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Why are yakṣá , yakṣiṇī dominant, frequently recurring art forms on Sanchi or Bharhut stupa tōraṇa friezes and on Begram ivories?
I suggest that the artists, śilpi, architects are conveying the substantive identifier gloss with phonemic variants: śākya, sakka , sakkia -- to reinforce their lineage of the Buddha and/or adherance to Bauddham.
The hieroglyphs deployed convey the semantics:1. śāˊkhā f. ʻbranchʼ RV.Pa. sākhā 'branch'; 2. hāngi (Kashmiri) sã̄khī 'mollusc, snail' (Bengali);
3, śaṅkula 'barb': śaṅkulā शङ्कुला [शङ्क्-उलच् Uṇ.1.93] 1 A kind of knife or lancet.-2 A pair of scissors.-Comp.-खण्डः a piece cut off with a pair of scissors.शङ्कुः [शङ्क्-उण् Uṇ.1.36] 1 A dart, spear, spike, javelin, dagger; The sharp head or point of an arrow, barb.(Samskritam)
Hieroglyph on a Begram ivory plaque: a pair of molluscs tied with a chisel, barb:![]()
Tied: dhama ‘cord’ rebus: dhamma ‘dharma, virtuous conduct’ sangin ‘mollusc’ rebus: sangha ‘community’. Thus, dhamma guild has been identified by the hieroglyph multiplex.
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Bharhut molluscs centre-piece on tōraṇa
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Sanchi tōraṇa molluscs centre-piece on hieroglyph multiplexes flanking ibbo vaThAra, merchant quarter'
The deployment of hieroglyphs of mollusc and tree branches on Sanchi artistic renderings of stupa friezes is intended to communicate -- rebus -- the substantive: śākya, sakka , sakkia : śākya m. ʻ a Kṣatriya clan in Kapilavastu to which the Buddha belonged ʼ. 2. śākiya -- BHS ii 525.1. Pa. sakya -- , sakka -- ; Pk. sakka -- , sakkia -- m. ʻ a Buddhist ʼ.2. Pa. sākiya -- , Si. sähä -- , sā̤ -- .(CDIAL 12375).
These glosses are rebus-metonymy-layered signifiers (hieroglyphs) to signify hymonyms (similar sounding words but with different meaning) in (art forms: yakkha -- m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ, yakkhī -- , yakkhiṇī - yakṣá , yakṣiṇī.
Hieroglyph: śākhyá ʻ belonging to or resembling a branch, branching ʼ Pāṇ. [śāˊkhā -- ]
Phal. šāk, šākhā̆ (pl.?) ʻ wood, tree ʼ.(CDIAL 12379) śāka1 m. ʻ the teak tree Tectona grandis ʼ Gr̥Śr., śākā- f. ʻ Terminalia chebula ʼ, śaṅku -- 2 m. ʻ a partic. tree ʼ lex. 2. *sākkhu -- . 3. *sāggu -- . [Cf. sarja -- ]1. Pa. sāka -- m. ʻ teak tree ʼ, Pk. sāga -- m., M. sāy, sāyā, sāvā, sã̄vā, sāylā m.
2. N. sakhuwā, H. sākhū, sã̄khū, sakhuā m.3. S. sāg̠ū m.(CDIAL 12369) *śākavanya ʻ teak forest ʼ. 2. *sāgguvanya -- . [śāka -- 1 and *sāggu -- , vanya -- ]1. M. sāyvān n. ʻ teak forest ʼ.
2. P. sāgūn m. ʻ teak ʼ, N. sagwān, sāgun, Or. sāguāna, °āṇi ( -- ṇ -- ?), H. sāgū˘n, °gaun, °gon
Why are yakṣá , yakṣiṇī dominant, frequently recurring art forms on Sanchi or Bharhut stupa tōraṇa friezes and on Begram ivories?
I suggest that the artists, śilpi, architects are conveying the substantive identifier gloss with phonemic variants: śākya, sakka , sakkia -- to reinforce their lineage of the Buddha and/or adherance to Bauddham.
The hieroglyphs deployed convey the semantics:1. śāˊkhā f. ʻbranchʼ RV.Pa. sākhā 'branch'; 2. hāngi (Kashmiri) sã̄khī 'mollusc, snail' (Bengali);
3, śaṅkula 'barb': śaṅkulā शङ्कुला [शङ्क्-उलच् Uṇ.1.93] 1 A kind of knife or lancet.-2 A pair of scissors.-Comp.-खण्डः a piece cut off with a pair of scissors.शङ्कुः [शङ्क्-उण् Uṇ.1.36] 1 A dart, spear, spike, javelin, dagger; The sharp head or point of an arrow, barb.(Samskritam)
Hieroglyph on a Begram ivory plaque: a pair of molluscs tied with a chisel, barb:
Tied: dhama ‘cord’ rebus: dhamma ‘dharma, virtuous conduct’ sangin ‘mollusc’ rebus: sangha ‘community’. Thus, dhamma guild has been identified by the hieroglyph multiplex.
Bharhut molluscs centre-piece on tōraṇa 
Sanchi tōraṇa molluscs centre-piece on hieroglyph multiplexes flanking ibbo vaThAra, merchant quarter'The deployment of hieroglyphs of mollusc and tree branches on Sanchi artistic renderings of stupa friezes is intended to communicate -- rebus -- the substantive: śākya, sakka , sakkia : śākya m. ʻ a Kṣatriya clan in Kapilavastu to which the Buddha belonged ʼ. 2. śākiya -- BHS ii 525.1. Pa. sakya -- , sakka -- ; Pk. sakka -- , sakkia -- m. ʻ a Buddhist ʼ.2. Pa. sākiya -- , Si. sähä -- , sā̤ -- .(CDIAL 12375).
These glosses are rebus-metonymy-layered signifiers (hieroglyphs) to signify hymonyms (similar sounding words but with different meaning) in (art forms: yakkha -- m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ, yakkhī -- , yakkhiṇī - yakṣá , yakṣiṇī.
Hieroglyph: śākhyá ʻ belonging to or resembling a branch, branching ʼ Pāṇ. [
Phal. šāk, šākhā̆ (pl.?) ʻ wood, tree ʼ.(CDIAL 12379) śāka
2. N. sakhuwā, H. sākhū, sã̄khū, sakhuā m.3. S. sāg̠ū m.(CDIAL 12369) *śākavanya ʻ teak forest ʼ. 2. *sāgguvanya -- . [
2. P. sāgūn m. ʻ teak ʼ, N. sagwān, sāgun, Or. sāguāna, °āṇi ( -- ṇ -- ?), H. sāgū˘n, °gaun, °gon
m., sāgwān f., G. sāgvān m.; M. sāgvān m. ʻ teak forest, teak tree ʼ(CDIAL 12374) śāˊkhā f. ʻ branch ʼ RV.Pa. sākhā -- f., °kha -- n. ʻ branch ʼ, Pk. sāhā -- f.; Ash. ċau, sau ʻ branch, ear of corn ʼ; Wg. ċāw, ċōw ʻ branch ʼ, Kt. ċåw f., Pr. ċāw; WPah.jaun.śã̄h ʻ bough ʼ; Or. sāhā ʻ branch, crossbars between shafts of bullock carts ʼ, sāhi ʻ line, row, row of neighbouring houses ʼ; Si. sā ʻ branch ʼ; -- ext. -- l -- : Pk. sāhulī -- , °liā -- f. ʻ branch ʼ; Ku. saũlā pl. ʻ green shoots or twigs ʼ; N. syāulo ʻ a cut branch ʼ; M. sāūḷ f.n., sāvḷī f. ʻ branch of various trees (palm, coconut, betel) ʼ.WPah.kṭg. śã̄ f. (śaĩ) ʻ branch ʼ, jaun. śã̄h.(CDIAL 12376)
Hieroglyph: mollusc: śāṅkhika ʻ relating to a shell ʼ W. 2. *śāṅkhinī -- (śaṅkhinī -- f. ʻ mother -- of -- pearl ʼ Bālar.). [śaṅkhá -- 1 ]1. K. hāngi ʻ snail ʼ; B. sã̄khī ʻ possessing or made of shells ʼ.2. K. hö̃giñ f. ʻ pearl oyster shell, shell of any aquatic mollusc ʼ.(CDIAL 12380)
Rebus: jāk, jakhnī: yakṣá m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ MaitrUp. (n. ʻ mani- festation ʼ RV.), yakṣī -- , yakṣiṇī -- f. MBh. Pa. yakkha -- m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ, yakkhī -- , yakkhiṇī -- f., Pk. jakkha -- m., jakkhiṇī -- f.; Ash. yuš, yüš ʻ ogre ʼ, yuštrīˊk ʻ ogress ʼ (+strīˊ -- ); Kt. yuṣ ʻ female demon ʼ, Wg. yūṣ; Pr. yuṣ ʻ demon ʼ; Kal.rumb. J̣ac̣ ʻ female demon ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) yac̣ m. ʻ demon ʼ, yac̣ini f., y*l c̣(h)olo ʻ demon like a bear ʼ, (Grahame Bailey) yac̣hălʻ mad ʼ, yac̣hălyār f. ʻ madness ʼ; K. yĕch, yẹ̆ch m. ʻ a kind of fairy ʼ, yĕchiñ f., yochu m. ʻ a spirit ʼ; P. jakkh m. ʻ demigod, devout worshipper ʼ, f. ʻ ogress ʼ; H. jāk m. ʻ demon ʼ, jakhnī f. ʻ female demon in the service of Durgā ʼ; OG.jākha, jākhala m. ʻ demon ʼ; M. j̈akhīṇ, j̈ãkīṇ (with ã after ḍãkīṇ s.v. ḍākinī -- ) f. ʻ ghost of a woman who died in childbirth or drowned herself ʼ,j̈ākhīṇ, j̈ã̄khīṇ f. ʻ old and ugly woman ʼ, j̈akhāī -- j̈ukhāī f. ʻ two female fiends, minor deities and demons in general ʼ (f. from m. *jākhā); Si. yak -- ā ʻ demon ʼ, yakin -- ī, yakinna f. (with a for ä after m. yak -- ā); -- Kho. ẓoc̣ ʻ unruly (of children), knotty, complicated ʼ BelvalkarVol 98 with (?); Ku. jākhaṛ ʻ idiot ʼ; N. jakkhu ʻ huge ʼ; -- Bi. jāk ʻ a cowdung cake called mahāde placed on a grain heap to ward off evil eye ʼ?(CDIAL 10395) yĕch 1 यछ् or yẹ̆ch य&above;छ् । यक्षः m. (sg. dat. yẹ̆chas य&above;छस् ; f. sg. nom. yẹ̆chiñ य&above;छिञ् ), a kind of demi-god attendant on Kubēra, the god of riches, and employed in guarding his treasures, etc. (Skt. yakṣa) (Rām. 1475, K. 123); (in Ksh.) a kind of fairy or Kobold (cf.bŏdi-yo, p. 83b, l. 46; gasa-yo, p. 37a, l. 34; pã̄-yo, p. 748a, l. 38; ʦhŏṭa-yo, p. 163a, l. 5) (K. 299, spelt yĕʦhy); a hyena (El. yachh, K.Pr. 134).
యక్షుడు [ yakṣuḍu ] yakshuḍu. [Skt.] n. A demigod.దేవయోనివిశేషము, కుబేరాదియక్షజాతుడు . Kubēra, కుబేరుడు . யக்கதரு yakkataru , n. < yakṣa-taru. The banyan tree; ஆலமரம். (இலக். அக.) யக்கராசன் yakka-rācaṉ , n. < yakṣa-rāja. Kubēra, as the lord of the Yakṣas; [இயக்கர் களுக்கு அரசன்] குபேரன். (யாழ். அக.)யக்கராத்திரி yakka-rāttiri
, n. < yakṣa யக்கன் yakkaṉ
sákhi (nom. sg. sákhā) m. ʻ friend ʼ RV. 2. sakhīˊ -- f. ʻ woman's confidante ʼ MBh., ʻ a mistress ʼ VarBr̥S. 1. Pa. sakhā nom. sg. m. ʻ friend ʼ, Pk. sahi -- m.; N. saiyã̄ ʻ lover, paramour, friend ʼ (or < svāmín -- ); A. xaï ʻ friend ʼ, xaiyā ʻ partner in a game ʼ; Si. saha ʻ friend ʼ (< nom. sákhā or < sahāya -- ? ). 2. Pa. sakhī -- , sakhikā -- f. ʻ woman's female friend ʼ, Pk. sahī -- , °hiā -- f., B. sai, Or. sahi, saï, H. poet. saïyo f., G. saï f., M. say, saī f. -- Ext. --ḍ -- : OMarw. sahalaṛī f. ʻ woman's female friend; -- -- r -- : G. sahiyar, saiyar f.; -- -- ll -- (cf. sakhila -- ): S. L. P. sahelī f. ʻ woman's female friend ʼ, N. saheli, B. saylā, OAw. sahelī f.; H. sahelī f. ʻ id., maidservant, concubine ʼ; OMarw. sahalī, sahelī ʻ woman's female friend ʼ, OG.sahīlī f., M. sahelī f.(CDIAL 13074)
Rebus: jāk, jakhnī: yakṣá m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ MaitrUp. (n. ʻ mani- festation ʼ RV.), yakṣī -- , yakṣiṇī -- f. MBh. Pa. yakkha -- m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ, yakkhī -- , yakkhiṇī -- f., Pk. jakkha -- m., jakkhiṇī -- f.; Ash. yuš, yüš ʻ ogre ʼ, yuštrīˊk ʻ ogress ʼ (+
yẹ̆cha-(or yĕcha-)gaṭa य&above;छ- (यछ )गट । अन्धतमसम् f. the pitch darkness of the night of the dark half of the winter month of Pŏh (December-January) (believed to be particularly haunted by these Kobolds)
yĕchiñ यछिञ् or yẹ̆chiñ य&above;छिञ् । यक्षिणी f. of yĕch 1, q.v. a female fairy or Kobold; a Kobold's wife.(Kashmiri)
యక్షుడు [ yakṣuḍu ] yakshuḍu. [Skt.] n. A demigod.
, n. < yakṣa. 1. Yakṣa. See இயக்கன், 1. (W .) 2. Kubēra. See இயக்கன், 2. (யாழ். அக.)
இயக்கம்¹ iyakkam , n. < இயங்கு-. 1. Motion; moving about, as showing signs of life; இயங்குகை. (குறள், 1020.) 2. Expression, as of the eyes; குறிப்பு. கண்ணிணையியக்கம் (மணி. 25. 8). 3. Way, path; வழி. எறிநீ ரடைகரை யியக்கந் தன்னில் (சிலப். 10, 90). 4. A musical composition, of four different kinds, viz., முத னடை, வாரம், கூடை, திரள்; இசைப்பாட்டுவகை. (சிலப். 3, 67.) 5. Pitch of three kinds, viz., வலிவு, மெலிவு, சமன் or high, low and middle; சுருதி. (சிலப். 8. 42.) 6. Greatness, excellence; பெருமை. (திவா.) 7. Excrement; மலசலங்கள். ஈரியக்க நடைவழி . . . விடுதல் (காஞ்சிப்பு. ஒழுக்க. 42).*இயக்கம்² iyakkam, n. < yakṣa. The north quarter, which is the abode of the Yakṣas; வட திசை. (W .) *இயக்கர் iyakkar, n. < id. Yakṣas, a class of celestials; one of patineṇ-kaṇam, q.v.; பதினெண்கணத்து ளொரு கணத்தார். (கம்பரா. தாடகை. 26.) *இயக்கர்கோமான் iyakkar-kōmāṉ, n. < id. +. Kubēra, king of the Yakṣas; குபே ரன். (சூடா.) *இயக்கர்வேந்தன் iyakkar-vēntaṉ, n. < id. +. See இயக்கர்கோமான். (பிங்.) *இயக்கன் iyakkaṉ, n. < yakṣa. 1. Yakṣa; இயக்ககணத்தான். (கம்பரா. தாடகை. 26.) 2. Ku- bēra, king of the Yakṣas; குபேரன். (திவா.) *இயக்கி iyakki, n. < yakṣī. 1. Female Yakṣa; யக்ஷப்பெண். (சீவக. 1219.) 2. Goddess of virtue; தருமதேவதை. (பிங்.)
இயக்கு¹-தல் iyakku-, 5 v. tr. caus. of இயங்கு-. 1. To cause to go; செலுத்துதல். தோணி யியக்குவான் (நாலடி. 136). 2. To actuate and influence the movements of, as God prompts all living beings; தொழிற்படுத்துதல். 3. To train or break in, as a bull or a horse; பழக்கு தல். காளையை இயக்குகிறது. (W .) 4. To cause to sound; ஒலிப்பித்தல். கோடுவாய் வைத்துக் கொடுமணி யியக்கி (திருமுரு. 246). இயக்கு² iyakku, n. < இயங்கு. Motion, as of a stream; going, marching; போக்கு. நீரியக் கென்ன நிரைசெல னெடுந்தேர் (மலைபடு. 571). இயங்கியற்பொருள் iyaṅkiyaṟ-poruḷ, n. < id. +. Living, animate beings or beings which move from place to place; opp. to நிலை யியற்பொருள்; சரப்பொருள். (நன். 259, விருத்.) இயங்கு¹-தல் iyaṅku-, 5 v. intr. [M. iyaṅṅu.] 1. To move, stir; அசைதல். 2. To go, travel, proceed; போதல். (திவா.) 3. To walk about. promenade; உலாவுதல். (பிங்.) இயங்கு² iyaṅku, n. < இயங்கு- Movement, act of going; செல்லுகை. இயங்கிடை யறுத்த கங்குல் (சீவக. 1360). இயங்குதிணை iyaṅku-tiṇai, n. < id. +. Class of things that move, opp. to நிலைத்திணை; சரப்பொருள். (நன். 299, விருத்.)
Ta. iyaṅku (iyaṅki-) to move, stir, go, proceed, walk about; n. movement, act of going; iyakku (iyakki-) to cause to go, train or break in (as a bull or horse); n. motion, going, marching; iyakkam motion, moving about, way; icaṅku (icaṅki-) to go or lead to (as a way); icai (-pp-, -tt-) to bring about; iyal (iyalv-, iyaṉṟ-; iyali-) to go on foot, dance; n. pace, gait; iyavu way; leading, proceeding; iyavuḷ leadership, god, way; iyavaiway, path. Ma. iyaṅṅuka to move steadily; iyakkuka to cause to move; iyakkam motion, movement. Ko. i·y- (i·c-), i·c- (i·c-) to drive (cattle).Ka. (PBh.) esagu to drive.(DEDR 469)
Yaksha (Sanskrit: यक्ष yakṣa) is the name of a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, who are caretakers of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots. The feminine form of the word is yakṣī (यक्षी)[3] or Yakshini (yakṣiṇī, यक्षिणी).For yakṣiṇī (यक्षिणी) as a regular Sanskrit term for a female yakṣa, and yakṣaṇī as a Buddhist variant, see Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, vol. 2., Motilal Banarsidass, First Edition, 1953, p. 442. "...in the didactic Hindu dialogue of theYakṣapraśnāḥ "Questions of the Yakṣa", it is a tutelary spirit of a lake that challengesYudhiṣṭhira. The yakṣas may have originally been the tutelary gods of forests and villages, and were later viewed as the steward deities of the earth and the wealth buried beneath.In Indian art, male yakṣas are portrayed either as fearsome warriors or as portly, stout and dwarf-like. Female yakṣas, known as yakṣiṇīs, are portrayed as beautiful young women with happy round faces and full breasts and hips...In Buddhist literature, the yakṣa are the attendants of Vaiśravaṇa, the Guardian of the Northern Quarter, a beneficent god who protects the righteous. The term also refers to the Twelve Heavenly Generals who guard Bhaiṣajyaguru, the Medicine Buddha.
According to the Mahavamsa, Prince Vijaya encountered the royalty of the Yakkhas queen Kuveni in the Yakkha capital of Lankapura and conquered them...Jains mainly worship idols of Arihants and Tirthankaras, who have conquered the inner passions and attained God-consciousness status. Some Jains also believe that Yaksha and Yakshini look after the well-being of the Tirtha. Usually, they are found in pair around the idols of Jinas as male (yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities. Yaksha is generally on the right-hand side of the Jina idol and Yakshini on the left-hand side. In earlier periods, they were regarded mainly as devotees of Jina, and have supernatural powers. They are also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like the worldly souls, but have supernatural powers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaksha
Equivalent terms in other languages include: Pali: यक्ख yakkha,(For yakkha as a "rare use in Pali" see Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, vol. 2., Motilal Banarsidass, First Edition, 1953, p. 442.) Tamil: யக்கர், Kannada: ಯಕ್ಷ, Yākka, Thai: ยักษ์ yaksa, Vietnamese: dạ xoa, Chinese: 夜叉 yèchā or 藥叉 yàochā, Korean: 야차/夜叉 yacha, Japanese: 夜叉 yasha, Burmese: ဘီလူး [bìlú], Standard Tibetan: གནོད་སྦྱིན་ gnod sbyin
yakṣá m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ MaitrUp. (n. ʻ mani- festation ʼ RV.), yakṣī -- , yakṣiṇī -- f. MBh.
Pa. yakkha -- m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ, yakkhī -- , yakkhiṇī -- f., Pk. jakkha -- m., jakkhiṇī -- f.; Ash. yuš, yüš ʻ ogre ʼ, yuštrīˊk ʻ ogress ʼ (+strīˊ -- ); Kt. yuṣ ʻ female demon ʼ, Wg. yūṣ; Pr. yuṣ ʻ demon ʼ; Kal.rumb. J̣ac̣ ʻ female demon ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) yac̣ m. ʻ demon ʼ, yac̣ini f., y*l c̣(h)olo ʻ demon like a bear ʼ, (Grahame Bailey) yac̣hăl&lacutebrev;tu ʻ mad ʼ, yac̣hălyār f. ʻ madness ʼ; K. yĕch, yẹ̆ch m. ʻ a kind of fairy ʼ, yĕchiñ f., yochu m. ʻ a spirit ʼ; P. jakkh m. ʻ demigod, devout worshipper ʼ, f. ʻ ogress ʼ; H. jāk m. ʻ demon ʼ, jakhnī f. ʻ female demon in the service of Durgā ʼ; OG.jākha, jākhala m. ʻ demon ʼ; M. j̈akhīṇ, j̈ãkīṇ (with ã after ḍãkīṇ s.v. ḍākinī -- ) f. ʻ ghost of a woman who died in childbirth or drowned herself ʼ,j̈ākhīṇ, j̈ã̄khīṇ f. ʻ old and ugly woman ʼ, j̈akhāī -- j̈ukhāī f. ʻ two female fiends, minor deities and demons in general ʼ (f. from m. *jākhā); Si. yak -- ā ʻ demon ʼ, yakin -- ī, yakinna f. (with a for ä after m. yak -- ā); -- Kho. ẓoc̣ ʻ unruly (of children), knotty, complicated ʼ BelvalkarVol 98 with (?); Ku. jākhaṛ ʻ idiot ʼ; N. jakkhu ʻ huge ʼ; -- Bi. jāk ʻ a cowdung cake called mahāde placed on a grain heap to ward off evil eye ʼ?(CDIAL 10395)
यक्ष [p=838,2] n. a living supernatural being , spiritual apparition , ghost , spirit RV. AV. VS. Br. Gr2S3rS. (accord. to some native Comms. = यज्ञ , पुजा , पूजित &c ) m. N. of a class of semi-divine beings (attendants of कुबेर , exceptionally also of विष्णु ; described as sons of पुलस्त्य , of पुलह , of कश्यप , of खसा or क्रोधा ; also as produced from the feet of ब्रह्मा ; though generally regarded as beings of a benevolent and inoffensive disposition , like the यक्ष inकालिदास's मेघ-दूत , they are occasionally classed with पिशाचs and other malignant spirits , and sometimes said to cause demoniacal possession ; as to their position in the Buddhist system »MWB. 206 , 218) Up. Gr2S. Mn. MBh. &c m. N. of कुबेर VarYogay.m. of इन्द्र's palace L.m. N. of कुबेर's wife L.
व्य्--न्तर [p=1028,3] m. " occupying an intermediate position " , (with जैनs) N. of a class of gods (including पिशाचs ,भूतs , यक्षs , राक्षसs , किं-नरs , किम्-पुरुषs , महो*रगs and गन्धर्वs) S3atr. HParis3. Pan5cat. &c व्य्--न्तरी f. a deity of the above class Campak. HParis3.
Vimāna1 (nt.) [in the Pāli meaning not Vedic. Found in meaning "palace -- chariot" in the Mbhārata and elsewhere in Epic Sk.] lit. covering a certain space, measuring; the defns given by Dhpāla refer it to "without measure," i. e. immeasurable. Thus=vigata -- māne appamāṇe mahanta vara -- pāsāda VvA 131;=visiṭṭhamānaŋ, pamāṇato mahantaŋ VvA 160. -- Appld meaning: heavenly (magic) palace, a kind of paradise, elysium. -- 1. General remarks: (a) The notion of the vimāna is peculiar to the later, fantastic parts of the Canon, based on popular superstition (Vimāna & Peta Vatthu, Apadāna, Jātaka and similar fairy tales). It shows distinct traces of foreign (Hellenic -- Babylonian) influence and rests partly on tales of sea -- faring merchants (cp. location of V. in mid -- ocean). On the other hand it represents the old (Vedic) ratha as chariot of the gods, to be driven at will (cp. below 5, 7, 8). Thus at Vv 16 (here as 500 chariots!), 36, 63, 64; J i. 59 (deva -- vimānasadisa ratha). -- (b) The vimānas are in remote parts of the world (cp. the island of the blessed), similar to the elysium in Homer's Odyssey, e. g. iv. 563 sq.: s)e)s *)hlu/sion pedi/on kai\ pei/rata gai/hs a)qa/natoi pemyousin etc. (trsln G. Chapman: "the immortal ends of all the earth, the fields Elysian Fate to thee will give; where Rhadamanthus rules, and where men live a nevertroubled life, where snow, nor show'rs, nor irksome winter spends his fruitless pow'rs, but from the ocean zephyr still resumes a constant breath, that all the fields perfume"). Cp. Ehni, Yama p. 206 sq. -- (c) In popular religion the influence of this eschatological literature has been very great, so great in fact as to make the Vimāna and Peta -- vatthus & the Jātakastories, exemplifying the theory of retribution as appealing to an ordinary mind by vivid examples of mythology, greater favourites than any other canonical book. From this point of view we have to judge Mhvs 14, 58: Petavatthuŋ Vimānañ ca sacca -- saŋyuttaŋ eva ca desesi thero . . . -- 2. Thedescriptions of the Vimānas are in the most exuberant terms...vimāna devatāPvA 190; vemānika -- peta J v. 2; PvA 244; DhA iii. 192 (as powerful, by the side of nāgas & supaṇṇas). -- In their appearance they are like beautiful human beings, dressed in yellowish (pīta, expld as "golden" robes (cp. the angels in the oldest Christian apocalyptic literature: on their relation to Hellenic ideas see e. g. A. Dieterich, Nekyia, Leipzig 1903, pp. 10 -- 18, 29: red & white the colours of the land of the blessed), with gold and silver as complementary outfit in person and surroundings...As tree -- vimānas with rukkha -- devatā as inhabitants they occur e. g. at J iii. 310; v. 502; Pv i. 9; ii. 9; PvA 244. Very often they are phantasmagorical castles in the air. By special power of their inhabitants they may be transported to any place at will. This faculty of transference is combined with the ability of extremely swift motion (compared to the speed of thought: manojava). Thus a golden palanquin is suspended in mid -- air above a palace at VvA 6 (ākāsa -- cārin, sīgha -- java). They are said to be ākāsaṭṭhānāni J vi. 117; SnA 222, 370 (but the palace of the Yakkha Āḷavaka is bhumma -- ṭṭha, i. e. stands on the ground, and is described as fortified: SnA 222). The place of a (flying) vimāna may be taken by various conveyances: a chair, an elephant, ship, bed, litter etc. Or the location of it in the other world is in the Cittalatāvana (Vv 37), or the Pāricchattaka tree (Vv 38), or in the Cātummahārājika -- bhavana (VvA 331). -- Later on, when the theory of meritorious deities (or departed souls raised to special rank) as vemānikā devā was established, their abode was with their vimānas settled among the Tāvatiŋsa (e. g. VvA 188, 217, 221, 244, 289; DhA iii. 291), or in theTusita heaven. Thus Tusita -- pura interchanges with Tusita -- vimāna at DhA ii. 208. The latter occurs e. g. at DhA iii. 173, 219. <-> 6. Thedimensions of the Vimānas are of course enormous, but harmonious (being "divine"), i. e. either of equal extent in all directions, or specially proportioned with significant numbers.
Vajira1 [cp. Vedic vajira, Indra's thunderbolt; Idg. *ṷeĝ=Sk. vaj, cp. Lat. vegeo to thrive, vigeo>vigour; Av. vaƶra; Oicel. vakr=Ags. wacor=Ger. wacker; also E. wake etc. See also vājeti] a thunderbolt; usually with ref. to Sakka's (=Indra's) weapon D i. 95=M i. 231 (ayasa); Th 1, 419; J i. 134 (vajira -- pūritā viya garukā kucchi "as if filled with Sakka's thunderbolt." Dutoit takes it in meaning vajira2 and trsls "with diamonds"); SnA 225 (˚āvudha the weapon of Sakka).
-- pāṇin having a thunderbolt in his hand (N. of a yakkha) Di. 95=M. i. 231.
Yakkha [Vedic yakṣa, quick ray of light, but also "ghost"; fr. yaks to move quickly; perhaps: swift creatures, changing their abode quickly and at will. -- The customary (popular) etym. of Pali Commentators is y. as quâsi grd. of yaj, to sacrifice, thus: a being to whom a sacrifice (of expiation or propitiation) is given. See e. g. VvA 224: yajanti tattha baliŋ upaharantī ti yakkhā; or VvA 333: pūjanīya -- bhavato yakkho ti vuccati. -- The term yakṣa as attendants of Kubera occurs already in the Upanishads.] 1. name of certain non -- human beings, as spirits, ogres, dryads, ghosts, spooks. Their usual epithet and category of being is amanussa, i. e. not a human being (but not a sublime god either); a being half deified and of great power as regards influencing people (partly helping, partly hurting). They range in appearance immediately above the Petas; many "successful" or happy Petas are in fact Yakkhas (see also below). They correspond to our "genii" or fairies of the fairy -- tales and show all their qualities. In many respects they correspond to the Vedic Piśācas, though different in many others, and of diff. origin. Historically they are remnants of an ancient demonology and of considerable folkloristic interest, as in them old animistic beliefs are incorporated and as they represent creatures of the wilds and forests, some of them based on ethnological features. See on term e. g. Dial.iii. 188; on their history and identity Stede,Gespenstergeschichten des Peta Vatthu chap. v.; pp. 39 -- 44. -- They are sometimes called devatā: S i. 205; or devaputtā: PvA 113, 139. A female Yakkha is called yakkhinī (q. v.).
2. Their usual capacity is one of kindness to men (cp. Ger. Rūbezahl). They are also interested in the spiritual welfare of those humans with whom they come into contact, and are something like "tutelary genii" or even "angels" (i. e. messengers from another world) who will save prospective sinners from doing evil (cp. Pviv. 1). They also act as guides in the "inferno": Pv iv. 11, cp. iv. 3. A somewhat dangerous "Mentor" is represented at D i. 95, where the y. Vajirapāṇī threatens to slay Ambaṭṭha with an iron hammer, if he does not answer the Bhagavā. He is represented as hovering in the air; Bdhgh. (DA i. 264) says on this: na yo vā so vā yakkho, Sakko devarājā ti veditabbo: it is to be understood not as this or that y., but as Sakka the king of devas. -- Whole cities stand under the protection of, or are inhabited by yakkhas; D ii. 147 (ākiṇṇa -- yakkha full of y.; thus Āḷakamandā may here mean all kinds of supra -- mundane beings), cp. Lankā (Ceylon) as inhabited by y.: Mhvs 7, 33. -- Often, however, they are cruel and dangerous. The female yakkhas seem on the whole more fearful and evil-natured than the male (see under yakkhinī). They eat flesh and blood: J iv. 549; devour even men: D ii. 346; J ii. 15 -- 17, or corpses: J i. 265; mentioned under the 5 ādīnavā (dangers) at Aiii. 256. A yakkha wants to kill Sāriputta: Ud 4.
3. Var. classes of y. are enumd at D ii. 256, 257; in a progressive order they rank between manussa and gandhabba at A ii. 38; they are mentioned with devas, rakkhasas, dānavas, gandhabbas, kinnaras and mah'oragas at J v. 420. According to VvA 333 Sakka, the 4 great kings (lokapālā), the followers of Vessavaṇa (alias Yama, the yakkhas proper) and men (see below 7) go by the name of yakkha. -- Sakka, the king of the devas, is often named yakkha: J iv. 4; DA i. 264. Some are spirits of trees (rukkha -- devatā): J iii. 309 345; Pv i. 9; ii. 9; PvA 5; are also calledbhumma -- devā (earthly deities) PvA 45, 55. Their cult seems to originate primarily from the woods (thus in trees: Pv ii. 9; iv. 3), and secondarily from the legends of sea -- faring merchants (cp. the story of the flyingDutchman). To the latter origin point the original descriptions of a Vimānaor fairy -- palace, which is due to a sort of mirage. These are usually found in or at the sea, or in the neighbourhood of silent lakes, where the sense of hauntedness has given rise to the fear of demons or supernatural witchcraft. Cp. the entrances to a Vimāna by means of a dried -- up river bed (Pv i. 9; ii. 12) and the many descriptions of the Vimānas in the Lake -- districts of the Himavant in Vv. (See Stede, Peta Vatthu trsln p. 104 sq.)
4. Their names too give us a clue as to their origin and function. These are taken from (a) their bodily appearance, which possesses many of the attributes of Petas, e. g. Khara "Rough -- skin" or "Shaggy" Sn p. 48 (=khara -- samphassaŋ cammaŋ SnA 302), also as Khara -- loma "Rough -- hair" Vism 208; Khara -- dāṭhika "Rough -- tooth" Ji. 31. Citta "Speckled" Mhvs 9, 22; 10, 4; also as Citta -- rājā J ii. 372; Mhvs 10, 84. Silesa -- loma "Sticky -- hair" J i. 273. Sūci -- loma "Needlehair" Sn p. 47, 48; S i. 207; Vism 208; SnA 302. -- (b) places of inhabitance, attributes of their realm, animals and plants, e. g. Ajakalāpaka "Goat -- bundle" Ud 1. Āḷavaka "Forest -- dweller" J iv. 180; vi. 329; Mhvs 30, 84: Vism 208.Uppala "Lotus" DhA iv. 209. Kakudha "K. -- tree" (Terminalia arjuna) S i. 54. Kumbhīra "Crocodile" J vi. 272. Gumbiya either "One of a troop" (soldier of Yama) or "Thicket -- er" (fr. gumba thicket) J iii. 200, 201. Disāmukha "Sky-facer" DhA iv. 209. Yamamoli "Yamachignon" DhAiv. 208. Vajira "Thunderbolt" DhA iv. 209; alias Vajira -- pāṇī D i. 95, or Vajira -- bāhu DhA iv. 209. Sātāgira "Pleasant -- mount" D ii. 256; Sn 153; J iv. 314; vi. 440. Serīsaka "Acacia -- dweller" VvA 341 (the messenger of Vessavaṇa). -- (c) qualities of character, e. g. Adhamma "Unrighteous" Miln 202 (formerly Devadatta). Katattha "Well -- wisher" DhA iv. 209. Dhamma "Righteous" Miln 202 (=Bodhisatta). Puṇṇaka "Full( -- moon?)" J vi. 255 sq. (a leader of soldiers, nephew of Vessavaṇa). Māra the "Tempter" Sn 449; S i. 122; M i. 338. Sakata "Waggon -- load" (of riches) DhA iv. 209 -- (d) embodiments of former persons, e. g. Janavasabha "Lord of men" D ii. 205. Dīgha M i. 210. Naradeva J vi. 383, 387. Paṇḍaka "Eunuch" Mhvs 12, 21. Sīvaka S i. 241=Vin ii. 156. Serī "Self -- willed" S i. 57. -- Cp. the similar names of yakkhinīs.
5. They stand in a close relationship to and under the authority of Vessavaṇa (Kuvera), one of the 4 lokapālas. They are often the direct servants (messengers) of Yama himself, the Lord of the Underworld (and the Peta -- realm especially). Cp. Dii. 257; iii. 194 sq.; J iv. 492 (yakkhinī fetches water for Vessavaṇa); vi. 255 sq. (Puṇṇaka, the nephew of V.); VvA 341 (Serīsaka, his messenger). In relation to Yama: dve yakkhā Yamassa dūtā Vv 522 ; cp. Np. Yamamolī DhA iv. 208. -- In harmony with tradition they share the rôle of their master Kuvera as lord of riches (cp. Pv ii. 922 ) and are the keepers (and liberal spenders) of underground riches, hidden treasures etc., with which they delight men: see e. g. the frame story to Pvii. 11 (PvA 145), and to iv. 12 (PvA 274). They enjoy every kind of splendour & enjoyment, hence their attribute kāma -- kāmin Pv i. 33 . Hence they possess supernatural powers, can transfer themselves to any place with their palaces and work miracles; a frequent attribute of theirs is mah' iddhika (Pv ii. 910 ; J vi. 118). Their appearance is splendid, as a result of former merit: cp. Pv i. 2; i. 9; ii. 11; iv. 317 . At the same time they are possessed of odd qualities (as result of former demerit); they are shy, and afraid of palmyra leaf & iron: J iv. 492; their eyes are red & do not wink: J v. 34; vi. 336, 337. -- Their abode is their self -- created palace (Vimāna), which is anywhere in the air, or in trees etc. (see under vimāna). Sometimes we find a communion of yakkhas grouped in a town, e. g. Āḷakamandā D ii. 147; Sirīsa -- vatthu (in Ceylon) Mhvs 7, 32.
6. Their essential human character is evident also from their attitude towards the "Dhamma." In this respect many of them are "fallen angels" and take up the word of the Buddha, thus being converted and able to rise to a higher sphere of existence in saŋsāra. Cp. Diii. 194, 195; J ii. 17; VvA 333; Pv ii. 810 (where "yakkha" is expld by Dhpāla as "pet -- attabhāvato cuto (so read for mato!) yakkho ataŋ jāto dev -- attabhāvaŋ patto" PvA 110); SnA 301 (both Sūciloma & Khara converted). -- See in general also the foll. passages: Sn 153, 179, 273, 449; S i. 206 -- 15; A i. 160; Vism 366 (in simile); Miln 23.
7. Exceptionally the term "yakkha" is used as a philosophical term denoting the "individual soul" [cp. similar Vedic meaning "das lebendige Ding" (B.R.) at several AV. passages]; hence probably the old phrase: ettāvatā yakkhassa suddhi (purification of heart) Sn 478, quoted VvA 333 (ettāvat' aggaŋ no vadanti h' eke yakkhassa sudhiŋ idha paṇḍitāse). Sn 875 (cp. Nd1 282: yakkha=satta, nara, puggala, manussa).
-- ânubhāva the potency of a yakkha Ji. 240. -- āviṭṭha possessed by a y. J vi. 586. -- iddhi (yakkh˚) magic power of a y. PvA 117, 241. -- gaṇathe multitude of ys. J vi. 287. -- gaha=following DhA iii. 362. -- gāha "yakkha -- grip," being seized by a y. S i. 208; PvA 144. -- ṭṭhāna the dwelling -- place of a y. -- dāsī "a female temple slave," or perhaps "possessed by a demon" (?) J vi. 501 (v. l. BB devatā -- paviṭṭhā cp. p. 586: yakkh'āviṭṭhā.) -- nagara city of ys. J ii. 127 (=Sirīsavatthu); cp. pisāca -- nagara. -- pura id. Mhvs 7.32. -- bhavana the realm or abode of the y. Nd1 448. -- bhūta a yakkha -- being, a ghost Pv iii. 52 (=pisāca -- bhūta vā yakkha -- bh. vā PvA 198); iv. 135 . -- mahiddhi=˚iddhi; Pv iv. 154 . -- yoni the y. -- world, realm of the y. SnA 301. -- samāgama meeting of the y. PvA 55 (where also devaputtā join). -- sūkara a y. in the form of a pig VbhA 494. -- senā army of ys. D iii. 194; SnA 209. -- senāpati chief -- commander of the yakkha -- army J iv. 478; SnA 197.
Yakkhatta
Yakkhatta (nt.) [fr. yakkha] condition of a higher demon or yakkha Dii. 57; A ii. 39; PvA 117.
Yakkhinī (f.) [fr. yakkha, perhaps corresponding directly to Vedic yakṣiṇī, f. of yakṣin; adj. persecuting, taking vengeance, appld to Varuṇa at RV.vii. 884 ] a female yakkha, a vampire. Their character is usually fierce & full of spite & vengeance, addicted to man -- & beast-murder (cp. yakkha 2). They are very much like Petīs in habits. With their names cp. those of the yakkhas, as enumd under yakkha 4. -- Vin iii. 37; iv. 20 (where sexual intercourse with y. is forbidden to the bhikkhus); S i. 209 (Piyankara -- mātā); J i. 240 (as a goat), 395 sq.; ii. 127; iii. 511; v. 21 (eating a baby), 209 (eaten by a y.); vi. 336 (desirous of eating a child); Vism 121 (singing), 382 (four: Piyankara -- mātā, Uttaramātā, Phussa -- mittā, Dhammaguttā), 665 (in simile); Mhvs 7, 11 (Kuvaṇṇā, i. e. bad -- coloured); 10, 53 (Cetiyā); 12, 21 (Hāritā "Charming" or fr. harita "green" (?)); DhA i. 47; ii. 35, 36 (a y. in the form of a cow, eating 4 people in successive births). Note. A by -- form of yakkhinī is yakkhī.
-- bhāva the state of being a yakkhinī Ji. 240; ii. 128 (yakkhini˚).
Yakkhī (f.) [direct formation fr. yakkha, like petī fr. peta; form older than yakkhinī (?)]=yakkhinī Si. 11; Vin iii. 121; iv. 20; J iv. 492; Mhvs 7, 26.
Atiyakkha (ati + yakkha] a sorcerer, wizard, fortuneteller J vi.502 (C.: bhūtavijjā ikkhaṇīka).
Rukkha [Vedic vṛkṣa. See Geiger, P.Gr. § 13, with note. Pischel, Prk. Gr. § 320 puts rukkha to Sk. rukṣa (shining which as Pischel, following Roth. says has also the meaning "tree" in Ṛgveda). The Prk. form is rukkha. Cp. Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. 1, § 184 b. We find a byform rakkha at Jiii. 144. Cp. Brethren, pp. 185, 416, where the Bn MS. has rukkha kathā the meaning being rakkha˚] a tree...-- devatā a tree spirit, dryad, a yakkha inhabiting a tree (rukkhe adhivatthā d. Vin iv. 34; J ii. 385; kakudhe adhivatthā d. Vin i. 28) J i. 168, 322; ii. 405, 438 sq. (eraṇḍa˚), 445; iii. 23; iv. 308 (vanajeṭṭhaka -- rukkhe nibbatta -- devatā); DhA ii. 16; PvA 5 (in a Nigrodha tree), 43 (in the Vindhya forest). <-> They live in a Nigrodha tree at the entrance of the village (J i. 169), where they receive offerings at the foot of the tree (cp. iv. 474), and occasionally one threatens them with discontinuance of the offerings if they do not fulfil one's request. The trees are their vimānas (J i. 328, 442; iv. 154), occasionally they live in hollow trees (J i. 405; iii. 343) or in tree tops (J i. 423). They have to rely on the food given to them (ibid.); for which they help the people (J iii. 24; v. 511). They assume various forms when they appear to the people (J i. 423;ii. 357, 439; iii. 23); they also have children (Vin iv. 34; J i. 442).
Maru1 [cp. Epic Sk. maru] a region destitute of water, a desert. Always combd with ˚kantāra: Nd1 155 (as Name); J i. 107; VbhA 6; VvA 332; PvA 99, 112.
Maru2 [Vedic marut, always in pl. marutaḥ, the gods of the thunder -- storm] 1. pl. marū the genii, spirits of the air Sn 681, 688; Miln 278 (nāga --yakkha -- nara -- marū; perhaps in meaning 2); Mhvs 5, 27. -- 2. gods in general (˚ -- ) Mhvs 15, 211 (˚gaṇā hosts of gods); 18, 68 (˚narā gods and men). -- Cp. māruta & māluta.
Bhūta [pp. of bhavati, Vedic etc. bhūta] grown, become; born, produced; nature as the result of becoming. <-> The (exegetical) definition by Bdhgh of the word bhūta is interesting. He (at MAi. 31) distinguishes the foll. 7 meanings of the term: (1) animate Nature as principle, or the vital aggregates (the 5 Khandhas), with ref. M i. 260; (2) ghosts (amanussā) Sn 222; (3) inanimate Nature as principle, or the Elements (the 4 dhātus) Siii. 101 (mahābhūtā); (4) all that exists, physical existence in general (vijjamānaŋ) Vin iv. 25 (bhūtaŋ); (5) what we should call a simple predicativeuse, is exemplified by a typical dogmatic example, viz. "kālaghaso bhūto," where bhūta is given as meaning khīṇāsava (Arahant) J ii. 260; (6) all beings or specified existence, animal kingdom (sattā) D ii. 157; (7) the vegetable kingdom, plants, vegetation (rukkh'ādayo) Vin iv. 34 (as bhūta -- gāma). -- Meanings: 1. bhūtā & bhūtāni (pl.) beings, living beings, animate Nature Sn 35 (expld at Nd2 479 as 2 kinds, viz. tasā & thāvarā, movable & immovable; S. ii. 47 (K.S. ii. 36) mind and body as come -- to -- be; Dh 131 (bhūtāni), 405; M i. 2 sq. (paṭhavī, āpo etc., bhūtā, devā, Pajāpatī etc.), 4; MA i. 32. The pl. nt. bhūtāni is used as pl. to meaning 2; viz. inanimate Nature, elements, usually enumd under term mahā -- bhūtāni. -- 2. (nt.) nature, creation, world M i. 2 (bhūte bhūtato sañjānāti recognises the beings from nature, i. e. from the fact of being nature); DhsA 312 (˚pasāda -- lakkhaṇa, see Expos. 409). See cpds. ˚gāma, ˚pubba (?). -- 3. (nt. adj.) that which is, i. e. natural, genuine, true; nt. truth; neg.abhūta falsehood, lie Sn 397; PvA 34. See cpds. ˚bhāva, ˚vacana, ˚vāda. -- 4. a supernatural being, ghost, demon, Yakkha; pl. bhūtā guardian genii (of a city) J iv. 245.
Bhumma (adj. -- n.) [fr. bhūmi, Vedic bhūmya] 1. belonging to the earth, earthly, terrestrial; nt. soil, ground, floor Sn 222 (bhūtāni bhummāni earthly creatures,contrasted with creatures in the air, antalikkhe), 236 (id.); Sdhp 420 (sabba -- bhummā khattiyā). pl. bhummā the earthly ones, i. e. the gods inhabiting the earth, esp. tree gods (Yakkhas) Vv 842 (=bhumma -- deva VvA 334). -- nt. ground: Pv ii. 102 (yāva bhummā down to the ground); v. l. BB bhūm(i). -- 2. the locative case KhA 106, 111, 224; SnA 140, 210, 321, 433; PvA 33... -- devatā=˚deva J iv. 287 (=yakkha); KhA 120.
Puṇṇa [pp. of pṛ, Vedic pṛṇāti, Pass. pūryate, *pelē to fill; cp. Sk. prāṇa & pūrṇa=Av. pərəna; Lith. pílnas; Lat. plēnus; Goth fulls=E. full=Ger voll] full, seldom by itself (only passage so far pannarase puṇṇāya puṇṇamāya rattiyā Di. 47=Sn p. 139). nor -- ˚ (only Sn 835 muttakarīsa˚), usually in cpds., and there mostly restricted to phrases relating to the full moon.
-- ghaṭa a full pitcher (for feeding the bhikkhus, as offering on festive days, cp. J.P.T.S. 1884) DhAi. 147; KhA 118 (v. l. suvaṇṇaghaṭa); DAi. 140 (˚paṭimaṇḍita ghara)...-- bhadda worshipper of Puṇṇabhadda, perhaps a Yakkha(father of the Yakkha Harikesa) Nd1 92 (Vāsuvadeva, Baladeva, P. and Maṇibhadda, cp. p. 89); Miln 191 (pisācā maṇibhaddā p.).
Pisāca [cp. Sk. piśāca & Vedic piśāci; to same root as pisuna=Vedic piśuna, & Lat. piget, Ohg. fēhida enmity=Ags. faehp ("feud"), connected with root of Goth. fijan to hate; thus pisāca=fiend] 1. a demon, goblin, sprite Di. 54 (T. pesācā, v. l. pisācā, expld at DA i. 164 as "pisācā mahanta -- mahantā sattā ti vadati"), 93; S i. 209; A iii. 69; Ud 5; J i. 235; iv. 495 (yakkha p. peta); Miln 23; VvA 335; PvA 198; Sdhp 313. -- f. pisācī J v. 442. -- 2. [like pisāca -- loha referring to the Paiśāca district, hailing from that tribe, cp. the term malla in same meaning and origin] a sort of acrobat, as pl. pisācā "tumblers" Miln 191.
-- nagara town of goblins (cp. yakkha -- nagara) Vism 531. -- loha [connected with the tribe of the Paiśāca's: Mhbhvii. 4819; cp. Paiśācī as one of the Prākrit dialects: Pischel, Prk. Gr. § 3] a kind of copper VbhA 63 (eight varieties).
Tattha [Sk. tatra adv. of place, cp. Goth. papro & also Sk. atra, yatra] A. 1. of place: (a) place where= there, in that place Sn 1071, 1085; Dh 58; Ji. 278; Pv i. 1015 ; often with eva: tatth' eva right there, on the (very same) spot S i. 116; J ii. 154; PvA 27. In this sense as introduction to a comment on a passage: in this, here, in this connection (see also tatra) Dhs 584; DhA i. 21; PvA 7, etc. (b) direction: there, to this place J ii. 159 (gantvā);vi. 368; PvA 16 (tatthagamanasīla able to go here & there, i. e. wherever you like, of a Yakkha).
Kantāriya (adj.) [from kantāra] (one) living in or belonging to the desert, the guardian of a wilderness, applied to a Yakkha Vv 8421 (=VvA. 341).
Khara1 [cp. Sk. khara] 1. (adj.) rough, hard, sharp; painful D ii.127 (ābādha); J iii.26 (vedanā) Miln 26 (+sakkhara-- kaṭhala-- vālikā), PvA 152 (loma, shaggy hair; cp. Np. Khara-- loma-- yakkha Vism 208). -- ˚ka= khara rough, stony PvA 265 (=thaṇḍila).
Asura [Vedic asura in more comprehensive meaning; con- nected with Av. ahurō Lord, ahurō mazdā˚; perhaps to Av. anhuš & Lat. erus master] a fallen angel, a Titan; pl. asurā the Titans, a class of mythological beings. Dhpāla at PvA 272 & the C. on Jv. 186 define them as kāḷakañjaka -- bhedā asurā. The are classed with other similar inferior deities, e. g. with garuḷā, nāgā, yakkhā at Miln 117; with supaṇṇā, gandhabbā, yakkhā at DA i. 51. <-> The fight between Gods & Titans is also reflected in the oldest books of the Pāli Canon and occurs in identical description at the foll. passages under the title of devâsura -- sangāma: D ii. 285; S i. 222 (cp. 216 sq.), iv. 201 sq., v. 447; M i. 253; A iv. 432. -- Rebirth as an Asura is considered as one of the four unhappy rebirths or evil fates after death (apāyā; viz. niraya, tiracchāna -- yoni, petā or pettivisaya, asurā), e. g. at It 93; J v. 186; Pv iv. 111 , see also apāya. -- Other passages in general: S i. 216 sq. (fight of Devas & Asuras); iv. 203; A ii. 91; iv. 198 sq., 206; Sn 681; Nd1 89, 92, 448; DhA i. 264 (˚kaññā); Sdhp 366, 436.
-- inda Chief or king of the Titans. Several Asuras are accredited with the rôle of leaders, most commonly Vepacitti (Si. 222; iv. 201 sq.) and Rāhu (A ii. 17, 53; iii. 243). Besides these we find Pahārāda (gloss Mahābhadda) at A iv. 197. -- kāya the body or assembly of the asuras A i. 143; Jv. 186; ThA 285. -- parivāra a retinue of Asuras A ii. 91. -- rakkhasā Asuras and Rakkhasas (Rakṣasas) Sn 310 (defined by Bdhgh at SnA 323 as pabbata -- pāda -- nivāsino dānava -- yakkha -- saññitā).
शङ्कुः [शङ्क्-उण् Uṇ.1.36] 1 A dart, spear, spike, javelin, dagger; oft. at the end of comp; शोकशङ्कुः 'the dart of grief', i. e. sharp or poignant grief; तथैव तीव्रो हृदि शोकशङ्कुर्मर्माणि कृन्तन्नपि किं न सोढः U.3.35; R.8.93; Ki.16.15. -2 A stake, pillar, post, pale; महासुहयः सैन्धवः पड्वीशशङ्कून् संवृहेत् Bri. Up.6.1.13; निखात शङ्कुसंबद्धसैन्धवश्रेणिसंयुतम् Siva B.2. 53. -3 A nail, pin, peg; बभूवु सप्त दुर्धर्षाः खादिरैः शङ्कुभि- श्चिताः Mb.3.284.3; अयःशङ्कुचितां रक्षः शतघ्नीमथ शत्रवे (अक्षिपत्) R.12.95. -4 The sharp head or point of an arrow, barb; Dk.1.1. -5 The trunk (of a lopped tree), stump, pollard. -6 The pin of a dial. -7 A measure of twelve fingers. -8 A measuring-rod. śaṅkulāशङ्कुला [शङ्क्-उलच् Uṇ.1.93] 1 A kind of knife or lancet. -2 A pair of scissors. -Comp. -खण्डः a piece cut off with a pair of scissors.(Samskritam. Apte)
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/an-object-lesson-for-art-historians.html
S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center
July 3, 2015
Ta. iyaṅku (iyaṅki-) to move, stir, go, proceed, walk about; n. movement, act of going; iyakku (iyakki-) to cause to go, train or break in (as a bull or horse); n. motion, going, marching; iyakkam motion, moving about, way; icaṅku (icaṅki-) to go or lead to (as a way); icai (-pp-, -tt-) to bring about; iyal (iyalv-, iyaṉṟ-; iyali-) to go on foot, dance; n. pace, gait; iyavu way; leading, proceeding; iyavuḷ leadership, god, way; iyavaiway, path. Ma. iyaṅṅuka to move steadily; iyakkuka to cause to move; iyakkam motion, movement. Ko. i·y- (i·c-), i·c- (i·c-) to drive (cattle).Ka. (PBh.) esagu to drive.(DEDR 469)
Yaksha (Sanskrit: यक्ष yakṣa) is the name of a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, who are caretakers of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots. The feminine form of the word is yakṣī (यक्षी)[3] or Yakshini (yakṣiṇī, यक्षिणी).For yakṣiṇī (यक्षिणी) as a regular Sanskrit term for a female yakṣa, and yakṣaṇī as a Buddhist variant, see Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, vol. 2., Motilal Banarsidass, First Edition, 1953, p. 442. "...in the didactic Hindu dialogue of theYakṣapraśnāḥ "Questions of the Yakṣa", it is a tutelary spirit of a lake that challengesYudhiṣṭhira. The yakṣas may have originally been the tutelary gods of forests and villages, and were later viewed as the steward deities of the earth and the wealth buried beneath.In Indian art, male yakṣas are portrayed either as fearsome warriors or as portly, stout and dwarf-like. Female yakṣas, known as yakṣiṇīs, are portrayed as beautiful young women with happy round faces and full breasts and hips...In Buddhist literature, the yakṣa are the attendants of Vaiśravaṇa, the Guardian of the Northern Quarter, a beneficent god who protects the righteous. The term also refers to the Twelve Heavenly Generals who guard Bhaiṣajyaguru, the Medicine Buddha.
According to the Mahavamsa, Prince Vijaya encountered the royalty of the Yakkhas queen Kuveni in the Yakkha capital of Lankapura and conquered them...Jains mainly worship idols of Arihants and Tirthankaras, who have conquered the inner passions and attained God-consciousness status. Some Jains also believe that Yaksha and Yakshini look after the well-being of the Tirtha. Usually, they are found in pair around the idols of Jinas as male (yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities. Yaksha is generally on the right-hand side of the Jina idol and Yakshini on the left-hand side. In earlier periods, they were regarded mainly as devotees of Jina, and have supernatural powers. They are also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like the worldly souls, but have supernatural powers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaksha
Equivalent terms in other languages include: Pali: यक्ख yakkha,(For yakkha as a "rare use in Pali" see Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, vol. 2., Motilal Banarsidass, First Edition, 1953, p. 442.) Tamil: யக்கர், Kannada: ಯಕ್ಷ, Yākka, Thai: ยักษ์ yaksa, Vietnamese: dạ xoa, Chinese: 夜叉 yèchā or 藥叉 yàochā, Korean: 야차/夜叉 yacha, Japanese: 夜叉 yasha, Burmese: ဘီလူး [bìlú], Standard Tibetan: གནོད་སྦྱིན་ gnod sbyin
yakṣá m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ MaitrUp. (n. ʻ mani- festation ʼ RV.), yakṣī -- , yakṣiṇī -- f. MBh.
Pa. yakkha -- m. ʻ a supernatural being ʼ, yakkhī -- , yakkhiṇī -- f., Pk. jakkha -- m., jakkhiṇī -- f.; Ash. yuš, yüš ʻ ogre ʼ, yuštrīˊk ʻ ogress ʼ (+
यक्ष [p=838,2] n. a living supernatural being , spiritual apparition , ghost , spirit RV. AV. VS. Br. Gr2S3rS. (accord. to some native Comms. = यज्ञ , पुजा , पूजित &c ) m. N. of a class of semi-divine beings (attendants of कुबेर , exceptionally also of विष्णु ; described as sons of पुलस्त्य , of पुलह , of कश्यप , of खसा or क्रोधा ; also as produced from the feet of ब्रह्मा ; though generally regarded as beings of a benevolent and inoffensive disposition , like the यक्ष inकालिदास's मेघ-दूत , they are occasionally classed with पिशाचs and other malignant spirits , and sometimes said to cause demoniacal possession ; as to their position in the Buddhist system »MWB. 206 , 218) Up. Gr2S. Mn. MBh. &c m. N. of कुबेर VarYogay.m. of इन्द्र's palace L.m. N. of कुबेर's wife L.
व्य्--न्तर [p=1028,3] m. " occupying an intermediate position " , (with जैनs) N. of a class of gods (including पिशाचs ,भूतs , यक्षs , राक्षसs , किं-नरs , किम्-पुरुषs , महो*रगs and गन्धर्वs) S3atr. HParis3. Pan5cat. &c व्य्--न्तरी f. a deity of the above class Campak. HParis3.
Vimāna
Vajira
-- pāṇin having a thunderbolt in his hand (N. of a yakkha) D
Yakkha [Vedic yakṣa, quick ray of light, but also "ghost"; fr. yaks to move quickly; perhaps: swift creatures, changing their abode quickly and at will. -- The customary (popular) etym. of Pali Commentators is y. as quâsi grd. of yaj, to sacrifice, thus: a being to whom a sacrifice (of expiation or propitiation) is given. See e. g. VvA 224: yajanti tattha baliŋ upaharantī ti yakkhā; or VvA 333: pūjanīya -- bhavato yakkho ti vuccati. -- The term yakṣa as attendants of Kubera occurs already in the Upanishads.] 1. name of certain non -- human beings, as spirits, ogres, dryads, ghosts, spooks. Their usual epithet and category of being is amanussa, i. e. not a human being (but not a sublime god either); a being half deified and of great power as regards influencing people (partly helping, partly hurting). They range in appearance immediately above the Petas; many "successful" or happy Petas are in fact Yakkhas (see also below). They correspond to our "genii" or fairies of the fairy -- tales and show all their qualities. In many respects they correspond to the Vedic Piśācas, though different in many others, and of diff. origin. Historically they are remnants of an ancient demonology and of considerable folkloristic interest, as in them old animistic beliefs are incorporated and as they represent creatures of the wilds and forests, some of them based on ethnological features. See on term e. g. Dial.
2. Their usual capacity is one of kindness to men (cp. Ger. Rūbezahl). They are also interested in the spiritual welfare of those humans with whom they come into contact, and are something like "tutelary genii" or even "angels" (i. e. messengers from another world) who will save prospective sinners from doing evil (cp. Pv
3. Var. classes of y. are enum
4. Their names too give us a clue as to their origin and function. These are taken from (a) their bodily appearance, which possesses many of the attributes of Petas, e. g. Khara "Rough -- skin" or "Shaggy" Sn p. 48 (=khara -- samphassaŋ cammaŋ SnA 302), also as Khara -- loma "Rough -- hair" Vism 208; Khara -- dāṭhika "Rough -- tooth" J
5. They stand in a close relationship to and under the authority of Vessavaṇa (Kuvera), one of the 4 lokapālas. They are often the direct servants (messengers) of Yama himself, the Lord of the Underworld (and the Peta -- realm especially). Cp. D
6. Their essential human character is evident also from their attitude towards the "Dhamma." In this respect many of them are "fallen angels" and take up the word of the Buddha, thus being converted and able to rise to a higher sphere of existence in saŋsāra. Cp. D
7. Exceptionally the term "yakkha" is used as a philosophical term denoting the "individual soul" [cp. similar Vedic meaning "das lebendige Ding" (B.R.) at several AV. passages]; hence probably the old phrase: ettāvatā yakkhassa suddhi (purification of heart) Sn 478, quoted VvA 333 (ettāvat' aggaŋ no vadanti h' eke yakkhassa sudhiŋ idha paṇḍitāse). Sn 875 (cp. Nd
-- ânubhāva the potency of a yakkha J
Yakkhatta (nt.) [fr. yakkha] condition of a higher demon or yakkha D
Yakkhinī (f.) [fr. yakkha, perhaps corresponding directly to Vedic yakṣiṇī, f. of yakṣin; adj. persecuting, taking vengeance, appl
-- bhāva the state of being a yakkhinī J
Yakkhī (f.) [direct formation fr. yakkha, like petī fr. peta; form older than yakkhinī (?)]=yakkhinī S
Atiyakkha (ati + yakkha] a sorcerer, wizard, fortuneteller J vi.502 (C.: bhūtavijjā ikkhaṇīka).
Rukkha [Vedic vṛkṣa. See Geiger, P.Gr. § 13, with note. Pischel, Prk. Gr. § 320 puts rukkha to Sk. rukṣa (shining which as Pischel, following Roth. says has also the meaning "tree" in Ṛgveda). The Prk. form is rukkha. Cp. Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. 1, § 184 b. We find a byform rakkha at J
Maru
Maru
Bhūta [pp. of bhavati, Vedic etc. bhūta] grown, become; born, produced; nature as the result of becoming. <-> The (exegetical) definition by Bdhgh of the word bhūta is interesting. He (at MA
Bhumma (adj. -- n.) [fr. bhūmi, Vedic bhūmya] 1. belonging to the earth, earthly, terrestrial; nt. soil, ground, floor Sn 222 (bhūtāni bhummāni earthly creatures,contrasted with creatures in the air, antalikkhe), 236 (id.); Sdhp 420 (sabba -- bhummā khattiyā). pl. bhummā the earthly ones, i. e. the gods inhabiting the earth, esp. tree gods (Yakkhas) Vv 84
Puṇṇa [pp. of pṛ, Vedic pṛṇāti, Pass. pūryate, *pelē to fill; cp. Sk. prāṇa & pūrṇa=Av. pərəna; Lith. pílnas; Lat. plēnus; Goth fulls=E. full=Ger voll] full, seldom by itself (only passage so far pannarase puṇṇāya puṇṇamāya rattiyā D
-- ghaṭa a full pitcher (for feeding the bhikkhus, as offering on festive days, cp. J.P.T.S. 1884) DhA
Pisāca [cp. Sk. piśāca & Vedic piśāci; to same root as pisuna=Vedic piśuna, & Lat. piget, Ohg. fēhida enmity=Ags. faehp ("feud"), connected with root of Goth. fijan to hate; thus pisāca=fiend] 1. a demon, goblin, sprite D
-- nagara town of goblins (cp. yakkha -- nagara) Vism 531. -- loha [connected with the tribe of the Paiśāca's: Mhbh
Tattha [Sk. tatra adv. of place, cp. Goth. papro & also Sk. atra, yatra] A. 1. of place: (a) place where= there, in that place Sn 1071, 1085; Dh 58; J
Kantāriya (adj.) [from kantāra] (one) living in or belonging to the desert, the guardian of a wilderness, applied to a Yakkha Vv 8421 (=VvA. 341).
Khara1 [cp. Sk. khara] 1. (adj.) rough, hard, sharp; painful D ii.127 (ābādha); J iii.26 (vedanā) Miln 26 (+sakkhara-- kaṭhala-- vālikā), PvA 152 (loma, shaggy hair; cp. Np. Khara-- loma-- yakkha Vism 208). -- ˚ka= khara rough, stony PvA 265 (=thaṇḍila).
Asura [Vedic asura in more comprehensive meaning; con- nected with Av. ahurō Lord, ahurō mazdā˚; perhaps to Av. anhuš & Lat. erus master] a fallen angel, a Titan; pl. asurā the Titans, a class of mythological beings. Dhpāla at PvA 272 & the C. on J
-- inda Chief or king of the Titans. Several Asuras are accredited with the rôle of leaders, most commonly Vepacitti (S
शङ्कुः [शङ्क्-उण् Uṇ.1.36] 1 A dart, spear, spike, javelin, dagger; oft. at the end of comp; शोकशङ्कुः 'the dart of grief', i. e. sharp or poignant grief; तथैव तीव्रो हृदि शोकशङ्कुर्मर्माणि कृन्तन्नपि किं न सोढः U.3.35; R.8.93; Ki.16.15. -2 A stake, pillar, post, pale; महासुहयः सैन्धवः पड्वीशशङ्कून् संवृहेत् Bri. Up.6.1.13; निखात शङ्कुसंबद्धसैन्धवश्रेणिसंयुतम् Siva B.2. 53. -3 A nail, pin, peg; बभूवु सप्त दुर्धर्षाः खादिरैः शङ्कुभि- श्चिताः Mb.3.284.3; अयःशङ्कुचितां रक्षः शतघ्नीमथ शत्रवे (अक्षिपत्) R.12.95. -4 The sharp head or point of an arrow, barb; Dk.1.1. -5 The trunk (of a lopped tree), stump, pollard. -6 The pin of a dial. -7 A measure of twelve fingers. -8 A measuring-rod. śaṅkulāशङ्कुला [शङ्क्-उलच् Uṇ.1.93] 1 A kind of knife or lancet. -2 A pair of scissors. -Comp. -खण्डः a piece cut off with a pair of scissors.(Samskritam. Apte)
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/an-object-lesson-for-art-historians.html
S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center
July 3, 2015