for Class XII. Themes in Indian History, Part iii, (2007).

Theme Thirteen. Mahatma Gandhi and the National Movement. Civil Disobedience and Beyond

This chapter, written by a historian of cricket and everything else on earth is spread over pages 346-375 (29 pages).

This chapter begins with Gandhiji’s arrival in India in 1915, with a mere one third of a page (347) on the foundation of the Indian National Congress, without even explaining the factors which had led to the emergence of pan-Indian nationalism and the crucial role of the Moderates. We may remind the reader that the previous chapter is not on the factors helping the emergence of Indian nationalism and foundation of the Indian National Congress as you would normally expect.

In the process, students miss out the very basic ideas of the formative period of pan-Indian nationalism. The Bal-Pal-Lal trio are disposed of in two short sentences, without even a mention of Sri Aurobindo, one of the ideologues of what we know as the Extremist wing of the national movement.

Surprisingly, one finds nothing on the revolutionaries who had taken up arms to oust the British. While many of them were tortured and executed, and a large number was sent to the harsh jails of Andaman and Mandalay. There is nothing on the partition of Bengal (1905), Swadeshi /anti-partition movement.

Khilafat Sanitized

Chances are that many school students from reasonably middle class families, where lowly career-only mindset is not nurtured, and who may have already heard about them at home would be sorely disappointed at this inexplicable attempt at excluding some of the most heroic chapters in our history and some of our selfless martyrs. This is most reprehensible to say the least.

The Khilafat Movement is covered in a box, fully sanitized, even without a mention of how it was a matter of extra-territorial loyalty for Muslims, which diverted their attention from the real issues of bread and butter, and the imperative need for an united anti-colonial movement. It does not mention that it was a fall-out of the Pan Islamic movement, which believed in the solidarity of Muslims all over the world, how it got a fillip from the Pan Islamic movement begun by Abdul Hamid II of Turkey (Ottoman Empire) and supported by the German Emperor Kaiser William, and eventually turned out to be the most dangerous phenomenon (present day ISIS).

Whether by sheer ignorance or deliberate design, the “learned” historian does not explain that Gandhiji and the Congress by supporting Khilafat, was actually encouraging an absurd, irredentist movement, and Gandhiji was actually interfering in the affairs of another nation. In fact, there is unanimity among historians that Khilafat movement in India and the success of the violent Moplah attack on the Hindus, greatly encouraged the cause of Islamic separatism and use of wanton violence.

Just lo and behold! the unprecedented violence let loose, on the hapless Hindus of Kerala by the Moplah Muslims of Kerala, who were also ardent Khilafatists, does not even find a mention. So much for the practitioners of scientific history and, in this deliberate omission, the cricket historian Ramachandra Guha is not alone.

A Pattern of Distortion

A very vocal voice from the “progressive” camp, Sugata Bose, the Hon’ble Member of the Lok Sabha, a loyal follower ofMamata Banerjee of the Trinamul Congress fame, and moreover, a Professor of History at Harvard University omits the inhuman violence unleashed by the Moplahs in His Majesty’s Opponent. Subhas Chandra Bose and India’s struggle Against Empire(2011). This despite the fact that we know that Netaji himself was much disturbed by the horrific genocide. I mention this, because Sugata Bose has been in the forefront of the campaign of accusing the MHRD of packing the Indian Council of Historical Research with all incompetent peoplewho are only committed to ideology.

What Guha and Bose have done has a technical term for it: Negationism. It amounts to—taking a parallel in the context of European history, the denial of holocaust in Hitler’s Germany, a punishable offence. Incidentally, I would also mention another aspect. Having personally gone through the papers (only those released so far) related to the disappearance of Netaji, I find this TMC politician and Harvard Professor’s assertion that Netaji was killed in the aircrash at Taipeh on 18 August 1945 most unconvincing.

As we all know, that the air crash never happened. We all know why some people wanted to see Netaji dead earlier than it actually happened. Guha has already gone one step forward, having totally blacked out Bose in his crass narrative in his Makers Of Modern India.

Ramachandra Guha’s Jinnah Worship

Also, not a word here on the twice-elected President of the Congress who also defeated Gandhi’s candidate. Not a word on the career, political life, and unparalleled sacrifice and commitment of Subhas Bose, although Guha has not forgotten to mention Jinnah, one of the most successful mass murderers of 20th century. In Guha’s classy prose, Jinnah “ like Gandhiji, was a lawyer of Gujarati extraction trained in London”(p.347).

In fact, the non-existent section on the Moderate phase (1885-1905/1917), students must know, that one of the founders of Indian nationalism, Dadabhai Naoroji was actually the first non-British member of the British Parliament (House of Commons), and two (out of three recruits to the Indian Civil Service, 2nd batch ), Surendranath Banerjee and Romesh Chandra Dutt, were London-trained. Both of them became Presidents of the Indian National Congress, and Dutt wrote the first seminal work on the Economic History of India, published from London, and had also taught Indian History at London.

Ramchandra Guha’s queer attempt to whitewash Mohammad Ali Jinnah as merely a London-trained lawyer sounds funny, but then to the likes of Guha, Jinnah, one of the vilest mass murderers in history, was one of the “Makers” of Modern India, and not the venerable Lokmanya Tilak and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. In one stroke, Guha puts Jinnah on the same pedestal as Gandhi in his unique style!

Implicit in this is the fact that such a portrayal has but this objective: both Gandhi and Jinnah, being so similar in background were thus leaders of two parallel movements and were also the respective fathers of two nations with no difference in word, deed and legacy.

We experience the consequences of this approach every day. A large section of “opinion-makers” in India actually see no difference between a democratic, tolerant, plural and secular India and the rogue state of Pakistan, controlled by three As: Army, Allah and America, which has successfully finished off its Hindu and Sikh minorities and remains committed to sponsoring successful Jihadi terrorism against India.

In the same vein, Ramchandra Guha further writes that Jinnah, who “with his colleagues in the Muslim League worked patiently at expanding their influence”(p.363). Note the use of the word “patience,” which smothers the fact of how the Muslim League dubbed the Congress the Grand Fascist Council, representing majoritarian Hindu interest, anti-Muslim, and accused the Congress Ministries of subjecting Muslims to harassment and sufferings (Pirpur Report), and resorted to vicious anti-Hindu propaganda, much like today’s secularists and their devoted followers, the “progressive intellectuals” including the NRI types.

And this is exactly what the media is saying these days about the Bharatiya Janata Party and its government. The organised anti-Hindu violence orchestrated by Jinnah and his supporters are thus skilfully smothered.

Suppresio Veri Suggestio Falsi

On Communalism/Hindu-Muslim relations, Guha persists with the same bias. In repeated acts of anti-Hindu violence unleashed by Muslim marauders, the author has carefully avoided any such term. About the politics of street violence unleashed by Mohammad Ali Jinnah that got him Pakistan so smoothly, the author remains scrupulously silent. After all, how could he do it?

The UPA was the most anti-Hindu government to rule India since the decline of the Mughals, with the Muslim League as its ally, and was particularly known for its pro-Muslim bias. Guha naturally also could not mention a fact which was obvious to all: that much of the systematic anti- Hindu violence for 1400 years has a “Holy” theological sanction !

Indeed, there seems to be no end to Guha’s mischief. Nathuram Godse is described as “a Bramhin from Pune,” and again described as a “bigoted Hindu.” How proper or decent is this casteist slur in a textbook written for impressionable minds? Was the mention of Godse’s caste really called for? If such details are necessary, why does he not mention that Gopal Krishna Gokhale was a Bramhin from Maharashtra, as was Lokamanya Tilak, or Nehru, a Bramhin from Allahabad, and Abul Kalam Azad, a Pan-Islamist Sunni, with a strong Deobandi predilection, although he’s sanitized as merely a “Nationalist” Congressman. By the same token, Jinnah also needed to be described as a second generation convert to Islam and that his grandfather was a Hindu.

Ignoble Objectives breeds vicious public discourse

This takes us to one of the underlying objectives of such history/social science textbooks—in fact the entire gamut of social science/literary teaching/research, media coverage and political discourse in post-independence India. One is just not allowed to examine and question the major fault-line in India’s history-Islamic expansionism and its damaging consequences on the majority of the people. This is the taboo all must scrupulously follow. The main objective is that unquestioned loyalty to the Islamic Ummah, its solidarity and agenda must be flaunted—that alone can give one the basic qualification, one needs to succeed. Of course, the mask of “secularism” if always at hand.

Ramachandra Guha also talks about the Congress resolution, “at the initiative of Gandhiji and Nehru” (p. 365) on the “rights of minorities” in India. People might like to ask why a similar interest was not taken for the minorities who were left to be butchered and converted to Islam in Pakistan. An inquisitive mind would also like to know as to how seriously one could accept the Congress claim of never accepting the two-nation theory while it had been actually abetting and quietly accepting the brutalization of millions of Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and Christians in Pakistan/Bangladesh. What have the “liberal and secular” politicians and “intellectuals” done to save these minorities at the hands of Islamic zealots of Pakistan/Bangladesh and prevent their systematic ethno-religious cleansing? As I have repeatedly said elsewhere, that “secularism” and “liberalism” as often described and practised in India is nothing but Jihad-friendly.Let’s finally ponder over it. Should we still carry on with such substandard textbooks and teach distorted history to our children? Our “eminent” intellectuals, our “high-profile” and “sophisticated” media, and their political patrons are now so agitated and apprehensive that this sort of history might soon be replaced by authentic history, where basic facts would not be suppressed and a balanced presentation would be provided.

Before we end, we may demand that the most learned historians, Hari Vasudevan, Chairperson of the Textbook Development Committee, and Neeladri Bhattacharya, the Chief Advisor of the Committee owe an explanation to the taxpayers of India and an unqualified apology to all those unfortunate students who were imposed with this farce of a textbook for all these years.

(These are the author’s personal views)

Saradindu Mukherji

Dr Saradindu Mukherji is an academic and historian, He was a Charles Wallace Visiting Fellow, department of Politics, Centre for Indian Studies, University of Hull. He was a former Member of ICSSR, He retired as Head of Department of History, Hansraj College, University of Delhi. He is currently a Member, Indian Council for Historical Research.

Prashant S. June 18 hours ago
Brilliant points. The peace time agenda of the imperialist-political religions is to create confusion in the minds of non-adherents. This helps in reducing the will of non-adherents when the time to confront comes.
Thus, history, media and social narratives have to be yoked under these objectives. This yoking has been accomplished by sepoys recruited and cultivated over time.
Indians need to become aware of thought invasions - they always precede physical invasions.
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gk a day ago
I think if we wait for Modi or some other savior to detoxify the educational institutions, it is not going to happen soon. What about the people who are mostly ignorant, misinformed about history who are out of school. Hindus need to create social memes to engage, debate and re-educate those people. If these intellectuals don't find grass root activists, NGO type etc then they cannot be effective.
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Dr. MS 2 days ago
Here is a newspaper response to an article on NYT that actually asks for something absurd...The reason I am sending this is to show how US media itself might appear like the next Confederacy. In some ways the distortion of Indian history books, not all, but much of it is similar to what the Confederacy called for, and actually practiced in its curriculum.
Printed under Dr. Mark Schaeffer (commentator on http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06...
Mr.Egan (the author of the article) you are aware that President Obama is an African American. His ancestors, though not directly affected by the slave trade, were colonized brutally by the English (Anglo Saxons and Anglo Europeans that is).
Kenya, like so many African, Asian and South American countries, faced brutal violent colonialism that lasted for nearly three hundred years.
You want a Black President to apologize for the slave trade, slavery and racism (after the terrible massacre of 9 Blacks in a church in a Southern State that occurred on the 17th of June, 2015)? Someone would call you the most nasty cunning racist in the world.
Wew! You White boys are crazier and more evil than I could imagine. What are you going to do next: start a third world war, drop the atomic bomb again, intern your own citizens and law abiding residents...and then look for new scapegoats to blame, and then demand from victims an apology?
You have to have the Anglo leadership apologizing....not the "first Black" President.
You media boys are sounding like the next Confederates.
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Suresh 13 hours ago
Would you pls put "progressive" under quotes everytime its mentioned in context of the commies/left wingers? IT is their oldest tactic to appropriate labels so that the other side keeps debating the label whilst they distort the debate into irrelevant matters. There is nothing 'progressive' about commies, they are termite scum.
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AGASTYA SHARMA a day ago
brilliantly written!
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Sambit 2 days ago
Brillant writing..it takes guts to be so forthright and honest in your analysis in an intellectual world that is extremely unfriendly to writers trying to bring embarrassing truths about the islamic conquest and the treacherous role played by gandhi and his lackeys in india's independence movement..kudos to Mr Mukherjee and indiafacts.
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Kishore Chandra Das 2 days ago
What to do? Most of the 'scholars' who have distorted history are 'Hindus' and such distortion also does not affect the majority of 'Hindus'! So, it will go on and on and on! The new Govt at the Centre perhaps can do precious little. The issue was badly 'mishandled' by the previous NDA Govt. Let's see! It's a typical 'Indian' case!
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- Shubhangi Raykar Kishore Chandra Das a day ago
  
  No. There is a possibility and hope that it will change. The correction and balancing will take place. long live Modi if that happens.

http://indiafacts.co.in/ncert-class-xii-textbook-a-case-study-of-progressive-history-writing/

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Only performance can change perceptions -- Madhav Nalapat. NaMo, perform, restitute kaalaadhan, the nation trusts you.

June 20, 2015, 10:49 pm

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ROOTS OF POWER

MADHAV NALAPAT

www.sunday-guardian.com/profile/madhav-nalapat June 21, 2015

M.D Nalapat is the Editorial Director of The Sunday Guardian.

Only performance can change perceptions

The increase in the previous 12 months in jobs and investments has been small.

ome months ago, the commentariat exploded into a frenzy of denunciation against what were termed "Hindutva elements" within the Modi government. Individuals, who had never been the focus of national media attention through decades of political activity, suddenly found themselves adorning the prime time shows of major television channels. Their repertoire of clichés was dissected, with the conclusion being that if there was a fall in esteem for both Mr Modi and his team, it was this segment of it which was the cause. They were held responsible not for riots, for there have been very few riots since 26 May 2014, much to the chagrin of those who had predicted a holocaust once Modi took over, but for "creating a mood conducive to violence in the future", and excoriated to their face(s) in television studios or in their absence.

The question is: why has there been such a focus on what is just ambient noise? Is the reason that the nation is yet to realise the promised "feel good" factor? Taxes, regulations and interest rates were high under the UPA and remain so. Transparency was constricted then as now. And only a dribble of cash of the $1 trillion-plus of deposits held abroad illegally has returned to the country. The SIT has been busying itself recommending North Korea-style measures that will do next to nothing to prevent the generation of black money, but serve to gift our corrupt governance structure yet more instruments to extract bribes from a hapless populace. Since 1947, law upon law has been enacted, each reinforcing the colonial-era practice of placing huge dollops of discretion in the hands of low-paid officials who nonetheless send their families to London and New York on vacations, who educate their children in institutions such as Harvard where even the annual income of Papa or Mamma would not suffice to pay a month's tuition, or who build mansions which would put a Raj Nivas to shame.

What is needed for the Modi government is to form a hybrid Task Force, comprising elements of the civil services as well as civil society, to examine the lifestyles of the top thousand officials in its service, while state governments should do the same with those they supervise. The greater the powers of an official (including those at the political level), the higher the level of punishment which should get meted out for ignoring ethics and law. Till now, while those at lower levels (admittedly too few of even these) go to jail for long periods, those at the higher levels guilty of amassing wealth in hundreds of crores of rupees usually land up in high office instead. The Ranjit Sinhas are not the exception, but the norm in matters of recruitment to sensitive offices in a culture where the Civil Service does not as yet face the scrutiny of bodies formed for the purpose from Civil Society. Small wonder that the policy emphasis is ever on (a) control and (b) the collection of "rent", both legal and illegal. That is how the colonial mind of the governance mechanism works, a mindset that has only grown in viciousness over the decades of "freedom". With his call for "Minimum Government, Maximum Governance", Modi promised freedom from the constricting, corrupt superstructure of governance and its replacement with a system integrating elements of civil society and ensuring a high degree of transparency and accountability. Thus far, achievements have been exceedingly modest when compared to potential. Thus, to the Department of Telecom, a signature "achievement" is the provision of internet access in the precincts of the Taj Mahal. How many additional tourists are going to visit the Taj because of the free WiFi that has become available onsite? But what about raising broadband speeds and lowering their cost, what about rolling out 5G when even 4G has been delayed? What about giving the hundreds of millions of the poor access to the worldwideweb? On such matters, the Department of Telecom is understandably reticent.

"Smart" cities are not simply steel and concrete. They need as well an atmosphere of intellectual freedom and a liberal culture. They need 5G, they need a billion Indian citizens rather than merely 180 million having regular access to the internet. They need lower taxes and interest rates than now and much lower regulation. In less than a hundred days, the minority government of Narasimha Rao slashed away at regulations in industry, even as Manmohan Singh lowered duties and restrictions on foreign companies and funds, while refusing to show a similar benevolence towards Indian taxpayers and companies. The police officer mindset of the revenue authorities has had little effect on slowing down the generation of black money, but it has succeeded in driving much of this cash away to St Kitts or in the Bahamas rather than get spent in India.

While the economy needs consumption to grow, the measures adopted during the year have acted to dampen consumption, with the result that the increase during the previous twelve months in jobs is small, as is the case with investment, both foreign and domestic. Sectors such as coal, telecom and energy remain in the ICU, even as the banking system is on track to cross Rs 500, 000 crore in NPAs before the UP Assembly elections fall due in 2017. Even during the end of its tenure, the UPA could only lower the growth rate to 6.4%. The people of India expected at least 9% from this government at the end of their first year of governance, not just 7.3%. For Narendra Modi was not voted in to tweak the existing system, but to change it, and unless he does so, double digit growth will be a dream. Those who say that the travails of the NDA are only a matter of perception, are wrong. It is a matter of performance, and to improve on this, Modi will need to implement a "Modi India" model the way he crafted the Modi Gujarat model within a couple of years of becoming CM. But for this, Modi will need to go beyond Lutyens' Delhi and draw his team and his policies from the real India and its people.

http://www.sunday-guardian.com/analysis/only-performance-can-change-perceptions

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Yoga Pics from Around Half the World. The other half is waking up: June 21, 2015 for Surya Namaskar

June 21, 2015, 7:32 am

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BY ARIEL BOGLEAustralia4 hours ago

Yoga enthusiasts around the world practised sun salutations in the streets on Sunday as part of International Yoga Day.

Indian prime minister Narendra Modi urged the United Nations to adopt the day at a UN Assembly in 2014. On Sunday, he led yoga practise for more than 35,000 of his countrymen in a sea of pink and green yoga mats on New Delhi's main avenue, Rajpath, SBS reported.

"We are not only celebrating a day but we are training the human mind to begin a new era of peace," he said.

Organisers in New Delhi are hoping the event broke the Guinness World Record for the biggest yoga class ever assembled in one place. Yoga-fans globally also took part, with people in more than 192 countries said to have taken to the mat.

France
Participants perform yoga at an event to celebrate the International Yoga Day, pictured from the first floor of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: KAMIL ZIHNIOGLU/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Participants dressed in white perform yoga at an event to celebrate the International Yoga Day under the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: KAMIL ZIHNIOGLU/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Thousands of participants dressed in white performing yoga on yellow mattresses are pictured from the first floor of the Eiffel Tower at an event to celebrate the International Yoga Day in Paris, France, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: KAMIL ZIHNIOGLU/ASSOCIATED PRESS
India
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, left front, lies down on a mat as he performs yoga along with thousands of Indians on Rajpath, in New Delhi, India, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: SAURABH DAS/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, center, sits on a mat as he performs yoga along with thousands of Indians on Rajpath, in New Delhi, India, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: SAURABH DAS/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Indians perform yoga on Rajpath, in New Delhi, India, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: MANISH SWARUP/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Indians perform yoga at an event to celebrate the International Yoga Day in Bangalore, India, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: AIJAZ RAHI/ASSOCIATED PRESS
An Indian girl, left, displays a picture of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi painted on her face as another sports the logo of International Yoga Day in Bangalore, India, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: AIJAZ RAHI/ASSOCIATED PRESS
China
A child performs yoga at a hotel banquet hall to mark the International Yoga Day, in Changping District, on the outskirts of Beijing, China, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: ANDY WONG/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Chinese perform yoga at a hotel banquet hall to mark the International Yoga Day, in Changping District, on the outskirts of Beijing, China, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: ANDY WONG/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Malaysia
Malaysians participate in a yoga exercise during the International Day of Yoga festival in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: JOSHUA PAUL/ASSOCIATED PRESS
A Malaysian boy is seen playing during the International Day of Yoga festival in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: JOSHUA PAUL/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Thailand
Thousands of people participate in a yoga exercise at Chulalongkorn University field, marking the International Day of Yoga in Bangkok, Thailand, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: SAKCHAI LALIT/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Thousands of people participate in a yoga exercise at Chulalongkorn University field, marking the International Day of Yoga in Bangkok, Thailand, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: SAKCHAI LALIT/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Thousands of people participate in a yoga exercise at Chulalongkorn University field, marking the International Day of Yoga in Bangkok, Thailand, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: SAKCHAI LALIT/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Afghanistan
Afghans and foreigners perform yoga during the first International Yoga Day, at the Indian Embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: MASSOUD HOSSAINI/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Afghans and foreigners attend yoga classes a day ahead of International Yoga Day, at the Indian Embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan, Saturday, June 20, 2015.
IMAGE: MASSOUD HOSSAINI/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Afghans and foreigners attend yoga classes a day ahead of International Yoga Day, at the Indian Embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan, Saturday, June 20, 2015.
IMAGE: MASSOUD HOSSAINI/ASSOCIATED PRESS
An Indian man practices yoga a day ahead of International Yoga Day, at the Indian Embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan, Saturday, June 20, 2015.
IMAGE: MASSOUD HOSSAINI/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Taiwan
A boy drinks water as Taiwanese perform yoga at the start of International Yoga Day in Taipei, Taiwan, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: CHIANG YING-YING/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Taiwanese perform yoga poses at the start of International Yoga Day in Taipei, Taiwan, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: CHIANG YING-YING/ASSOCIATED PRESS
South Korea
Hundreds of people perform yoga to mark the International Day of Yoga in downtown Seoul, South Korea, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: LEE JIN-MAN/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Hundreds of people perform yoga to mark the International Day of Yoga in downtown Seoul, South Korea, Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: LEE JIN-MAN/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Philippines
Participants raise their feet as they attempt a yoga pose during the International Yoga Day inside a mall in suburban Taguig, south of Manila, Philippines on Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: AARON FAVILA/ASSOCIATED PRESS
Participants stretch their arms during yoga poses as they join the International Yoga Day inside a mall in suburban Taguig, south of Manila, Philippines on Sunday, June 21, 2015.
IMAGE: AARON FAVILA/ASSOCIATED PRESS

Show As Gallery

http://mashable.com/2015/06/21/photos-international-yoga-day/

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International Yoga Day, Solstice 2015, 21 June 2015 celebrates 5000 year-old Hindu discipline -- Joe Daunt & Myles Burke

June 21, 2015, 8:48 am

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International Yoga Day - by numbers

As India celebrates its first International Day of Yoga, we look at some of the key facts and figures surrounding the ancient Hindu discipline

By Joe Daunt, and Myles Burke

8:04AM BST 21 Jun 2015

India is celebrating its first ever International Day of Yoga, which the Indian government hopes will set a new World Record.

Millions of people across the world are expected to join in, with a 192 countries taking part.

^{Students practice yoga in the lawns of their school ahead of International Day of Yoga, in Chennai, India, June 19, 2015 (Reuters / Stringer)}

Yoga is an ancient Hindu discipline which has been practised for around 5,000 years.

It has gained huge popularity in recent times and has become a booming industry, particularly in the US.

^{A yoga class at LP Field, home of the Tennessee Titans NFL football team in Nashville, Tennessee (AP / Mark Humphrey)}

Watch this video to learn more about this specialised form of meditation and what to expect on International Yoga Day.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11687495/International-Yoga-Day-by-numbers.html

International Yoga Day 2015: Watch Summer Solstice Live Stream In New York's Times Square With Sri Sri Ravi Shankar

By Lora Moftah @LoraMoftah l.moftah@ibtimes.com on June 21 2015 8:00 AM EDT

People practice yoga in New York's Times Square while celebrating the summer solstice June 21, 2014. Reuters/Eric Thayer

New York’s Times Square will host one of the many worldwide celebrations of the first International Yoga Day Sunday. Coinciding with the summer solstice, the longest day of the year, the festivities are expected to draw tens of thousands of people who will participate in yoga classes throughout the day, in an event that will be live-streamed around the world.

United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon is scheduled to deliver a keynote address at the beginning of the celebration, which will be captured on the iconic seven-story-tall Nasdaq screen in Times Square. “Yoga offers a simple, accessible and inclusive means to promote physical and spiritual health and well-being,” the U.N. chief said in a message before the event. “It promotes respect for one’s fellow human beings and for the planet we share.”

The idea of an international celebration of the ancient practice was first proposed last year by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who called yoga “a holistic approach to health and well-being” during his address to the U.N. General Assembly in September. Government officials have promoted the event as a means of advancing Indian soft power around the world, an effort that has been met withcontroversy back home.

The New York festivities will feature a workshop by the spiritual leader Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, who will lead a demonstration of the benefits of yoga. “It’s through yoga we can create able citizens, peaceful citizens,” Shankar said. “Yoga is that which unites people across religion, race, nationality.”

While this is the first year that Times Square will host an International Yoga Day observance, the storied New York intersection has been the site of a yoga celebration on the day of the summer solstice for more than a decade.

“Solstice in Times Square originated thirteen years ago when I was joined by two other yogis to do sunrise yoga on the longest day of the year, and it is phenomenal to now see this event grow to become an internationally recognized worldwide celebration,” said Tim Tompkins, the president of the Times Square Alliance. “We look forward to leading the global pose in Times Square and for participants around the world to join in via our webcast.”

Below is a live stream of the celebration provided by the Times Square Alliance:

http://livestream.com/TimesSquare/Solstice2015

http://www.ibtimes.com/international-yoga-day-2015-watch-summer-solstice-live-stream-new-yorks-times-square-1975868

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Bharhut reliefs with Indus Script hieroglyphs signify Meluhha metalwork

June 21, 2015, 9:54 am

≫ Next: Sun's rays at sunrise fell directly on the divinity in Konarak temple on 31 May 2015: An amazing pictorial spectacle. Two Rigveda Sukta mantras texts, translation venerating Sun divinity.

≪ Previous: International Yoga Day, Solstice 2015, 21 June 2015 celebrates 5000 year-old Hindu discipline -- Joe Daunt & Myles Burke

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/nr3jjel

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/02/a-critique-of-general-theory-of-images.html
http://ignca.nic.in/jatak.htm Recounts Jataka tales to explain the semantics of sculptural reliefs of Bharhut.

Alternative interpretation is that Bharhut relief shows two hieroglyphs: 1. human face; 2. ox-hide ingot.

These are read as Meluhha rebus-metonymy layered rendering: dhalako; rebus: 'a large metal ingot (Gujarati) mukha 'face' muh 'face' Rebus: muha 'quantity of iron produced from a smelter' (Santali)

Bharhut Stupa Railing relief(Sunga empire), 2nd century BCE. A face is the centerpiece on the temple door. This temple door arch is flanked by two oxhide ingot symbols. The rebus readings of hieroglyphs on the relief are: kuTi 'tree' Rebus: kuThi 'smelter'; mũh 'face' Rebus: mũhe 'ingot'. Hence, the ingot is denoted by the symbol which flanks the doorframe, arch. muhāṭh ʻ threshold of a door frame or entrance indicated by the arch.

Source: http://defenceforumindia.com/forum/general-multimedia/40849-archaeological-remains-ancient-india-5.html

On this Bharhut sculpture, an elephant is placed on a pillar next to the venerated tree. There are three temple arches. Two arches with 2 bun ingots (garlanded) flank the central arch with a rectangular, inscribed slab comparable in shape to the three rectangular tin ingots found in a shipwreck in Haifa. Behind the rectangular inscribed slab is what can be described as a pillar of light or fire denoting linga: loj 'penis' (Munda) Rebus: loh 'copper' (Samskritam).

ibha 'elephant' Rebus: ib 'iron' Dhalako 'ingot' (Gujarati)

Tin ingots in the Museum of Ancient Art of the Municipality of Haifa, Israel (left #8251, right #8252). The ingots each bear two Indus script hieroglyphs.

Inscribed tin ingot with a moulded head, from Haifa (Artzy, 1983: 53). (Michal Artzy, 1983, Arethusa of the Tin Ingot, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, BASOR 250, pp. 51-55) https://www.academia.edu/5476188/Artzy-1983-Tin-Ignot This ingot has two Indus script hieroglyphs PLUS another Indus Script hieroglyph of 'face': mũh 'face' Rebus: mũhe 'ingot' out of smelter furnace.

Hieroglyph: खरडा [ kharaḍā ] scribbling, engraving Rebus: करडा (p. 137) [ karaḍā ] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. The symbols are safflower, a phonetic reinforcement: karaḍā 'safflower'http://anandajoti.photodharma.net/

Alternative interpretation:

Ox-hide ingot. Relief. Bharhut. Inscribed with safflower. karaDa 'safflower' Rebus: karaDa 'hard alloy' Thus, hard alloy ingot. dhalako; rebus: 'a large metal ingot (Gujarati) Displayed together with srivatsa PLUS safflower: kolA 'tail' Rebus: kol 'working in iron' kole.l 'smithy, temple'; karNika 'pericarp of lotus' Rebus: karNIka 'scribe'.

Hieroglyph: Ta. kulai (-pp-, -tt-) to shoot forth in a bunch (as a plantain); n. cluster, bunch (as of fruits, flowers); kuluṅku (kuluṅki-) to be full, abundant (Asher-Radhakrishnan, p. 65). Ma. kula bunch (esp. of coconuts and plantains, also of flowers); kulekka to bear fruit. To. kwïn bunch of fruit, esp. plantains. Ka. gole, gone cluster or bunch of fruits (plantains, mangoes, grapes, coconuts, etc.); konar(u) to get shoots, sprout; n. shoot, sprout, new branch. Koḍ. kola- (kolap-, kolat-) (plant) shoots against (one who planted it; in a proverb); kole bunch of plantains. Tu. gonè a bunch of fruits (as plantains, coconuts); (B-K.) kile, kīle a bunch. Te. gola a bunch, a cluster; gela a bunch. Kuwi (F.) gella bunch (of plantains).(DEDR 1810)

Rebus: Ta. kol working in iron, blacksmith; kollaṉ blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. kole·l smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwala·l Kota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace; (Bell.; U.P.U.) konimi blacksmith; (Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollë blacksmith. Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy (Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge. (DEDR 2133).
कुठारुः 1 A tree. -2 An ape, a monkey. -3 An armourer.
कुठिः 1 A tree. -2 mountain. (Samskritam) Rebus: kuThi 'smelter'

Medallion with Peacock and Pair of Peahens, Bharhut, Sunga 185-72 BCE maraka 'peacock' Rebus: maraka loha 'copper alloy'.

Medallion with monkeys and elephant. Bharhut. Some monkeys carry weapons.

Monkeys riding on an elephant. Bharhut.

Monkey as water-carrier. Bharhut relief. kuTi 'water-carrier' Rebus: kuThi 'smelter'

Bas relief. Monkeys and elephant.

Bharhut Stupa railing, Indian Museum. Monkey Jataka - Medallion - 2nd Century BCE - Red Sand Stone - Bharhut

Bharhut

Hieroglyph: mũhũ 'face' (Sindhi) To reinforce the phoneme, the face is shown on sculptural reliefs (as at Bharhut) together with detail of muhāṭh ʻ threshold of a door frame or entrance indicated by the arch. Further reinforcement of the phoneme occurs by the depiction of ox-hide ingot(s) using the shapes recognizable in the ingot-god of Enkomi (Cyprus) or on copper/tin ingots transported on ships for maritime trade as evidenced by Uluburun shipwreck, Haifa shipwreck, Cape Gelidonya shipwreck.

On one side of the prism tablet,the shape of two ingots are shown, flanked by two palm trees and two aquatic birds on a Mohenjodaro tablet m1429. The other two sides of the prism tablet also had a composite, ligatured hieroglyph and an inscribed text:

I suggest that this boat carried a supercargo (rebus: karNi

Most frequently-occurring hieroglyph on Indus writing corpora: 'rim-of-jar') of copper and tin ingots, based on a rebus reading of the hieroglyphs on three sides of the prism tablet, including a text in Indus writing, apart from the ligatured hieroglyph of a crocodile catching a fish in its jaws [which is read ayakara 'blacksmith'; cf. khar 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri); karavu'crocoile' (Telugu); ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'metal (tin+ copper alloy)'.

Oxhide shaped tin ingot in Uluburn shipwreck

While 354 oxhide ingots discovered were copper ingots, it should be noted that oxhide shaped tin ingots were also discovered (Fawcett, N. & Zietsman, J.C. "Uluburun - the discovery and excavation of the world's oldest known shipwreck". Akroterion, Vol. 46 (2001): 5 - 20. , http://akrolerion.journals.za ).

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

June 21, 2015

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Sun's rays at sunrise fell directly on the divinity in Konarak temple on 31 May 2015: An amazing pictorial spectacle. Two Rigveda Sukta mantras texts, translation venerating Sun divinity.

June 22, 2015, 11:17 pm

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A rare photo of ruins of the Surya Temple at Martand was taken by John Burke in 1868. The Martand Sun Temple was a Kashmiri Hindu temple dedicated to Surya (the chief solar deity in Hinduism) and built during the 8th century CE. Martand is another Sanskrit name for the Hindu Sun-god. Now in ruins, the temple is located five miles from Anantnag in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Temple ruins as seen from the entrance to the main temple structure

Restored impression of temple fromLetters from India and Kashmir by J. Duguid, 1870-73

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OR0V34tIV0o

http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/sept-oct-2005/engpdf/Ancient%20Sundials%20of%20Orissa.pdf Ancient Sundials of Orissa by Nikunja Bihari Sahu

http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/Astronomy_in_stones.pdf Astronomy in stones 73 slides by M N Vahia, TIFR

http://www.iiap.res.in/kodsch/Lectures/vinod.pdf The hot and the cold of the sun by Vinod Krishan, Indian Institute of Astrophysics 47 slides

The word Konarak is made up of two root words: kona + arka: angle + sun'r ray. Arka is a Rigvedic word. rvs.6.49 rvs.10.107

Konark mandir was built by King Narasimhadeva I of Eastern Ganga Dynasty around 1250 CE.

The tradition has it that the sanctum sanctorum, the garbha grha of the temple of Konarak was so positioned as to receive a particular quantum of sun's energy by the direct sun's ray at sunrise on a particular day, at a precisely determined angle based on astronomical computations.The astronomical computation of the specific day is determined by three factors in planetary motion with sun in the centre: 1. angular position of the earth rotating around the sun is dependent upon the oval-shaped (not circular) orbit; 2. angular position of the earth's axis which oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees (a phenomenon called precession) measured by Milankovich cycles; 3. the quantum of radiation which enters dependent upon solar activity (flares) cycles emanating carbon in a 2000 year cycle.

This is a challenge for astronomers and students of Hindu civilization to resolve by studying the archiectural marvel called Konarak Arka Mandiram, Sun Temple.

kōṇa m. ʻ corner, angle ʼ MBh. [Cf. kuṇi -- , *khuṇṭa -- 2: ← Drav. T. Burrow BSOAS xi 341] Pa. kōṇa -- m., Pk. kōṇa -- , °aga -- , m.n. ʻ corner, part of a house ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) kunīˊ ʻ corner ʼ, K. kūn m., P. koṇ, °ṇā, kūṇ, °ṇā m., WPah. bhal. kōṇi f., cam. kūṇā m., Ku. kuṇo, pl. kwāṇā, gng.kũ&rtodtilde;, N. kunu, A. koṇ, B. koṇ, °ṇā, Or. koṇa, kuṇa; Bi. kon, °nī, konā -- konī ʻ ploughing from corner to corner ʼ; Mth. koniyā ʻ low wall round three sides of winnowing basket ʼ; Bhoj. kōn ʻ corner ʼ, H. kon, °nā m., G. kɔṇ m. (X *khuṇṭa -- 2 in kāṭ -- khuṇ = -- koṇ m. ʻ right angle ʼ), M. koṇ m., Si. kona; -- Pk. koṇṇa -- m. ʻ corner of a house ʼ (< kōṇa -- as tella -- < tailá -- ?); M. kon m. ʻ corner ʼ, °nā,°nyā m. ʻ cornerstone ʼ (prob., despite LM 139, koṇ, not kon, is borrowed).S.kcch.

khūṇo m. ʻ corner ʼ, WPah.kṭg. kvṇɔ m., kc. kvṇe f., J. koṇā m., Garh. kōṇū.(CDIAL 3504)

arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc] Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624)

The precise dates on which and intensity with which sun's rays at sunrise enter through the temple entrance at Konarak is determined by:

1. the orbital cycle of the movement of the earth around the sun;

2. Milankovich cycle of earth's precession which oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees on a periodicity of 41000 years; and

3. the intensity of solar activity measured by radiocarbon generated is measured in a 2000- year cycle.

22.1–24.5° range of Earth's obliquity.

Read also on the 2400 year solar activity cycle caused by solar inertial motion:

http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0095-00/fs-0095-00.pdf

http://www.ann-geophys.net/18/399/2000/angeo-18-399-2000.pdf

Precessing Kepler orbit

Planets orbiting the Sun follow elliptical (oval) orbits that rotate gradually over time (apsidal precession). The eccentricity of this ellipse is exaggerated for visualization. Most orbits in the Solar System have a much smaller eccentricity, making them nearly circular.

Equinoxes and solstices

Ecliptic and celestial equator | Equinoxes | Solstices

The ecliptic, celestial poles and celestial equator

During the course of a year the Earth completes one orbit around the Sun. To us on Earth we see this as the Sun moving against the background of stars through the year, along an imaginary line which we call the ecliptic. This defines the plane in which the Earth and most of the other planets orbit around the Sun. The directions to the north and south ecliptic poles are at right angles to this. The Zodiac is the band of constellations running along the ecliptic.

The Earth's orbit around the Sun takes 365.25 days. The Earth's axis of rotation, tilted at 23.5 degrees to the line of the poles of the ecliptic, gives us the directions to the north and south celestial poles. The bright star Polaris is currently showing us the direction of the north celestial pole. Like a spinning top this axis is precessing around the ecliptic pole with a period of 26,000 years.

The celestial equator is the projection of the Earth's equator onto the sky. As the Sun moves in its apparent track along the ecliptic it is for half the year seen to be above the equator (northern summer) and half the year below the equator (northern winter). The Sun will therefore appear to cross the equator twice in a year.

The equinoxes

At the times when the Sun is crossing the celestial equator day and night are of nearly equal length at all latitudes and so we call these dates the equinoxes (= 'equal night'). In March, as the Sun is moving northwards along the ecliptic, this is called the vernal equinox and in September as the Sun is moving southwards we refer to it as the autumnal equinox. The equinoxes are also the points on the celestial sphere where the ecliptic and equator cross and the vernal equinox is used as the zero point in measuring star co-ordinates.

Why do the equinoxes not always occur on the same days each year?

The Earth takes approximately 365.25 days to go around the Sun. This is the reason we have a leap year every 4 years, to add another day to our calendar so that there is not a gradual drift of date through the seasons. For the same reason the precise time of the equinoxes are not the same each year, and generally will occur about 6 hours later each year, with a jump of a day (backwards) on leap years. The table below shows the dates and times of both the vernal (spring) and autumnal equinoxes:

Year	Vernal equinox	Autumnal equinox	Leap year
2005	20 March, 12.33	22 September, 22.23
2006	20 March, 18.25	23 September, 04.03
2007	21 March, 00.07	23 September, 09.51
2008	20 March, 05.48	22 September, 15.44	yes
2009	20 March, 11.43	22 September, 21.18
2010	20 March, 17.32	23 September, 03.09
2011	20 March, 23.21	23 September, 09.04
2012	20 March, 05.14	22 September, 14.49	yes
2013	20 March, 11.02	22 September, 20.44
2014	20 March, 16.57	23 September, 02.29
2015	20 March, 22.45	23 September, 08.20
all times are UTC (GMT)

In fact it is only after a complete leap-year cycle of four centuries that these dates will be repeated. In the present century the times of the equinoxes have ranged between the latest dates - March 21 at 19h and September 24 at 06h (in 1903) - to the earliest dates - March 20 at 08h and September 22 at 17h (in 2000).

Why do the dates of the vernal and autumnal equinox not occur on the days when day and night are equal?

A quick look at sunrise and sunset times on successive days in March and September will show that the above dates do not coincide precisely with the times of equal day and night length. There is another factor to be considered which is that the orbit of the Earth around the Sun is an ellipse and not a circle. By Kepler's Law the Earth moves fastest when it is closest to the Sun (approximately 3 January each year) and slowest when it is furthest away (approximately 4 July). This 'unequal motion' causes variations in the length of the solar day and in the times of sunrise and sunset.

The combined effects mean that the Sun does not cross the meridian (when it is highest in the sky) at precisely local noon each day. The difference between clock-defined noon and the time when the Sun is on the meridian is called the Equation of Time and represents the correction which must be applied to the time given by a sundial to make it agree with clock time. This correction can be as much as 16 minutes in either direction. For more information, see our fact file on the the equation of time.

The solstices

The times when the Sun is at its furthest from the celestial equator are called the summer and winter solstices and these occur in mid-summer and mid-winter. The world 'solstice' comes from the Latin solstitium meaning 'Sun stands still' because the apparent movement of the Sun's path north or south stops before changing direction.

Year	Summer	Winter	Leap year
2005	21 June, 06.46	21 December, 18.35
2006	21 June, 12.26	22 December, 00.22
2007	21 June, 18.06	22 December, 06.08
2008	20 June, 23.59	21 December, 12.04	yes
2009	21 June, 05.45	21 December, 17.47
2010	21 June, 11.28	21 December, 23.38
2011	21 June, 17.16	22 December, 05.30
2012	20 June, 23.09	21 December, 11.11	yes
2013	21 June, 05.04	21 December, 17.11
2014	21 June, 10.51	21 December, 23.03
2015	21 June, 16.38	22 December, 04.48
all times are UTC (GMT)

Note: Don't be fooled by the fact that during this period the summer solstice (almost) always occurred on 21 June. This is just a feature of the slow drift through the dates on a 400 year cycle mentioned above. The last time the solstice was not on this date was 1975 when it occurred on 22 June at 00.27 and in 2012 it will occur on 20 June at 23.09. For the dates in between the summer solstice will fall on 21 June.

The apparently odd behaviour of sunrise/set times near the winter solstice

The winter solstice is the time when the Sun reaches its southmost distance from the celestial equator and hence, in northern latitudes is the day when the Sun is lowest in the sky at noon. This is, naturally, the shortest day of the year in northern latitudes. To many people it seems odd, therefore, that the time of sunrise continues to get later in the day after the solstice.

The reason for this is that the Sun does not cross the meridian (when it is highest in the sky) at precisely noon each day. The difference between clock-defined noon and the time when the Sun is on the meridian is called the Equation of Time and represents the correction which must be applied to the time given by a sundial to make it agree with clock time.

There are two reasons why the Sun is not on the meridian at noon each day. The first is that the path of the Earth around the Sun is an ellipse, and not a circle. The second is that the Earth's equatorial plane and its orbital plane are inclined to one another. The two effects add together to yield the equation of time which can amount to some 16 minutes difference between solar and mean time.

The period when the equation of time is changing fastest in the whole year is very close to the winter solstice. It changes by 10 minutes from December 16 to January 5. This means that the time at which the Sun crosses the meridian changes by 10 minutes in this interval and also that the times of sunrise and sunset will change by the same amount.

Near the solstice the Sun's height in the sky changes very slowly and the length of the day also changes slowly. The rapid change due to the equation of time dominates the very slow change in day length and leads to the observed sunrise times.

What is the difference between Midsummer Day and the summer solstice?

Midsummer Day is June 24 (each year) and is one of the four Quarter Days in the Legal Calendar. The other Quarter Days are Lady Day (March 25), Michaelmas (29 September) and Christmas Day (25 December). The Summer Solstice is explained above.

http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/time-facts/equinoxes-and-solstices

सूर्य 2000 साल बाद एक बार कोनार्क के सूर्य मन्दिर के अंदर आ जाता है|

सूर्य कोनार्क के सूर्य मन्दिर के अंदर आ गया है

सूर्य मंदिर कोणार्क के अदभुत् दृष्य

Once every 2000 years this event occurs - Sun enters this temple which is in Odissha State, (Southern State of India) India.

Hence this temple is called "Konark Temple of Sun".

This happened on 31st May, 2015

6.049.01 I commend with new hymns the man observant of his duty, and the beneficent Mitra and Varun.a; may they, the mighty ones, Varun.a, Mitra, and Agni, come to our rite, and listen (to our praises). [The man observant: stus.e janam suvratam = daivyam janam, the divine people, devasan:gham, the company of the gods].
6.049.02 (I incite the worshipper) to offer worship to Agni, who is to be adored at the sacrifices of every ma; whose acts are free from arrogance; the lord of the two youthful (brides, heaven and earth); the child of heaven, the son of strength, the briliant symbol of sacrifice.
6.049.03 May the two daughters of the radiant (sun) of various form, of whom one glitters with stars, the other (is bright) with the sun, mutually opposed, proceeding diversely, purifying (all things), and entitled to our laudation, be pleased by the praise they hear (from us). [The two daughters: day and night, the daughters of the sun, directly or their cause, indirectly].
6.049.04 May our earnest praise proceed to the presence of Va_yu, the possessor of vast riches, the desired of all, the filler of his chariot (with wealth for his worshippers); most adorable (Va_yu), who are riding in a radiant car, and driving your Niyut (steeds), do you, who are far-seeing, show favour to the sage, (your adorer). [kavim iyaks.asi prayajyo: prayajyo is applied to the priest, the adhvaryu; worship, venerable priest, the wise Va_yu...]
6.049.05 May that splendid car of the As'vins, which is harnessed at a thought, clothe my form (with radiance); that (car) with which, Na_satya_s, leaders of (rites), you go to the dwelling (of the worshipper) to fulfil his desires for his posterity and himself.
6.049.06 Parjanya and Va_ta, showerers of rain, and from te firmament available waters; sage Maruts, hearers of the truth, establishers of the world, multiply the moveable (wealth of him) by whose praises (you are propitiated). [Multiply: jagad a_kr.n.udhvam = jagat: fixed as well as moveable, all living things, jagat stha_vara jan:gama_tmakam sarvam pra_n.ija_tam].
6.049.07 May the purifying, amiable, graceful Sarasvati_, the bride of the hero, favour our pious rite; may she, together with the wives of the gods, well pleased, bestow upon him who praises her a habitation free from defects and impenetrable (to wind and rain), and (grant him) felicity.[Amiable: kanya_ = a maiden (gna_h ga_yajya_di_ni chanda_m.si, chanda_m.si vai gna_h: Taitiri_ya Sam.hita_ 5.1.7.2); kamani_ya_, to be desired or loved; vi_rapatni_ = the wife of the hero (Praja_pati or Brahma_); or, simply, the protectress of heroes or of men].
6.049.08 May (the worshipper), influenced by the hope (of reward), approach with praise the adorable (Pu_s.an), protector of all path; may he bestow upon us cows with golden horns; may Pu_s.an bring to perfection our every rite. [Protector: pathaspathah paripatim: Pu_s.an is the lord of the paths].
6.049.09 May the illustrious Agni, the invoker of the gods, worship (with this oblation), Tvas.t.a_, the first divider (of forms), the renowned, the giver of food, the well-handed, the vast, the adored of householders, the readily invoked. [The adored: yajatam pastya_na_m: pastyam = house, and by metonymy used for householder, gr.hasthair yajani_yam].
6.049.10 Exalt Rudra, the parent of the world, with these hmns by day; (exalt) Rudra (with them) by night; animated by the far-seeing, we invoke him, mighty, of pleasing aspect, undecaying, endowed with felicity, (the source of) prosperity.
6.049.11 Ever youthful wise, and adorable Maruts, come to the praise of your adorer; thus augmenting, leaders (of rites), and spreading (through the firmament), like rays (of light), refresh the scanty woods (with rain).[Like rays of light: naks.anto an:girasvat = an:girasah gamanas'i_la_ras'mayah, rays endowed with motions; te yatha s'i_ghram nabhastalam vya_pnuvanti tad vat, as they spread quickly through the sky, so) do the winds; or, if an:girasa is a reference to a r.s.i, the property of rapid movement is assigned to the r.s.is: yad va r.s.ayastad vacchi_ghraga_minah].
6.049.12 Offer adoration to the valiant, powerful, swift-movig (company of the Maruts), as the herdsman (drives his) herd to their stall; may that (company) appropriate to its own body the praises of the pious worshipper, as the firmament (is studded) with stars.
6.049.13 May we be happy in a home, in riches, in personn, in children, bestowd upon us by you, Vis.n.u, who with three (steps) made the terrestrial reions for Manu when harassed (by the asuras).
6.049.14 May Ahirbudhnya (propitiated) by (our) hymns, and Parvata and Savita_ give us food with water; may the bountiful (gods supply us), addition, with vegetable (grains); and may the all-wise Bhaga be propitious (to us) for (the acquisition of) riches. [Ahirbudhnya: budhna = antariks.a, firmament; budhnya = what or who is there born; ahi = he who goes, i.e., in the sky; parvata: the filler, pu_rayitri_, or the wielder of the thunderbolt, parvavad-vajram tadva_n; or, enemy of the mountain, gireh s'atru; in either sense, the reference is to Indra; with vegetable grains: tad os.adhibhir abhi = os.adhayas tila ma_s.a_dayah, the vegetables are sesamum, pulse and the like].

6.049.15 Grant us, (universal gods), riches, comprehending chariots, numerous dependants, many male offspring, (wealth) the giver of efficiency to the solemn rite, and a dwelling free from decay, wherewith we may overcome malevolent men and unrighteous (spirits), and afford support to those people who are devoted to the gods.

10.147.01 I have faith, Indra, in your first wrath, whereby you did slay Vr.tra, and did undertake a work friendly to man; when both heaven and earth were inferior to you, the firmament trembled at your might, O wielder of the thunderbolt. [Friendly to man: naryam vr.tram: from ni, to lead; viver apas = did approach the waters, i.e., this world; naryam = friendly to man; or, heroic, manly].
10.147.02 Irreproachable Indra, with mind intent on glory you have your deceptions slain the deceptive Vr.tra. The worshipper chooses you when he seeks for his (stolen) cattle, and in all sacrifices accompanied with invocations.
10.147.03 Indra, the invoked of many, be gracious to these Suris, who thereby prospering attain, O Maghavan, to opulence; (who) adore the powerful one at the sacrifice for (the sake of obtaining) a son, a grandson, the fulfilment of their desires, and honourable wealth. [Honourable: ahraye = alajja_kare, of which there is no need to be ashamed].
10.147.04 He obtains well-procured riches, who studies to promote Indra's rapid exhilaration. Exalted by (your favour), O Maghavan, (the worshipper), celebrating the sacrifice, speedily obtains through the officiating priests food and wealth.
10.147.05 Glorified by great (praise), Maghavan, spread forth your might, bestow riches (upon us); beautiful Indra who are wise like Mitra and Varun.a the distributer (of riches), you give us food now.

Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9, 2063-2077.
JournalofCosmology.com, July, 2010

Visions of the Cosmos:
Archaeoastronomy in Ancient IndiaSubhash Kak, Ph.D.
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA

Abstract

This paper is an overview of archaeoastronomy in ancient India. It describes the Vedic conception of the cosmos and the representation of the knowledge of the motions of the sun and the moon in the design of fire altars. Sites of archaeoastronomical interest described include Neolithic and Megalithic sites and the Sanchi Stupa.

Keywords: archaeoastronomy, alignments, cosmos, India, Vedic, Cyclic Universe, ancient skies, calendars, metaphysics.

1. Introduction
Archaeoastronomy in India has the benefit of ancient texts that describe cosmological ideas, their basis in astronomy, and their representation in architecture. These texts provide us crucial understanding of the astronomy and cosmology of the historical period.
In the Indian view, the cosmos is seen as being tripartite and recursive (see Kak, 2000a and Kak, 2008 for review and additional references). The universe is viewed as three regions of earth, space, and sky (Dumézil, 1988) which in the human being are mirrored in the physical body, the breath (prāna), and mind. The processes in the sky, on earth, and within the mind are taken to be connected.
Indian narratives about the cosmos are characterized by the central role of the observer. The cosmos is seen both as real and arising out of the phenomenal contents of the mind. At a practical level, agreement on the phenomenal contents of many minds is taken to imply real existence, and the question of the nature of the qualities of the objects is raised. The question that is asked in the Indian narrative is: Do these attributes or concepts have a real existence or do they arise from the intuition of the observers?
The examination of this and related questions leads to theories of the cosmos, both at the universal and personal levels, that form part of the philosophical systems of Sānkhya and Vaiśeshika. The Vedic view of India (spanning a long period that goes back to at least 2000 BCE) classifies knowledge in two categories: the higher or unified and the lower or dual. Higher knowledge concerns the perceiving subject (consciousness), whereas the lower knowledge concerns objects. Higher knowledge can be arrived at indirectly through intuition and contemplation on the paradoxes of the outer world. Lower knowledge is analytical and it represents standard science with its many branches. There is a complementarity between the higher and the lower, each being necessary to define the other. This complementarity mirrors the one between mind and matter.
The Vedic thinkers were aware that formal descriptions of the universe lead to logical paradox. The one category transcending all oppositions is Brahman. Figure 1 represents this world-view schematically. In this figure, logic is shown as a subset of the capacities of the mind, and likewise models of reality (which are based on logic) do not capture all aspects of the material world. Machines have been grouped together with logic in the figure since they must be constructed according to a logical framework. This figure may be viewed as a representation of the incompleteness of formal systems of knowledge. Vedic ritual is a symbolic retelling of this conception. Notable features of this world view that are relevant here are (Basham, 2004):

An Extremely Old and Large Cyclic Universe: The Vedic texts speak of an infinite universe with ages of very large time periods, or yugas. The recursive Vedic worldview requires that the universe itself go through cycles of creation and destruction. The encyclopedic Purānas speak of the universe going through a current cycle of 8.64 billion years, and the period of the largest cycle is stated to be 311 trillion years.An Atomic World: According to the atomic doctrine of Kanāda, there are nine classes of substances: ether, space, and time that are continuous, four elementary substances (or particles) called earth, air, water, and fire that are atomic, and two kinds of mind, one omnipresent (the universal self) and another that is the individual mind.
Relativity of Time and Space: That space and time need not flow at the same rate for different observers is encountered in the late Vedic and Purānic stories, and in the Mahābhārata and the Yoga Vāsishtha (Dimmitt and van Buitenen, 1978, Kak, 2008).
Many Solar Systems: Indian mythology assumes an uncountable number of worlds (solar systems) (Dimmitt and van Buitenen, 1978). In Purānic texts, the diameter of our own solar system is taken to be about 500 million yojanas which is about 7.5 billion kilometers (Kak, 1999, Rao and Kak, 2000).

Figure 1. Universe as projection of a transcendent principle.With the above as background to the general ideas regarding the cosmos current in ancient India, we come to the discussion of archaeoastronomy in ancient India. A considerable part of the archaeoastronomy of this period is based on the author's research (see, e.g., Kak, 1992, 1993, 2000a, 2000b, 2005a, 2009). Due to the importance given in Indian culture to the abstract and the symbolic, many of the archaeoastronomical sites are temples. The king was consecrated at the temple. The consecration served to confirm the king as foremost devotee of the chosen deity, who was taken to be the embodiment of time and the universe (Kak, 2002).
The Indian sacred city has been viewed as a structured mesocosm, situated between the microcosm of the individual and the macrocosm of the culturally conceived larger universe (Levy, 1991). Such a city is constructed of spatially connected and recursively layered circles, each of which is sustained by its own culture and performance. Although Levy's city is not very ancient, it is built according to an old tradition (Volwahsen, 2001). The Harappan city of Dholavira (Bisht, 1997) is also recursively structured. Furthermore, temples were taken to be define the meeting ground between the macrocosm and the microcosm, and, therefore, they provide much information on the relationship between astronomy and cosmology.
India's archaeological record has unbroken continuity going back to about 7500 BCE at Mehrgarh (Kenoyer, 1998, Lal, 2002), and it has a rock art tradition, next only to that of Australia and Africa in abundance, that is much older (Pandey, 1993, Bednarik, 2000). Some rock art has been assigned to the Upper Paleolithic period. There is surprising uniformity, both in style and content, in the rock art paintings of the Mesolithic period (10,000 – 2500 BCE) (Wakankar, 1992).
The setting for the hymns of the Rigveda, which is India's most ancient literary text, is the area of Sapta Saindhava, the region of north India bounded by the Sindh and the Ganga rivers although regions around this heartland are also mentioned. The Rigveda describes the Sarasvati River to be the greatest of the rivers and going from the mountains to the sea. The archaeological record, suggesting that this river had turned dry by1900 BCE, indicates that the Rigveda is prior to this epoch.
The Rigveda and other early Vedic literature have astronomical references related to the shifting astronomical frame that indicate epochs of the fourth and third millennium BCE which is consistent with the hydrological evidence. The nakshatra lists are found in the Vedas, either directly or listed under their presiding deities, and it one may conclude that their names have not changed. Vedic astronomy used a luni-solar year in which an intercalary month was employed as adjustment with solar year.
The foundation of Vedic cosmology is the notion of bandhu (homology or binding between the outer and the inner). It was estimated correctly that the sun and the moon were approximately 108 times their respective diameters from the earth (perhaps from the discovery that the angular size of a pole removed 108 times its height is the same as that of the sun and the moon), and this number was used in sacred architecture. The distance to the sanctum sanctorum of the temple from the gate and the perimeter of the temple were taken to be 54 and 180 units, which are one-half each of 108 and 360 (e.g. Kak, 2005a). Homologies at many levels are at the basis of the idea of recursion, or repetition in scale and time. The astronomical basis of the Vedic ritual was the reconciliation of the lunar and solar years.
2. The Cosmological Plan of the City and the Temple
According to the Vāstu Śāstra, manual of sacred architecture, the structure of the building mirrors the emergence of cosmic order out of primordial chaos through the act of measurement. The universe is symbolically mapped into a square that emphasizes the four cardinal directions. It is represented by the square vāstupurushamandala, which in its various forms is the basic plan for the temple, the house, and the city. There exist further elaborations of this plan, some of which are rectangular.
Yantric buildings in the form of mandalas, dated to about 2000 BCE, have been discovered in North Afghanistan that belong to a period that corresponds to the late stage of the Harappan tradition (Kak, 2005b, 2010) providing architectural evidence in support of the idea of recursion at this time. Although these building are a part of the Bactria- Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), their affinity with ideas that are also present in the Harappan system shows that these ideas were widely spread..
Recent studies haves shown that the unit of dhanus has been used consistently in India in town planning and architecture for over 4,000 years, going back to the Harappan period. By considering the largest measure which leads to integer dimensions for the various parts of the Harappan age city of Dholavira, which was excavated in the 1990s (Bisht, 1997, Bisht, 1999), it was found that this measure is the same as the Arthaśāstra (300 BCE) measure of dhanus (bow) that equals 108 angulas (fingers) (see Kak, 2009, 2010, for details).
The measure of dhanus is seen to apply not only to the Mauryan and Gupta era structures, but even to more recent grid and modular measures in the town planning of Kathmandu Valley. The measures used in ancient India are summarized in the table below.

Table 1.

The three different hasta measures have been called the Prājāpatya (P-hasta), commercial (C-hasta), and forest (F-hasta) by Balasubramaniam (2008), and used variously in different situations. Here we are concerned primarily withdhanus, although we will also encounter pāda and aratni.
With the measure of dhanus (D) of 1.9404 m, the dimensions of Mohenjo-Daro's acropolis turn out to be 210 x 105 D, Kalibangan's acropolis turn out to be 126 x 63 D. The dimensions of the lower town of Dholavira are 405 x 324 D, the width of the middle town is 180 D, and the inner dimensions of the castle are 60 x 48 D (Danino, 2008). The sum of the width and length of the lower town comes to 729 which is astronomically significant since it is 27 x 27, and the width 324 equals the nakshatra year 27 x 12 (Kak, 2009).
The layout of Dholavira is unique in that it comprises of three "towns," which is in accord with Vedic ideas (Bisht, 1997, Bisht, 1999). The feature of recursion in the three towns, or repeating ratios at different scales, is significant. Specifically, the design is characterized by the nesting proportion of 9:4 across the lower and the middle towns and the castle. The proportions of 5/4, 7/6, and 5/4 for the lower town, the middle town, and the castle may reflect the measures related to the royal city, the commander's quarter, and the king's quarter, respectively, which was also true of Classical India (Bhat, 1995).

Figure 2. Map of Dholavira (Bisht, 1997).The Somapura Mahāvihāra of Pāhārpur has dimensions of 280x281 m, which when converted to dhanus become nearly 147x147 D, or 49x49 with the units of three times dhanus, which would be a natural plan for avāstupurushamandala. The base of the temple was generally in a square grid of 8 or 9 units (64 or 81 squares) in the Brihat Samhitā (Bhat, 1995), but according to other texts it could range from one to 1024 square divisions. Another text gives special importance to the 7x7 plan. The Brihadīśvara temple (which was completed in 1010 CE), has a sanctum tower of 30.2x30.2x66 and it is within an enclosure of 240x120 m. In dhanus units, this amounts to 16x16 D plan in an enclosure of 126x63 D, where the error is less than one percent in the sanctum and almost zero for the enclosure. This indicates that the sanctum used a vāstupurushamandala of 64 squares where each square had a length of one-fourth dhanus. The dhanus unit also explains the chosen dimensions of Angkor Wat and Prambanan temples in Southeast Asia.
3. More on Harappan and Vedic Records
In this section we consider additional evidence from Harappan and Vedic periods. The absence of monumental buildings such as palaces and temples makes the Harappan city strikingly different from its counterparts of Mesopotamia and Egypt, suggesting that the polity of the Harappan state was de-centralized and based on a balance between the political, the mercantile, and the religious elites. The presence of civic amenities such as wells and drains attests to considerable social equality. The power of the mercantile guilds is clear in the standardization of weights of carefully cut and polished chert cubes that form a combined binary and decimal system.
Mohenjo-Daro and other sites show slight divergence of 1° to 2° clockwise of the axes from the cardinal directions (Wanzke, 1984). It is thought that this might have been due to the orientation of Aldebaran (Rohinī in Sanskrit) and the Pleiades (Kritikkā in Sanskrit) that rose in the east during 3000 BCE to 2000 BCE at the spring equinox, the word "rohinī" literally means rising. Furthermore, the slight difference in the orientations amongst the buildings in Mohenjo-Daro indicates different construction periods using the same traditional sighting points that had shifted in this interval due to precession of the equinoxes (Kenoyer, 1998).
Mohenjo-Daro's astronomy used both the motions of the moon and the sun (Maula, 1984). This is attested by the use of great calendar stones, in the shape of ring, which served to mark the beginning and end of the solar year.

Figure 3. Astronomical seal from the Harappan era (left: picture, right: sketch of same).The seal of Figure 3 has been viewed by many as representing the Pleiades. The conjunction of this constellation with the sun at the vernal equinox marked the New Year around 2400 BCE. The Pleiades, the wives of the seven sages, are important in Vedic mythology as representing the seven mothers who nurse the war-god Skanda.

Figure 4. A 3rd millennium seal from Rehman Dheri.The seal of Figure 4 is taken to represent the opposition of the Orion (Mrigashiras, or antelope head) and the Scorpio (Rohini of the southern hemisphere which is 14 nakshatras from the Rohini of the northern hemisphere) nakshatras. The arrow near the head of one of the antelopes could represent the decapitation of Orion. It is generally accepted that the myth of Prajapati being killed by Rudra represents the shifting of the beginning of the year away from Orion and it places the astronomical event in the fourth millennium BCE (Kak, 1996, 2000a).

Figure 5. Mapping of the nakshatras to the solar months.Figure 5 presents the 27 nakshatras of the Indian astronomy together with the 12 solar segments (rāshis). It is significant that the 27 nakshatras contain 24 names together with three which are further subdivided. This indicates that the 24 divisions may have preceded the 27 divisions of the Vedic astronomy.
Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India. Vedic texts describe the design and ritual of the fire altars which were oriented towards the east and whose design, using bricks laid in five layers, coded astronomical knowledge of its times (Kak, 2000a). The best known of the fire altars is the falcon altar of Figure 6. Texts that describe fire altar designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BCE, but their contents appear to be much older.

Figure 6. Fire altar designed as a falcon.Vedic ritual was based on the times for the full and the new moons, the solstices and the equinoxes. There were two years: the ritual year started with the winter solstice (mahāvrata), and the civil one started with the spring equinox (vishuva). The passage of the rising of the sun in its northward course from the winter solstice to the summer solstice (vishuvant) was called gavām ayana, or the sun's walk. The solar year was divided into two ayanas: in the uttarāyana the sun travels north, in the dakshināyana it travels south. The movement of the moon was marked by its nightly conjunction with one of the 27 or 28 nakshatras. The Rigveda 1.164 also speaks of another tradition of dividing the zodiac into twelve equal parts. It appears that these divisions were called the Ādityas. The incommensurability between the lunar and the solar reckonings led to the search for ever-increasing cycles to synchronize the motions of the sun and the moon. This is how the yuga astronomical model was born. In the lunar month, there were separate traditions of counting the beginning of the month by the full-moon day and the new-moon day.
4. Neolithic and Megalithic Sites
Sites of archaeoastronomical interest include the Neolithic site of Burzahom from Kashmir in North India, and megalithic sites from Brahmagiri and Hanamsagar from Karnataka in South India. The dates for these specific sites are provided in the text. The importance of these sites arises from the fact that they present astronomical knowledge that was most likely outside the literary tradition.
Burzahom, Kashmir
The Burzahom site is located about 10 km northeast of Srinagar in the Kashmir Valley on a terrace of Late Pleistocene-Holocene deposits. Dated to around 3000 - 1500 BCE, its deep pit dwellings are associated with ground stone axes, bone tools, and gray burnished pottery. A stone slab of 48 cm x 27 cm, obtained from a phase dated to 2125 BCE shows two bright objects in the sky with a hunting scene in the foreground. These have been assumed to be a depiction of a double star system (Rao, 2005).

Figure 7. Burzahom sky scene.Brahmagiri, Karnataka. The megalithic stone circles of Brahmagiri (latitude 14^o 73', longitude 76^o 77'), Chitradurga district of Karnataka in South India, that have been dated to 900 BCE, show astronomical orientations. Rao (1993) has argued that site lines from the centre of a circle to an outer tangent of another circle point to the directions of the sunrise and full moon rise at the time of the solar and lunar solstices and equinox.

Figure 8. Megalithic stone circles of BrahmagiriHanamsagar, Karnataka. Hanamsagar is a megalithic site with stone alignments pointing to cardinal directions. Since the megalithic period of Karnataka is believed to belong to the first millennium BCE, it may be assumed that this is the period of the site. The site is located on a flat area between hills about 6 km north of the Krishna river at latitude 16^o 19' 18" and longitude 76^o 27' 10". The stones, which are smooth granite, are arranged in a square of side that is about 600 meters with 50 rows and 50 column (for a total of 2,500 stones), with a separation between stones of about 12 m. The stones are between 1 to 2.5 m in height with a maximum diameter of 2 to 3 m. The lines are oriented in cardinal directions. There is a squarish central structure known as chakri katti.

Figure 9. Alignments at Hanamsagar (Rao, 2005).It has been argued that the directions of summer and winter solstice can be fixed in relation to the outer and the inner squares. Rao (2005) suggests that it could have been used for several other kind of astronomical observations such as use of shadows to tell the time of the day, the prediction of months, seasons and passage of the year.
5. The Sanchi Stupas
The Sanchi Stupa, a hemispherical domed structure with a flattened top meant to contain the relics of the Buddha, is believed to have been built by King Aśoka in around 250 BCE, an enlargement to double the size was done by the Śungas (this dynasty ruled between 185 and 73 BCE). It is surrounded by a balustrade that represents the sun's circuit. The Buddha did on full moon day of the lunar month Vaiśākha, and this day is observed as the Buddha pūrnimā day. At full moon the moonrise and sunset are observed in the eastern and western horizons.
It is likely that the astronomical basis of the Stupa was inspired by the Vedic altar that represented the circuit of the sun. It has been shown elsewhere (Millar and Kak, 1999) how this representation of the sun's motion remained common knowledge and it was used in Angkor Wat.

Figure 10. A Vedic fire altar representing the circuit of the sun.Two further Stupas were built by the Śunga kings and it is believed that they fixed the orientation of the Stupa. G.M. Ballabh and K.D. Abhyankar found that the Buddha pūrnimā occurred at Sanchi on April 28, 109 BCE with the sunset and moonrise of the full moon to the east-west orientation of the Stupa (azimuth of the Sun and Moon equal to 285.2 and 105 degrees, respectively, with an altitude of about 1 degree). This also corresponds to the setting and rising of the Pleiades (Krittikā) and δ Scorpii (Anurādhā) (Rao, 1992).

Figure 11. The Sanchi Great Stupa (Rao, 1992).

Figure 12. The Sanchi Great Stupa from Eastern Gate (picture Raveesh Vyas).There is further astronomical significance to the design of the outer balustrade in the Stupas.
Great Stupa. The outer balustrade has 120 posts arranged in 4 quadrants and they are joined by three rows of 29 horizontal crossbars. Starting with the 30 posts in the first quadrant, 29 crossbars of the second quadrant, 30 posts of the third quadrant, and 29 crossbars of the fourth quadrant, we have a count of 118. Three such rounds correspond to the number of days in the lunar year. Rao (1992) adds that to arrive at an undistorted full circle it would require 108 (i.e. 120-16+4) posts, where the 16 entrance posts have been subtracted and 4 missing posts at each entrance required have been added for reasons of symmetry. We have already mentioned the significance of the count of 108 in Indian astronomy. Rao (1992) speculates that the total number of outer balustrade posts (120) and slabs (115) gives a count of 235 corresponds to the lunations of the Metonic cycle. The harmika balustrade at the top has 28 posts, which equals the number of nakshatras.
Stupa 2. The count according to Rao (1992) for the posts and the crossbars is also 354, the number of days in the lunar year. Rao further speculates that the location of Sanchi may have astronomical significance since its latitude is close to the declination of the sun on the summer solstice day.
6. Concluding Remarks
This paper presents a broad overview to the archaeoastronomy of ancient India. Indian archaeoastronomy provides unique insights into the nature of ancient science and society in India for this region has vast number of texts belonging to different ages. The assumed homologies between the outer and the inner cosmoses meant that the same vocabulary was used to speak of their respective structures. While this becomes an obstacle for those who do not understand the system, it has within it the potential to explain many attitudes in Indian mythology, religious practice, science, and art.
In concluding, there was continuity between the archaeoastronomy of the early period covered in this essay and that of the medieval period where pilgrimage and temple centers mirrored conceptions of the cosmos. Medieval sites of archaeoastronomical significance include Sisupalgarh, Chitrakut, Vijayanagara, Gaya, Konarak, Khajuraho, and the Suryapuja temples in Tamil Nadu (e.g. Malville, 1989, Malville and Gujral, 2000, Malville and Swaminathan, 2005, Singh, 2009). For example, the temple complex of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, built in 9th -12th century CE by the Chandela kings, form three overlapping circles, with centers at the Lakshmana (Vishnu), the Javeri (Śiva), and the Duladeva (Śiva) temples. Their deviation from true cardinality is believed to be due to the direction of sunrise on the day of consecration (Singh, 2009). The Lakshmana temple, one of the oldest of the complex, is considered the axis mundi of the site and it is oriented to the sunrise on Holi.
The sun temples of Varanasi (Malville, 1985, Singh, 2009) are interesting in that six of these lie along one side of an isosceles triangle with a base of 2.5km. The triangle surrounds the former temple of Madhyameshavara, which was the original center of the city. Pilgrims walking along the triangle are symbolically circumambulating the cosmos. The subject of the medieval temples forms an important and fascinating chapter in India's archaeoastronomy that is beyond the scope of this paper.

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Rao, T.R.N. and Kak, S. (2000). Computing Science in Ancient India. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi.
Singh, Rana P.B. (2009). Cosmic Order and Cultural Astronomy: Sacred Cities of India. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, No. 4. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne.
Volwahsen, A. (2001). Cosmic Architecture in India. Prestel, New York, and Mapin Publishing, Ahmedabad.
Wakankar, V.S. (1992). Rock painting in India. In M. Lorblanchet (ed.), Rock Art in the Old World. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi.

Wanzke, H. (1984). Axis systems and orientation at Mohenjo-Daro. In Interim Reports on Fieldwork Carried out at Mohenjo-Daro 1982-83, vol. 2, eds. M. Jansen and G. Urban. Aachen and Roma, 33-44.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientAstronomy103.html

Published: March 25, 2015 00:00 IST | Updated: March 25, 2015 05:42 IST CHITTOOR, March 25, 2015

Sun rays enter temple a day before Surya Puja festival

STAFF REPORTER

Sun rays enter Vedanarayana Swamy temple at Nagulapuram on Tuesday.Photo: By Arrangement

On the eve of the five-day Surya Puja Mahotsavam at Lord Vedanarayanaswamy Temple at Nagalapuram in the district, the sun rays fell inside the temple on Tuesday evening and the phenomenon will assume several interesting phases with the rays shifting from the feet of the Lord’s idol at the sanctum sanctorum to the navel (nabhi) point with each day till March 29.

The rays are expected to fall at the feet of the idol on Wednesday evening. The presiding deity here is worshipped as the protector of sacred Vedas in the ‘Mastya avatar’ (fish).

The TTD is celebrating the five-day Surya Puja Mahotsavam. The officials have released the publicity posters for the auspicious event, which will draw huge crowds from all over Chittoor, Nellore districts and several parts bordering Tamil Nadu. The Surya Puja Mahotsavam will be conducted from March 25 to 29. The temple saw its golden time during the time of Emperor Sri Krishna Devaraya in the 16th century. The priests said that this astronomical wonder was witnessed at this west-phased temple in the evenings, while the same will happen at the Konark temple in Odisha during the morning session.

Surya Puja darshan will be from 5.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m. on everyday during the festival, followed by Thiruveedhi Utsavam (procession of deities through the temple streets) on all days of the puja. Similarly, the Theppotsavam (float festival) will be celebrated for three days from March 26 to 28. Over 50 police personnel were deployed for monitoring the crowd of devotees.

http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/sun-rays-enter-temple-a-day-before-surya-puja-festival/article7030615.ece

March 20, 2011
A Sun Salutation
SUN TEMPLES IN INDIA

From time immemorial the Sun has exercised a strange fascination over the
Indian mind. The radiant light and energy-packed brightness of the Sun fired the imagination of the Vedic Aryans to glorify the ‘orb of the day’ as Hiranyagarbha ---
A storehouse of inexhaustible power and radiance. The Vedic seers regarded the Sun as the embodiment of the divine triumvirate—Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara. The Vedas are aglow with scintillating hymns in adoration of the Sun - the source and sustainer of all forms in the universe. The Sun’s resplendent golden rays are considered to be the harbinger of joy, enlightenment and prosperity .In addition, the Sun is specially associated with the power to cure such dreaded ailments like leprosy and blindness

. During the ancient Vedic times, Surya was worshipped through chants and rituals but there were no idols to be found in India. Neither was there any temple dedicated to Surya. It is believed that the idols of the Sun were first brought into this country by foreign rulers –the Greeks, the Persians and Shakhas who traversed the land. A glance at the early idols installed in the country establishes this foreign influence –as they are clad in long coats, trousers and boots. This is evident from the fact that the idols of the Sun and his attendants found during the 2nd Century B.C.and 5th Century A.D wear these garments.. It is only when a cult of Sun worshippers sprang up in India that the idols assumed Indian dress. From the 5th Century A.D. onwards, temples to Sun God in India became popular.

Acharya Shankara, the celebrated champion of Advaita, has accorded a place of importance to Surya in the Shanmata School of idolatry worship instituted by him. Apart from the general worship of the Sun as has been in vogue from Vedic times, there were classes of people called “Sauras” who worshipped the Sun God exclusively. It is said that these solar votaries were so much devoted to the Sun God that they never used to eat until they had seen the Sun. Varahamihira, India’ s greatest astronomer of the 7th century A.D., makes repeated references to the intricacies of ceremonies connected with the installation of the Surya idol. According to the Vishnu Puranam [2-4-71], Eastern Iran, which in ancient times was known as Saakadwipa [Saakasthan], was a staunch seat of solar worship. An exclusive group of solar votaries in Iran called ‘Magas’ used to get royal patronage for propagating the cult of solar worship. According to history, some of these Maga priests came to India by about the 2nd Century A.D, and introduced certain of their own special features in the worship of the Sun God

History records that the tradition of building exclusive temples for the Sun God started in India by about the 5th Century A.D. during the Gupta period. The iconography of Surya bears a remarkable influence of the Persian style. Persia was then a flourishing centre of Surya worship. The direction of the solar votaries from Persia called the Magas, who came to India from Persia, was sought in many rituals related to the worship of the Sun. The early Sun temples belonging to the 5th and 6th Centuries A.D.were built by the kings belonging to the Gupta, Maurya, Bhoja and Kadamba dynasties. This activity continued till about the 12th Century A.D. and thereafter this form of Sun worship gradually waned.

The following are some of the important Sun Temples of India

The Marthanda Sun Temple at Kashmir: Kashmir was the first and foremost seat of the solar cult in India. According to the celebrated Kashmiri chronicle ‘Rajatarangini’ written by the Kashmiri poet Kalhana in Sanskrit, the emperor Lalitaditya who ruled Kashmir between 701-757 A.D., was mainly responsible for building the first magnificent Sun Temple at Marthanda, at a distance of about 40 miles from Srinagar The awe-inspiring remains of this temple provide ample testimony to the fact that Kashmir was once a powerful centre for Sun worship. The temple was erected either to commemorate the victory of Lalitaditya over his neighboring kingdom or to ensure victory on the eve of a new expedition.

A few years back, when the courtyard of the present temple was excavated, the removal of accumulated debris which had collected for centuries revealed a very important factor. According to the geologists who inspected the site, previous to the construction of the existing temple, there existed another temple of somewhat smaller dimensions at this very site. When the existing temple was built, the older temple base was not completely demolished since its foundations were used to found the existing temple.

The Sun Temple at Multan [now in Pakistan]: The site of the second oldest Sun Temple in India is at Multan, now in Pakistan. Believed to have been established by the Magas, the remnants of this temple, left after Mohamed of Ghazni’s desecration, were finally demolished by Aurangazeb. The renowned Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang who visited the shrine in 641 A.D. has recorded his impression thus: “Thousands of men from all countries came here to offer their prayers”

The Sun Temple at Modhera, Gujarat: The solar cult which had its origin in Kashmir appears to have spread through Punjab into Gujarat and from there to Orissa until it reached its most glorious achievement in the Konarak Sun Temple in Orissa.
Relics of a beautiful Sun Temple on the banks of the river Pushpavati in Modhera in Gujarat, about 100 kms from Ahmedabad bear strong imprints of the Maga influence. It is believed that the officiating priests at the Multan shrine came over to Gujarat consequent on the Islamic invasion of the region and strove to establish Sun cult in the Eastern coast of India. The crumbling walls of the temple which are situated in the midst of sand dunes have representation of the Sun God wearing a peculiar west Asian belt and boots. King Bhima of the Chalukyan dynasty who was ruling Gujarat the earlier part of the 11thCentury A.D.is believed to have patronized the construction of the temple
The temple is facing east. The temple has been so designed that the direct early morning Sun rays reach the idol of the sanctum sanctorum all the year round through the doors and specially designed screen windows.

The Sun Temple at Konarak, Orissa: The greatest and the grandest of Sun Temples in India is at Konarak in Orissa. This thirteenth century monument, which now wears a worn-out look with its crumbling side walls, is one of the brightest gems of Indian Temple Architecture. Situated at about 20 miles from the holy city of Puri, the place came to be called as ‘Konarak’ [which is a combination of the two words Kona plus Arka Kona means corner and Arka means Sun in Sanskrit], meaning ‘Corner Sun’,
owing to the fact that it is situated in the north-east of Puri. The term ‘kona’ is used in relation to its position to Puri.

There is an interesting mythological legend about the origin of the Konarak Sun Temple. It is said that once Samba, son of Lord Krishna, ridiculed Sage Narada and there was a fracas between them. The clever and tricky Narada wanted to teach a lesson to Samba. Once he led Samba to a place where the Gopis were having their bath in a river.
Samba, extremely handsome as he was, could easily excite the bathing ladies. When Krishna came to know about the misdemeanor of his son, he cursed him to become a leper. When Samba pleaded innocence and begged for redemption, Krishna directed him to go to a place near the present Konarak and worship the Sun for getting rid of his leprosy. Accordingly Samba meditated at Konarak by repeating the twelve names of the Sun [Dwadasha Adityas]. On doing so, he found a magnificent idol of Sun god seated on a lotus in the water of the Chandrabhaga River.. When he consecrated this image of divine splendor, he was cured of leprosy. It is said that the present temple is built on the same site

Konarak marks the great culmination of the artistic splendor and devotional fervor associated with Sun worship. The temple is in the form of the Sun’s chariot drawn by seven horses. Built by the Ganga ruler, Narasimhadeva Varma, in the thirteenth century, it is a glowing tribute to the daring artistic vision coupled with unique architectural skill.
The twelve superbly decorated wheels carved on either side of the edifice are breathtaking for their size as well as for the details of artistic carving. It is learnt that more than 1,200 sculptors worked for a period of sixteen years. It is unfortunate that the temple could not be fully completed as conceived earlier for some reason or the other. and hence the temple remained an incomplete monument of the Kalinga art.

The Indian idea of blending the architecture of the temple with its natural environment can be seen at its best in the choice of the surroundings at Konarak Temple. Not only does one get a beautiful view of the rising Sun, but it also makes the temple red, like a coy bride. The first rays of the Sun would touch the feet of the deity. Slowly as the Sun rises in the firmament, the whole edifice is lit up. It is said that the main idol was removed by some Portuguese navigators many years back and presently housed in a museum.

B.M.N.Murthy

SUN TEMPLES IN INDIA
Created: Friday, July 13, 2007
http://murtymandala.blogspot.in/2011/03/sun-salutation.html
ESSAYS FROM ARCHAEOASTRONOMY & ETHNOASTRONOMY NEWS, THE QUARTERLY BULLETIN OF THE CENTER FOR ARCHAEOASTRONOMY

Number 15 March Equinox 1995

Archaeoastronomy and Cultural Astronomy in India
by J McKim Malville

A continuity of culture covering at least 2500 years, a culture that is "thick" with texts, an archaeological record including 1000 year old temples that are still in worship and the largest ruined city of the world, and extensive festival and pilgrimage traditions with astronomical overtones are some of the pleasures that India provides for the archaeoastronomer. One of the earliest archaeoastronomical investigations of South Asia to be reported in the western press was of Angkor Wat (1). The work had almost a "Stonehenge" quality to it, reminiscent of the early days of archaeoastronomy. Preforming no fieldwork at the site, working exclusively from the maps of others, the author concluded that there was a basic unit of measure, a Khmer cubit, the hat, and that the buildings contained mathematical ratios of the great yungas of Hindu time and solar and lundar periods as well as alignments to solstice, lunar standstill points, and stellar risings. None of their conclusions could be verified by concurrent texts or by ethnography. Neither have similar geometries been verified in other temple complexes in the Hindu world. The results results have not been accepted by Indian or Western art historians, and though fascinating issues were raised, the jury remains out.

In most cases, India does offer the opportunity of combining a hugh archaeological record, extraordinarily varied living traditions, and abundant texts. It also demonstrates the usefullness of considering the total context of a site, i.e. the combination phenomena of the celestial sphere, the local topography including "sacred" hills and rivers, and the human microcosm consisting of cities, temples, texts, and ritual. I summerize three case studies that illustrate the following points: (1) (as if we needed to be reminded) archaeoastronomers as well as archaeologists need to combine the archaeological record, texts, and ethnographic fieldwork to avoid some of the interpretive pitfalls of ethnocentrism; (2) the ancient city was not just the product of kings but was often the product of the combination of ceremonial traditions of both kings and commoners; (3) "ordinary" people, e.g. pilgrims, maintain complex ceremonial traditions that may become embedded in the archaeological record with a complexity that rivals the results of formal city planning.

Early in my studies of India I was intrigued by the tradition of suryapuja in the temples of Tamil Nadu. (Surya is the sun god and puja implies his worship.) We located over 70 temples that are constructed in such a manner that on days close to the equinox, the light of the rising or setting sun passes through long colonnades to tou`ch the image of the main diety of the temple, most often a Shivalinga (2). Most of these are "old" temples, probably constructed prior to the 11th century, and all are still in worship. The nature of the suryapuja festival varies greatly from one temple to another, depending mostly upon the energy, knowledge, and entrepreneurship ofthe hereditary priests in charge. In some cases, the festivals are elaborate and dramatic, as hundreds may line tha pathway of the sun to view the beam of light falling upon the brightly faces of the linga in the sanctum. The beam of light is outlined in clouds of incense and accomp[anied by the sounds of bells, drums, and Verdic chanting. In many temples, archetectural symmetry has been broken to allow passage of light into the sanctum; in one temple the priests described with great enthusiasm, a second "miraculous" illumination of the linga that occurs when sunlight is reflected off the waters of the eastern temple tank.

Some temples have manuals that describe the traditions of the temple and have priests who can provide their own interpretation. The suprise of this work was that thwe sun was not the object of worship at all; instead, people gathered to watch the sun prostrate himself in worship of Lord Shiva. The sun was actually asking forgiveness for his lack of compassion for human suffering for which he had been inflicted with leprosy. My colleague, Dr Swaminathan, at Annamali University in Chidambaram, has compiled a list of 170 Shaivite temples in Tamil Nadu, many of which are probably suryapuja temples; we have lots of opportunities for more field work!

While these suryapuja temples have turned the notion of sun worship on its ear, there are other occasions when the sun is clearly the object of worship and gratitude, such as every morning at Varanasi on the west bank of the Ganga, or once a year at the sun temple of Konarak when 50,000 people gather to watch sunrise over the Bay of Bengal.

The ruins of Vijayanagara have been the object of considerable fieldwork, much of it jointly with the archaeologist John Fritz. Once the capital of an empire that covered the lower third of India, the city was destroyed following a disasterous battle in 1565. Although the city reached a population of 500,000, it never recovered, and remains abandoned today. The city contains a mixture of symbolic and visual astronomy, associated with both kings and citizens. Although much was destroyed in the final holocaust including its libraries, textssurvived elsewhere in the empire. We find that Kings related themselves to Rama, the archetypal Indian monarch, and the citizens and soldiers became Hanuman, the monkey god who is the perfect devotee (3). A ceremonial gateway divides the Royal Center into two parts for the king and queen. (consistant with a major theme of Rameyana) and established an accurate north south axis that crosses the summet of Matanga hill, a placw that figures prominently in the creation myths of the city. On the summit of that mountain, is a temple to Virabhadra, a "fierce" form of Shiva, appropriate for a military empire. Descendants of the devotees of Virabhadra during the days of the empire, remained in the neighborhood and demonstrated their "fierceness" by an annual festival in which they pierced cheeks and toungs with large needles. Elsewhere in the city, we find evidence of Hanuman shrines and temples aligned to sunrise on the day of zenith crossing, ceremonial "car" streets aligned to the rising point of Sirius, and alignments involved in other major hills, including the birthplace of Hanuman. Local "folk" traditions influence city designs as much as the "high" mythology of the rulers.

Going to the Urban opposite of the imperial city of Vijayanagara, we have made GPS studies of the city of Varanasi, (Banaras), a dense and complex city of shrines built not by kings, but by the millions of pilgrims who, for millennia, have flocked to the city from all over the country. My colleague, Dr. Rana Singh of the Geography department of Banaras Hindu University, and I located the remains of fourteen major sun templesof the city that had been destroyed after the 1192 Muslim invasionof North India (4). These are represented by broken fragments of the original images of the sun set into the walls of homes, narrow alleys, and small shrines. It is a remarkable revelation of the power of the place, that pilgrims remember the sites of the original temples, and continue to visit their putative locations. In our mapping of these temples, we discovered that they are largely organized along the sides of a triangle that encircles the ancient, but now largely ignored and forgotten original center of the city and cosmos. Reading the Sanskrit texts that describing the city, we were able to verify the locations of the temples and piece together some of the histories of these temples, from which it appears that astronomical phenomena were recorded in the temple traditions. One temple was built to commemorate a total solar eclipse in 1054 and another marked the appearance of naked eye sunspots and a meteor shower on 1078-1080. Here is another example of the growth"organic" geometric order in a city, revealing the power of the ceremonialism of the people.

References

Stencel, R. F. Gifford, and E Moron, "Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor Wat", Science, 193, 281-287, 1976.

Malville, J. M., "Sun Worship in Contemporary India", Man in India: A Quarterly Journal of Anthropology, 65. 207-233, 1985.

Malville, J. M., "The Compleat Devotee and the Cosmic City: Hunaman at Hampi" in Art: the Integral VCision, edited by B. N. Saraswati, S. C. Malik, M. Khanna, D. K. Printworld, New Delhi, pp 147-164, 1994.

Singh, Rana and J. M. Malville, "Cosmic Order and Cityscape of Varanasi (Kashi): Sun Images and Cultural Astronomy, National Geographical Journal of India, 41, 69-88, March 1995.

http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/ae15.html

Konark Sun Temple | Sun Temple | Konark Surya Mandir

Konark Sun Temple is a 13th-century Sun Temple (also known as the Black Pagoda), at Konark, in Orissa. It was constructed from oxidizing and weathered ferruginous sandstone by King Narasimhadeva I (1236-1264 CE) of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty. The temple is one of the most well renowned temples in India and is a World Heritage Site. It is one of the Seven Wonders of India (as per the poll collected by NDTV).

Architecture of Konark Sun Temple:

The temple takes the form of the chariot of Surya (Arka), the sun god, and is heavily decorated with stone carving. The entire complex was designed in the form of a huge chariot drawn by seven spirited horses on twelve pairs of exquisitely decorated wheels.
Konark Sun Temple Chariot Wheel.

The entrance is guarded by two giant lions, which are each shown crushing a war elephant. Each elephant in turn lies on top of a human body. The temple symbolizes the majestic stride of the Sun god. At the entrance of the temple is a Nata Mandir. This is where the temple dancers used to perform dances in homage to the Sun god. All around the temple, there are various floral and geometric patterns.The temple is now partly in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is housed in the Sun Temple Museum, which is run by the Archaeological Survey of India. The poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote of Konark: "Here the language of stone surpasses the language of man."

The Sun Temple, built in the thirteenth century, was conceived as a gigantic chariot of the Sun God, with twelve pairs of exquisitely ornamented wheels pulled by seven pairs of horses. Majestic in conception, this temple is one of the most sublime monuments of India, famous as much for its imposing dimensions and faultless proportions as for the harmonious integration of architectural grandeur with plastic allegiance. Every inch of the temple is covered with sculpture of an unsurpassed beauty and grace, in tableaux and freestanding pieces ranging from the monumental to the miniature. The subject matter is fascinating. Thousands of images include deities, celestial and human musicians, dancers, lovers, and myriad scenes of courtly life, ranging from hunts and military battles to the pleasures of courtly relaxation. These are interspersed with birds, animals (close to two thousand charming and lively elephants march around the base of the main temple alone), mythological creatures, and a wealth of intricate botanical and geometrical decorative designs. The famous jewel-like quality of Orissan art is evident throughout, as is a very human perspective which makes the sculpture extremely accessible.

The temple is famous for its erotic sculptures, which can be found primarily on the second level of the porch structure. It will become immediately apparent upon viewing them that the frank nature of their content is combined with an overwhelming tenderness and lyrical movement. This same kindly and indulgent view of life extends to almost all the other sculptures at Konark, where the thousands of human, animal, and divine personages are shown engaged in the full range of the 'carnival of life' with an overwhelming sense of appealing realism. It is admittedly the best in Orissa. Its fine traceries and scrollwork, as well as the beautiful and natural cut of animal and human figures, give it a superiority over other temples.

The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga school of Indian temples with characteristic curvilinear towers mounted by cupolas. In shape, the temple did not make any major departure from other sikhara temples of Orissa. The main sanctum which (229 ft. high) was constructed along with the audience hall (128 ft. high) having elaborate external projections. The main sanctum which enshrined the presiding deity has fallen off. The Audience Hall survives in its entirely, but only small portions of the Dancing Hall (nata Mandir) and the Dining Hall (Bhoga-Mandap) have survived the vagaries of time. The Temple compound measures 857 ft (261 m) by 540 ft (160 m). The alignment of the Sun Temple is on the east-west direction. The Temple is located in natural surroundings, abounding with casuarina plantations and other types of trees such as mahogany, rosewood, eel which grow on sandy soil.

History of Konark Sun Temple:

The large structure seen today is actually the mantapa (mandap). Of the main tower, which once stood in the front, only the remains can be seen. This tower (deul) was perhaps 200 feet (60 metres) tall, higher than any other temple in India.

Kalapahad of Konark Sun Temple:

The most popular theory about the root of the fall of Konark temple rests with the Kalapahad, the general of Bengal Sultan Sulaiman Khan Karrani. According to some accounts Kalapahad was formerly a Hindu Kayastha officer, however he had converted to Islam. According to Afsanah-i-Shahan of Shaikh Kabir Batini, he was a Batini Afghan. According to the history of Orissa, Kalapahad invaded Orissa in 1508. He destroyed Konark temple, as well as a number of Hindu temples in Orissa. The Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple describes how Kalapahad attacked Orissa in 1568. Including Konark temple, he broke most of the images in most of the Hindu temples in Orissa. Though the stone walls are of 20 to 25 feet (7.6 m) thick, he somehow managed to displace the Dadhinauti (Arch stone) and thus caused the tower to collapse. He also damaged most of the images and other side temples of Konark. Due to displacement of the Dadhinauti, the tower gradually collapsed and the roof of the Mukasala was also damaged, due to the stones falling down from the temple top.

Orissa came under Muslim control in 1568. There were constant attempts to destroy the Hindu temples. The Pandas (priests) of Puri, to save the sanctity of the Puri temple, took away the Lord Jagannath from the Srimandir and kept the image in a secret place. Similarly, it is said that the Pandas of Konark took away the presiding deity of the Sun temple and buried it under the sand for years. Latter on the image was said to have been removed to Puri and kept in the temple of Indra, in the compound of the Puri Jagannath temple. According to others, the Puja image of the Konark temple is yet to be discovered. But others hold the view that the Sun image now kept in the National Museum of Delhi was the presiding deity of the Konark Sun temple.

The Sun worship in the Konark temple ended upon the removal of the sacred image from the temple. This resulted in the end of pilgrimages to Konark. The port at Konark was also closed, due to pirate attacks. Konark was as glorious a city for Sun worship as it was for commercial activities, but after the cessation of these activities, Konark became deserted and was left to develop as a dense forest for years.

In 1626 the then king of Khurda, Raja Narasimha Dev, son of Purusottam Dev, took away the Sun image to Puri along with two other moving deities - Sun and Moon. Now they are found in a temple in the compound of Puri Jagannath temple.

As described earlier there was a big block of stone called Navagraha Paata placed in front of the Mukhasala. The then king of Khurda removed the block. The king had taken away many sculptured stones from Konark and constructed some portions of Puri temple with them. During Marahatta's time the outer compound wall of the Puri temple was constructed of stones from Konark temple.

It is reported that among all the temples the Naata Mandir or the Dancing hall of Konark was in its original form for the longest period, and that it was broken intentionally since it was considered an unnecessary structure during the Maratha administration.

In the year 1779, a Marhatta Sadhu had taken away the Arun Pillar from Konark and put it in front of the Lion's Gate of Puri Jagannath temple. Thus by the end of 18th century Konark lost all its glories and had been turned to a dense forest. In course of time, the temple area thus became devoid of people, covered with dense forest, full of sand, filled with wild animals and became the abode of pirates. It is said that even the locals feared to go to Konark in broad daylight.

Images of Konark Sun Temple:

Konark Sun Temple, Sun Temple in Konark, Sun temple in India, Images of Konark Sun Temple and much more

http://suntemples.blogspot.in/

Ø Konark Sun Temple is a 13th-century Sun Temple. It is also known as the Black Pagoda, at Konark, in Orissa.

Ø It was constructed from oxidizing and weathered ferruginous sandstone by King Narasimhadeva I (1236-1264 CE) of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.

Ø The temple is one of the most well renowned temples in

India

and is a World Heritage Site.

Ø It is one of the Seven Wonders of India as per the poll collected by NDTV.

Architecture

Ø The temple takes the form of the chariot of Surya, the sun god, and is heavily decorated with stone carving.

Ø The entire complex was designed in the form of a huge chariot drawn by seven spirited horses on twelve pairs of exquisitely decorated wheels.

Ø The entrance is guarded by two giant lions, which are each shown crushing a war elephant. Each elephant in turn lies on top of a human body.

Ø The temple symbolizes the majestic stride of the Sun god. At the entrance of the temple is a Nata Mandir. This is where the temple dancers used to perform dances in homage to the Sun god.

Ø All around the temple, there are various floral and geometric patterns.

Ø The temple is now partly in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is housed in the Sun Temple Museum, which is run by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Ø The poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote of Konark: "Here the language of stone surpasses the language of man."

Ø The Sun Temple, built in the thirteenth century, was conceived as a gigantic chariot of the Sun God, with twelve pairs of exquisitely ornamented wheels pulled by seven pairs of horses.

Ø Majestic in conception, this temple is one of the most sublime monuments of

India

, famous as much for its imposing dimensions and faultless proportions as for the harmonious integration of architectural grandeur with plastic allegiance.

Ø Every inch of the temple is covered with sculpture of an unsurpassed beauty and grace, in tableaux and freestanding pieces ranging from the monumental to the miniature.

Ø The subject matter is fascinating. Thousands of images include deities, celestial and human musicians, dancers, lovers, and myriad scenes of courtly life, ranging from hunts and military battles to the pleasures of courtly relaxation.

Ø These are interspersed with birds, animals, close to two thousand charming and lively elephants march around the base of the main temple alone, mythological creatures, and a wealth of intricate botanical and geometrical decorative designs.

Ø The famous jewel-like quality of Orissan art is evident throughout, as is a very human perspective which makes the sculpture extremely accessible.

Ø The temple is famous for its erotic sculptures, which can be found primarily on the second level of the porch structure.

Ø It will become immediately apparent upon viewing them that the frank nature of their content is combined with an overwhelming tenderness and lyrical movement.

Ø This same kindly and indulgent view of life extends to almost all the other sculptures at Konark, where the thousands of human, animal, and divine personages are shown engaged in the full range of the 'carnival of life' with an overwhelming sense of appealing realism.

Ø It is admittedly the best in Orissa. Its fine traceries and scrollwork, as well as the beautiful and natural cut of animal and human figures, give it superiority over other temples.

Ø The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga school of Indian temples with characteristic curvilinear towers mounted by cupolas.

Ø In shape, the temple did not make any major departure from other sikhara temples of Orissa.

Ø The main sanctum which is 229 ft. high was constructed along with the audience hall, 128 ft. high having elaborate external projections.

Ø The main sanctum which enshrined the presiding deity has fallen off. The Audience Hall survives in its entirely, but only small portions of the Dancing Hall also known as nata Mandir and the Dining Hall known as Bhoga-Mandap have survived the vagaries of time.

Ø The Temple compound measures 857 ft by 540 ft. The alignment of the SunTemple is on the east-west direction. The Temple is located in natural surroundings, abounding with casuarinas plantations and other types of trees such as mahogany, rosewood, eel which grow on sandy soil.

History

Ø The large structure seen today is actually the mantapa also known as jagmohan.

Ø Of the main tower, which once stood in the front, only the remains can be seen.

Ø This tower was perhaps 200 feet tall, higher than any other temple in India.

Kalapahad

Ø The most popular theory about the root of the fall of Konark temple rests with the Kalapahad, the general of Bengal Sultan Sulaiman Khan Karrani.

Ø According to some accounts Kalapahad was formerly a Hindu Kayastha officer, however he had converted to Islam.

Ø According to Afsanah-i-Shahan of Shaikh Kabir Batini he was a Batini Afghan.

Ø According to the history of Orissa, Kalapahad invaded Orissa in 1508. He destroyed Konark temple, as well as a number of Hindu temples in Orissa.

Ø The Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple describes how Kalapahad attacked Orissa in 1568. Including Konark temple, he broke most of the images in most of the Hindu temples in Orissa.

Ø Though the stone walls are of 20 to 25 feet that is 7.6 m thick, he somehow managed to displace the Dadhinauti that is the Arch stone and thus caused the tower to collapse.

Ø He also damaged most of the images and other side temples of Konark. Due to displacement of the Dadhinauti, the tower gradually collapsed and the roof of the Mukasala was also damaged, due to the stones falling down from the temple top.

Ø Orissa came under Muslim control in 1568. There were constant attempts to destroy the Hindu temples. The Pandas (priests) of Puri, to save the sanctity of the Puri temple, took away the Lord Jagannath from the Srimandir and kept the image in a secret place.

Ø Similarly, it is said that the Pandas of Konark took away the presiding deity of the Sun temple and buried it under the sand for years.

Ø Latter on the image was said to have been removed to Puri and kept in thetemple of Indra, in the compound of the Puri Jagannath temple.

Ø According to others, the Puja image of the Konark temple is yet to be discovered.

Ø But others hold the view that the Sun image now kept in the National Museum of Delhi was the presiding deity of the Konark Sun temple.

Ø The Sun worship in the Konark temple ended upon the removal of the sacred image from the temple. This resulted in the end of pilgrimages to Konark.

Ø The port at Konark was also closed, due to pirate attacks. Konark was as glorious a city for Sun worship as it was for commercial activities, but after the cessation of these activities, Konark became deserted and was left to develop as a dense forest for years.

Ø In 1626 the then king of Khurda, Raja Narasimha Dev, son of Purusottam Dev, took away the Sun image to Puri along with two other moving deities - Sun and Moon.

Ø Now they are found in a temple in the compound of Puri Jagannath temple.

Ø As described earlier there was a big block of stone called Navagraha Paata placed in front of the Mukhasala. The then king of Khurda removed the block.

Ø The king had taken away many sculptured stones from Konark and constructed some portions of Puri temple with them.

Ø During Marahatta's time the outer compound wall of the Puri temple was constructed of stones from Konark temple.

Ø It is reported that among all the temples the Naata Mandir or the Dancing hall of Konark was in its original form for the longest period, and that it was broken intentionally since it was considered an unnecessary structure during the Maratha administration.

Ø In the year 1779, a Marhatta Sadhu had taken away the Arun Pillar from Konark and put it in front of the Lion's Gate of Puri Jagannath temple.

Ø Thus by the end of 18th century Konark lost all its glories and had been turned to a dense forest.

Ø In course of time, the temple area thus became devoid of people, covered with dense forest, full of sand, filled with wild animals and became the abode of pirates.

Konark

Ø All around the temple, there are various floral and geometric patterns. There are also human, divine and semi-divine figures in sensuous poses.

Ø The poses contains couples in various amorous poses, and are derived from the Kama Sutra.

Ø The poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote of Konark: "here the language of stone surpasses the language of man."

Ø Konark is also home to an annual dance festival, held every December, devoted to classical Indian dance forms, including the traditional classical dance of Orissa, odissi.

Ø On 16 February 1980, Konark lay directly on the path of a total solar eclipse.

Ø Konark beach is a popular tourist destination, though the waters are deceptively calm. Its main attraction lies in its views of the temple.

Architectural glory of the Sun Temple

Ø The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga School of Indian Temples with characteristic curvilinear towers mounted by cupolas.

Ø In shape, the temple did not make any major departure from other sikhara temples of Orissa.

Ø The main sanctum (229 ft. high) which was constructed along with the audience hall (128 ft. high) having elaborate external projections.

Ø The alignment of the Sun Temple is along the east-west direction.

Ø The stones at Konark are not joined by any limestone or cement. Instead, they are joined in a unique manner by making the two stone plates so plane like glass plate that just one drop of gum can join the two stones.

Fall of Konark

Ø It is opined by some historians that, due to the early death of the king Langula Narasimha Dev, builder of the Konarak temple, the construction of the temple had been left in a haphazard state.

Ø As a result of this, the incomplete structure eventually collapsed.

Ø But this view is unsupported by historical data.

Ø The records of Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple, as well as from some copper plates dated 1278 A.D., state that the king Langula Narasimha Dev reigned till 1282.

Ø Many historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Konark temple was completed between 1253 and 1260 A.D. So the argument that the temple collapsed due to non-completion during construction is not tenable.

Lodestone

Ø Legends describe a lodestone on the top of the Sun temple.

Ø Due to its magnetic effects, vessels passing through the Konark sea were drawn to it, resulting in heavy damage.

Ø Other legends state that magnetic effects of the lodestone disturbed ships' compasses so that they did not function correctly.

Ø To save their shipping, the Portuguese voyagers took away the lodestone, which was acting as the central stone and keeping all the stones, and the iron columns used to hold them walls together, of the temple wall in balance.

Ø Due to its displacement, the temple walls lost their balance and eventually fell down. But there is no record of this occurrence in any historical records, nor is there any record of the existence of such a powerful lodestone at Konark.

Kalapahad

Ø The most popular theory about the root of the fall of Konark temple rests with the Kalapahad.

Ø According to the history of Orissa, Kalapahad invaded Orissa in 1508. He destroyed Konark temple, as well as a number of Hindu temples in Orissa.

Ø The Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple describes how Kalapahad attacked Orissa in 1568.Including Konark temple, he broke most of the images in most of the Hindu temples in Orissa.

Ø Though it was impossible to break the Sun temple of Konark, the stone walls of which are of 20 to 25 feet thick, he somehow managed to displace the Dadhinauti thay is the Arch stone and thus made a way for the temple to collapse.

Ø He also broke most of the images and other side temples of Konark. Due to displacement of the Dadhinauti, the temple gradually collapsed and the roof of the Mukasala was also damaged, due to the stones falling down from the temple top.

Ø Consequently, Orissa came under Muslim control in 1568. There were attempts to destroy the Hindu temples.

Ø The Pandas of Puri, to save the sanctity of the Puri temple, took away the Jagannath from the temple and kept the image in a secret place.

Ø Similarly, it is said that the Pandas of Konark took away the presiding deity of the Sun temple and buried it under the sand for years.

Ø Latter on the image was said to have been removed to Puri and kept in thetemple of Indra, in the compound of the Puri Jagannath temple.

Ø According to others, the Puja image of the Konark temple is yet to be discovered. But others hold the view that the Sun image now kept in the National Museum of Delhi was the presiding deity of the Konark Sun temple.

Ø However, the Sun worship in the Konark temple was ended upon the removal of the image from the temple. This resulted in the end of pilgrimages to Konark.

Ø In 1626 the then king of Khurda, Raja Narasimha Dev, son of Purusottam Dev, took away the Sun image to Puri along with two other moving deities - Sun and Moon. Now they are found in a temple in the compound of Puri Jagannath temple.

Ø It is recorded in the Madala Panji of Puri temple that in 1028, Raja Narasimha Dev ordered measurements to be taken of all the temples at Konark.

Ø At the time of measurement, the Sun temple was in existence up to its Amalak sila, i.e. about 200 feet in height.

Ø Kalapahad had only destroyed its Kalas, the crowning stone and the Padma-dhwaja, the lotus finial and the upper portions.

Ø The then king of Khurda had taken away many sculptured stones from Konark and constructed some portions of Puri temple with them. During Marahatta's time the outer compound wall of the Puri temple was constructed of stones from Konark temple.

Legends

Ø As the legend says that, King Narasimha Deva-I of the Ganga Dynasty had ordered this temple to be built as a royal proclamation of the political supremacy of his dynasty.

Ø A workforce of 12 hundred artisans and architects invested their creative talent, energy and artistic commitment for an exhausting period of 12 years.

Ø The king had already spent an amount equivalent to the state's revenue receipts of 12 years. However, the completion of the construction was nowhere near sight.

Ø Then the king issued a final command that the work be completed by a stipulated date.

Ø The team of architects headed by Bisu Maharana was at its wit's end. It was then that Dharmapada the 12 year old son of the chief architect Bisu Maharana arrived there as a visiting onlooker.

Ø He became aware of the anxiety looming large among the architects. Although he did not have any practical experience of temple construction, he was thorough in his study of the theories of temple architecture.

Ø He offered to solve the confounding problem of fixing the last copping stone at the top of the temple.

Ø He surprised everyone by doing that himself. But soon after this achievement the dead body of this adolescent prodigy was found on the sea beach at the foot of the temple.

Ø Legend says that Dharmapada laid down his life to save his community. The victorious King of Orissa, Narasimhadeva erected a victory pillar designed as a war chariot.

Ø This temple was dedicated to Surya the Sun god, at a location near the temple town of Puri. He named this place Konark which means “Essence of the Corners”

Ø While the structure commemorates the victory in the battle against the Muslims, the name Konark commemorates the science of astronomy of which the King was an avid student.

http://architechturalheritage.blogspot.in/2011/01/konark-surya-mandir.html

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Overcome intellectual paranoia to harness heritage of intellectual inheritance-- Amita Sharma

June 22, 2015, 11:39 pm

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Harnessing heritage

By Amita Sharma Jun 22 2015

Tags: THE SandHI SERIES, Indian Knowledge series

Integrating traditional knowledge systems into mainstream education will help us discover and interpret our vast intellectual inheritance

If one were to represent the contemporary educational scenario in India dramatically, a morality play would probably be a good choice. A host of actors battle the ground for knowledge, each claiming to be truer than the other, accusing the other of ‘tempting the mind’ of the nation with falsehoods.

The more cacophonous the contestation becomes, the more it begins to look like a ‘dumb charade.’ Instead of enquiring into what ‘truth’ is — which, in fact, is the very essence of education and the only way in which knowledge is discovered — the skirmishing sides want the rights to lay down a set of pre-determined forms as truth, defeating the very ground of knowledge or the need for education.

Such claims and counter claims are about power, not about education and the struggle is to seize the education system to make it a means of generating symbolic forms — of whichever hue — that in turn, entrench the power system.

This is the worst form of intellectual paranoia and fundamentalism and is symptomatic of the failure of the education system to develop a culture of critical consciousness capable of rational debate, self-reflection, imbued with faculties to evaluate and sift information to construct knowledge and to discriminate between the spheres where such knowledge can be used. Where is the great intellectual tradition of India that delighted in debate and celebrated questioning as a way of seeking knowledge? Why has the freedom to let ‘thoughts…wander through eternity’ sunk into the narrow confines of dogmatic facts, swerving between defensiveness and aggression, unsure of what they claim and why.

While there are several reasons for this, the deep lying malaise is the loss of self-esteem and pride and the confidence in our own intellectual abilities and identity. This is the result of a steady and subtle colonisation of the mind that may have started historically with British rule over India but that continues post-independence. Modern day educational systems perpetuate the domination of western epistemologies.

This has spawned a mimetic knowledge system where the norms of knowledge construction and its legitimisation is on borrowed terms. We do not engage with our own environment and culture. Happy with borrowed language and borrowed technologies, we do not invest enough in research and cripple our ability to think originally and construct knowledge from our own resources, relevant to our society.

As a result, development problems of the nation get mortgaged to imported and ill-suited technologies. For example, dam structures in India often modelled on the slow-moving rivers of the US, do not address the problem of silting caused by the fast-flowing rivers of India.

Oddly enough, the insistence of a ‘national’ educational system encourages prescriptive content and information as ‘knowledge forms’ that cannot be interrogated or be deviated from. Paradoxically, the discourse of ‘national’ concerns becomes yet another way of colonising the intellectual space of the country.

This is aggravated by the bureaucratisation of the academic system where academic institutions occupy the bottom rung of a hierarchy as subordinate ‘offices.” Bureaucrats as the neo-colonisers devise ways in which education institutions are to be controlled. Excessive control and regulation does not necessarily mean better quality, and standardisation of content does not necessarily mean better standards. So the increased numbers of educational institutes do not add up to quality. In the absence of quality, education barons thrive, commercialising education.

In such a context, educational debates whether in the guise of ideological warfare or regulatory norms or legal frameworks skim the surface of problems, evading the pivotal question of educational reform — how can the nation foster the creativity of its people to trigger their intellectual and material development in sustainable and ethical ways.

The question remains dormant also because it is believed that it is enough to cannonise its concerns theoretically in the National Curricular Framework (NCF) which describes educational goals as value development and building a cohesive society, fostering a national identity preserving cultural heritage. The NCF also emphasises indigenous knowledge, the development of aesthetic sensibilities and the interface between cognition, emotion and action, by linking learning to work and life.

Despite the NCF, learning operations in all Indian classrooms are verbatim memorisation of officially sanctioned knowledge available in the textbooks.

How can educational processes be liberated from their own entrenched authoritarianism so as to stimulate critical consciousness and holistic development that the national curricular framework posits?

As a first step, there is a need to re-examine the existing epistemological hegemonies that inform the text books without which the spirit of critical enquiry cannot be the guiding force of our educational system. The dominant epistemological paradigm in the current educational processes is based on western knowledge systems. Colonising constructs of India have marginalised its own powerful knowledge systems, or brushed it off as an amalgam of rituals and myths.

The long unchallenged dominance of such discourses, have not only spawned questionable and spurious theories about Indian culture and society, they have unfortunately obviated the memory of our own history and knowledge systems from the minds of our own people.

The strength and rigour of Indian knowledge systems have been elaborated upon by several scholars in diverse contexts, quite a few eminent ones being of non-Indian origin, but are strangely enough rejected by modern Indians — a testimony of their allegiance to their progressive education! It is said that if one does not know one’s own language, it is doubtful if one will have the ability to acquire competence in a foreign language. Indians need to know their own intellectual inheritance and to be able to evaluate it in its own context as well as its contemporary significance. And in a way to understand the critical implications of the choices they make now.

This kind of a statement arouses mainly amused disbelief or vehement rejection. Why deal with what is obscurantist? An indulgent attitude prefers to treat traditional knowledge systems as interesting antiquities, objects as in a museum, cultural/ethnographic studies rather than knowledge systems. Even those who believe in the strength of Indian knowledge systems ask the question — why should one know of one’s intellectual inheritance? Of what use is it to us? Does it offer a better solution to current problems? If not, how does it matter if one knows it or not?

All these criticisms stem from a very limited idea of what is rejected. The SandHI Series of articles that the Financial Chronicle hosted in the Know pages from April 2015 to June 2015 were an effort to give a brief glimpse of the range and rigour of traditional Indian knowledge systems. They suggest strong reasons for integrating Indian knowledge systems in mainstream education as opportunities for discovery, research and interpretation of our intellectual inheritance. This will equip students to critically evaluate the information available and to construct knowledge free from the stereotype labelling of knowledge as ‘traditional,’ ‘modern,’ ‘east,’ ‘west.’

Such intellectual decolonisation will spur original creative discourse. It will also encourage a greater engagement with the local context as many traditional knowledge systems that have continued historically to serve human needs have been preserved as community practice. Such knowledge has an inherent dynamism and innovative energy generated by the real life contestations of its users but is relegated the place of folk customs and finds scarce place in text books or any formal educational curriculum. Research shows how several of these folk practices tested by time and real world challenges are constructed on valid scientific grounds. Neglect of these traditions has been a loss to its practitioners and researchers.

Local problems create a new idiom of knowledge by compelling innovation and encouraging re-interpretation of traditional knowledge forms in terms of their contemporary relevance. A study of traditional practices will offer opportunities to evolve appropriate technologies to address problems ranging from every day existence such as water, food , productivity to major environmental hazards on a more sustainable, equitable basis.

This will also imply the re-legitimisation of traditional knowledge practitioners as equal knowledge partners. Currently, there is a hierarchical relationship between the main curriculum like math and language and a co-curriculum like vocational education, privileging the former over the latter and discouraging lateral movements. It also creates a paradoxical situation, wherein despite the emphasis on skill development and practical knowledge, existing skills honed in real world and relevant to the knowledge domain are not recognized because they are not encoded in formal treatises. As a result, there is a dearth of skilled teachers, the real practitioners for whom the skill is not just a curriculum unit with a credit but a source of survival.

A good example comes from the community of artisans and artists. Design schools can conduct workshops with artisans and artists but they cannot be acknowledged as teachers because they lack formally prescribed educational qualifications. This restricts knowledge transfer.

An interesting innovation to break this impasse is IIT Kanpur’s intervention with the toy clusters of Varanasi, the moonj grass weavers of Allahabad and the metal sheet workers of Kanpur integrating traditional production processes with improved technologies in ways that empower traditional artisans while also working out IPR related issues of community owned traditional design products and technologies and to outline fair-trade strategies for these creative communities. The Design Manifesto released by the ministry of human resource development in January 2014 builds on such initiatives, foregrounding community needs to evolve appropriate technologies, valuing local knowledge systems, and integrating experiential learning with formal theorisation, well exemplified in the design education curricula and pedagogies in IIT Bombay.

Such engagements of premium academic institutes with local problems and the traditional knowledge resources in creative communities should help steer Make in India towards tradition bonds. They reverse the process of epistemological schizophrenia caused by formal educational systems wherein multiple world views clash, those that inhere in the community and those that the academic institution imports and the ability to negotiate between them instead of being encouraged is suppressed leading to a sense of alienation. Ironically, having driven a wedge between the school and the community by the way knowledge is legitimised, educational policies of the state then expect the school to be a platform for community participation.

An inclusive epistemic approach recognises the significance of culture as the locus of knowledge and its use. This recognition has the potential to make knowledge transformative. The World Development Report 2015: Mind and Culture, underscores the importance of culture, which provides mental models that influence what individuals understand and espouses integrating knowledge scattered across many disciplines to inform development strategies.

While the implications of such an epistemology for formal education in India appear to prompt a radical re-designing, it is interesting to note that theoretically at least, the National Curricular Framework recognises that “ideally, various learning experiences should make an integrated whole.” This seems close to the way traditional Indian knowledge systems entwined multiple knowledge fields. Fragmented worldviews and the domination of economic reasons have been partly responsible for splintering knowledge into ‘useful ‘ and ‘useless’ with deleterious impact on the individual and society. Socially, this creates a false division of the math type as bright and gifted and the arts type as frivolous and unemployable. This has had a reductionist effect on educational systems, by knocking off subjects deemed irrelevant denting the traditions of liberal education.

At the individual level, this creates what TS Eliot calls the dissociation of sensibility, the disconnect between reason and imagination, the loss of intuitive cognition — the source of creativity and innovation. Increasingly, even the market now recognises the higher productive value of holistic cognitive capabilities over simply specialised skill sets as these become rapidly obsolete and fail to respond to complex situations.

Both from an intrinsic and an instrumental perspective, it becomes important to consciously encourage cross-disciplinary studies, specially between science and liberal arts, technology and culture. The pedagogy of such cross-disciplinary study needs careful designing. The challenge is to develop processes that transact learning objects in ways that stimulate exposure to multiple knowledge fields encouraging the abilities for multiple interpretations, for analysis and synthesis of different ways in which reality is constructed, broadening and deepening comprehension , making for more inclusive perspectives. For example, a musical instrument can teach music, material sciences, physics, engineering, math, history, aesthetics. Examples can multiply. This will reduce the burden of too many subjects, while enriching understanding at many levels.

Such cross-disciplinary organisation of knowledge would also, for example, enlarge the study of history from just a narrative of political events to the study of ideas and the development of different knowledge systems. It would also nudge the study of history from the refracting lens of contemporary ideologies to scientific evidence. This in itself would do much to liberate us from the political prison house of communal identities and to discover a truly national identity.

Most significantly it would change the way languages are taught. Languages are taught as means of social communication and fall in the domain of culture or literature. Never of science or technical knowledge. Consequently, they are not regarded as vehicles of knowledge. Worse, they get confounded with the religious beliefs of the community to which they belong. Politicisation of language has spelt the death of several important knowledge systems.

A good example is Sanskrit — one of the oldest Indian languages which holds much of our scientific, technical, philosophical and linguistic knowledge from the Vedic to the medieval period. There is a growing interest in this intellectual heritage, not only to clarify India’s place in the growth of ideas, but also to explore sustainable, and locally relevant solutions to current societal, environmental, and medical challenges. A similar case can be made for other classical languages in India. A study of classical languages will not only unlock a vast reservoir of knowledge of significance to the contemporary world, but will unravel an inheritance of ideas that have much in common, again highlighting a shared identity despite manifest differences.

The reason that this sort of cross-disciplinary study that knits together traditional with modern knowledge systems, and traverses multiple knowledge fields, has not taken off is the difficulty of finding teachers competent to use integrative pedagogies. To nurture academic institutions in this direction, it is important to allow them academic autonomy. It is this that will, over time, build the three pillars of a strong knowledge economy: creative thinking, innovations and a holistic world view.

In Shakespeare’s The Tempest, a study of colonisation, Caliban accuses Prospero: “You taught me language; and my profit on't is, I know how to curse. The red plague rid you for learning me your language.” A nation cannot build itself if it cannot think for itself. The SandHI Series of the Financial Chronicle reminds us that we have a rich inheritance of thinking in India. Modern India, in making itself, will be the stronger by building on it.

(Amita Sharma is former additional secretary in ministry of human resources development)

This is the last in our 10-part SandHI Series that explores India’s traditional knowledge systems through exhaustive articles by experts on topics such as cosmology, metallurgy, mathematics, architecture, ayurveda, ecology and agriculture.

http://www.mydigitalfc.com/sandhiseries

know@mydigitalfc.com
http://www.mydigitalfc.com/indian-knowledge-series/harnessing-heritage-543

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Harnessing heritage

Integrating traditional knowledge systems into mainstream education will help us discover and interpret our vast intellectual inheritance