Is the ‘Clown Prince’ out-clowning himself -- Arun Jaitley

October 16, 2018, 8:11 am

≫ Next: Levitating mūrti and many other Mysteries Of The Konark Sun Temple -- Sivasankar Babu

≪ Previous: So, SC erred in recognizing the nature of the shrine.as non-denominational. The Judgement should be reviewed suo moto and frozen.

Is the ‘Clown Prince’ out-clowning himself

ARUN JAITLEY·TUESDAY, OCTOBER 16, 2018

Many young Lawyers practising criminal law used to get an advice early in their career from Veterans in the field. They were told “if you are strong on facts, bang the facts. If you are strong on law, bang the law. If you are weak on both, then bang the desk.” Those who advise Rahul Gandhi appear to have persuaded him that he is cut out only for the third option. Since beating the desk itself would not suffice, it has to be accompanied with a new narrative. If the factual narrative does not suit him then concoct an alternative. Repeat the false narrative a dozen times and convince yourself that falsehood is in fact is the truth. Thereafter, you can comfortably live in self-delusion. Or is it a case of mendacity -

The onus now lies on me to substantiate what I have said. Rahul Gandhi’s speeches and tweets display repeated examples of this. I give five examples.

A. He repeatedly says that a private business house in India has got an advantage ranging from Rs. 38,000 Crore to Rs. 1,30,000 Crore. He further argues that what was to be manufactured by HAL is now being manufactured by a private business house with no experience.

THE TRUTH : Rafale aircraft and its weaponry is not being manufactured in India at all, neither by Dassault or by any other private company. All 36 aircrafts and their weapons in a fully flyable and usable form will arrive in India. After the supplies begin Dassault has to make purchases in India for 50% of the contract value. This is as per the UPA’s policy to promote make in India. If the total deal is for Rs. 58,000 Crore, 50% of that amounts to Rs. 29,000 Crore. These supplies to Dassault are to be made by over 120 offset suppliers and which the business house named is one of them. Dassault has said that only 3% of offset may come to that business house which is less than Rs. 1000 Crore.

B. He repeats congenitally despite being corrected several times that once an account is declared as NPA it amounts to a loan waiver. He then builds a false narrative of the PM having waived the loan of his 15 friends.

THE TRUTH : Loans were given during the UPA period. Not a single Rupee has been waived. The Promotors of the defaulting companies have been thrown out through the IBC, and banks are successfully recovering their dues. Through the process of NCLT banks are recovering their loans.

C. A cliché that he learnt was as to question why mobile phones could not be manufactured in India? I corrected him by mentioning that when UPA went out of power there were only two units manufacturing mobile phones and their accessories. Today there are 120 units and expanding. He then changed his example. He now tells his audiences why footwear are not being manufactured in the district, where he is speaking. Ill-informed as he is, India has become the second largest manufacturer of footwear in the world. Our exports in footwear are about Rs.20,000 crores each year. He just has to take a trip to Bahadurgarh on the outskirts of Delhi to realise the competitive nature of India’s footwear industry.

D. On GST he mentions that it is flawed and needs to be changed. India has witnessed the most successful implementation of the GST. The country has become one market, all check-points have been abolished, inspectors have disappeared and like Income-tax, the returns are now filed online and most assessments will be online. All States, including Congress ruled States have approved the model and the rates. In the first 13 months, the Congress legacy of 31% tax (Excise + VAT + CST) has been reduced to 18% and 12% in relation to 334 commodities. This has also helped us to check inflation. He seems to be unaware of this.

His Latest Concoction

E. Yesterday, while speaking at two different functions in Madhya Pradesh, he made two references to me in each of his speeches I am annexing clips of his speeches as they appear in the social media. In the first one he says that I have admitted that Vijay Mallya met me in Parliament. He further claims, I have further admitted that Mallya told me that he was escaping to London and that I helped him to escape. He says in his second speech that I have admitted that Nirav Modi also met me in Parliament. He claims that I have admitted that he had a meeting with me and told me that he was going out of the country and I helped him to escape.

THE TRUTH : I do not recollect ever having even seen Nirav Modi in my life. The question of his meeting me in Parliament does not arise. If he came to Parliament, as Rahul Gandhi claims, then reception records would show that. Where have I admitted all this Mr.Gandhi?

As a Member of Parliament, Vijay Mallya once chased me in the corridor of Parliament to discuss his case. I did not pay any heed to him and coldly told him to make his proposal to the bankers. This he says constitutes a meeting where he told me that he was escaping to London. Absolute lie.

How does he concoct this falsehood? At the Hindustan Times Summit, he referred to a meeting he had with me and attributed same statements to me. When asked I merely said that ‘I can’t answer hallucinations. I am in the distinguished company of President Macron’. Today I feel it is much more than hallucinations. Is it a personality issue where he lies a dozen times and then in self delusion believes it to be true or is it a case of a ‘Clown Prince’ out-clowning himself?

Video URL https://www.facebook.com/ArunJaitleyFans/videos/1993430574051020/ (1:18)

https://www.facebook.com/notes/arun-jaitley/is-the-clown-prince-out-clowning-himself/894561670732382/

↧

Levitating mūrti and many other Mysteries Of The Konark Sun Temple -- Sivasankar Babu

October 16, 2018, 4:59 pm

≫ Next: Ayyappa: A separate religious denomination -- Jayasree Saranathan. SC should suo moto stay its Sabarimala order.

≪ Previous: Is the ‘Clown Prince’ out-clowning himself -- Arun Jaitley

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MRfL9_Fpnxw (2:34) Surya Sculpture from Sun temple, Konark at National Museum Shilpa Tiwari

Published on Jul 22, 2016

Carved minutely with a wide range of subordinate imagery this sculpture, representing the Sun-god Surya, is one of the finest from the Sun temple, Konark, in Orissa. Besides the main image it portrays 'Maladharas' showering flowers, vina-playing Gandharva, and equestrian messenger, though largely damaged, on the right and left of the prabha's upper part, flower-bunches carrying female attendants, male attendants, sages and the figures of seven horses with charioteer Aruna driving his cart. The texts identify the two female figures attending on him as his consorts Chhaya and Suvarchasa, and two males, as Danda and Pingala, his trusted attendants. Pingala begins appearing in sculptures as an independent theme since at least the 4th century AD. The sculpture was once the sanctum image of the Konark's Sun-temple installed for worship in the temple's 'garbha-griha' and was later shifted to the National Museum for safety and better upkeep. The image is normal two-armed rendered pursuing standards of human anatomy. Sadly the sculpture's forearms holding lotuses have been completely destroyed which the sun-god once held in both of them. Two full-blown lotuses are still in their positions above the shoulders of the deity. A more characteristic feature of Surya, the Sun god has been represented as riding a chariot driven by seven galloping horses with reins in the hands of his charioteer. There is over the divine figure of the Sun god complete arch with decorative details to add beauty to the image. The face of the deity seems to glow with inner delight and energy and a subtle smile on the lips. A Rig-Vedic deity alternating with Vishnu Surya, the source of light, warmth and life, stood for time and cosmic dynamics. Surya sculptures begin pouring in from around the early centuries of the Christian era. The dagger-carrying 'udichya vesa' images in tunic, girdle and high boots of this early conception were widely different from his contemporary sculptures. Apart from the chariot he rode in these early sculptures driven by four horses. As the cult of worship the sun was prevalent also in other parts, Greece, Rome, Iran... these early images seem to be influenced by extraneous elements, especially Iranian. Later sculptures are more Indianian.

Image result for levitating murti konark temple

The Many Mysteries Of The Konark Sun Temple

by Sivasankar Babu

- Jul 14, 2018

The mūrti of the temple floated by the arrangement of a massive top magnet, bottom magnet and reinforced magnets around the temple walls.
The Sun Temple at Konark

Snapshot

The Sun Temple is an enigma surrounded by solved and unsolved mysteries, myths and folklore. Its grandeur peaked, vanished and was re-discovered, and its early history was reconstructed in recent times.
Here’s an account.

Among the towering temples of Odisha, the Sun Temple at Konark (the only UNESCO heritage site of the state), stands out. Its deula, the now crumbling main vimana with only the basement intact, was taller at 228 feet than the 210-foot tall vimana of the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur. It was designed to be built one-and-a-half times bigger than the Lingaraja temple in Bhubaneswar. Even today, the remains of the main temple tower, the jagmohana (porch), filled with sand to prevent its collapse, and the sculptures are inspiring by their sheer size and details. If the ruins can be so awe-inspiring, the grandeur of a completely intact temple can only be left to imagination. The Sun Temple is an enigma surrounded by solved and unsolved mysteries, myths and folklore. Its grandeur was at its peak in 12th to 15th centuries, but vanished and existed only in legends by early 17th century CE. How it was re-discovered, and its early history was reconstructed in recent times, makes interesting reading.

Mysteries Abound

What drove the King to initiate this ambitious project that outshone all other temples in Odisha?
Why was it built in a remote place like Konark instead of Bidnasi (Cuttack), the capital?
How many years did it take to start the planning and complete the temple?
Where did he find the brilliant artists to craft this, and was it achieved by slave labour or forced enlistment or guild of temple builders?
Was there a sea port to transport materials as there was no river near Konark?
How were the enormous stone blocks sourced and transported to this sandy desert far away from any mountain?
How were the heavy stone blocks and iron beams lifted to such heights and set up?
How were the iron beams cast? Why were they added to the stone structure?
Was the temple ever really finished and was in worship or did it prove too colossal and abandoned before consecration?
How did it collapse? Is it due to its enormous size, faulty construction, sinking of foundation, natural disaster, dereliction or warfare and human vandalism?

Mystery Peeked After 200 Years Of Neglect

The last documented eye-witness account of the entire Sun Temple, complete with its deula in worship was in 1580 by AbulFazal in Ain-i-Akbari. After around 200 years, an expedition by Baba Brahmacari found the temple among mounds of sand and creepers (Matala Panji – Nathi 34 (AD 1737-1793). Seeing heavy damage to the northern and eastern sides of the vimana, he decided to salvage them, and brought in the Aruna stambha (pillar) now at Puri Simahadwara, image of Raja Narasimha Deva I now at Mukhasala of Lakshmi Temple and Navagraha stone from southern portal (now in Gundica Temple). The next expedition by 1795 failed after three months of excavation.

Rediscovery By British And Archaeological Survey of India

By the 18th Century, the British started showing interest in the ‘ghost’ temple, which they called Black Pagoda, and early paintings by Fergusson (1838) showed the projecting southwest wall of the deula still standing, and which collapsed later in 1848. During early 1900s the sand and stones were cleared around the tower and the platform, chariot wheels and the horses were found along with the sculptures on walls. In 1901, it took three years to fill the jagmohana with sand after sealing the four entrance gates, to avoid collapse. The excavations continued till 1939, where other temples and structures were found. ASI took over later, and by 1984, Konark was accorded the UNESCO World Heritage Site status.

The King Who Built This

Narasimha Deva I (1238-1264) was from Eastern Ganga dynasty of temple builders. His great grandfather renovated Shree Jagannath Temple in Puri and his father built the Bhaskaresvara Temple. In many ways, his life and his achievements were similar to Rajendra Chola (1012-1044). Both the kings outdid their fathers and wanted to co-memorate their victories of establishing a long-lasting dynasty with a grand temple (However, these temples sadly went into disuse while their father’s temples continue to be in worship). Narasimha Deva I was the only Ganga prince who defeated the Bengal Muslims in multiple engagements and ensured peace for another 300 years until when Kalapa invaded Orissa in 1568.

The plans for building the temple was underway even when he was crown prince, and the quarrying went on for six years prior to his ascension to the throne. He had mobilised 500 artisans for the construction, and at age of 18 went along with them to Vijayakonda (Warangal) on a campaign (Baya Cakada Leaf III, 9) to fund the temple activity. His primary passion was building temples and was called ‘Silpajna’. He also built temples in Srikurmam, Simhachalam, and Kapilash temple at Dhenkenal.

How The Temple Was Built

It was a mystery as to how the Sun Temple was built, who were the artisans and how it was funded? Many legends did the rounds. During the 1960s, after extensive research, a palm leaf manuscript called ‘Baya Cakada’ written in Karani script in Old Oriya was collated in full set of 73 leaves. This is a detailed chronicle of building operations and books of accounts written during the 12 years of construction (1246-1258). Later a detailed book New Light on Sun Temple of Konarka was published in 1972 by Alice Boner, S R Sarma and R P Das. This is one of the first in Indian history, where the entire temple building was documented in great detail. (Thanjavur’s Brihadeeswara has inscriptions on who built it, how it was funded, but not how it was built) .

This is like a modern day ITES (information technology enabled services) project manual comprising details such as types of artisans, milestones, frequent review inspections by royal family, bottlenecks, hunger strikes etc. It was one of the first temples to be completed on target date – on the 11th day of Maha Shukla Paksa (February) of 1258. First puja began on sun god Surya’s birthday as ‘Padmakesara Deula’.

The palm leaf manuscripts address a lot of mysteries and myths of earlier period, with the help of details, drawings and facts.

Location

The place of the earlier Surya temple (the current Maya Devi temple) instead of his capital city is located nearer Puri, which houses a similar towering temple (like the ones in Thanjavur and Gangai Konda Cholapuram)

Sculptors

Narasimha Deva had formed a team of 500 plus artisans from his yuvaraja days, as we saw earlier in the article, and his father-in-law, a Pandya king, also sent a team of fine sculptors. There is no mention of slave labour, and the construction was funded by frequent wars with other states.

Building Material

Chlorite from Nilagiri hills ( about 80 km) and soft sandstone from Siddhadurga were transported by big barges to the mythical Candrabhaga river mouth near Konark. In 2016, using ground penetrating radar, IIT Kharagpur researchers identified the Chandrabaga river just up north of the temple as a paleochannel (remnant of an inactive river closed by younger sediments).

Construction

Unlike Brihadeeswara temple, which was arguably built using only circular or triangular earthen slope, Konark was built using scaffolding, cranes and pulleys , along with rollers for hoisting the heavy stones. (Baya Cakada has detailed descriptions and drawings with methods)

Iron Beams

There was an advanced smelting foundry for casting iron beams, which interspersed stone beams and boulders to bear load. Some of the remaining beams are in exhibition and has not rusted much.

Was It Really Completed And In Worship?

There is a palm script manual “Padmakesara Deula Karmangi” written in Karani Script in Old Oriya, which details the rituals established in Konark Sun temple for regular puja and temple festivals. It proves beyond doubt about continuous worship.

We are not fortunate enough to see the great towering temple in full glory, at the present times. However, Raja Purushotama Deva of Khurda Dynasty (1607-1621) commissioned a survey report in CE 1610 with detailed description and drawings covering Lingaraja, Shree Jagannath and Padmakesara temples. Researchers have painstakingly collated this palm script manual with 23 leaves written in Karani script in Old Oriya. This details the temple plan, full view diagrams and cross sections. These are the only visual clues to the original state of the temple as it stood in the 16th century.

Madala Panji – the chronicle of Puri Jagannath Temple started by Anandavarma Chodagangadev (1078-1150), and also talks about some of the events of the Sun Temple.

Decline And Decay Of The Temple

It was a mystery how such a grand temple with fine architecture crumbled into a heap and got covered in sand mounds and creepers in a span of 300 years. Later, documentation and scientific evidence now throw some light on the possible causes.

Within a few years, before Kalapahad invasion of Puri and Konark, the lotus emblem with ruby atop the temple, was removed to Purushotama temple (Madala Panji). Kalapahad in fury hacked off hands of his general and vandalised the idols.

Colophon of Paramakesara Deula Karmangi mentions that “for 12 years the sevaks did not do their duty (bhoga karmangi) properly. Thus, the Sun God gradually left this temple…” The dereliction led to a gradual decline in maintenance and in CE 1629 – Gajasimha on eastern side fell towards east along with the wall damaging hands of the puja image. Orders were given to shift two urchava murtis to the Puri temple. (At a small temple complex even now and Konark Ratha Jatra happens on Magha sukla Saptami).

Improper maintenance of the temple, with upper half of vimana exposed to severe storms and rains, could have loosened the wall work which pressed down on the tenon of the huge Gajasimha protruding on the eastern side. This led to the Gajasimha falling on the deula and causing an imbalance of the temple structure, leading to the gradual collapse.

In 1929, there was a biological analysis of moss layers deposited in the boulders, which estimates the abandonment and start of moss formation (when there is no cleaning and lime wash coating) around 1573 which tallies with the Madala Panji accounts.)

Stories Which Remain As Legends With No Answers

The temple had iron beams between the stones and a central magnet which held the beams in place. Later the loadstone was removed during the Portuguese period since it was disturbing the compasses and ships running aground. The other stones/beams held in alignment by magnetic force till now, crashed regularly to bring the destruction.

The main pratima (idol) was believed to be floating in the air because of the unique arrangements of the main magnets and other series of magnets. When the balance was disturbed, it was shattered in the absence of binding forces.

The placement of the temple had been aligned in a way that the first rays of the sun falling on the coast would pass through the Nata Mandir and would reflect from the diamond placed at the centre of this idol in the main sanctum. This phenomenon would last for a couple of minutes in the early morning.

Local legends say that the huge 12 chariot wheels have been designed as sun dials to find time accurate to 1.5 minutes. To calculate this, one must place a long stick at an axis parallel to ground and note where the shadow falls. The distance between two wider spokes is of three hours (180 minutes). This is subdivided by the thinner spoke into 90 minutes. This is subdivided by 30 beads in the rim into three minutes. Depending on where the shadow falls in the bead, it can be refined to 1.5 minutes. Also, for each month, a particular wheel needs to be selected. Even the modern day sun dials have sidereal corrections to cover lateral movement of sun over seasons and its efficacy still remains a myth.

https://swarajyamag.com/ideas/the-many-mysteries-of-the-konark-sun-temple
Konark Temple Top

MAGNETS & THE FLOATING IDOL

King Narasimhadeva I, the great ruler of the Ganga dynasty had built this temple, with the help of 1200 artisans within a period of 12 years (1243-1255 A.D.). Konark temple was initially built on the sea bank but now the sea has receded and the temple is few kilometres away from the sea. The Sun Temple of Konark is gigantic so also the stories & myths associated with it are many.

The most popular theory associated with Konark temple is its magnets & the floating idol in the air. The uniqueness of the Sun Temple of Konark lies in the fact that it was built with an architectural setup of various magnets. During the construction of the main tower of the temple the artisans put an iron plate between every two stone pieces. There is a lodestone at the top of the temple was said to be a massive 52 ton magnet. According to legend, the statue of the Sun God inside the temple was built of a material with iron content and was said to be floating in air, without any physical support, due to the unique arrangements of the top magnet, the bottom magnet and the reinforced magnets around the temple walls. The placement of the main temple and the Sun God had been aligned in such a way that the first ray of the Sun from the coast would cross the Nata Mandir (Dancing Hall) and would fall & reflect from the diamond placed at the crown of the Sun God.

The Conjectural Restoration of The Temple Of The Sun

Other legends state that, the magnetic effect of the lodestone was so strong that it caused disturbance in the ships compasses those passed by the coast (Konark being a major port at that time), thus making the navigation very difficult for the sailors. To save their trade and their ships, the Portuguese sailors destroyed the temple and took away the lodestone. The removal of the lodestone leads to the collapse of the main temple structure.

If you visit Konark temple and hire any guide for your help then they will explain you above legends and stories. But neither there are any historical records against these stories nor any record against the existence of such powerful magnet at Konark. Till now no one knows where the magnet is and whether these stories are true. Let me iterate it again that the current visible structure of Konark Sun Temple is the entrance to the main temple structure and the main temple structure is already destroyed and only remains are available at the same spot. Please click here to read various reasons behind the fall of konark Temple structure.

http://www.thekonark.in/konarkfloatingidol.html

↧

Ayyappa: A separate religious denomination -- Jayasree Saranathan. SC should suo moto stay its Sabarimala order.

October 16, 2018, 6:44 pm

≫ Next: Why do poor artisans take a disciplined vow and visit Śabarimala? Mala Araya -- Monarch of the hills set up Swami Ayyappa temple. SC should suo moto stay Śabarimala judgement

≪ Previous: Levitating mūrti and many other Mysteries Of The Konark Sun Temple -- Sivasankar Babu

Ayyappa: A separate religious denomination

by Jayasree Saranathan

on 17 Oct 2018

In a 4:1 ruling of the Constitution Bench that struck down an age old tradition at Sabarimala temple of Lord Ayyappa, the judges held that Ayyappa devotees do not constitute a separate religious denomination. The only dissenting judge Justice Indu Malhotra held that Ayyappa devotees do form a separate denomination.

This contradictory stance on religious denomination and the interpretation of the same having become vital in deciding the fate of this case, one is at a loss to understand why no thought or debate had gone into knowing what constitutes a religious denomination in the Hindu religion. During the hearing stage, the judges asked how Ayyappa devotees constituted a denomination when there is no specific Ayyappa sect. This question seemed to have been guided by the opinion that Hindu faith has only pre-established denominations with zero scope to have developed new denominations over a period of time.

Even in the United States, 35 denominations were found to be present among the followers of Christianity when a survey was taken as recently as in 2001 by The Graduate Center of City University of New York. This was a great surprise to many, but this shows the internally evolving denominations within a religion even in a modern society. Sai Deepak appearing for one of the respondents rightly pointed out that the denomination must come from within the community, implying that courts cannot decide a denomination.

Evolving Hindu denominations

A popular classification of the denominations within the Hindu community was last established by Adi Sankara which he collectively called as ‘Shanmatha’ – based on six deities namely Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda. If this basis is any indication, Ayyappa followers rightfully form a denomination of their own, for their worship methods are uniquely centred on the deity, Ayyappa.

If we further analyse the Shanmatha concept, we find that two among the six are the children of two of the six deities. As per Hindu tradition, Ganesha and Skanda are the children of Shiva and Shakti. Though all four can be clubbed together as a single family and are found installed together in most temples belonging to any of one of them as the main deity, Sankara had treated them as different denominations for the reason that worship methods and religious austerities are different from each other and distinct for each of them. On the same basis one can say that Ayyappa constitutes a separate denomination

Before Shanmatha denomination came into being there were eleven denominations in the very country of Kerala, then known as Chera land, where Adi Sankara was born. These eleven denominations are explained in a full chapter in an old Tamil text called “Manimekalai”, that was about a real life story centred around a young girl, Manimekalai, who went on to become a Buddhist monk after listening to the preceptors of the other ten sects. These eleven sects were,

1) Parinaama

2) Shaiva

3) Vaishnava

4) Brahma

5) Veda

6) Ajeevika

7) Nikanta

8) Sankhya

9) Vaisheshika

10) Bhuta (Charvaka)

11) Bauddha

After going through the precepts of these sects, Manimekalai embraced Buddhism finding it more suitable for her. (Article 25 -1 was present at that time, it seems) Of the eleven, only two (Shaiva and Vaishnava) have continued to exist till today and are part of Shanmatha. Two (Ajivika and Buddhism) were rejected by Hinduism later when they started distancing their doctrines from Vedic Thought. Parinaama, Brahma and Veda were absorbed by Shanmatha in various degrees. Sankhya and Vaisheshika are no longer in existence as separate paths. Charvakas always existed. This shows that denominations owe their existence to their followers. Some become redundant with time or are absorbed into others. There is also scope for newer denominations being born. What brings all these denominations under the Hindu Faith is their adherence to Vedas as the basis of their precepts and worship methods.

One must take note that four deities of the Shanmatha (Shakti, Surya, Ganesha and Skanda) were not treated as separate sects or denominations 2000 years ago in the Tamil lands. When they came to be followed by more people with exclusive worship methods, Sankara found it reasonable to accord a separate identity.

Further back in time, six Darshanas were the only denominations in existence. Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta were popular then, of which Sankhya and Vaisheshika continued in Manimekalai period. They are no longer in vogue today. The concept of religious denomination is thus a continuously evolving feature testifying the vibrancy of a religion.

Is Ayyappa worship of recent origin?

This question is heard on the basis of recent origin of Pandalam dynasty in which was born Ayyappa, now worshiped at Sabarimala. It is true that Ayyappa of Sabarimala was very much a real person who walked on this earth, like Rama or Krishna or Skanda who were also real entities. Hinduism recognises the elevation of real persons as Gods under one condition. There is a written record of this condition in the biography of Alexander by the Greek historian Plutarch.

To a question by Alexander, “How may a man become God?”, the Hindu sage Kalanos (Kalyan) replied, “By doing that which is almost impossible for a man to do.” When a person does things that no other man can do or which are beyond normal human limits, then such a person comes to be regarded as a God. Such persons have been celebrated as Gods by sages with mythical events woven around them. In course of time, they come to be recognised as incarnations of the Ultimate God Himself.

It is in this way Manikantha born in the Pandalam family was recognised as “Shasta”, the child of Shiva and Vishnu (in Mohini form). This is like how Skanda born to Meenakshi of the Pandyan dynasty was deified by the sages with a celestial birth and nursing by 6 star mothers of Krittika, thereby getting him the name Kartikeya. Similar deification found in the legend of Ayyappa born as Manikantha is proof enough that his deification at Sabarimala was a well formed cult devised by some sages of the past for the benefit of people. With worship methods unique for Himself, He does constitute a separate denomination and can be regarded as the 7th matha of the Hindu religion.

In the light of the fact that Manikantha alias Ayyappa was a real figure having given instructions for worship, the Supreme Court’s ruling is certainly a violation of the promise given to him and his oath of celibacy. The tradition set with regard to the entry by women of the post-partum period for the first feeding of their children in five days every month is proof of non-discrimination against them, and at the same time without violating the oath. Without appreciating the finer aspects of maintaining the oath, Justice Nariman commented “What happens to the celibate nature of Lord Ayyappa in those 5 days? Is it that the idol vanishes on those days?”

Shasta is an old concept

Ayyappa is known as “Dharma Shasta” – one who delivers Justice or who is an embodiment of Justice. A deity by this name in Tamilised form (Arap peyar Saatthan) is mentioned in verse 395 of Purananuru, an old Tamil text. The name Shasta (Saatthan) was common among the masses in Sangam texts. Worship of Shasta in many places was in existence from Sangam times.

A special feature of Shasta is found in two inscriptions and written by historian K.A. Nilakanta Sastri. Shasta is identified as a God of the Cheris (rural region) mentioned along with Surya and Seven Mother Goddesses (inscription no 335 of 1917 and 131 of 1892). The association with seven mothers was not indigenous to Tamil lands but had spread from Indus civilization (there is an Indus seal of seven women) with its later prevalence found in Chalukyan and Hoysala regions thousand years ago. Shasta of Sangam texts was not accompanied with the seven mothers or any associate. This establishes the olden Shasta concept as a single - with additions coming later.

The location in rural region is repeated in “Mayamatam”, a Vaastu text containing the Vaastu principles purportedly given by Maya. After explaining the iconography of Shasta, the text describes the features of Shasta, the offspring of Mohini (female form of Vishnu) as a celibate and as a married man with two wives. Then it goes on to say that those who seek what is good, must install Shasta in villages. It also says that “Shasta, beloved of the gods, is to be installed in the haunts of lower castes, in the house of courtesans and in forts”.

The association with the downtrodden is a feature found in the astrological text “Prasna Marga” written in 1649 by a Kerala Nambhoothri. It says that those afflicted by Saturn must propitiate Shasta. Saturn also represents undeveloped and dirty regions. As such Saturn identifies Shasta as a village deity. It is a deity of all villagers. Those who have no idea of the village deity worshiped by their ancestors and those who were not initiated into any path of worship in Hinduism are also advised to worship Shasta – particularly of Sabarimala.

Even today scores of devotees going to Sabarimala are disadvantaged classes with no regular practice of religious austerities. The Vrata period is a kind of boon for them to commit themselves to religious austerities which otherwise they may not follow. The devotee is not expected to be well versed in scriptures. What is expected of him is to follow the rules of behaviour. There are other hill-deities too such as Venkateswara, Narasimha and Skanda. The first two come under one denomination and Skanda is another denomination due to varying practices in worship methods. But Sabarimala pilgrimage is different from them.

The Chief Justice refused to accept separate denomination for Ayyappa worshippers on the pretext that people of other faith also worship him. It is true that Ayyappa is worshiped by people from across all the other sects. The worshiper could come from any background, from other Hindu sects such as Shaivism or Vaishnavism or from any other religion. But every one of them must follow the rules of Vrata as applicable to Sabarimala! And that Vrata follows certain tradition of do’s and dont’s. That makes Ayyappa worship unique by itself. This in effect is a valid reason to treat Ayyappa worship a unique religious denomination. We don’t need an Adi Sankara to be born again to tell us this!

User CommentsPost a Comment

Interesting article. However, the Chief Justice is right. People of other faiths also worship Ayyappa. More importantly, the Ayappa worshippers also worship other deities.

Further, what does the sentence that all the extant Hindu sects follow the basic Vedic principles mean ?There is nothing in the Vedic rituals which allows for the exclusion of women of any age.

I have already commented on the contradictory nature of assuming a celibate deity who cannot tolerate the presence of women in a certain age group and will not repeat it here (See my comments at the end of Sandhyaji's article on the Sabarimala question).It seems that a certain group of people took it upon themselves to set up a code and claim that it originated from Ayyappa himself.

Dr. Vijaya Rajiva
1 Hour ago

Report Abuse

Very informative piece. We are trying to make Sanatana Dharma a static religion when it is dynamic n ever evolving.

Sanjeev nayyar
16 Minutes ago

Report Abuse

So, SC erred in recognizing the nature of the shrine.as non-denominational. The Judgement should be reviewed suo moto and frozen.
Mala Araya tribals to file review plea

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2018/10/so-sc-erred-in-recognizing-nature-of.html

There is a precedent for SC staying its own judgment and cited by S Gurumurthy. Varanasi Shia burial ground judgement of SC given aginst Sunnis is pending for implementation for 40 years. Reason given was there would be riots if SC order was implemented. The SC accepted it & stayed its own order. If it can work for burial ground why not for Temple.

To err is human, revered justices are no exception.

srinivasan kalyanaraman

http://www.vijayvaani.com/ArticleDisplay.aspx?aid=4831

↧

Why do poor artisans take a disciplined vow and visit Śabarimala? Mala Araya -- Monarch of the hills set up Swami Ayyappa temple. SC should suo moto stay Śabarimala judgement

October 16, 2018, 7:10 pm

≫ Next: Tensions run high in Sabarimala

≪ Previous: Ayyappa: A separate religious denomination -- Jayasree Saranathan. SC should suo moto stay its Sabarimala order.

Akhila Thiruvithancore Mala Araya Maha Sabha

Official page of Akhila Thiruvithancore Mala Araya Maha Sabha Malai Arayan (alternatively Malaiyarayan, the word Malai Arayan means 'Monarch of the Hills'

Malai Arayan (alternatively Malaiyarayan, the word Malai Arayan means 'Monarch of the Hills') is a member of a tribal community in parts of Kottayam, Idukki and Pattanamtitta districts of Kerala state, southern India. They are listed (Central List No - 20) [1] as part of Scheduled Tribes by the Government of India. Among the Scheduled Tribes, Malai Arayans out class all the other tribes in socio-economical and educational aspects. When an evaluation in the educational and employment prospect is taken, it will be found that almost all the Government Servants and other employees are coming from this faction of Scheduled Tribes. https://www.localprayers.com/XX/Unknown/536811666393291/Akhila-Thiruvithancore-Mala-Araya-Maha-Sabha

Why do poor artisans take a disciplined vow and visit Śabarimala?

The artisans have respect for the Veda student who lives in Śabarimala. Devotees vow to be good students, skilled artisans, like Sri Ayyappa.

Kalyanaraman, Sarasvati Research Centre

↧

Tensions run high in Sabarimala

October 17, 2018, 3:25 am

≫ Next: On the Most Frequently Used Symbol in the Indus Script -- B. B. Lal (1979) Sign 342 of world's oldest writing ca. 3300 BCE signifies Meluhha rebus scribe, supercargo

≪ Previous: Why do poor artisans take a disciplined vow and visit Śabarimala? Mala Araya -- Monarch of the hills set up Swami Ayyappa temple. SC should suo moto stay Śabarimala judgement

Sabarimala live updates | Woman journalist injured as mob turns against police van

The Hindu Net Desk

OCTOBER 17, 2018 10:01 IST

Protesters converge at Nilackal base camp on Wednesday. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

No one would be allowed to block pilgrims, says Devaswom Minister Kadakampally Surendran

Top Developments

Police remove makeshift tents, detain protesters
Women protesters check vehicles before allowing them travel to Nilackal
Congress, BJP hold separate sit-ins, fasts at Pampa, Nilackal
No one would be allowed to block pilgrims, says Devaswom Minister Kadakampally Surendran
Protesters disallow women of menstruating age from climbing the hill
Congress, BJP and CPI(M) accuse each other for the state of affairs in Sabarimala
Travancore Devaswom Board's bid to bring consensus among tantri, Pandalam Palace and government fails again.

The doors of the shrine of Lord Ayyappa in Sabarimala, Kerala, will open on Wednesday evening for the first time after the Supreme Court verdict to allow women of all ages to worship in the temple.

Nilackal, the entry point to the temple, has turned into a venue of protests by various groups that oppose the entry of younger women to the shrine. While the government is poised to implement the Supreme Court verdict, it has to be seen if women will actually enter the temple today.

Radhakrishnan Kuttoor reports from Nilackal.

Here are the live updates:

3.50 P.M.

Hindu Aikya Vedi leader slams government

Hindu Aikya Vedi leader K. P. Sasikala says a government of atheists has no right to decide on the customs and rituals of believers of Sabarimala.

If the State government continues to ignore the sentiments of the Ayyappa devotees, it would be the last government in the world to be led by atheists, she says.

If the government forcibly ensures the entry of women in Sabarimala, those in the government will not be able to enter the State Assembly again. The seats occupied by those in the government who are in favor of permitting women to the temple will be cleansed, says Ms. Sasikala.

The government failed the democratic rights of the Ayyappa devotees by not holding discussions with the representatives of the devotees, priests, religious organisations and the members of the erstwhile Royal family of Pandalam, she adds.

Ms. Sasikala also remarks that it is time for recreating a state that has been cleansed by floods.

The government, according to her, violated the religious faith and fundamental rights of the devotees. The women devotees of Lord Ayyappan will launch massive protests against the government against the violation of the rituals of Sabarimala, she says.

3 P.M.

A woman from East Godavari district in Andhra Pradesh, Madhavi was among the first two women who tried to enter Sabarimala temple but were stopped by protestors on the way. She was there with her family members. After she walked for some distance, police tried to send her in a bus. But agitators said they would not allow the bus to move. Disappointed, she stayed back at Pamba.

2.30 P.M.

Woman journalist injured

A woman reporter of India Today TV is injured when a mob turns against a police van that was passing by the gateway to the Nilackal Mahadeva temple, where a protest meeting by various organisations is under way. She was taken away in the same police van to the government dispensary at Nilackal.

2:00 PM

A group of protesters pelt stones at a police van in front of the gateway to the Nilackal Mahadeva temple, while BJP leader M.T.Ramesh is speaking.

1:40 PM

'Govt will expose the intentions of those trying to foment trouble'

The government will not use force but will expose the intentions of those trying to foment trouble, says Devaswom Minister Kadakampally Surendran.

Briefing reporters after the annual review meeting held in Sabarimala, Mr. Surendran says that the real faithful will renege on realising the truth and then the government will act against those perpetrating violence.

He says the agitations are politically motivated by the Congress, the BJP and the RSS. He also points out that these parties earlier welcomed the verdict, but changed their stance now for political gains.

The government prefers to adopt a path of consensus. The people of Kerala will soon sense the design and the real believers will not support the agitators, he adds.

1:24 PM

CPI(M) lashes out at Congress, BJP

CPI(M) Polit Bureau members S. Ramachandran Pillai and Kodiyeri Balakrishnan reiterate that the State government is constitutionally obligated to implement the court verdict.

Mr. Pillai accuses the Congress and the BJP of raising a "non-issue" to put the government on the defence.

Mr. Balakrishnan says both the Congress and the BJP are trying to destroy the secular fabric of the State and claims they are working in coordination against the government.

12:45 PM

Chief priest says he supports peaceful protest

The Sabarimala chief priest (Tantri) Kandararu Rajeevararu tells Radhakrishnan Kuttoor that he is with the devotees and has extended full support to the ongoing peaceful devotees' movement to protect the ritualistic as well as Tantric custom and practices at Sabarimala.

The Tantri denies reports quoting him as saying that the temple will be closed if there were attempts to violate the custom of denying entry to women in the age group of 10-50 years.

"Closing the temple in protest of something itself amounts to violation of custom. Then, how can I issue a statement like that?'' he says.

12:25 PM

Former TDB president arrested

The police arrest former Travancore Devaswom Board (TDB) president Prayar Gopalakrishnan for leading a sit-in at Pampa.

They also remove members of the family of the chief priest who joined Mr Gopalakrishnan's protest.

12:20 PM

BJP leaders K. Surendran, Shoba Surendran and Mr. Ramesh take over protest at Pampa, along with party workers.

Mr. Surendran accuses the State government of hurting the religious sentiments of people.

Mr. Ramesh pledges support to the agitation; says he will take it over from Thursday. The BJP's presence will be there in Nilackal and Pampa till the temple remains open, he adds.

12:15 PM

Police begin removal of protesters from Pampa

State Police Chief (SPC) Loknath Behera has ordered more forces to be deployed at Pathanamthitta and Sabarimala.

He has also ordered district police chiefs to prosecute those who attempte to stop and check vehicles ferrying pilgrims. He says Sabarimala is safe for all devotees.

A senior official says the agitaters were pitting women in the forefront to dissuade police action. The SPC has placed women police battalions and a company of women commandos on standby.

The police start removing protesters in small batches from Pampa after recording their arrest formally.

12:10 PM

Protesters turn away women

The police identify the main anti-women groups as the Ayyappa Dharma Sena and the Save Sabarimala Forum. They had pitched camps in the locality despite the police declaring it a special zone on Tuesday to stymie any attempt to turn the Pampa river bank into a hotspot of political protests.

Chanting Ayyappa incantations, the agitators recurrently accosted women headed up the hill to the temple and challenged them to prove their age.

At least one woman TDB official is caught on camera showing her Aadhaar card to the protesters to prove her age before they allowed her to proceed to the temple to attend to her official duties.

12:00 NOON

Former MLA K. Sivadasan Nair addressing the Congress Satyagraha in Nilackal on Wednesday. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

11:50 AM

TV crew attacked

A woman reporter of a private English television channel was assaulted by a group of protesters at the Nilackal base camp. The male cameraperson accompanying her was also heckled.

The irate protesters damaged their car.

11:30 AM

11:25 AM

RSS-BJP backed elements creating communal frenzy, says AIDWA

The CPI(M)’s women wing, All India Democratic Women’s Association (AIDWA), alleged that the BJP-RSS backed elements were creating “communal frenzy” against the implementation of the Supreme Court.

“Ever since the judgement, the RSS and its affiliated organisations have attacked the Supreme Court and the LDF Government of Kerala,” AIDWA said in a statement to media.

AIDWA also demanded immediate arrest of all BJP-RSS leaders and supporters who were “issuing open threats to women and trying to disturb the atmosphere of peace and harmony that has been fostered by the Left movement”.

11:20 AM

Woman devotee prevented from entering Sabarimala hill

A family from Andhra Pradesh had to turn back since a group of activists belonging to Ayyappa Sena disallowed them from trekking to the temple — the reason being a 45-year-old woman was part of the pilgrims.

Earlier in the day, a woman from Cherthala, was prevented at Pathanamthitta.

11:15 AM

No one will be allowed to block pilgrims: Minister

In a Facebook post, Devaswom Minister Kadakampally Surendran says no one will be allowed to block pilgrims from worshipping at the the Ayyappa temple. " None would be allowed to disrupt peace," he says.

Mr. Surendran says he has reached Sabarimala not to facilitate or block women's entry but to take part in the regular annual review meeting of Devaswom Board.

The people who are trying to convert sharanamayyappa prayer to a slogan are insulting ayyapan and his devotees. It has become clear that those creating problems do not have the backing of devotees, Mr. Surendran said.

11:05 AM

BJP leader Shoba Surendran reaches Nilackal base camp in her vehicle on Wednesday. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

Police blocked the BJP leader Shobha Surendran from proceeding to the base camp after addressing the women devotees at Nilackal.

An irate mob broke the police cordon and made way for her vehicle, amid vociferous chants of Swamiye Saranam Ayyappa.

11:00 AM

Congress with devotees, says Sudhakaran

KPCC working president, K. Sudhakaran, at Nilackal base camp on Wednesday. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

Congress State working president, K. Sudhakaran, has reached Nilackal.

Speaking to reporters, Mr. Sudhakaran blames both the Union and State governments, the BJP as well as the Left parties, for the messy state of affairs at Sabarimala.

He says Congress stands firm with the Ayyappa devotees but urges no one should be prevented from worshipping.

A day-long fast is being organised at Nilackal an Wednesday, expressing solidarily with the devotees, he adds.

10:30 AM

The Travancore Devaswom Board is learnt to have dropped its plan to meet on Thursday to discuss the protesters request to file a review petition on the Supreme Court verdict since the erstwhile royal family of Pandalam and the tantri family refused to budge from their position at the talks held in Thiruvanathapuram on Tuesday.

The Pandalam Palace and the tantri are insisting that the Board should file a review petition in Supreme Court against the verdict.

The TDB authorities have reiterated their resolve to implement the verdict yet again, it being a constitutional obligation.

10:20 AM

BJP State president P.S.Sreedharan Pillai has begun his dawn-to-dusk fast at Pathanamthitta as part of the second phase of the ‘Save Sabarimala’ campaign launched by the party.

Protesters have started converging in small groups at Nilackal base camp.

BJP leader Shobha Surendran, Hindu Aikyavedi leader K.P. Sasikala addressed the women who are protesting against Supreme Court's verdict, at the gateway of the Nilackal Mahadevar Temple.

10:15 AM

Woman mobbed

Scores of people, including women, mobbed a woman en route to Sabarimala at Pathanamthitta bus stand.

The police threw a human wall around the woman devotee when the group gheraoed her shouting Ayyappa chants.

The woman, Libi from Cherthala, told television journalists that she had observed the rigorous 41-day penance to visit the temple and no force could turn her back. The police escorted her away from the spot.

10:10 AM

At Sabarimala temple, the chief priest Rajiv Kantararu tells television reporters that his prayers were with those striving to protect the temple traditions. However, he says he is not for any open agitation in the matter.

10:00 AM

Police remove the makeshift shed at Nilakcal base camp that had become the focal point of protests. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

Tension prevails at the Nilackal base camp as police hustled away scores of BJP-RSS workers who attempted to block the road to the ancient forest shrine 22 km downhill at Nilackal base camp.

The officers also dismantle a makeshift shed that had become the focal point of the agitation against the Government for its refusal to appeal the momentous verdict.

9:00 AM

The Travancore Devasom Board, which, looks after the hill shrine, is holding a review meeting in the morning.

Day-long hartal

The Sabarimala Samrakshana Samithi has called for a 24-hour hartal to protest Supreme Court's verdict favouring entry of women of all ages in Sabarimala for worship.

The hartal will be observed from the midnight of October 17 to midnight of October 18.

The Sabarimala Karma Samiti has said it's women supporters will observe fast at various places in Kerala, including Nilackal, to protest government and Devaswom Board's decision to implement the top court's verdict.

Pampa, Sannidhanam special security zones

Sabarimala live updates | Woman journalist injured as mob turns against police van

The State police have declared Pampa and Sannidhanam as special security zones to stymie any attempt to turn the religiously sensitive localities into hotspots for political protests. Section 83 of the Kerala Police Act has been invoked to prevent any flare-ups in the pilgrim locality.

As part of the stringent security arrangements, no vehicle will be allowed beyond Nilackal. The Kerala State Road Transport Corporation would continuously ferry pilgrims from Nilackal to Pampa and back.

Eight protesters held in late night crackdown

A group of women asking three girls travelling on a Pampa-bound bus to get down at Nilackal on Tuesday. | Photo Credit: LEJU KAMAL

The police cracked down on protesters at Nilackal, the entry point to the Sabarimala hill temple, arresting eight persons from the Namajapa pandal of the Sabarimala Aachara Samrakshana Samiti late on Tuesday.

By late evening, the police had also taken control of the main road to Pampa, with Devaswom Minister Kadakampally Surendran driving through under tight security for Wednesday’s official review meetinghttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sabarimala-reopens-amindst-impasse-live-updates/article25245139.ece?homepage=true

Sabarimala Temple Opening LIVE Updates: Activist Rahul Easwar Detained as Irate Protesters Stop Women From Entering Shrine

Sabarimala temple opening latest news: Two women who tried to enter the Sabarimala shrine on Wednesday were stopped by angry devotees as Kerala remained on the edge over protests against the Supreme Court verdict allowing entry into the shrine to women of all age groups.

Madhavim, who hails from Andhra Pradesh, and Libi, a journalist from Kerala, dared to break the centuries-old custom and enter the temple but were forced to turn back.

Oct 17, 20183:42 pm (IST)

Sabarimala Protests Turn Political | Opposition BJP, Congress show solidarity with protesters at Sabarimala, even as the Left front government termed the agitation as “politically motivated” and said it would be met politically.

Oct 17, 20183:38 pm (IST)

It's Devotees vs Cops at Sabarimala | Kerala Police baton charge protesters at Nilakkal; mob pelts stones at cops in retaliation

Oct 17, 20183:32 pm (IST)

Oct 17, 20183:28 pm (IST)

NCW takes suo motu cognizance of attack on CNN-News18 reporter

Oct 17, 20183:17 pm (IST)

Bharatiya Janata Party leader MT Ramesh on Wednesday said the government and police were trying to make Sabarimala a "war zone".

Oct 17, 20183:01 pm (IST)

Oct 17, 20182:52 pm (IST)

Rahul Easwar Detained | Activist Rahul Easwar, who is leading the protests against the Sabarimala verdict, has been detained by the police. Easwar is the grandson of the former high priest of the Sabarimala Shrine.

Oct 17, 20182:46 pm (IST)

Devotees gather at a temple during a protest against the lifting of ban by Supreme Court that allowed entry of women of menstruating age to the Sabarimala temple in Kerala on Wednesday. (Reuters)

Oct 17, 20182:38 pm (IST)

As Pamba slowly limps to normalcy, protests have started gaining steam in Nilakkal where devotees have attacked several media vehicles amid chants of Lord Ayyappa slogans.

Oct 17, 20182:36 pm (IST)

Tribals Oppose SC Verdict | Tribals living in the forests around Sabarimala feel some vested interests were utilising the Supreme Court verdict to play politics over the issue. "We live a few miles away from the temple. Our women in this age group have never attempted to go to the temple," a member of the community says.

Oct 17, 20182:34 pm (IST)

'No One Should be Allowed to Disturb Our Lord' | “This is the holy land of Lord Ayyappa. He is our prince. No one should be allowed to disturb our Lord who protects us from all evil forces,” Karthyayani, 54, belonging to the Kurava community, says.

Oct 17, 20182:32 pm (IST)

Kerala Simmers Over Sabarimala | Widespread protests rock Kerala as Sabarimala opens its doors to women of all age groups. The apex court had on September 28 passed a historic judgement lifting the ban on entry of girls and women of menstrual age into the temple, a verdict that was hailed by rights activists but opposed by traditionalists.

Oct 17, 20182:21 pm (IST)

News18 Creative by Mir Suhail

Oct 17, 20182:16 pm (IST)

CPI leader D Raja reacts to Sabarimala protests. “I strongly condemn attack on media persons and on women who decided to go there. These are organised and led by BJP and RSS. They want to disturb communal harmony. Kerala government is trying its best to maintain law and order,” he says.

Oct 17, 20182:11 pm (IST)

Sabarimala Protests: Situation so Far

- Women journalists, including CNN-News18 crew, attacked on way to shrine

- Two women devotees who tried to reach Sabarimala were forced to cut short their visit amid protests

- Congress, BJP hold sit-ins, hunger strikes at Pamba, Nilakkal

- Travancore Devaswom Board's bid to bring consensus among tantri, Pandalam Palace and government fails again

- No one would be allowed to block pilgrims, said Devaswom Minister Kadakampally Surendran

Oct 17, 20182:06 pm (IST)

Independent MLA PC George blames media for attacks at Sabarimala. “No attack has taken place... whatever has happened to you is because of what you have done,” he says.

Oct 17, 20181:58 pm (IST)

Oct 17, 20181:47 pm (IST)

READ | Heckled by Protesters, Andhra Woman Forced to Abandon Trek to Sabarimala

Madhavi, accompanied by her parents and children, began the Pamba climb accompanied by the police but was forced to turn back due to protesters.

Oct 17, 20181:44 pm (IST)

Oct 17, 20181:42 pm (IST)

Sorry for the Violence, Says Rahul Easwar | Activist Rahul Easwar, who is at the forefront of the protests against entry of women into Sabarimala, said the organisation condemns any kind of violence. “We apologise… If you could tell us, we ourselves will file the complaint,” he said.

Oct 17, 20181:39 pm (IST)

'Why Are BJP, RSS Protesting?' | Kadakampally Surendran, the Devasom minister, asked what the BJP and RSS were protesting against. “Most of the petitions that have been submitted in court to allow entry of women have been made by people associated with BJP and RSS,” he said.

Oct 17, 20181:28 pm (IST)

CNN-News18 Crew Attacked | CNN-News18 crew attacked in Sabarimala as protesters stop women from entering the shrine despite Supreme Court orders, woman journalist's car vandalised.

Oct 17, 20181:16 pm (IST)

Several women journalists have been attacked by protesters in Sabarimala. Despite police presence, incidents of devotees preventing women from entering the shrine have been on the rise since Wednesday morning.

Oct 17, 201812:55 pm (IST)

A woman protesting against the Supreme Court verdict on Sabarimala told CNN-News18 that courts did not understand the matters of faith. “Because of these new decisions, Hindus' freedom to pray is being eroded and they are being forced out on the streets to protect their faith,” she said.

Oct 17, 201812:49 pm (IST)

Oct 17, 201812:40 pm (IST)

BJP Registers Dissent at Pamba | BJP leaders K Surendran, Shoba Surendran and MT Ramesh are leading the protest at Pamba along with party workers. Surendran has accused the state government of hurting religious sentiments of people.

Oct 17, 201812:32 pm (IST)

Oct 17, 201812:27 pm (IST)

Oct 17, 201812:04 pm (IST)

Ex-Travancore Devaswom Board President, Wife of Tantri Taken Into Custody | The former Travancore Devaswom Board president and the wife of Kandararu Maheshwararu Tantri were taken into police custody at Pamba for protesting against the Supreme Court verdict allowing women entry into the shrine.

Oct 17, 201811:52 am (IST)

Devaswom minister Kadakampally Surendran in a Facebook post said no one will be allowed to block pilgrims from worshipping Lord Ayyappa. “None would be allowed to disrupt peace,” he said, adding that he has reached Sabarimala to facilitate women's entry.

https://www.news18.com/news/india/sabarimala-temple-opening-live-updates-activist-rahul-easwar-detained-as-irate-protesters-stop-women-from-entering-shrine-1911435.html

Tension prevailed in Kerala’s Nilakkal, the main gateway to Sabarimala, on Wednesday after police used force to disperse devotees opposing the entry of girls and women of menstrual age.

Angry protesters attacked women journalists who were present at the spot. The CNN-News18 crew was also attacked and a woman journalist's car vandalised.

Acting tough, the police removed a makeshift shelter erected by a protesting group named Sabarimala Achara Samrakshana Samiti. However, within a few hours, the group was back at the spot, chanting Ayyappa mantra in protest against the Supreme Court order. They also detained activist Rahul Easwar, who is spearheading the protests against the Supreme Court verdict.

Hours ahead of opening of the hill shrine for the monthly prayer, police said they would not let anyone block the movement of devotees. Taking full control of Nilakkal, police also warned against those who create hurdles in the ways of pilgrims to the hill shrine.

The situation on the ground, however, seemed to belie the claims of the police. Angry demonstrators pelted stones at vehicles after cops did not allow them to carry a search operation and stop women in the 10-50 age group from entering the shrine.

Women cops, too, faced backlash from protesters, who questioned their deployment. Three female police personnel were stopped by Easwar and his supporters at Pamba. A bus carrying police personnel was also stopped by the protesters.

As the protesters resorted to violence, Kerala Police baton chargeed them at Nilakkal. In retaliation, the mob pelted stones at cops.

The former Travancore Devaswom Board president and the wife of Kandararu Maheshwararu Tantri were taken into police custody at Pamba for protesting against the Supreme Court verdict and 50 people were booked for trying to attack a journalist. Around 500 police personnel, including women, have been deployed to ensure a safe passage to the pilgrims to the Lord Ayyappa temple.

The shrine located on the mountain ranges of the ecologically fragile Western Ghats will open at 5pm for the first time after the recent Supreme Court. The temple will be closed on October 22 after the five-day monthly prayer during the Malayalam month of Thulam.

Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan has said no one would be allowed to block devotees from proceeding to Sabarimala.

Heavy security has been deployed as the temple opens today. With chants of "Swamiya Saranam Ayyappa" hailing the Lord, women devotees picketed the road at Nilackal and checked buses and private vehicles for girls and women of the "banned" age group and forced them to abandon their pilgrimage to the shrine which also involved a 6-km arduous hill trek.

CM Pinarayi Vijayan is on a 3-day visit to UAE.

https://indianexpress.com/article/india/sabarimala-temple-opens-today-live-updates-women-entry-protests-supreme-court-verdict-kerala-pinarayi-vijayan-5405511/

↧

On the Most Frequently Used Symbol in the Indus Script -- B. B. Lal (1979) Sign 342 of world's oldest writing ca. 3300 BCE signifies Meluhha rebus scribe, supercargo

October 18, 2018, 12:02 am

≫ Next: Wealth-accounting ledger, metalwork catalogues of Indus Script Hypertexts on a Susa cylinder seal, ca. 3100 BCE

≪ Previous: Tensions run high in Sabarimala

https://tinyurl.com/y9hzrzq8

-- World's oldest writing: cuneiform or Indus Script? Bakkar Buthi peestal with Indus Writing.
-- Mahadevan critiques Parpola's decipherment.

This is a tribute to dedicated researches of many savants including BB Lal and J Kenoyer who have provided leads and insights to lead to a successful decipherment of the Indus Script.

In particular, I have tried to answer the critique of BB Lal on the orthography and semantics of Sign 342 of the Indus Script.

The argument in this monograph is this. Sign 342 is orthography of ‘rim-of-jar’. This is read rebus as karṇaka‘rim of jar’ rebus: karṇī 'engraver, supercargo' is echoed in Telugu. Tamil, Kannada expressions as a village accountant, writer, clerk. Marathi expressions are: गांवकुळकरणी   gāṃvakuḷakaraṇī m The hereditary village-accountant: in contradistinction from देशकुळकरणी District accountant. kāraṇika m. ʻ teacher ʼ MBh., ʻ judge ʼ Pañcat. [kā- raṇa -- ]Pa. usu -- kāraṇika -- m. ʻ arrow -- maker ʼ; Pk. kāraṇiya -- m. ʻ teacher of Nyāya ʼ; S. kāriṇī m. ʻ guardian, heir ʼ; N. kārani ʻ abettor in crime ʼ; M. kārṇī m. ʻ prime minister, supercargo of a ship ʼ, kul -- karṇī m. ʻ village accountant ʼ.(CDIAL 3058)

Analysing some decipherment attempts of the Sign 342 of Indus Script Corpora,
BB Lal concludes: “The sign is derived from the shape of a goblet or a vase in general. Thus, in any attempt to assin to it a phonetic value on the basis of the shape-leading-to-sound theory one has to take the words for ‘goblet’, ‘pot’ or the like as the basis and not ‘boat’, as the Finns have done, or aśvattha (Ficus religiose, as the Russians!.”

There are many orthographic variants of the Sign 342. See for example, variants presented in ASI 1977 Memoir (Also called Mahadevan Concordance).
I suggest that this orthography should be contrasted with another sign which signifies a pot.
Sign 328 signifies a 'rimless pot'.

This is contrasted with Sign 342 where the orthographic emphasis on the "rim-of-jar".

I suggest that Sign 328 is read rebus as:  baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus:  baṭa 'iron'  bhaṭa 'furnace'.

Sign 342 is read rebus as:  'rim-of-jar' कर्णक m. (ifc. f(आ).) a prominence or handle or projection on the side or sides (of a vessel &c ) , a tendril ŚBr. KātyŚr. Rebus: कर्णिक having a helm; a steersman; m. pl. N. of a people VP. (Monier-Williams) rebus:karṇī 'supercargo', 'engraver' (Marathi). In spoken form, the word is pronounced kankha as in Santali with the semantics 'rim-of-jar'.

The semantics of the homonym karṇī 'engraver' is echoed in Telugu. Tamil, Kannada expressions as a village accountant, writer, clerk:

కరణము  karaṇamu. [Skt.] n. A village clerk, a writer, an accountant. వాడు కూత కరణముగాని వ్రాతకరణముకాడు he has talents for speaking but not for writing. స్థలకరణము the registrar of a district. కరణము n. Instrument, means. కొరముట్టు. An organ of sense. ఇంద్రియము. Marking or causing, as in ప్రియంకరణము endearing. స్థూలంకరణము fattening, శుభగంకరణము fortunate. కరణచతుష్టయము the mind, intellect, volition and self-consciousness. మనోబుద్ధిచిత్తాహంకారములు. కరణత్రయము thought, word and deed. మనస్సు. వాక్కు, కర్మము. త్రికరణశుద్ధిగా completely, absolutely, entirely. కరణీయము karaṇīyamu. adj. Fit to be performed, worthy to be done చేయదగిన. కరణికము or కరణీకము karanikamu. Clerkship: the office of a Karanam or clerk. கர்ணம்² karṇam, n. < karaṇa. 1. Village accountantship; கிராமக்கணக்குவேலை. 2. Village accountant; கிராமக்கணக்கன். கரணிகம் karaṇikam, n. < karaṇa. 4. [T. karaṇikamu.] Office of accountant. See கருணீகம். Loc. கருணீகம் karuṇīkam, n. < karaṇa. [T. karaṇikamu.] Office of village accountant or karṇam; கிராமக்கணக்குவேலை.   கருணீகன் karuṇīkaṉ, n. < id. 1. Village accountant; கிராமக்கணக்கன். கடுகை யொருமலை யாகக் . . . காட்டுவோன் கருணீகனாம் (அறப். சத. 86). 2. A South Indian caste of accountants; கணக்குவேலைபார்க்கும் ஒருசாதி.

Thus, I submit that the Sign342 signifies कर्णक karṇaka'rim-of-jar' and is read rebus in Meluhh (Bharatiya sprachbund, speech union) as karṇī'supercargo', 'engraver, scribe.'

That is, the most frequently used sign of Indus Script, Sign 342 is a signifier for a scribe, supercargo 'a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.'

Bakkar Buthi pedestal with Indus Writing

Bakkar Buthi is the modern name of a settlement of Indus culture in Balochistan ( Pakistan ). It is located on the rivers Kanrach and Windar . The place was on a hill and consisted of two areas. There was a fortress and a neighboring settlement with workshops where chert was processed. The buildings of the settlement consisted of stone and clay. South of Bakkar Buthi, a dam wasfound. It is the southernmost of a total of three dams, suggesting a sophisticated irrigation economy. The ceramicsis typical of the Indus culture, but there was also pottery of Kulli culture . Signs of the Indus script are engraved on a shard . The place was approximately from 2400 to 2000 v. Chr. Inhabited. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakkar_Buthi
Red-slipped pedestal with inscription from section A, l. 1-4 (Bakkar Buthi)-- Ute Franke Vogt
From right: Sign267 PLUS Sign99 signify: kancu 'bell metal' sal 'workshop'.

Sign 403 to Sign 407
Sign 403: karã̄ 'wristlets, bangles', khãr 'blacksmith' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. Thus, a pair of wristlets signify metalcasting blacksmith.

dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'

Sign 406 is Sign 403 PLUS three linear strokes: karã̄ 'wristlets, bangles', khãr 'blacksmith' PLUS kolmo 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus, Sign 406 signifies blacksmith's smithy/forge.
The Indus Script inscription on Bakkar Buthi red-slipped pedestal signifies wealth-accounting,metalwork repertoire of a smith working with bell-metal workshop.
Sign 267 variants

Sign 267 is 'corner' signifier: Thus, kanac 'corner' rebus: kañcu 'bell-metal'.kaṁsá 1 m. ʻmetal cup ʼ AV., m.n. ʻ bell -- metalʼ PLUS kuṭila 'curve' rebus: kuṭila 'bronze/pewter' (Pewter is an alloy that is a variant brass alloy). kanac 'angle' rebus: kañcu 'bell-metal' infixed in Sign 373. Sign 373. Sign 373 has the shape of oval or lozenge is the shape of a bun ingot. mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced atone time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed likea four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes andformed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt komūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali). Thus, Sign 373 signifies word, mũhã̄ 'bun ingot'. Thus,sign 267 is read as: mũhã̄ 'bun ingot' PLUS kañcu 'bell-metal'

Sign 99 sal 'splinter' rebus; sal 'workshop' Source:

బత్తుడు battuḍu báḍḍhi वर्धकि, vaḍlaṅgi, baṛhaï, baḍaga, baḍhi, bāṛaï, varāha, 'title of five artisans' phaḍa फड, paṭṭaḍa 'metals manufactory' venerated in Indus Script
https://tinyurl.com/yct26xc6

On the Most Frequently Used Symbol in the Indus Script
B. B. Lal
East and West
Vol. 29, No. 1/4 (December 1979), pp. 27-35 (11 pages)
Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756504

'Earliest writing' found

Sci/Tech - BBC Tuesday, May 4, 1999 Published at 08:10 GMT 09:10 UK

The fragments of pottery are about 5,500 years old (add below picture 'script') Exclusive by BBC News

Work at Harappa is likely to fuel the debate on early writing

Harappa was occupied until about 1900 BC


Dr Meadow: "The earliest inscriptions date back to 3500 BC."


Dr Richard Meadow of Harvard University: "We may be able to follow the history of signs."

Online Science Editor Dr David Whitehouse

The first known examples of writing may have been unearthed at an archaeological dig in Pakistan. So-called 'plant-like' and 'trident-shaped' markings have been found on fragments of pottery dating back 5500 years.

Dr Richard Meadow of Harvard University: "We may be able to follow the history of signs." They were found at a site called Harappa in the region where the great Harappan or Indus civilisation flourished four and a half thousand years ago. Harappa was originally a small settlement in 3500 BC but by 2600 BC it had developed into a major urban centre.

Harappa was occupied until about 1900 BC. The earliest known writing was etched onto jars before and after firing. Experts believe they may have indicated the contents of the jar or be signs associated with a deity. According to Dr Richard Meadow of Harvard University, the director of the Harappa Archaeological Research Project, these primitive inscriptions found on pottery may pre-date all other known writing. Last year it was suggested that the oldest writing might have come from Egypt.

Clay tablets containing primitive words were uncovered in southern Egypt at the tomb of a king named Scorpion. They were carbon-dated to 3300-3200 BC. This is about the same time, or slightly earlier, to the primitive writing developed by the Sumerians of the Mesopotamian civilisation around 3100 BC. "It's a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing," he told BBC News Online, "but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script.

Work at Harappa is likely to fuel the debate on early writing "One of our research aims is to find more examples of these ancient symbols and follow them as they changed and became a writing system," he added. One major problem in determining what the symbols mean is that no one understands the Indus language. It was unique and is now dead. Dr Meadow points out that nothing similar to the 'Rosetta Stone' exists for the Harappan text. The Rosetta Stone, housed in the British museum since 1802, is a large slab of black basalt uniquely inscribed with the same text in both Egyptian hieroglyphs and Greek. Its discovery allowed researchers to decipher the ancient Egyptian script for the first time. The Harappan language died out and did not form the basis of other languages.

Dr Meadow: "The earliest inscriptions date back to 3500 BCE.""So probably we will never know what the symbols mean," Dr Meadow told BBC News Online from Harappa. What historians know of the Harappan civilisation makes them unique. Their society did not like great differences between social classes or the display of wealth by rulers. They did not leave behind large monuments or rich graves. They appear to be a peaceful people who displayed their art in smaller works of stone. Their society seems to have petered out. Around 1900 BC Harappa and other urban centres started to decline as people left them to move east to what is now India and the Ganges. This discovery will add to the debate about the origins of the written word. It probably suggests that writing developed independently in at least three places - Egypt, Mesopotamia and Harappa between 3500 BCE and 3100 BCE.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/334517.stm (Image of a tablet was wrongly shown at this URL The Harappa potsherd is as shown above).

How old is the oldest ancient Indus writing?

Decipherment in Meluhha rebus cipher: kolmo'three' rebus:kolimi'smithy, forge' PLUS tagaraka'tabernae montana' rebus: tagara'tin (casiterite ore)'.

Jonathan Mark Kenoyer
The Indus script emerges out of earlier writing systems that date to around 3300 BC or even earlier. The Ravi Phase at Harappa (3800-2800 BC) has the earliest evidence for signs that eventually were used in the later Indus Script. During the Kot Diji Phase at Harappa and other sites there is widespread use of what can be called Early Indus Script. The Indus Script begins with the Harappa Phase (2600-1900 BC). There are three phases of Indus script and seal use based on excavations at Harappa and other sites.

https://www.harappa.com/answers/how-old-oldest-ancient-indus-writing

The Origin, Context and Function of the Indus Script: Recent Insights from Harappa

Inscription: karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' Text from r.: aya 'fish' rebus: ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'equipment'. Thus, together ayaskaṇḍa 'alloy metal equipment'

कर्णक karṇaka'rim-of-jar' and is read rebus in Meluhh (Bharatiya sprachbund, speech union) as karṇī 'supercargo', 'engraver, scribe.' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'. Thus, engraver/supercargo workshop.

koḍa 'one' rebus: jkoḍ 'workshop' PLUS khaṇḍa 'notch' rebus: kaṇḍa 'equipment'. Thus, metal equipment workshop.

dhvajapaṭa m. ʻflagʼ Kāv. [dhvajá -- , paṭa -- ] Pk. dhayavaḍa -- m. ʻflagʼ, OG. dhayavaḍa id. The rebus word is dhā̆vaḍ 'iron smelters'.

Jonathan Mark Kenoyer

Based on recent excavations at Harappa, it is possible to determine that square seals with animal motifs (such as the elephant) and possibly the short horned bull are among the earliest form of seal with writing.
The origin and development of writing in the Indus Valley is a highly debated topic but one that is extremely important because of the impact writing had on early cultures. Writing allowed literate elites to store knowledge and communicate this knowledge to other elites within the context of their cities and towns as well as over great distances. It also allowed literate elites to demonstrate their power to illiterate individuals who would have visually interpreted the writing as symbols of power, but not necessarily understanding the specific semantic meaning. This dichotomous use of the same graphic symbols poses a major problem for scholars today who are trying to understand the nature of the Indus writing system.

Kenoyer2006_The Origin, Context and Function of the Indus Sc.pdf

https://www.harappa.com/content/origin-context-and-function-indus-script-recent-insights-harappa

The date of ca. 3300 BCE as the date of invention of Indus writing system compares with the date of ca. 3200 BCE claimed as the date of invention of Cuneiform writing system:

The World's Oldest Writing

Used by scribes for more than three millennia, cuneiform writing opens a dramatic window onto ancient Mesopotamian life

By THE EDITORS

May/Jun 2016

CLAY TABLET. FOUND: Babylon, Iraq. CULTURE: Late Babylonian. DATE: ca. 350–50 B.C. LANGUAGE: Akkadian.

(Eric Lessing/Art Resource, NY)

SCRIBE STATUE. FOUND: Lagash, Iraq. CULTURE: Sumerian. DATE: ca. 2400 B.C. LANGUAGE: Sumerian.

(Babek Tafresi/Gettyimages)

CARVED INSCRIPTION. FOUND: Bisitun, Iran. CULTURE. Achaemenid. DATE: ca. 500 B.C. LANGUAGE. Persian, Akkadian, Elamite.

In early 2016, hundreds of media outlets around the world reported that a set of recently deciphered ancient clay tablets revealed that Babylonian astronomers were more sophisticated than previously believed. The wedge-shaped writing on the tablets, known as cuneiform, demonstrated that these ancient stargazers used geometric calculations to predict the motion of Jupiter. Scholars had assumed it wasn’t until almost A.D. 1400 that these techniques were first employed—by English and French mathematicians. But here was proof that nearly 2,000 years earlier, ancient people were every bit as advanced as Renaissance-era scholars. Judging by the story’s enthusiastic reception on social media, this discovery captured the public imagination. It implicitly challenged the perception that cuneiform tablets were used merely for basic accounting, such as tallying grain, rather than for complex astronomical calculations. While most tablets were, in fact, used for mundane bookkeeping or scribal exercises, some of them bear inscriptions that offer unexpected insights into the minute details of and momentous events in the lives of ancient Mesopotamians.

First developed around 3200 B.C. by Sumerian scribes in the ancient city-state of Uruk, in present-day Iraq, as a means of recording transactions, cuneiform writing was created by using a reed stylus to make wedge-shaped indentations in clay tablets. Later scribes would chisel cuneiform into a variety of stone objects as well. Different combinations of these marks represented syllables, which could in turn be put together to form words. Cuneiform as a robust writing tradition endured 3,000 years. The script—not itself a language—was used by scribes of multiple cultures over that time to write a number of languages other than Sumerian, most notably Akkadian, a Semitic language that was the lingua franca of the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires.

After cuneiform was replaced by alphabetic writing sometime after the first century A.D., the hundreds of thousands of clay tablets and other inscribed objects went unread for nearly 2,000 years. It wasn’t until the early nineteenth century, when archaeologists first began to excavate the tablets, that scholars could begin to attempt to understand these texts. One important early key to deciphering the script proved to be the discovery of a kind of cuneiform Rosetta Stone, a circa 500 B.C. trilingual inscription at the site of Bisitun Pass in Iran. Written in Persian, Akkadian, and an Iranian language known as Elamite, it recorded the feats of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great (r. 521–486 B.C.). By deciphering repetitive words such as “Darius” and “king” in Persian, scholars were able to slowly piece together how cuneiform worked. Called Assyriologists, these specialists were eventually able to translate different languages written in cuneiform across many eras, though some early versions of the script remain undeciphered.

Today, the ability to read cuneiform is the key to understanding all manner of cultural activities in the ancient Near East—from determining what was known of the cosmos and its workings, to the august lives of Assyrian kings, to the secrets of making a Babylonian stew. Of the estimated half-million cuneiform objects that have been excavated, many have yet to be catalogued and translated. Here, a few fine and varied examples of some of the most interesting ones that have been.

https://www.archaeology.org/issues/213-1605/features/4326-cuneiform-the-world-s-oldest-writing

Kish tablet, Proto-cuneiform, ca. 3500 BCE

Limestone tablet from Kish (Sumer) with pictographic writing, 3500 BC; may be the earliest known writing. Ashmolean Museum

[quote]

The Kish tablet is a limestone tablet found at Tell al-Uhaymir, Babil Governorate, Iraq – the site of the ancient Sumerian city of Kish. A plaster-cast of the artifact is today in the collection of the Ashmolean Museum.

The Kish tablet is inscribed with proto-cuneiform signs. It has been dated to ca. 3500 BC (middle Uruk period), although some scholars believe it may be from somewhat later – Uruk IV period (ca. 3350–3200 BC).Several thousands of proto-cuneiform documents dating to Uruk IV and III periods (ca. 3350–3000 BC) have been found in Uruk.

The writing is still purely pictographic, and represents a transitional stage between proto-writing and the emergence of the partly syllabic writing of the cuneiform script proper. The "proto-literate period" of Egypt and Mesopotamia is taken to span about 3500 to 2900 BC. The administrative texts of the Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC), found among other places at Jemdet Nasr and Tell Uqair represent a further stage in the development from proto-cuneiform to cuneiform, but can still not be identified with certainty as being written in Sumerian, although it is likely.

[unquote]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kish_tablet

Mahadevan critiques Parpola's decipherment of Indus Script

The Indus Script

Introduction

Iravatham Mahadevan is a National Fellow of the Indian Council of Historical Research, and has been working on the Indus script for over 40 years. His publications include The Indus Script: Texts, Concordance and Tables (1977). A Tamil speaker, he has used historical linguistics and statistical studies to examine the Dravidian components in Vedic Sanskrit, and how these might point to interpretations of the Indus Valley script.
Dr. Gregory Possehl calls Mahadevan a "careful, methodical worker, taking care to spell out his assumptions and methods. . . 'Tentative conclusions' and 'working hypotheses' are more his style than set ideas and fait accompli" (Indus Age: The Writing System, p. 130).
The following paper by Mahadevan, An Encylopaedia of the Indus Script, is a review of Asko Parpola's Deciphering the Indus Script, and was published in the International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics (Trivandrum, Jan. 1997, reprinted by permission of the author). Mahadevan uses this opportunity to summarize and review the full breadth of Parpola's work, from evidence from the often misunderstood question of "Aryans" in the subcontinent to specific interpretations of various signs. An easily printed text-only version of the 14 sections that follow is also available.
There is also an ancient Indus script dictionary comparing Mahadevan's and Parpola's key seal sign interpretations.

Contents
1	Introduction	9	The 'fish' signs
2	Asko Parpola/The Indus Civilization	10	The planets
3	The coming of the Aryans	11	The star Rohini
4	The horse argument/The Dravidian Hypothesis	12	'Bangles' Sign: God Murukan
5	The Indus Script and Inscriptions	13	The 'Squirrel' Sign: Title of Murukan
6	Earlier Attempts at Decipherment	14	'Fig Tree + Crab' Sign: Proto-Rudra
7	Structural Analysis by Parpola	15	Assessment of Parpola's model of decipherment
8	Parpola's methodology of decipherment	16	Full text

Mahadevan's original article was not illustrated, except for drawings of Indus signs. The pages that follow include a number of images, mainly of sealings from Harappa, courtesy of the Harappa Archaeological Project (HARP).

...

Excerpt from Section 16. Full text:

Full Text Version of The Indus Script

Introduction
Asko Parpola needs no introduction to those interested in the problems of the Indus script. A specialist in Vedic philology, he turned his attention at an early stage in his career to the decipherment of the Indus script and has, along with his Finnish colleagues, made immensely valuable contributions to his chosen field over the last three decades. Although he is associated with the Dravidianist school of decipherment, his contributions to the documentation and theoretical studies of the Indus script transcend linguistic boundaries.
Of the earlier books co-authored by Parpola, special mention must be made here of the Corpus of Texts in the Indus Script (1979), A Concordance to the Texts in the lndus Script (1982), and the magnificently produced photo albums, Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions, two volumes of which have so far been published (1987, 1991) with assistance from UNESCO and co-operation of the Archaeological Departments of India and Pakistan. These books have already established themselves as the standard reference works and indispensable tools for further research on the Indus script.
Parpola's latest book covers a much wider area than what its title indicates. The volume commences with a brief survey of the Indus Civilization in its historical context and an illuminating account of the writing systems of the ancient world and the methods devised to decipher them. Then follows a very detailed study of the theoretical aspects of the Indus script including a structural analysis of the texts, a typological analysis of their linguistic features and the methodology of decipherment. While arguing that the Indus Civilization is pre-Aryan and non-Aryan, Parpola presents an altogether new and fascinating theory about the Aryan immigration into the Indian subcontinent. Next he sets out in detail the evidence for believing that the Harappans were Dravidian speakers. In the last part of the work Parpola presents his readings and interpretations of selected Indus signs together with a detailed description of the astral religion of the Harappan culture revealed, according to him, by the inscriptions.
Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization
Recent archaeological evidence especially from Mehrgarh has established that the Indus Civilization was essentially an indigenous development growing out of local cultures in an unbroken sequence from the Neolithic at the end of the eighth millennium BCE, through the Chalcolithic (about 5000-3600 BCE) and Early Harappan (about 3600-2600 BCE) to the commencement of the Mature Harappan period in about 2550 BCE.
The Indus civilization began with some major developments like the introduction of writing and a surprisingly uniform culture over the whole of the greater Indus valley. According to Parpola this development was due to increased maritime trade and closer cultural contacts with Mesopotamia and the Gulf region. There is now general agreement that Meluhha mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions refers to the land of the Indus. Parpola lays stress on the importance of Harappan contacts with West Asia, which provide relevant parallels and potential sources of information on the Harappan culture.
The Indus Civilization flourished between about 2600 and 1800 BCE when it collapsed into regional cultures at the Late Harappan stage. According to Parpola the collapse was due to a combination of several factors like over-exploitation of the environment, drastic changes in the river-courses, series of floods, water-logging and increased salinity of the irrigated lands. Finally the weakened cities would have become easy victims of the raiders from Central Asia, whose arrival heralded a major cultural discontinuity in South Asia.
The Coming of the Aryans
Parpola proposes a new theory about when, from where and how the Aryans came into the Indian sub-continent and the identity of the Dasas (Dasyus) who were their traditional enemies. According to this theory, the Rigvedic Aryans were preceded by another wave of Indo-European speaking invaders who called themselves the Dasas and who penetrated further to the east than did the Rigvedic Aryans.
The new theory is based on textual-linguistic re-interpretation of the Vedic evidence in the light of the recent remarkable discoveries made by Soviet archaeologists of a previously unknown Bronze Age civilization in Bactria (North Afghanistan) and Margiana (in Turkmenistan). The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) had two distinct cultural periods, the first between 1900 and 1700 BCE and the second between 1700 and 1500 BCE.
According to Parpola a small wave of Aryan-speaking nomads from the northern steppes arrived in this region in BMAC-I period and adopted the local non-Aryan culture while retaining their own Aryan language. Parpola identifies their name as Dasa from Old Persian inscriptions and Greek and Latin sources. The presence of the horse and evidence for the practice of chariot warfare by the ruling elite appearing at this time in Bactria confirm the Indo-European origin of the Dasas. The fortified palace at Dashly-3 with three concentric circular walls belonging to this period is identified by Parpola typologically as tripura, 'triple fort' of the Dasas in Vedic mythology.
Parpola suggests that the Dasa-Aryans from BMAC arrived in South Asia via Baluchistan during the time of the Late Harappan cultures, as evidenced by the typically BMAC graves and cenotaphs at Mehrgarh and other sites on the Kachi plain near the Bolan Pass. According to him these early 'Indian Dasas' are likely to have become the ruling elite in the Late Harappan cultures: the Cemetery-H culture of the Punjab, the Jhukar culture of Sind, and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
Parpola also proposes that a second wave of Indo-European speakers from the northern steppes swept over the Bactria-Margiana region in about 1700 BC. Evidence for this comes from the distinct break between the cultures of BMAC I and II at this time. Parpola identifies the newcomers as 'Sauma-Aryans' from their ritual of Soma drinking which the 'Dasa-Aryans' did not practice. Evidence for Ephedra (identified as the Soma plant) has been discovered in the residues of liquid in ritual vessels found in the temple-forts of Togolok-21 and Gonur-I in Margiana dating from the BMAC-II phase.
The Sauma-Aryans too would have largely adopted the local culture, but also transforming the cult of the Asura-worshiping Dasas into the Deva-worshiping cult involving the Soma ritual.
After the fusion of the two peoples, one group of the unified Proto-Indo-Aryans migrated eastwards into the Swat valley founding the Proto-Rigvedic culture.
Parpola's new hypothesis will have to be examined in detail by specialists in South Asian history and Indo-European linguistics. So far as the Indus Civilization is concerned the main implication of the new theory seems to be that the Aryan-Dasa conflict recorded in the earliest portions of the Rigveda is the story of the hostilities and eventual fusion of two Aryan tribes, which took place before their entry into the Indian sub-continent and has thus no relevance to the demise of the mature phase of the Indus Civilization.
Myth of the Aryan Invasion
It has often been pointed out that the complete absence of the horse among the animals so prominently featured on the Indus seals is good evidence for the Non-Aryan character of the Indus Civilization. Parpola quotes from a fairly up to date and authoritative report by Richard Meadow that there is as yet no convincing evidence for horse remains from archaeological sites in South Asia before the end of the second millennium BC. Many claims have been made, but few have been documented for independent verification. The wild relatives of the horse and donkey are not native to South Asia, and the domesticated animals were brought into the region from the west and north.
Parpola points out why the 'horse argument' is so central to the issue. The Proto-Aryan words for the horse and the various technical terms associated with the war chariot can all be solidly reconstructed to Proto-Indo-European. This is good linguistic evidence that the Vedic horse and chariotry are firmly rooted in the Proto-Indo-European heritage. The evidence strongly suggests that the Indus culture was non-Aryan.
The Dravidian Hypothesis
The survival of Brahui, a Dravidian language, spoken even today by large numbers of people in Baluchistan and the adjoining areas in Afghanistan and Iran, is an important factor in the identification of the Indus Civilization as Dravidian. Brahui belongs linguistically to the North Dravidian group with several shared innovations with Kurukh and Malto; no dialectal features connect it with the South or Central Dravidian languages. Hence Parpola concludes that Brahui represents the remnants of the Dravidian language spoken in the area by the descendants of the Harappan population.
The pervasive substratum influence of Dravidian on Old Indo-Aryan is also an important clue to the presence of Dravidian in the northwestern region from the earliest times. The presence of a few Dravidian loan-words in the Rigveda is now well recognized. The Rigveda has also phonological and syntactical features borrowed from Dravidian. Among the features listed by Parpola are the retroflex sounds, gerund, quotative and onomatopoeic constructions. The Prakrit dialects too underwent a radical simplification of the Indo-Aryan syllabic structure through assimilation of consonants and intrusive vowels, features which are best explained, as Parpola points out, as adjustment to the phonology of a Dravidian substratum.
Survival of place-names is generally a good indicator of the linguistic pre-history of a region. Parpola points out several place-names in the northwestern region like nagara, palli, pattana and kotta with good Dravidian etymologies. I am not however convinced by his attempt to derive Meluhha (the name of the land of the Indus in the [Mesopotamian] cuneiform texts) from Dravidian mel-akam, 'High country', not actually attested, as Parpola himself points out, in any of the Dravidian languages.
Parpola also points out that syntactical analysis of the Indus inscriptions has revealed Dravidian-like typological characteristics, especially the attribute preceding the headword. The cumulative weight of evidence makes Dravidian the most likely language to have been spoken by the Harappans.
Pictorial Interpretation of the Indus Signs
The Indus script has about 400 signs and is mainly pictographic in character. However there are also many signs too stylized or simplified to be identified pictorially. Two main characteristics of the script are modification of signs by the addition of diacritic-like marks and combination of two or more signs into composite signs. According to Parpola's estimate, about half the number of signs are basic and the other half are composite. Many of the signs also show minor graphic variants due to different scribal styles or materials on which the inscriptions are recorded.
Parpola's latest and comprehensive Sign List (with 398 signs and no less than 1839 variants) illustrated in this volume (pp.70-78) will replace all earlier lists to remain as the standard source of reference. Experts may differ whether a given sign is basic or composite or a variant of another sign. However Parpola has now provided the most complete documentation enabling other scholars to draw their own conclusions.
The Indus Inscriptions
The Indus inscriptions are found only on small objects, mostly stone seals and on pottery. According to Parpola about 3700 inscriptions are presently known from about forty Harappan and twenty foreign sites
The inscriptions are all extremely brief, averaging not more than about five signs in a text. Parpola believes that longer Indus inscriptions might have been written on palm leaves or cloth which have perished.
No bi-lingual inscription has so far come to light to aid decipherment. The only external clues available are those provided by the archaeological context,the typology of the objects carrying the inscriptions, and the accompanying pictorial motifs. The pictorial motifs are mostly those of animals, especially the so-called unicorn, but also many others including the bull, buffalo, elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, antelope and a few mythical or composite beasts. There are also some interesting religious or mythological motifs depicting deities and sacrificial scenes.
Structural studies of the Indus inscriptions have been carried out by a number of scholars ever since the discovery of the Indus Civilization and its writing. The most outstanding work in the earlier period is that of Hunter who provided reliable eyecopies of the inscriptions, a manually arranged sign concordance and a detailed positional analysis.
The computer arrived on the scene in the mid-Sixties. A Soviet team led by Knorozov published a series of papers entitled Proto-Indica, in which they set out briefly the main results of their computer-aided investigations. The Soviet group has made outstanding contributions to formal analysis in areas like direction of writing, word-division and syntactical patterns. In particular they have demonstrated that the Indus inscriptions have a Dravidian-like word order. However the Soviet model of linguistic deciphemment of the Indus script has not won general acceptance mainly because of the implausibility of the proposed readings.
Almost simultaneously Asko Parpola and his Finnish colleagues began their independent computer-aided investigations of the Indus texts. The Finnish team also made use of computational linguistic techniques to deal with structural problems like word-division procedures and synctical analysis. However the earlier Finnish attempt at linguistic decipherment did not also meet with much success. Parpola himself now describes their earlier reports as "written in the first flush of enthusiasm" and "premature and incautious" (p.xv). With rare intellectual courage he has now abandoned the paradigm central to the earlier Finnish model of decipherment and has made a virtually fresh beginning.
The latest attempt to decipher the Indus script, prior to the publication of the present work, has been made by Walter Fairservis, the distinguished American archaeologist with long experience in Harappan excavations. He has manually arranged the Indus sign sequences in a 'grid' to bring out their functional characteristics and syntactical patterns. The analysis is sound; but his model of decipherment based on the Dravidian hypothesis (published in 1992 shortly before his death) has not been taken seriously because of his lack of familiarity with the Dravidian languages and linguistic techniques.
In his brief review of the earlier attempts at decipherment of the Indus script, Parpola takes no notice of the models based on the Indo-Aryan hypothesis, presumably because there is hardly anything in common between them and his own work. However Parpola leaves no one in doubt about what he thinks of the other approach. "Nationalistic bias makes it difficult for some North Indians to admit even the possibility of the Indus Civilization being pre-Aryan; they deny the very concept of Aryan immigration and insist that the Harappan and Vedic cultures are one and the same. So the language chosen has usually been Sanskrit" (p.58). I agree with Parpola about the existence of 'nationalistic bias', but would like to remind him that S.R. Rao and Krishna Rao, leading proponents of the Indo-Aryan theory, can hardly be called 'North Indian'!
Structural Analysis by Parpola
No attempt at linguistic decipherment of an unknown script can hope to succeed unless it is preceded by a thorough structural analysis of the available inscriptions to bring out the typological features of the script as well as the underlying language. [Token or tablet from Harappa]
A great merit of this book is that Parpola has presented in it a very detailed structural analysis incorporating the previous work of the Finnish group and advancing further. The following is a very brief summary of his main results in a somewhat simplified form.
A) Direction of Writing
Parpola has summarized the already well-established evidence proving the general direction of the Indus script to be from right to left. External evidence for the direction of writing is provided by the shorter inscriptions starting at the right edge leaving blank space nearer the left edge, and the displacement of the left-most signs of the longer inscriptions to the second line for want of space. Internal evidence for the direction of writing is obtained by comparing single-line and two-line sequences of identical inscriptions.
Even though the question of direction of writing in the Indus script is now a settled fact, Parpola's re-statement is timely as claims of 'decipherment' based on a left to right direction still continue to be made.
B) Sign Analysis
Parpola lays down clear guidelines for the recognition of basic signs, graphic variants and composite signs. The numerals are identified as a set of short stroke signs comprising up to nine strokes arranged in one or two tiers. Groups of small inverted semi-circles which occur along with the 'stroke' numerals are very likely to be tens.
The estimate of the number of signs as about 400 (with only about half of them basic signs) leads to an important deduction regarding the typology of the Indus script. It is well known that the total number of signs is specific to each type of writing within a range. The number of signs in the Indus script is too small for a purely logo-graphic script (with word-signs only) and too large for a purely alphabetic or syllabic writing. Thus the Indus script is most likely to be logo-syllabic writing with a mixture of word-signs and syllables.
C) Word-Division
Segmentation procedures lead to the identification of probable words, phrases and longer syntactic units. Segmentation has shown that the Indus texts mostly consist of phrases of one to three signs.
D) Language Typology
The very short Indus texts are unlikely to be complete sentences. They may consist of mostly noun-phrases only. Subject to this limitation some typological features of the language can still be detected. For example, the occurrence of numerals before the enumerated objects makes it likely that in the Harappan language the adjective precedes the noun it qualifies. Parpola has devised a 'grid' in which inscriptions are so arranged as to place identical or similar signs in the same columns. On the basis of this analysis Parpola constructs a general model of Indus 'sentences' with a maximum of three main positions or 'slots' corresponding to linguistic units in the language. However he admits frankly his "present inability to identify morphological markers with any certainty"(p.97).
Parpola's structural analysis is brilliant and mostly on sound lines. I am particularly struck by the fact that despite differences in detail there is a clear convergence of results flowing from the Soviet, Finnish and Indian computer-aided structural analyses. The major points of agreement are on the logo-syllabic character of the Indus script, the syntactical pattern of the inscriptions and the Dravidian-like features of the Harappan language. A major area of disagreement concerns the identity and functions of morphological markers. I have no doubt that the areas of disagreement will progressively get eliminated as we learn more about the Indus script through objective analysis of the kind undertaken by Parpola in this book.
Parpola's Methodology of Decipherment
Parpola's methodology for deciphering the Indus script consists essentially of two parts, namely the rebus principle generally applicable to all ancient logo-syllabic scripts and the linguistic techniques applicable to Dravidian.
Word-signs (one sign for each word) first developed from pictures.
It was then discovered that a word-sign could also be used to represent any other word with the same sound but having a different meaning. Such sets of words are known as homophones (as in English can (noun), 'a container' and can (verb), 'to be able to'.). Thus a sign which is pictorially easier to draw can be used to represent another word with the same sound, but the meaning of which cannot be depicted by pictures as, for example, abstract nouns, grammatical particles and proper names. This technique, employed in all ancient logo-syllabic scripts, is known as rebus writing (from Latin rebus, 'by means of things').
Parpola is careful to point out that rebus writing can be deciphered only if four conditions are simultaneously fulfilled:
1. The object depicted by the word-sign can be recognised.
2. The word-sign has been used phonetically for a homophone with a different meaning.
3. The intended meaning can be deduced from the context.
4. Linguistically satisfactory homophones can be found in the presumed language.
The last point leads to the second stage of the operation with Dravidian linguistic techniques. According to Parpola the signs of the Indus script are likely to represent Dravidian mono-syllabic roots. In Proto-Dravidian the bare stem could stand for inflected forms. Parpola believes therefore that it may not have been necessary to mark the case-endings in the Indus script. In principle only words and forms reconstructable for Proto-Dravidian are acceptable for the decipherment, and in such reconstruction one must follow strictly the rules established by comparative linguistics. Variations between short and long vowels and single and double consonants may however be allowed subject to Dravidian morpho-phonemic rules.
As a set of rules, Parpola's formulations are unexceptionable. However he does run into problems in applying them in practice,partly because the rules themselves are difficult to apply with precision, and also because he occasionally transgresses his own rules as we shall see presently.
The 'fish' sign: Starting Point
As the starting point for his linguistic decipherment Parpola accepts the famous rebus (Fig. I a) first suggested by Father Heras half a century ago. In almost all Dravidian languages the word for 'fish' is meen. Many Dravidian languages have also the homophone meen meaning 'star' (derived, in this case, from the root meen, 'to shine'). It can be reasonably inferred from the widespread occurrence of the homopones that they must have been present in Proto-Dravidian with similar meanings. This is the linguistic basis for reading the 'fish' sign as meen, but interpreting it as 'star'. This interpretation has gained popularity among the Dravidianist scholars on account of its simplicity even though it has remained unverifiable.
'Number + fish' signs: Asterisms
This hypothesis is seemingly corroborated by the occurrence of 'number + fish' sequences (Fig. I b-d) interpreted as asterisms first by Heras and further elaborated by the Soviet scholars and Parpola. It is interesting to note that the numerical names for the three asterisms are actually attested in Old Tamil. There is however no proof that these interpretations are the only correct ones. There are, in the Indus texts, several sets of 'number + sign' sequences. The interpretation of 'number + fish' signs as asterisms would make this set unique among such sequences
The Planets
'Modified fish' signs: Planets and a Star
The Indus texts very often feature the 'fish' sign modified by some diacritic-like markings (Fig.II). These signs are identified by Parpola as planets or stars on the basis of his pictorial interpretations of the markings. The Dravidian word meen may denote either 'star' or 'planet' as attested in Old Tamil.
The Planet Mercury
Parpola interprets the line drawn horizontally or obliquely across the body of the 'fish' sign (Fig. Il a) as expressing the idea 'dividing or halving'. He identifies the Proto-Dravidian root *pacu, 'to halve, divide'. There is an exact homophone *pacu, 'greenish-yellow'. Hence by rebus the 'halved fish' sign is read as pacu meen and interpreted as the planet Mercury which is greenish-yellow in colour. The word paccai, 'green (planet)' is one of the names of Mercury in the Old Tamil star lists.
The Planet Saturn
Parpola regards the inverted V-like element above the fish as depicting a 'roof' (Fig. II b). He equates it with Dravidian *vey/mey, 'to cover a house with thatched roof'. This suggests to him the "partially homophonous" root *may, 'black'. Hence the reading may meen, 'black star,' interpreted as the planet Saturn which is dark in colour. The term mai(m) meen, 'Saturn'is attested in Old Tamil.
The Dravidian words chosen by Parpola in this case are however problematic. The ProtoDravidian root for 'roof, to thatch' has been reconstructed as *vey, not *mey. Even assuming *vey/*mey alternation in Proto-Dravidian, *mey is not homophonous with *may, 'black'. The morpho-phonemic rules regarding alternation of included vowels in Dravidian apply only to cognate forms and cannot be invoked to justify 'partial' homonymy of unrelated etyma.
The Planet Venus
According to Parpola the sign of two long vertical strokes expresses pictorially the idea of 'enclosed, intervening or intermediate space'. He chooses veli as the equivalent Dravidian word which leads him to the homophone vel/velli, 'white', 'bright'. The pair of signs 'two strokes + fish'(Fig. II c) is then read as vel(li) min meaning the planet Venus. Velli is still the name for Venus in Tamil.
However the word veli does not by itself convey the qualified meanings 'enclosed, intervening or intermediate' imported into it by Parpola. The central meaning of veli is 'open (space), out, outside, exterior, external'. One would have to use some qualifying expression like itai-veli to mean 'intermediate space'. The interpretation of a sign which suggests 'enclosed space' to denote the word for 'open space' seems inapt.
The Star Rohini
Parpola starts with the assumption that the 'dot + fish' sign (Fig.II d) occurring in the 'Fig Deity' seal is likely to represent the deity depicted on the seal identified by him as the goddess of fertility and victory in war, the Harappan proto-form of Durga. He asks himself which star is most likely to be associated with this goddess and decides, after a good deal of delving into Hindu mythology, that Rohini (Aldeberan) fits the context best. The association of Rohini (the 'red star') with the carp (rohita, 'the red fish') becomes the basis for identification of this sign as the carp also. Finally the mark inside the 'fish' sign is identified as the auspicious red tilaka mark worn by women on the forehead, which is equated with Dravidian pottu, '(red) dot, drop'. Hence the reading pottu min is interpreted as the 'carp' as well as the 'star Rohini'. The occurrence of pot (kike) in Gondi for 'Rohita fish' is pointed out as evidence in support of the reading.
However the expression pottu meen is not attested in Dravidian with the meaning 'star Rohini'. If *pottu meen means 'carp' in Central Dravidian languages, it must be on account of the dot-like scales rather than the red colour, as pottu does not mean 'red' in Dravidian. Similarly pottu, 'dot (on the forehead)' cannot by itself mean 'red' even if it is mostly red in colour. In short, Parpola interprets the words as 'red' by association and not by homonymy.
Quite apart from the linguistic problems pointed out above, Parpola's readings and interpretations of the 'modified fish' signs are, in general, insecure as they rest primarily on rather arbitrary meanings assigned to the conventional diacritic-like markings which cannot, by their very nature, be identified pictorially with any degree of certainty. Alternative interpretations are possible and have been proposed.
'Bangles' Sign: God Murukan
The principal deity of early Tamils was Murakan, the youthful god of war and love, who became identified with the North Indian war-god Skanda. Parpola has identified the sign depicting a pair of intersecting circles (Fig. III a) as 'ear/nose rings' or 'bangles', muruku in Dravidian, which by rebus represents the god muruku (Murukan = Skanda) in the Indus texts.
The sign of intersecting circles can well depict a pair of bangles. There is also the solid evidence recently unearthed of quantities of stoneware bangles from Mohenjodaro, many of them inscribed. Parpola points out that the sign of intersecting circles occurs with disproportionately high frequency on the bangle inscriptions. The rebus proposed by him is also exact.
If in spite of all this, there is a nagging doubt about the correctness of the reading, it is due to the fact that muruku is not the appropriate word for stoneware bangles. The word muruku is derived from the verbal root *mur/mur-V which has the specific meaning, 'to twist, be twisted'; (e.g.) murige (Kannada), 'twisting, a twist'; murige (Tulu), 'a twist'; murutaka (Malayalam), 'to pluck by twisting'. In fact the ear-ring or nose-ring known as muruku is made from twisted silver wire as one would expect from the etymology of the word; (e.g.) murugu (Kannada), 'a wire ring used as ornament for the nose and the ear'. The name muruku can be applied to a bangle or bracelet only if it is made of twisted metal or wire; (e.g.) murgi (Tulu), 'twisted bangle or bracelet made of silver'. Even assuming that the word muruku came to be used for all types of bangles by extension of meaning, this is unlikely to have happened at the Proto-Dravidian stage. In view of this linguistic discrepancy one hesitates to accept the proposed rebus. Except for its occurrence on bangles where this sign may have a literal meaning, there is no indication in other contexts that it represents a divinity.
The Indus Squirrel Sign: Title of Murukan
Parpola has proposed reading a pair of signs as 'bangles + squirrel' (Fig.III b), interpreting it as a divine title. The second sign appears to depict a small animal perched on a tree branch. Parpola has, in my opinion, convincingly shown that this animal is the striped palm squirrel shown in its characteristic posture of hanging upside down. Two faience figurines of the palm squirrel have been found at Mohenjodaro. The Tamil word for squirrel is anil (*canil). This loveable creature is often endearingly referred to as anil pillai (pillai being the general term for 'young one'). Parpola suggests that pillai by itself can mean 'squirrel' and the usage may go back to Proto-Dravidian as indicated by the words warce, verce (Gondi) and pirca (Parji) which mean 'squirrel' and are, according to him, cognates of pillay, Thus he reads the pair of signs as muruku pillay taken as referring to the god Murukan with the title pillay. Pillai is attested in Tamil as an appellation of Murukan, as the son of Siva.
Parpola departs in this case from his own rules of rebus, which require the finding of another meaning for the same word ( * canil), and not for an associated term ( * pillay). Further as far as I know, there seems to be no attested usage in Dravidian for pillay by itself to mean 'squirrel'. The suffix pillai is added in Tamil to a wide variety of words to indicate the 'young of the species" and not specifically or even mainly to the squirrel. As regards the Gondi and Parji words for 'squirrel' cited by Parpola, the suggested derivation from * pillay is not supported by regular phonetic correspondences.
'Fig Tree + Crab' Sign: Proto-Rudra
Parpola refers to two sets of copper tablets, both with the same inscription on one side but two different motifs on the other. One of the motifs is the 'fig tree + crab' sign (Fig.IV: Sign 124) occurring as a single sign all by itself. The other is a pictographic representation of an anthropomorphic male deity with horns and a tail, and holding a bow and arrow. This deity ('the horned archer') is identified as the Harappan predecessor of the Vedic god Rudra (euphemistically called Siva) who is described in the Vedas as a cruel hunter with bows and arrows. Parpola interprets the evidence of the copper tablets as indicating that the 'fig tree + crab' sign represents the name of the deity it replaces.
The 'crab' is interpreted here as a phonetic determinative and read as kol/kol, 'seizing, grasping (as with claws)'. The composite 'fig tree + crab' sign is then read as koli, 'fig tree which bears fruits without flowering' or 'fig tree with grasping roots'. Parpola interprets koli by rebus as the name of the deity ('horned archer') derived from kol, 'to seize,' kol, 'plunder', which is compared with Rudra's epithet Hara, (literally) 'seizer, robber'.
This composite sign occurs in three forms which Parpola regards as simple variants of a single sign (Fig. IV: Sign 124 a, d & g). However the outer U-like form has two sharply differentiated additions, either the 'fig-leaf' (sign no. 118) or the 'man' (sign no.13). Similarly the 'crab'sign has two clearly differentiated forms, either with 'feet' (sign 88a) or without (sign 88e). The two 'crab' forms occur in wholly different contexts in the seal-texts. Hence the 'fig tree + crab' forms have to be regarded as independent signs with distinct though possibly related meanings. (Compare Parpola's treatment of each 'modified fish' sign as having a distinct phonetic value.)
Assessment of Parpola's Model of Decipherment
One can try to assess Parpola's decipherment at two levels. First, one can analyse his interpretations and readings of individual signs, some of which I have attempted above. To sum up, problems arise at this level due to implausible identification of pictorial signs, arbitrary assignment of values to non-pictorial signs and diacritic-like marks, and doubtful classification of basic, composite and variant signs.
There is also uncertainty in fixing the context of occurrence to provide clues to likely meanings, and linguistic problems in the handling of Proto-Dravidian reconstructions and choice of homophones. These specific problems are important and may have to be sorted out in the light of constructive criticisms from experts in the related disciplines.
Secondly, and even more importantly, one may look at Parpola's model of decipherment holistically to assess its overall plausibility and the likelihood of its being the generally correct solution. At this level the two major problems as I see them are Parpola's excessive, almost obsessive, preoccupation with the 'Harappan religion', and the inexplicable absence of matters relating to the social life and administration of the Harappan polity, which one may reasonably expect to be recorded in the Indus inscriptions.
Parpola's interpretations rely more on mythology than on textual or linguistic analysis. For example, his interpretations of the 'fish' signs are mainly based on his iconographic identifications of the 'Proto-Siva' and 'Fig Deity' seals which lead him to believe that the signs must represent not merely stars or planets but also gods. To him, the 'fish' sign is "not simply a phonetically used grapheme, but a highly condensed religious symbol" (p.272) (with) "unbelievably rich symbolism" (p.274). Parpola ranges far and wide in search of supporting evidence from the vast resources of Hindu religious texts and traditions. As one goes through the last part of his book dealing with decipherment, the overwhelming impression one forms is of a treatise on Harappan religion rather than decipherment of the Indus script.
Archaeological evidence points to the presence of a centralised administrative structure in the Harappan cities employing a large bureaucracy. Since almost every household has yielded at least one seal, it is only reasonable to expect that the seal inscriptions would mention, besides names, the professions or callings of the seal-holders like those of scribes, city officials, tax colIectors, merchants, sailors or armed auards. Judging from the short votive inscriptions of later times, one may expect at least some kinship terms like father, son, wife or daughter to occur in the Indus inscriptions too. Granting that the seal-texts are probably only strings of names and titles, and assuming that the writing is mostly logo-graphic, it would still be necessary to employ minimally parts of speech like pronouns, conjunctions and verbal participles and also grammatical morphs to indicate person, number, gender and case.
The near-total absence of matters relating to the mundane, everyday concerns of the Harappans, and of the minimal linguistic features expected even in short texts is perhaps the strongest argument against accepting Parpola's model of decipherment in its present form.
Parpola is too good a scholar not to be aware of the "grave limitations"" like the difficulties in pictorial interpretation of the simplified signs and the scantiness of the available inscriptional material. Thus he concludes his presentation with these words: "For these reasons it looks most unlikely that the Indus script will ever be deciphered fully, unless radically different source material becomes available. That however must not deter us from trying" (p.278). Amen.

https://www.harappa.com/script/maha0.html

Parpola's decipherment

Generally recognized as the world's expert on the Indus script, Asko Parpola has been studying this undeciphered writing for over 40 years at the University of Helsinki in Finland. He is co-editor of collections of all seals and inscriptions in India and Pakistan. As Professor of Indology he has led a Finnish team of experts through numerous approaches to the puzzle of one of the world's very earliest writing systems.

A grand summary of Dr. Parpola's work, Deciphering the Indus Script was published by Cambridge University Press in 1994. Here we present an adaptation of a briefer article describing his approach and major findings first published as "Religion reflected in the iconic signs of the Indus script: penetrating into long-forgotten picto+graphic messages," in Visible Religion, Vol 6, 1988 (with permission of A.J. Brill, Leiden, Holland). An easily printed text-only version of the 13 sections that follow is also available.

There is also an ancient Indus script dictionary comparing Parpola's and Mahadevan's key seal sign interpretations.

Dr. Parpola's 2005 Essay Study of the Indus Script is also available.

Contents
1	Introduction	9	Fish and the God of Waters
2	Meeting the challenge of the Indus script	10	Saturn and the tortoise
3	What type of writing does the Indus script represent?	11	Other planets: examples of cross-checked readings
4	The Principle of Picture Puzzles	12	The sacred fig tree and the north star
5	Pictorial Interpretation of the Indus signs	13	The Pleiades and the Seven Sages
6	Do the 'fish' signs denote dieties?	14	Conclusion
7	Sanskrit or Dravidian?	15	Notes and Bibliography
8	Fishes and stars: evidence for astral divinities	16	Full Text Only Version

[Originally published as Parpola, Asko (1988) Religion reflected in the iconic signs of the Indus script: penetrating into long-forgotten picto+graphic messages. Visible Religion 6: pp. 114-135.]

https://www.harappa.com/script/parpola0.html

See: https://www.academia.edu/4628235/Parpola_Asko_2005._Study_of_the_Indus_Script._Transactions_of_the_International_Conference_of_Eastern_Studies_50_28-66._Tokyo_The_T%C3%B4h%C3%B4_Gakkai

Parpola, Asko, 2005. Study of the Indus Script. Transactions of the International Conference of Eastern Studies 50: 28-66. Tokyo: The Tôhô Gakkai.

https://www.academia.edu/32090577/Parpola_Asko_2010._A_Dravidian_solution_to_the_Indus_script_problem._Kalaignar_M._Karunanidhi_Classical_Tamil_Research_Endowment_Lecture_World_Classical_Tamil_Conference_25-6-2010_Coimbatore._Chennai_Central_Institute_of_Classical_Tamil

Parpola, Asko 2010. A Dravidian solution to the Indus script problem. (Kalaignar M. Karunanidhi Classical Tamil Research Endowment Lecture, World Classical Tamil Conference 25-6-2010 Coimbatore.) Chennai: Central Institute of Classical Tamil.

↧

Wealth-accounting ledger, metalwork catalogues of Indus Script Hypertexts on a Susa cylinder seal, ca. 3100 BCE

October 18, 2018, 6:07 am

≫ Next: Some Meluhha Indus Script words in Etymologisches Woerterbuch (JPokorny)

≪ Previous: On the Most Frequently Used Symbol in the Indus Script -- B. B. Lal (1979) Sign 342 of world's oldest writing ca. 3300 BCE signifies Meluhha rebus scribe, supercargo

https://tinyurl.com/ybcfbfah

Indus Script Hypertexts on the cylinder seal impression and Meluhha rebus readings are:

1. Two goats dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS mr̤eka 'goat' rebus: milakkhu, mleccha-mukha 'copper' Ka. mēke she-goat; mē the bleating of sheep or goats. Te. mē̃ka, mēka goat. Kol. me·ke id. Nk. mēke id. Pa. mēva, (S.) mēya she-goat. Ga. (Oll.) mēge, (S.) mēgegoat. Go. (M) mekā, (Ko.) mēka id. ? Kur. mēxnā (mīxyas) to call, call after loudly, hail. Malt. méqe to bleat. [Te. mr̤ēka (so correct) is of unknown meaning. Br. mēḻẖ is without etymology; see MBE 1980a.] / Cf. Skt. (lex.) meka- goat.(DEDR 5087)

2. Ficus glomerata leaf loa'ficus glomerata' rebus: loh'copper, metal'

3. Mountain range Ta. meṭṭu mound, heap of earth; mēṭu height, eminence, hillock; muṭṭu rising ground, high ground, heap. Ma. mēṭu rising ground, hillock; māṭu hillock, raised ground; miṭṭāl rising ground, an alluvial bank; (Tiyya) maṭṭa hill. Ka. mēḍu height, rising ground, hillock; miṭṭu rising or high ground, hill; miṭṭe state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) muṭṭe heap (as of straw). Tu. miṭṭè prominent, protruding; muṭṭe heap. Te. meṭṭa raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meṭṭu mound; miṭṭa high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mēṭu, mēṭa, mēṭi stack of hay; (Inscr.) meṇṭa-cēnu dry field (cf. meṭṭu-nēla, meṭṭu-vari). Kol. (SR.) meṭṭāhill; (Kin.) meṭṭ, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. meṭṭ hill, mountain. Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) meṭṭa high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) maṭṭā, (Mu.) maṭṭa mountain; (M. L.) meṭā id., hill; (A. D. Ko.) meṭṭa, (Y. Ma. M.) meṭa hill; (SR.) meṭṭā hillock (Voc. 2949). Konḍa meṭa id. Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) meṭa sand hill.(DEDR 5058) Rebus: मृदु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt, meḍ'metal (iron)' (Samskrtam.Santali.Ho.Mu.) med'copper' (Slavic languages)

4. Tree kuṭi 'tree' rebus kuṭhi'smelter'

5, 6. three 'Cross' hieroglyphs kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS कन्दुः, kandu 'kiln, fire altar, smelting furnace of a blacksmith' (Santali.Kashmiri) kō̃da कोँद । कुलालादिकन्दुः f. a kiln; a potter's kiln (Rām. 1446; H. xi, 11); a brick-kiln (Śiv. 1033); a lime-kiln. -bal -बल् । कुलालादिकन्दुस्थानम् m. the place where a kiln is erected, a brick or potter's kiln (Gr.Gr. 165).

7. A running antelope ranku 'antelope' rebus: ranku 'tin (cassiterite ore)'.

8. kāṇḍa 'water'Rebus: kāṇḍa 'tools, pots and pans and weapons' (Marathi

Thus, there are eight classifiers of Indus Script Hypertexts on this cylinder seal of Susa which signify metalwork catalogues, wealth-accounting ledger entries.

Unpierced cylinder seal with caprids and trees (Found in Susa). Two seal impressions.

Heulandite

h. 1 1/3 in. (3.4 cm); diam 1 in (2.4 cm)

Proto-Elamite period, ca. 3100-2900 BCE Sb.2675

Reference: Memoires de la Delegation en Perse 16 (1921), pl. 8, no. 125

“Two powerful mountain goats are shown facing a tree on a mountain in a formal, heraldic composition, its symmetry emphasized by the repetition of forms in the field. The primary theme is echoed by a small pair of caprids diagonally flanking a tree on a mountain. The cross, shown three times in the upper field, is a sign belonging to the Proto-Elamite script. Although the tree on the mountain is undoubtedly a landscape element, tree, mountain and the combination of the two are distinct script signs as well.” (Aruz, Joan, Prudence O. Harper, and Francoise Tallon, eds. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1992, pg 74)

Multiple-register scenes as well as the use of a metonymic mode of representation (where one animal part represents the whole) were also commonly used in Proto-Elamite seal designs, though not in this example.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/10/decoding-lapis-lazuli-indus-seal.html

Decoding a lapis lazuli Indus seal; (context) Silk road and Indus valley contacts?

Indus Script, kharaḍa, brief memoranda of metalwork

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2014/10/indus-script-kharada-brief-memoranda-of.html

Mirror:
https://www.academia.edu/8714300/Indus_Script_khara%E1%B8%8Da_brief_memoranda_of_metalwork

Smelter, furnace, turner-engraver's mintwork signified by Indus Script on a Proto-Elamite cylinder seal and two unique tablets

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/hcww7xv

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2016/05/smelter-furnace-turner-engravers.html

Image result for indus script ficus glomerata bharatkalyan97

Indus script hieroglyphs: composite animal, smithy

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/12/indus-script-hieroglyphs-composite.html

↧

Some Meluhha Indus Script words in Etymologisches Woerterbuch (JPokorny)

October 18, 2018, 9:00 am

≫ Next: Indus writing is a lipi art form called mlecchita vikalpa, Meluhha metalwork cipher -- vātsyāyana; nikṣepavarta lipi 2. utkṣepavarta lipi -- Lalita vistara. Meluhha, mleccha signify spoken Bhāratiya sprachbund

≪ Previous: Wealth-accounting ledger, metalwork catalogues of Indus Script Hypertexts on a Susa cylinder seal, ca. 3100 BCE

https://tinyurl.com/yauxrpdz

Root / lemmRoot / lemma: ai̯os- : `metal (copper; iron)' derived from Root / lemma: eis-1 : `to move rapidly, *weapon, iron'.

Material:

Old Indian áyas- n., av. ayaŋh- n. `metal, iron';

lat. aes, g. aeris; got. aiz (proto germ. *a(i̯)iz- = idg. *ai̯es-) `copper ore, and the alloy of copper, bronze. Transf., anything made of bronze; a vessel, statue, trumpet, kettle', ahd. ēr `ore', anord. eir n. `ore, copper'.

thereof av. ayaŋhaēna- `metallic, iron', lat. aēnus (*ai̯es-no- = umbr. ahesnes `of copper, of bronze'), aēneus, ags. ǣren, as. ahd. mhd. ērīn, nhd. ēren (ehern). despite Pokorny KZ. 46, 292 f. is not idg. ai̯osold borrowing from Ajasja, older Aɫas(ja), the old name of Cyprus, as lat. cuprum : Κύπρος, there according to D. Davis (BSA. 30, 74-86, 1932) the copper pits were tackled in Cyprus only in late Mycenaean time.a: ai̯os- : `metal (copper; iron)' derived from Root / lemma: eis-1 : `to move rapidly, *weapon, iron'.

Material:

Old Indian áyas- n., av. ayaŋh- n. `metal, iron';

Root / lemma: kʷer-1

English meaning: to do

German meaning: `machen, gestalten'

Note: perhaps originally from irgendeiner not more bestimmbaren Handwerkstötigkeit

Material: Old Indian karṓti (Imper. kuru), kr̥ṇṓti `makes, vollbringt', participle kr̥tá-; kará- `tuend, making', m. `hand, Elefantenrössel', kāra- `making', m. `feat, dead, act', kárman- n. `action, work', karmāra-ḥ `smith'; kr̥ti- `feat, dead, act'; saṃ-kr̥t `once'; besides with s- pari-ṣkar- and saṃ-skar-;

av. kǝrǝnaoiti `makes, vollföhrt, tut', kǝrǝtay- `feat, dead, act', Infin. kǝrǝtǝ̄e, Old pers. akunavam, karta-; av. čārā `Mittel, Hilfsmittel', np. čār `Mittel', cāra `Mittel, help, artifice'(= sl. čara `charm, spell', see under);

Root / lemma: dhem-, dhemǝ-

English meaning: to smoke; to blow

German meaning: `stieben, rauchen (Rauch, Dunst, Nebel; nebelgrau, rauchfarben = döster, dunkel), wehen, blasen (hauchen = riechen)'

Material: Old Indian dhámati `blows' (dhami-ṣyati, -tá- and dhmātá-, Pass. dhamyatē and dhmāyátē), av. dāδmainya- `puffing up, swelling, of frogs', npers. damīdan `blow', dam `breath, breath', osset. dumun, dịmịn `smoke; blow';

Maybe alb. tosk. tym n. `smoke': also alb. geg. dhem, alb. dhemb `hurt, ache', dhimbje `pain' [common alb. shift m > mb].

Note:

Clearly from Root / lemma: dhem-, dhemǝ- : `to smoke; to blow' derived Root / lemma: dheu-4, dheu̯ǝ- (presumably: dhu̯ē-, compare the extension dhu̯ē-k-, dhu̯ē̆-s-): `to reel, dissipate, blow, etc. `

Av. arānte `they settle, get stuck', Old Indian aráḫḥ `wheel spoke', aram, álam Adv. (áraṃkar-, alaṃkar`prepare; get ready; make up; get up; dress; trim; prink' and `be in service; serve; do one's service; accommodate; be of service; be of help; be of use', for what probably аrа-tí- `servant; manservant; valet; servitor; follower' and rā-tí- `willing; eager; prompt; ungrudging; unhesitating', av. rāiti `compliant, servant') `suitable, enough';

https://indo-european.info/indoeuropean.html

↧

Indus writing is a lipi art form called mlecchita vikalpa, Meluhha metalwork cipher -- vātsyāyana; nikṣepavarta lipi 2. utkṣepavarta lipi -- Lalita vistara. Meluhha, mleccha signify spoken Bhāratiya sprachbund

October 18, 2018, 6:48 pm

≫ Next: KalpaVr̥kṣa from BesNagar (Vidiśa) ~ 2nd century BCE or earlier. Bags of coins hang from branches of tree are Indus Script Hypertexts of wealth

≪ Previous: Some Meluhha Indus Script words in Etymologisches Woerterbuch (JPokorny)

https://tinyurl.com/y92o3q6l

I suggest that Indus Script writing system invented ca. 3300 BCE, making it the world's oldest writing system, can be classified, consistent with the expressions recorded from very ancient texts, by Vātsyāyana as mlecchita vikalpa and in Lalita Vistara to specify two of the 64 writing systems as: 1. nikṣepavarta lipi and 2. utkṣepavarta lipi. (Translations: Incised metalwork ledgers, bas relief metalwork ledgers).

Vātsyāyana is the name of an ancient Indian philosopher, known for writing the Kāma Sūtra, the most famous book in the world on human sexuality. This work includes a chapter called vidyaā samuddeśa, 'objective of education' and includes a list of 64 arts learned by youth.. He lived in India during the second or third century CE, probably in Pataliputra (modern day Patna). Lalita Vistara is a Pali text dated to first millennium BCE since a translation of the work in Chinese is dated 308 CE.

I suggest that both Vātsyāyana and Lalita Vistara are perhaps first millennium BCE signifiers of the knowledge of writing systems in ancient Bhāratam.

An example of utkṣepavarta lipi. Bas-relief writing on metal from Harappa. h2249A Text 3247

baraḍo = spine; backbone (Tulu) Rebus: baran, bharat ‘mixed alloys’ (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi) bhārata ‘a factitious alloy of copper, pewter, tin’ (Marathi) dula ‘pair’ Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’. The cast metal is pewter.

goTa 'round pebble' rebus: goTa 'laterite ferrous ore'. dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal'

Thus, the inscription reads rebus: dul goTa PLUS bharat, i.e., 'cast laterite PLUS pewter'

The word Meluhha is attested in cuneiform text of a cylinder seal of Shu Ilishu, Meluhha interpreter. The rollout of Shu-ilishu's Cylinder seal. Courtesy of the Department des Antiquites Orientales, Musee du Louvre, Paris. The cuneiform text reads: Shu-Ilishu EME.BAL.ME.LUH.HA.KI (interpreter of Meluhha language). Apparently, the Meluhhan is the person carrying the antelope on his arms.

m1457A,B An example of nikṣepavarta lipi. Incised writring on metal from Mohenjo-daro. m1457A Copper tablet

m1457Bct Text 2904 Pict-124: Endless knot motif. The hypertext on two lines are read rebus:

Hieroglyph: मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'a curl or snarl; twist in thread' (Marathi) .L. meṛh f. ʻrope tying oxen to each other'.mer.ha = twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) meli, melika = a turn, a twist, a loop, entanglement. Viewed as a string or strand of rope, the gloss is read rebus as dhāu ʻore (esp. of copper)ʼ. The specific ore is:

med 'copper' (Slavic languages)

dhāˊtu *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773 ) Rebus: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn.Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ)(CDIAL 6773).

Line 1: ad.ar 'harrow'; rebus: aduru 'native metal, unsmelted' (Kannada)

baTa 'warrior' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace'

karNika 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo'; karNaka 'account'. Alternative: kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: kanga 'brazier'.

Line 2: ad.ar 'harrow'; rebus: aduru 'native metal, unsmelted' (Kannada)

aya 'fish' rebus: aya, ayas 'iron''metal'

dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' PLUS goTa 'round' rebus: goTa 'laterite ore'

The pair of 'ovals or ellipses' are infixed with 'notches'. khANDA 'notch' rebus: khaNDa 'implement'.

mū̃h ‘ingot’ (Santali) dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal' Thus, cast metal ingot of laterite and implements.

Thus, the hieroglyph-multiplex signifies cast metal of laterite ore

pajhaṛ = to sprout from a root (Santali) Rebus: pasra 'smithy' (Santali) kolom,

Alternative: kolma 'rice plant' rebus: kolime 'furnace' (Kannada) kolimi 'smithy, forge' (Telugu); kolame 'deep pit' (Tulu)

Decipherment

Thus, read together with Lines 1 and 2 of Hypertext, the copper plate m1457 with the 'endless knot' hieroglyph signifies: copper smithy. The descriptive glosses of the metalwork catalogue are: karNi 'supercargo' of med 'copper', dhāu 'metal'; kolimi 'furnace'; dul goTa kaNDa 'cast laterite ore implements'; ayas 'metal alloy'; furnace for aduru 'native (unsmelted) metal'.Alternative: kanka 'rim of jar' rebus: kanga 'brazier'.

Ancient text Lalita Vistara mentions 64 types of scripts used in ancient India. LalitaVistara itself is an ancient text and was translated in Chinese in 308CE. Some prominent scripts were Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Vanga(Bengali?), CīnaLipi(script of China?), Hūna(of Hūna) etc. The text is dated to ca. 3rd century CE.

 अङ्गुलीय lipi is one of the 64 writing systems listed in Lalita Vistara. This expression signifies:  अङ्गुलीय   aṅgulîya finger-ring; -ka, n. id.; -mudrakâ, f. seal-ring.   अङ्गुली   aṅgulî finger; toe; -mudrâ, f. finger-mark.   अङ्गुलिपर्वन््   aṅguli-parvan finger-joint; -pranegana, n. water for washing the fingers; -mukha, n. finger-tip; -mudrâ, f. seal-ring; -sphotana, n. cracking the fingers.

This is consistent with one of the 64 arts identified by Vātsyāyana. He refers to three arts related to language:

akṣara muṣṭika kathanam, deśa bhāṣā jñānam, mlecchita vikalpa.

akṣara muṣṭika kathanam can be explained as a writing system for messaging, using finger-tips.

deśa bhāṣā jñānam signifies that the art relates to learning of a spoken form, a dialect of language of the times.

mlecchita vikalpa is an expression which signifies the spoken forms of mleccha 'copper (metal)' words of spoken, mispronounced words. वि--कल्प alternation , alternative , option S3rS. Mn. VarBr2S. &c ( °पेन ind. " optionally "); contrivance , art Ragh.; mental occupation , thinking; (in rhet.) antithesis of opposites Prata1p.; (in gram.) admission of an option or alternative , the allowing a rule to be observed or not at pleasure (वे*ति विकल्पः Pa1n2. 1-1 , 44 Sch.); a collateral form VarBr2S.; mfn. different BhP. (Monier-Williams).

Thus the expression mlecchita vikalpa signifies:

1. writing by metal (mleccha, 'copper') artisans (Comparable to the अङ्गुलीय lipi, finger-writing listed by Lalita Vistara)

2. optional form of expression (Lalita vistara elaborates two types of form and function in lipi: 1. nikṣepavarta lipi and 2. utkṣepavarta lipi.which are elucidations of 1. incised writing on metals production and trade and 2. bas-relief systems of writing on metals production and trade.

3. rebus, alternative, optional representation involving antithesis of opposites, which can specifically refer tocontrivance, cipher --rebus use of similar sounding words of homonyms signified by a writing system with hypertexts, hieroglyphs. This may be an explanation of शास्त्रावर्त लिपि (Varta relates to metal), i.e. related to metalwork, a body of teaching (in general) , scripture , science Ka1v. Pur. गणनावर्त लिपि gaṇanāvartalipi 'wealth,metals accounting' (Monier-Williams) किरात लिपि refers to a writing system of mleccha (Meluhha): m. pl. N. of a degraded mountain-tribe (inhabiting woods and mountains and living by hunting , having become शूद्रs by their neglect of all prescribed religious rites ; also regarded as म्लेच्छs ; the Kirrhadae of Arrian) VS. xxx , 16 Ta1n2d2yaBr. Mn. x , 44 MBh. &c (Monier-Williams) A cognate wor may signify a merchant (of metals): kirāṭa m. ʻ merchant ʼ Rājat., kirīṭa -- 2 m. BhP., kírāta- m. ʻ a degraded mountain tribe ʼ VS., cilātī -- f. ʻ woman of this tribe ʼ YogH. [Alternance of k -- and c -- , -- ṭ -- and -- t<-> suggests Drav. origin, EWA i 211. Perh. same as kilāta -- ʻ dwarf ʼ]Pa. kirāṭa -- m. ʻ fraudulent merchant ʼ (kirāṭa -- , ˚āta<-> m. ʻ man of a jungle tribe ʼ see kilāta -- ); Pk. kirāḍa -- , ˚āya -- , cilāa -- m., f. ˚āī -- , ˚āiyā -- ʻ a non -- Aryan tribe, slave ʼ, cilāī -- f.; S. kirāṛu m. ʻ Hindu shopkeeper ʼ; L. kirāṛ, karāṛ m., kirāṛī f. ʻ member of a tribe of Hindus (also called aroṛā) who act as traders and moneylenders ʼ; H. kirāṛ m. ʻ merchant ʼ. -- Deriv. Pa. kērāṭika -- , ˚iya<-> ʻ false ʼ (cf. kirāsa -- ʻ fraudulent ʼ); -- L. kirṛakkā ʻ connected with Hindus ʼ.(CDIAL 3173)

म्लेच्छ mlekkh-á foreigner, barbarian (Br., C.); ignorance of the vernacular, barbarism (rare): -taskara-sevita, pp. infested by barbarians and robbers; -tâ, f. condition of barbarians.(Monier-Williams). म्लेच्छः mlēcchḥ म्लेच्छः [म्लेच्छ्-घञ्] 1 A barbarian, a non-Āryan (one not speaking the Sanskṛit language, or not con- forming to Hindu or Āryan institutions), a foreigner in general; ग्राह्या म्लेच्छप्रसिद्धिस्तु विरोधादर्शने सति J. N. V.; म्लेच्छान् मूर्छयते; or म्लेच्छनिवहनिधने कलयसि करवालम् Gīt.1. -2 An outcast, a very low man; (Baudhāyana thus defines the word:-गोमांसखादको यस्तु विरुद्धं बहु भाषते । सर्वा- चारविहीनश्च म्लेच्छ इत्यभिधीयते ॥). -3 A sinner, wicked person. -4 Foreign or barbarous speech -च्छम् 1 Copper. -2 Vermilion. -Comp. -आख्यम्copper. -आशः wheat. -आस्यम्, -मुखम् copper. -कन्दः garlic. -जातिः f. a savage or barbarian race, a mountaineer; पुलिन्दा नाहला निष्ट्याः शबरा वरुटा भटाः । माला भिल्लाः किराताश्च सर्वे$पि म्लेच्छजातयः ॥ Abh. Chin.934. -देशः, -मण्डलम् a country inhabited by non-Āryans or barbarians, a foreign or barbarous country; कृष्णसारस्तु चरति मृगो यत्र स्वभावतः । स ज्ञेयो यज्ञियो देशो म्लेच्छदेशस्त्वतः परः ॥ Ms.2.23. -द्विष्टःbdellium. -भाषा a foreign language. -भोजनः wheat. (-नम्) barley. -वाच् a. speaking a barbarous or foreign language; म्लेच्छवाचश्चार्यवाचः सर्वे ते दस्यवः स्मृताः Ms.1.45.म्लेच्छनम् mlēcchanam म्लेच्छनम् 1 Speaking indistinctly or confusedly. -2 Speaking in a barbarous tongue. म्लेच्छित mlēcchita म्लेच्छित p. p. Spoken indistinctly or barbarously. -तम् 1 A foreign tongue. -2 An ungrammatical word or speech. म्लेच्छितकम् mlēcchitakam म्लेच्छितकम् Foreign or barbarous speech.(Apte) mlēcchá ʻ non -- Aryan ʼ ŚBr. [√mlēch] Pk. maleccha -- , miliccha -- , meccha -- , miccha -- m. ʻ barbarian ʼ; K. mī˜ċh, dat. mī˜ċas m. ʻ non -- Hindu ʼ (loss of aspiration unexpl.); P. milech, mal˚ m. (f. milechṇī, mal˚) ʻ Moslem, unclean outcaste, wretch ʼ; WPah.bhad, məle_ċh ʻ dirty ʼ; B. mech ʻ a Tibeto -- Burman tribe ʼ ODBL 473; Si. milidu, miliñdu ʻ wild, savage ʼ (< MIA. *mlēcha -- or with H. Smith JA 1950, 186 X pulindá -- ), milis (< MIA. miliccha -- ). -- Paš. mečə ʻ wretched, miserly ʼ rather < *mēcca -- ʻ defective ʼ. -- With unexpl. -- kkh -- : Pa. milakkha -- , ˚khu -- ʻ non -- Aryan ʼ, Si. malak ʻ savage ʼ, malaki -- dū ʻ a Väddā woman ʼ. -- X piśācá -- : Pa. milāca -- m. ʻ wild man of the woods, non -- Aryan ʼ; Si. maladu ʻ wild, savage ʼ.(CDIAL 10389)

'To speak indistinctly' is the key characteristic of mleccha,meluhha speech, i.e. with mispronunciations in Bhāratiya sprachbund (speech union)

*mlēcchatva ʻ condition of a non -- Aryan ʼ. [Cf. mlēcchatā -- f. VP. -- mlēcchá -- ] K. mīċuth, dat. ˚ċatas m. ʻ habit or life of an outcaste ʼ. MLĒCH ʻ speak indistinctly ʼ: *mrēcchati, mlēcchá -- .(CDIAL 10390)

*mrēcchati ~ mlḗcchati ʻ speaks indistinctly ʼ ŚBr. [MIA. mr -- < ml -- ? See Add. -- √mlēch]
K. briċhun, pp. bryuċhu ʻ to weep and lament, cry as a child for something wanted or as motherless child ʼ.(CDIAL 10384)

"Concerning the origins of the text, the Dharmachakra Translation Committee states:

This scripture is an obvious compilation of various early sources, which have been strung together and elaborated on according to the Mahāyāna worldview. As such this text is a fascinating example of the ways in which the Mahāyāna rests firmly on the earlier tradition, yet reinterprets the very foundations of Buddhism in a way that fit its own vast perspective. The fact that the text is a compilation is initially evident from the mixture of prose and verse that, in some cases, contains strata from the very earliest Buddhist teachings and, in other cases, presents later Buddhist themes that do not emerge until the first centuries of the common era. Previous scholarship on The Play in Full (mostly published in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries) devoted much time to determining the text’s potential sources and their respective time periods, although without much success. [...] Although this topic clearly deserves further study, it is interesting to note that hardly any new research on this sūtra has been published during the last sixty years. As such the only thing we can currently say concerning the sources and origin of The Play in Fullis that it was based on several early and, for the most part, unidentified sources that belong to the very early days of the Buddhist tradition." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra

निक्षेप 'casting'उत्-क्षेप 'raised lettering'; these two expressions are associated with two types of writing systems: 1. nikṣepavartalipi and 2. utkṣepavarta lipi. The word 'varta' refers to metal'. Thus, the two writing systems relate to inscribed systems of writing on metals production and trade and bas-relief systems of writing on metals production and trade. It should be noted that over 200 Indus Script inscriptions are written on copper plates and copper tools and implements.

Meluhha (Mleccha) language of ca. 4th millennium BCE: resources

Meluhha, mleccha is spoken form of Bhāratiya sprachbund with mispronunciations as noted by Patañjali.

Delineating Meluhha (Mleccha) language of ca. 4^th millennium BCE, a date of Bronze Age which produced evidence of the earliest writing on a Harappa potsherd is a philological challenge.

Harappa. Potsherd. Indus writing (HARP) dated to ca. 3500 BCE. tagaraka 'tabernae montana' rebus: tagara 'tin'.

Attempts can be made to respond to this challenge using a variety of textual resources available, apart from using the Indus Writing corpora as a frame of reference to validate the Meluhha (Mleccha) words. This note discusses some resources provided by studies related to ancient Indian languages which contributed to the Indiansprachbund.

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/06/ancient-near-east-evidence-for-mleccha.html Ancient Near East evidence for meluhha language and bronze-age metalware

Ancient arts related to communicating ideas

Vātsyāyana’s Kāmasūtra refers to a cipher called mlecchita vikalpa (alternative representation in writing of mleccha(Meluhha) language) as one of the 64 arts to be learnt by youth. Vātsyāyana also uses the phrase deśabhāṣā jñānamreferring to the learning of vernacular languages and dialects. deśabhāṣā is also variously referred to as deśī or deśya.He also uses the phrase akṣara muṣṭikā kathanam as another of the 64 arts. This is a reference to karaṇa or karaṇīmentioned in Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra as gesticulation or articulation in dance using positions of finger-knuckles and wrists to convey messages or bhāvá ‘thought or disposition’. akṣara muṣṭikā is explained by Monier-Williams (p. 3) as: ‘the art of communicating syllables or ideas by the fingers (one of the 64 kalās, Vātsyāyana)’.

करण the occupation of this class is writing , accounts (Monier-Williams, p. 254) n. (in law) an instrument , document , bond Mn. viii , 51 ; 52 ; 154. m. writer , scribe. n. the special business of any tribe or caste

करणी f. a particular position of the fingers (Monier-Williams, p. 254) n. pronunciation , articulation , APrāt.करण n. the act of making , doing , producing , effecting S3Br. MBh. &c (very often ifc. e.g. मुष्टि-क्° , विरूप-क्°) Pori ‘the joints of a bamboo, a cane, or the fingers’ (Maltese)(DEDR 4541). Pkt. pora- joint (CDIAL 8406).

Meluhha is cognate mleccha. Mleccha were island-dwellers (attested in Mahabharata and other ancientIndian sprachbund texts). Their speech did not conform to the rules of grammar (mlecchāḥ mā bhūma iti adhyeyam vyākaraṇam) and had dialectical variants or unrefined sounds in words (mlecchitavai na apabhāṣitavai) (Patanjali: Mahābhāṣya).

One resource for reconstruction of mleccha is a work which dealt with Prākṛit forms. The work is Simharaja, 1909, Prākṛit i Rupavatara -- A Prākṛit grammar based on the Valmikisutra, Vol. I, Ed. by E. Hultzsch, Albermarle St., Royal Asiatic Society. Full text at: http://ia700202.us.archive.org/23/items/Prākṛit arupavata00simhuoft/Prākṛit arupavata00simhuoft.pdf

Prākṛitarūpāvatāra literally means ‘the descent of Prākṛit forms’. Pischel noted: “…the Prākṛitarūpāvatāra is not unimportant for the knowledge of the declension and conjugation, chiefly because Simharāja frequently quotes more forms than Hēmachandra and Trivikrama. No doubt many of these forms are theoretically inferred; but they are formed strictly according to the rules and are not without interest.” (Pischel, 1900, Grammatik der Prākṛit-Sprachen, Strassburg, p.43). Pischel also had written a book titled, Hēmachandra's Prākṛit grammar, Halle, 1877. The full text of the Vālmīkisūtra, with gaṇas, dēśīyas, and iṣṭis, has been printed in Telugu characters at Mysore in 1886 as an appendix to the ṣaḍbhāṣachandrikā.

A format to determine the structure of Prākṛit is to identify words which are identical with Sanskrit words or can be derived from Sanskrit. In this process, dēśīyas or dēśyas, ‘provincialisms’ are excluded. One part of the work of Simharja is samjñāvibhāga ‘technical terms’. Another is pari bhāṣāvibhāga ‘explanatory rules’. Dialects are identified in a part called śaurasēnyādivibhāga; the dialects include: śaurasēni, māgadhī, paiśācī, chūḷikā paiśācī, apabhramśa.

Additional rules are identified beyond those employed by Pāṇini:

sus, nominative; as, accusative; ṭās, instrumental; nēs, dative; nam, genitive; nip, locative.

Other resources available for delineation of mleccha are: The Prākṛita-prakāśa; or the Prākṛit grammar of Vararuchi. With the commentary Manorama of Bhamaha. The first complete ed. of the original text... With notes, an English translation and index of Prākṛit words; to which is prefixed a short introd. to Prākṛit grammar (Ed. Cowell, Edward Byles,1868, London, Trubner)

On these lines, and using the methods used for delineating Ardhamāgadhi language, by Prākṛita grammarians, and in a process of extrapolation of such possible morphemic changes into the past, an attempt may be made to hypothesize morphemic or phonetic variants of mleccha words as they might have been, in various periods from ca. 4^th millennium BCE. There are also grammars of languages such as Marathi (William Carey), Braj bhāṣā grammar (James Robert), Sindhi, Hindi, Tamil (Tolkāppiyam) and Gujarati which can be used as supplementary references, together with the classic Hemacandra's Dēsīnāmamālā, Prākṛit Grammar of Hemachandra edited by P. L. Vaidya (BORI, Pune), Vararuchi's works and Richard Pischel's Comparative Grammar of Prākṛit Languages.(Repr. Motilal Banarsidass, 1957). Colin P. Masica's Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge University Press, 1993,"... has provided a fundamental, comparative introduction that will interest not only general and theoretical linguists but also students of one or more languages (Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Gujurati, Marathi, Sinhalese, etc.) who want to acquaint themselves with the broader linguistic context. Generally synchronic in approach, concentrating on the phonology, morphology and syntax of the modern representatives of the group, the volume also covers their historical development, writing systems, and aspects of sociolinguistics." Thomas Oberlies' Pali grammar (Walter de Gruyter, 2001) presents a full description of Pali, the language used in the Theravada Buddhist canon, which is still alive in Ceylon and South-East Asia. The development of its phonological and morphological systems is traced in detail from Old Indic (including mleccha?). Comprehensive references to comparable features and phenomena from other Middle Indic languages mean that this grammar can also be used to study the literature of Jainism. Madhukar Anant Mehendale's Historical Grammar of Inscriptional Prākṛit s is a useful aid to delineate changes in morphemes over time. A good introduction is: Alfred C. Woolner's Introduction to Prākṛit , 1928 (Motilal Banarsidass). "Introduction to Prākṛit provides the reader with a guide for the more attentive and scholarly study of Prākṛit occurring in Sanskrit plays, poetry and prose--both literary and inscriptional. It presents a general view of the subject with special stress on Sauraseni and Maharastri Prākṛit system. The book is divided into two parts. Part I consists of I-XI Chapters which deal with the three periods of Indo-Aryan speech, the three stages of the Middle Period, the literary and spoken Prākṛit s, their classification and characteristics, their system of Single and Compound Consonants, Vowels, Sandhi, Declension, Conjugation and their history of literature. Part II consists of a number of extracts from Sanskrit and Prākṛit literature which illustrate different types of Prākṛit --Sauraseni, Maharastri, Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Avanti, Apabhramsa, etc., most of which are translated into English. The book contains valuable information on the Phonetics and Grammar of the Dramatic Prākṛit s--Sauraseni and Maharastri. It is documented with an Index as well as a Students'. "

It may be noted that Hemacandra is a resource which has provided the sememe ibbo 'merchant' which reads rebus with ibha 'elephant' hieroglyph.

Sir George A. Grierson's article on The Prākṛit Vibhasas cites: "Pischel, in §§3, 4, and 5 of his Prākṛit Grammar, refers very briefly to the Vibhāṣās of the Prākṛit grammarians. In § 3 he quotes Mārkaṇḍēya's (Intr., 4) division of the Prākṛit s into Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā, Apabhraṁśa, and Paiśāca, his division of the Vibhāṣās into Śākārī, Cāṇḍālī, Śābarī, Ābhīrikā, and Ṭākkī (not Śākkī, as written by Pischel), and his rejection of Auḍhrī (Pischel, Oḍrī) and Drāviḍī. In § 4 he says, “Rāmatarkavāgīśa observes that the vibhāṣāḥcannot be called Apabhraṁśa, if they are used in dramatic works and the like.” He repeats the latter statement in § 5, and this is all that he says on the subject. Nowhere does he say what the term vibhāṣā means. The present paper is an attempt to supply this deficiency." See also: http://www.indianetzone.com/39/Prākṛit _language.htm

"...Ganga, on the lower reaches of which were the kingdoms of Anga, Variga, and Kalinga, regarded in the Mahabharata as Mleccha. Now the non- Aryan people that today live closest to the territory formerly occupied by these ancient kingdoms are Tibeto-Burmans of the Baric branch. One of the languages of that branch is called Mech, a term given to them by their Hindu neighbors. The Mech live partly in Bengal and partly in Assam. B(runo) Lieblich remarked the resemblance between Mleccha and Mech and that Skr. Mleccha normally became Prākṛit Meccha or Mecha and that the last form is actually found in Sauraseni. 1 Sten Konow thought Mech probably a corruption of Mleccha.* I do not believe that the people of the ancient kingdoms of Anga, Vanga, and Kalinga were precisely of the same stock as the modern Mech, but rather that they and the modern Mech spoke languages of the Baric division of Sino-Tibetan. " (Robert Shafer, 1954, Ethnography of Ancient India, Otto Harras Sowitz, Wiesbaden).http://archive.org/stream/ethnographyofanc033514mbp/ethnographyofanc033514mbp_djvu.txt

The following note is based on: Source: MK Dhavalikar, 1997, Meluhha, the land of copper, South Asian Studies, 13:1, 275-279 (embedded document appended):

Citing a cuneiform tablet inscription of Sargon of Akkad (2370-2316 BCE), Dhavalikar notes that the boats of Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha were moored at the quay in his capital (Leemans, WF, 1960, Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period as revealed by texts from Southern Mesopotamia, EJ Brill, Leiden, p. 11). The goods imported include agate, carnelian, shell, ivory, varieties of wood and copper. Dhavalikar cites a reference to the people or ‘sons’ of Meluhha who had undergone a process of acculturation into Mesopotamian society of Ur III times cf. Parpola, S., A. Parpola and RH Brunswwig, Jr., 1977, The Meluhha Village: evidence of acculturation of Harappan traders in the late Third Millennium Mesopotamia, JESHO, 20 , p.152. Oppenheim describes Meluhha as the land of seafarers. (Oppenheim, AL, 1954, The seafaring merchants of Ur, JAOS, 74: 6-17). Dhavalikar notes the name given to a rāga of classical Indian (Hindustani) music – maluha kedār – which may indicate maluha as a geographical connotation as in the name of another rāga called Gujarī Todi. Noting a pronunciation variant for meluhha, melukkha, the form is noted as closer to Prākṛit milakkhu (Jaina Sūtras, SBE XLV, p. 414, n.) cognate Pali malikkho or malikkhako (Childer’s Pali Dictionary). Prākṛit milakkhu or Pali malikkho are cognate with the Sanskrit word mleccha (References cited include Mahabharata, Patanjali). Jayaswal (Jayaswal, KP, 1914, On the origin of Mlechcha, ZDMG, 68: pp. 719-720) takes the Sanskrit representation to be cognate with Semitic melekh (Hebrew) meaning ‘king’.

Śathapatha Brāhmaṇa [3.2.1(24)], a Vedic text (ca. 8^th century BCE) uses the word mleccha as a noun referring to Asuras who ill-pronounce or speak an imprecise language: tatraitāmapi vācamūduḥ | upajijñāsyāṃ sa mlecastasmānna brāhmaṇo mlecedasuryāhaiṣā vā natevaiṣa dviṣatāṃ sapatnānāmādatte vācaṃ te 'syāttavacasaḥ parābhavanti ya evametadveda. This is a remarkable reference to mleccha (meluhha) as a language in the ancient Indian tradition. Pali texts Digha Nikāya and Vinaya, also denotes milakkha as a language (milakkha bhāsā). Comparable to the reference in Manu, a Jaina text (Pannavana, 1.37) also described two groups of speakers (people?): ārya and milakkhu. Pāṇini also observes the imprecise nature of mleccha language by using the terms: avyaktayam vāci (X, 1663) and mleccha avyakte śabde (1.205). This is echoed in Patanjali’s reference to apaśabda.

Dhavalikar notes: “Sengupta (1971) has made out a strong case for identifying mlecchas with the Phoenicians. He proposes to derive the word mleccha from Moloch or Molech and relates it to Melek or Melqart which was the god of the Phoenicians. But the Phoenicians flourished in the latter half of the second and the first half of the first millennium when the Harappan civilization was a thing of the past.” (: MK Dhavalikar, 1997, Meluhha, the land of copper, South Asian Studies, 13:1, p. 276).

Worterbuch (St. Petersburg Dictionary), Hemacandra’s Abhidāna Cintāmaṇi (IV.105), lexicons of Monier Williams and Apte give ‘copper’ as one of the meanings of the lexeme mleccha.

Gudea (ca. 2200 BCE) under the Lagash dynasty brought usu wood and gold dust and carnelian from Meluhha. Ibbi-Sin (2029-2006 BCE) under the third dynasty of Ur “imported from Meluhha copper, wood used for making chairs and dagger sheaths, mesu wood, and the multi-coloured birds of ivory.”

Dhavalikar argues for the identification of Gujarat with Meluhha (interpreted as a region and as copper ore of Gujarat) and makes a reference to Viṣṇu Purāṇa (IV,24) which refers to Gujarat as mleccha country.

Nicholas Kazanas has demonstrated that Avestan (OldIranian) is much later than Vedic. "'Vedic and Avestan' by N. Kazanas In this essay the author examines independent linguistic evidence, often provided by iranianists like R. Beekes, and arrives at the conclusion that the Avesta, even its older parts (the gaθas), is much later than the Rigveda. Also, of course, that Vedic is more archaic than Avestan and that it was not the Indoaryans who moved away from the common Indo-Iranian habitat into the Region of the Seven Rivers, but the Iranians broke off and eventually settled and spread in ancientv Iran." http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/pdf/en/indology/Vedic_and_Avestan.pdf

The oldest Prākṛit lexicon is the work of a Jaina scholar, Paiyalacchi nāmamālā of Dhanapāla (972 A. D.)

Mahapurana of Pushpadanta–A critical study: By Dr Smt. Ratna Nagesha Shriyan. L. D. Bharatiya Samskriti Vidyamandira, Ahmadabad–9 . Price: Rs. 30.

A thesis approved for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy by the Bombay University, this is a critical study of the Desya and rare material contained in the three Apabhramsa works of Pushpadanta, a major Apabhramsa poet of the Ninth Century CE D.

The first part mainly deals with the nature and character of Desya element and the role of Desya element in Prākṛit and Apabhramsa in general and Pushpadanta’s works in particular. The authoress pointed out that the term Deśī has been used in the earlier Sanskrit and Prākṛit literature mainly in three different senses, viz., (1) a local spoken dialect (2) a type of Prākṛit , (3) and as equivalent to Apabhramsa. The interpretations of the word Deśī as given by Hemachandra and modern scholars are also given in detail. The authoress comes to the conclusion that most of the modern scholars agree that “Desya or Deśī is a very loose label applied by early grammarians and lexicographers to a section of Middle Indo-Aryan lexical material of a heterogeneous character.

In part II, the more important one, the learned Doctor has collected 1430 words and divided them into seven categories– (1) items only derivable from Samskrit (2) Tadbhavas with specialized or changed meaning (3) items partly derivable from Samskrit (4) items that have correspondents only in late Samskrit (5) onometopoetic words (6) foreign loans and (7) pure Deśī words. Critical and comparative notes on their meanings and interpretations, with corroborating passages from original texts are also given here and they evidence the high scholarly labours of the authoress. We cannot, but respect the words of Dr H. C. Bhayani of the Gujarat University in whose opinion the present study paves “the way for investigating the bases and authenticity of Hemachandra’s Deśīnāmamālā and provides highly valuable material for middle and Modern Indo-Aryan lexicography.”

http://yabaluri.org/TRIVENI/CDWEB/reviewsoct74.htm

“Words which are not derived from Sanskrit in his grammar, which though derived from Sanskrit, are not found in that sense in the Sanskrit lexicons, which have changed their meaning in Prākṛit , the change not being due to the secondary or metaphorical use of words, and which are used in standard Prākṛit from times immemorial, are considered as deśī by Hemacandra (I,3,4). Thus, he teaches in his grammar (IV,2) that pajjar is one of the substitutes of the root kath in Prākṛit . In II,136 he says that trasta assumes the forms hittha and taTTha in Prākṛit . The words pajjara, hittha and taTTha are not, therefore, des’yas and are excluded from the work. The Verbal substitutes have been, as a matter of fact, considered as deśī words by Hemacandra’s predecessors (1.11,13,20). Again the word amayaNiggamo signifies the moon in Prākṛit , and it is evidently a bhava of amrutanirgama which by some such analysis as amrutaanirgamo yasyacan denote the moon But the Sanskrit word is not found in that sense in any of the lexicons and hence amayaNiggamo is reckoned as a deśya and taught in this work. The word yayillo is a regular derivative of baliivarda according to rules of Prākṛit grammar, and as the latter word can by the force of lakshaNa mean a ‘fool’, the word vayillo in this sense is not considered a deśī word and, therefore, is not included in this work. Every provincial expression is not considered a deśī word, but only those which have found entrance into the known Prākṛit literature. Otherwise, the number of deśī words will be innumerable and it will be impossible to teach them all. As Hemacandra himself says (I,4): vacaspaterapi matirna prabhavati divyayugasahasreNa. This definition of a deśī word does not appear to have been followed by the predecessors of Hemacandra; and therein consists, he says, the superiority of his work over that of others. He quotes in a number of places words which have been taught as deśī words by his predecessors and shows that they are derived from Sanskrit words. Thus in I.37 Hemacandra says that the words acchoDaNam, alinjaramk, amilaayam andacchabhallo are considered as deśī words by some authors, but he does not do so as they are evidently derived from Sanskrit words. Again in II.89, he says that the word gamgarii is taught a a deśī word by some authors but Hemacandra says this is not a deśī word as it is derived from Sanskrit gargarii. But here our author shows some latitude and says that it may be considered a deśī word. Many such instances may be quoted and in most cases Hemacandra gives the Sanskrit equivalents to such words.” (Paravastu Venkata Ramanujaswami, in: Introduction, The Deśīnāmamālā of Hemachandra ed. By R. Pischel, 1938, 2^nd edn., Dept. of Public Instruction, Bombay, pp.3-4).

TABLE : DICTIONARIES

PRĀKṛIT :

10 C.E : Deshi Nama Mala (Hemachandra)

11 C.E

ayyalacchi Nama Mala (Maha Kavi Dhanapala)

12 C.E :Abhidana Rajendra (Vijayendra Suri)

SANSKRIT

4 C.E : Amarakosha (Amarasimha) Dhanvantari Nighantu (Dhanvantari)

6 C.E : Anekartha Samucchaya (Shashaavata)

10 C.E : Abhidana Ratna Mala (Hemachandra ),Srikanda Shesha Vishvakosha (Srikanda Shesha),HaravaLi (Purushottama Deva) ,Abhidana Ratnamala (Halayudha)

11 C.E :Vyjayanti (Yadava Prakasha), Nama Mala (Dhananjaya) , Anekartha Nama Mala (Amara Keerti) , Shabdha Pradipa (Sureshvara)

12 C.E :Namarthaarnava Sankshepa , Shabda Kalpa Druma (Keshava Svamin ), Vishva Prakasha (Maheshvara) , Namartha Ratnamala (Abhaya Pala) , Abidana Cintamani +Anekartha Sangraha (Hemachandra) , Anekartha Kosha (Mankha) , Akyata Candrika (Malla Bhatta) , Raja Nighantu (Narahari)

14 C.E : Nanartha Ratna Mala (Irugappa Dandanatha) , Madana Vinoda Nighantu (Madana Pala)

15 C.E : Shabda Chandrike ( Vamana Bhatta) , Shabda Ratnakara(Bana)

16 C.E :Sundara Prakashabdarnava (Padma Sundara)

17 C.E :Kalpa Druma (Keshava Daivajna), Nama Sangraha Mala(Appaiah Dikshita)

TAMIL :

10 C.E – Sendan Divakaram (Divakaram) , Pingalantai (Pingalar)

12 C.E : Chudamani Nighantu (Mangala Puttiran)

16 C.E : Chudamani Nighantu ( Mandala Purutan) ,Akaradi Nighantu (Chidambara Revana)

17 C.E : Uriccol Nighantu (Gangeyan) , Kayataram (Kayatarar) ,Bharati Deepam (Anonymus) , Ashiriya Nighantu (Anonymus)

18 C.E : Pothigai Nighantu (Swaminatha Kavirayar), Pal Porul Chudamani (Eshwara Bharati) , Arumpporul Vilakka Nighantu (Anonymus)

KANNADA

10 C.E : Ranna Kanda (Ranna)

11 C.E : Abhidana Vastu Kosha (Nagavarma-2) ,Abhidana Ratna Mala+Amarakosha Bhashya (Halayudha)

12 C.E :Nachirajiya (Naciraja)

13 C.E : Akaradi Vaidya Nighantu+Indra Dipike+Madanari (Amrutanandi)

14 C.E: Karnataka Shbda Sara (Anonymus) , Karnataka Nighantu (Anonymus), Abhinavabhidana (Abhinava Mangaraja)

15 C.E : Chaturasya Nighantu(Bommarasa) , Dhanvantariya Nighantu (Anonymus)

16 C.E : Kabbigara Kaipidi (Linga Mantri) , Shabda Ratnakara (Anonumus) , Nanartha Kanda (Chenna Kavi) , Nanartha Ratnakara+Ekakshara Nighantu (Devottama) , Karnataka Shabda Manjari (Totadarya) , Bharata Nighantu (Anonymus) , Amarakosha Dipike (Vitthala)

17 C.E : Karnataka Sanjivini +Kavi Kanthahara (Shrungara Kavi) , Karnataka Nighantu (Surya kavi)

TELUGU :

14-18 C.E : Venkateshandhramu (Ganavarapu Venkatakavi) , Akaradi Deshiyandhra Nighantu ( Anonymus), Andhra Prayoga Ratnakaram (Anonymus) , Sarva Lakshana Shiromani (Anonymus) ,Padya Rupa Amara Kosham ( Venkata Rayudu), Andhra Nama Sangraham (Lakshmana Kavi) , Andhra Nama Vishesham (Sura Kavi) Samba Nighantuvu (Kasturi Ranga) , Andhra Bhasharnavam ( Venkata Narayanudu) , Akshara Malika Nighantu (Parvatishvara Shastry) , Andhra Pada Nidanam (Tumu Ramadasa) , Sarnadhra Sara sangraham (Amrutapuram Sanyasi),Nanartha Nighantu (Jayarama Rayulu)

TABLE 2 : GRAMMERS

PRĀKṛIT :

5-7 C.E : Prakruta Prakasha (Vararuchi) , Prakruta Lakshana (Chanda) , Prakruta Kamadhenu (Anonymus)

12 C.E : Prakrutanushasana (Purushottama) , Siddha Hema Shabdanushasana (Hemachandra)

14 C.E : Prkruta Shabdanushasdana (Trivikrama) , Shdbhasha Chandrika (Lakshmidhara)

17 C.E : Prakruta Sarvasva (Markandeya)

SANSKRIT

4-2 B.C.E : Ashtadhyayi (Panini) , Mahabhashya-Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Patanjali)

2 C.E : Katantra Vyakarana (Shrvavarman)

6 C.E : Mahabhashya Dipika-Commentary on Mahabhashya (Bhatruhari ), Kashika Vrutti- Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Vamana)

7 C.E : Ashtadhyayi-Commentary (Jayaditya)

8 C.E : Kashika Vivarana Pancika –Commentary on Kashika Vrutti (Jinendra Buddivada)

9 C.E : Pada Manjari – Commentary on Kashika Vrutti (Haradatta)

11 C.E : Pradipa ( Kaiyata) , Bhasha Vrutti -Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Purushottama Deva)

13 C.E ; Rupavatara (Dharma Keerti)

14 C.E : Mitakshara- Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (AnnaM Bhatta) , Rupamala (Vimala Sarsvati)

15 C.E : Prakriya Kaumudi (Ramachandra Shesha)

16 C.E : Shabda kaustubha (Bhattoji Dikshita) , Prakriya Sarvasva (Nayarana Bhatta)

17 C.E : Pradipodyota (Nagesha Bhatta)

TAMIL :

-3 to 10 C.E : Tolkappiam (Tolkappiyanar)

11 C.E : Viracholiyam (Buddha Mitra)

12 C.E : Neminatham (Gunaveera pandita) , Tolkappiam- Poruladigaram Commentary (Perashiyar)

13 C.E : Nannul (Bhavanadi) , Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Senavaraiyar)

14 C.E : Tolkappiam-Commentary (Naccinarkkiniyar)

16 C.E : Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Teyvacilaiyar , Kalladanar)

17 C.E : Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Anonymus)

KANNADA

11 C.E : Kavyavalokana (Nagavarma)

13 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana ( Keshiraja) , Shabdanushasanam (Akalanka Deva)

17 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana-Commentary (Nitturu Nanjayya)

17 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana-Commentary (Anonymus)

TELUGU :

13 C.E : Andhra Bhasha Bhushanam (Mulaghatika Ketana)

14 C.E : Kavyalankara Chidamani (Vinnakota Peddana)

Part-6:

TABLE 3 : POETICS/PROSODY/RHETORIC

SANSKRIT :

5 C.E : Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira)

6 C.E : Kavyalankara (Bamaha) , Kavyadarsha (Dandin)

9 C.E : Kavyalankara Sara Sangraha (Uddata) , Kavyalankara Sutravrutti (Vamana) , Kavyalankara (Rudrata), Dhvanyaloka (Anandavarhana)

10 C.E : Cahmdraloka (Jayadeva)

11 C.E : Chandonushasana (Jayakirti), Kavyamimamse (Rajashekhara) , Abhidaavrutti Maatruke (Mukula Bhatta) , Kavyakautuka (Bhatta Tauta) , Hrudaya Drapana (Bhatta Nayaka)

12 C.E :Vrutta Ratnakara (Kedara Bhatta) ,Kavya Praklasha (mummata)

15 C.E : Chando Manjari (ganga Raja)

TAMIL :

-3 to 10 C.E : Tolkappiam (Tolkappiyanar)

10 C.E : Yappurungulam + Yappurungulakkarikai (Amruta Saagara)

11 C.E : Chulamani (Gunasagarar) , Purapporul Vembamalai (Iyanaar Idanaar), Dandiyalankaram(Annonymus)

12 C.E : Ilakkana Vilakkam (Jivanana Munivar)

13 C.E : Veyyappadial (Gunaveera Panditar)

17 C.E : Chidambaram Seyyuttakkovai (Kumara Kruparar)

18 C.E : Ilakkana Vilakkam (Vaidyanathan Alvar)

KANNADA

9 C.E : Kaviraja Marga (Sri Vijaya)

10 C.E : Chandobudhi (Nagavarma-1)

11 C.E : Kavyavalokana (Nagavarma-2)

12 C.E : Udayadityalankaram (Udayaditya) , Shrungara Ratnakara (Kavi Kama)

15-16 C.E : Madhavalankara (Madhava), Kavi jihva Bandhana (Eshwara Kavi) , Kavya Sara (Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda) , Rasa Ratnakara+Apratima Veera Charite (Tirumalarya)

17 C.E : Navarasalankara (Timma) , Kuvalayananda( Jayendra)

TELUGU :

13 C.E : Kavi Vagbhadanamu (Tikkana)

14 C.E : Pratapa Rudriya (Vaidyanatha) , Kavi Janaashrayamu (Rachanna ) , Kavyalankara Chudamani ( Vinnakota Peddana) , Shrungara Dipika (Srinatha)

Part-7 :
TABLE 4 : ENCYCLOPEDIAS

SANSKRIT :

5 C.E : Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira)

12 C.E : Abhilashitartha Chintamani ( Bhulokamalla)

TAMIL :

10 C.E : Sendan Divakaram (Divakaram) , Pingalantai (Pingalar)

12 C.E : Chudamani Nigantu (Mangala Puttiran)

KANNADA :

10-11 C.E : Lokopakara (Chavundaraya)

15 C.E : Viveka Chintamani (Nijaguna Shivayogi) , Siribhuvalaya (Kumudendu), Shivatatva Chintamani (Lakkana Dandesha)

16 C.E :Sakala Vaidya Samhita Sararnva ( Veeraraja)

TELUGU :

20 C.E :Andhra Vignana Sarvasvam ( K.V.L. Pantulu)

Part-8:
TABLE 5 : MEDICINE/VETERINARY SCIENCE/EROTICS

SANSKRIT :

-2 TO 0 C.E : Sushruta Samhite (Sushruta) , Gajayurveda (Palakapya) , Ashvashastra (Shalihotra), Vaidyaka Sarvasva ashva Chikitse(Nakula)

0 TO 2 C.E : Charaka Samhita (Charaka) , Kumara Tantra (Ravana) , Prayoga Ratnakara (Garga), Bruhaspatimata (Bruhaspati), Kamasutra (Vatsayana)

4 C.E :Ashtanga Hrudaya + Ashtanga Sangraha (Vagbhata) , Ashvayurveda Saara Sindhu (MallaDeva) ,

5-7 C.E :Matanga Leela , Shalihotra , Ashva Vaidyaka

7 to 10 C.E : Madhava Nidanam +Rugna Nischaya (Madhavakara) , Charaka samhite-Commentary (Jayadatta Suri) , Rati Rahasya (kokkoka)

11 to 13 C.E : Nibandha sangraha (Dallana) , Shabda Pradipa (Sureshvara) , Raja Nighantu+Dhanvantari Nighantu (Narahari) , Sarottama Nighantu (Anonymus) , Bhanumati (Chakradatta) , Jayamangala (Yashodhara) , Nagara sarvasva (Padmashri)

14 to 15 C.E : Madana Vinoda Nighantu (Madanapala), Sarangadhara Samhite (Sarangadhara) , RatiManjari (JayaDeva)

16 to 17 C.E : Anna Pana Vidhi (Susena) , Pathyapathya Nighantu + Bhojana Kutuhala ( Raghunatha) , Anangaranga (Kalyana Malla) , Kandarpa Chudamani (Veerabhadra Deva)

TAMIL :

13 to 18 C.E : Vaidya Shataka Nadi + Chikitsa Sara Sangraha ( Teraiyar) , Amudakalai Jnanam+Muppu+Muppuvaippu+Muppuchunnam+Charakku+GuruseyNeer+PacchaiVettu chuttiram (Agastya) , Kadai Kandam +Valalai ChuttiraM +Nadukandam (Konganavar) , Karagappa +Muppu Chuttiram +Dravakam (Nandikeshvara) , Karpam +Valai Chuttiram (Bogara)

KANNADA :

11-12 C.E : Karnata Kalyana Karaka (Jagaddala Somanatha) , Balagraha Chikitse (Devendra Muni) , Govaodya (Kirti Varma) , Madana Tilaka (Chandra Raja) , Anubhava Mukura (Janna)

14 C.E : Khagendra Mani Darpana (Mangaraja) , Ashvashastra (Abhinava Chandra)

15 C.E : Vaidyanruta (Sridhara Deva) , Vaidya Sangatya (Salva) , Ashva Vaidya (Bacarasa), Janavashya (Kallarasa)

16 C.E : Vaidya Sara Sangraha (Channaraja) , Hastayurveda-Commentary (Veerabhadraraja ) , Ashva Vaidya (Bacarasa), Janavashya (Kallarasa)

17 C.E : Vaidya Sara Sangraha (Nanjanatha Bhupala) , Vaidya Samhita Sararnava (Veeraraja ) , Shalihotra Samhita (Ramachandra), Hayasara Samuccaya (Padmana Pandita), Vaidyakanda (Brahma), Strivaidya (Timmaraja)

TELUGU :

15 C.E : Haya Lakshana Sara (manumanchi Bhatta)

TABLE 9 : ASTRONOMY/MATHEMATICS/ASTROLOGY

SANSKRIT :

3-2 B. C.E : Surya Prajnapti , Stananga Sutra , Anuyogadvara Sutra , Shatkhandagama

2-0 B. C.E : Vedanga Jyotishya (Lagada) , Bhadrabahu samhita +Surya Prajnapti-Commentary (Bhadrabahu) , Tiloyapanatti (Yatishvaracharya), Tatvarthayagama shastra (Umasvamin)

5-6 C.E : Arya Bhatiya (Arya Bhata) , Pancvha siddantika + Bruhajjataka+Laghu Jataka + Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira) , Dashagitika Sara (Anonymus) , Aryastashata (Anonymus)

6-7 C.E : Brahma sputa Siddhanta+Kanadakadhyaya(Brahma Gupta) , Maha Bhaskariyam + Karana Kutuhala (Bhaskara-1) , Rajamruganka (Bhoja)

8 C.E : Shishayabhuvruddhi (Lallacharya) , Ganita Sara sangaraha (Mahaveeracharya) , Horasatpanchashika(Pruthuyana)

11-12 C.E : Siddhanta Shekhara (Sripati) , Siddhanta Shiromani (Bhaskara-2)

14 C.E : Yantraraja (Mahendra Suri)

15 C.E : Tantra sangraha (Neelakantha somayaji)

16 C.E : Sputa Nirnaya (Achyuta)

TAMIL :

16-18 C.E : Ganakkadigaram , Ganita Nul , Asthana Golakam , Ganita Venba , Ganita Divakaram, Ponnilakkam

KANNADA :

11 C.E : Jataka Tilaka (Sridharacharya) ,

12 C.E : Vyavahara Ganita+Kshetra Ganita+Chitra Hasuge +Jaina Ganita Sutra Tikodaaharana +Lilavati (Rajaditya)

15 C.E : Kannada Lilavati (Bala Vaidyada Cheluva)

17 C.E : Ksetra Ganita (Timmarasa) , Behara Ganita (Bhaskara)

TELUGU :

11 C.E : Ganita sara Sangrahamu (Pavaluri Mallana)

http://ellakavi.wordpress.com/2007/11/12/it-is-necessary-for-kannadigas-to-know-about-the-greatness-of-their-language-which-most-are-not-aware-of/

http://historicalleys.blogspot.in/2010/02/calico-and-its-origins.html Calico and its origins

The direction of 'borrowings' from one language to another is a secondary component of the philological excursus; there is no universal linguistic rule to firmly aver such a direction of borrowing. Certainly, more work is called for in delineating the structure and forms of meluhha (mleccha) language beyond a mere list of metalware glosses.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2013/08/meluhha-mleccha-language-of-ca-4th.html

↧

KalpaVr̥kṣa from BesNagar (Vidiśa) ~ 2nd century BCE or earlier. Bags of coins hang from branches of tree are Indus Script Hypertexts of wealth

October 18, 2018, 10:08 pm

≫ Next: Yato dharmas tato jayah -- Supreme Court logo inscription. Freeze the Sabarimala order. Follow this founding faith in Sabarimala. -- Arghya Sengupta

≪ Previous: Indus writing is a lipi art form called mlecchita vikalpa, Meluhha metalwork cipher -- vātsyāyana; nikṣepavarta lipi 2. utkṣepavarta lipi -- Lalita vistara. Meluhha, mleccha signify spoken Bhāratiya sprachbund

https://tinyurl.com/ybxst4zy

Hypertexts/hieroglyphs:

kuṭi 'tree' rebus kuṭhi'smelter'

रूप्य mfn. well-shaped , beautiful Pa1n2. 5-2 , 120; stmped, impressed (Monier-Williams) rūpaka m. ʻ a partic. coin ʼ Pañcat. [rūpá -- ] Pk. rūvaga -- , rūaya -- m. ʻ a coin ʼ; Or. ruā ʻ an ancient silver coin ʼ; Mth. rūā ʻ a small coin (= 1 paisā) ʼ; OG. rūu, rūaü m. ʻ a silver coin ʼ.(CDIAL 10804)rūˊpya ʻ beautiful, bearing a stamp ʼ Pāṇ., n. ʻ silver ʼ MBh. 2. *rūpiya -- . [rūpá -- ]1. Pk. ruppa -- n. ʻ silver ʼ, Gy. eur. rup m., pal. ŭrp, as. (Baluči) rupa, Ḍ. rūp m., Dm. rup, Gaw. rup(h), ərūp, Sv. rup, Phal. rūp, Sh.gil. rup, koh. gur. pales. rūp m., K. ruph, rŏph, dat. ˚pas m., pog. rūpp, kash. rŏp, ḍoḍ. ruppā, S. rupo m., L. ruppā m., P. rūppā m., Ku. rūpo, A. rup, B. Or. rupā, Mth. rūp, Bhoj. rūpā, OAw. rūpa m., H. rūp, rūpā m., Marw. rūpo m., G. rūpũ n., M. rupẽ n., Si. rū (MIA. *rūpa -- < *rūppa -- ). -- Deriv.: WPah.bhal. rupelo m. ʻ silver ʼ; N. rupaulo ʻ like silver ʼ.2. Pa. rūpiya -- n. ʻ silver ʼ, NiDoc. rupya; -- Ash. arūˊ, úrə ʻ silver ʼ, Wg. urḗi, Kt. ŕṳ̄, arṳ̄, Pr. urǘ, Gmb. wurṓ, Kal.rumb. rūa, (LSI) rāwa: or < rajatá -- Addenda: rūpya -- : WPah.poet. rupu m. ʻ silver, precious metal ʼ (? ← H. Him.I 189).*rūpyākāra ʻ like silver ʼ. [rūˊpya -- , ākāra -- ]L. rupārī ʻ of silver, silvery ʼ. (CDIAL 10805, 10806)

Punch-marked coins are referred to as paharaṇa mudra in Indian sprachbund (language union). The symbols on such ancient coins signify wealth of metalwork, a continuum of Indus Script tradition of rebus rendering in Meluhha of metalwork wealth account ledger entries (kharaḍā).

The symbols on ancient coins signify metalwork wealth produced in ancient mints.

The square pieces shown as bags hanging from the branches of the tree are comparable to the shapes of coins shown in Jetavana narrative in a Bharhut medallion.

Anathapindika covers Jetavana with coins (Bharhut)

[quote]

Some of the chief buildings attached to the Jetavana are mentioned in the books by special names, viz., Mahāgandhakuti, Kaverimandalamāla, Kosambakuti and Candanamāla. SNA.ii.403. Other buildings are also mentioned - e.g., the Ambalakotthaka-āsanasālā (J.ii.246). According to Tibetan sources the vihāra was built according to a plan sent by the devas of Tusita and contained sixty large halls and sixty small. The Dulva (Vinaya-pitaka in Tibetan) also gives details of the decorative scheme of the vihāra (Rockhill: op. cit.48 and n.2).

All these were built by Anāthapindika; there was another large building erected by Pasenadi and called the Salalaghara (DA.ii.407). Over the gateway lived a guardian deity to prevent all evildoers from entering (SA.i.239). Just outside the monastery was a rājayatana-tree, the residence of the god Samiddhisumana (Mhv.i.52f; MT 105; but see DhA.i.41, where the guardian of the gateway is called Sumana).

In the grounds there seems to have been a large pond which came to be called the Jetavanapokkharanī. (AA.i.264; here the Buddha often bathed (J.i.329ff.). Is this the Pubbakotthaka referred to at A.iii.345? But see S.v.220; it was near this pond that Devadatta was swallowed up in Avīci (J.iv.158)).

The grounds themselves were thickly covered with trees, giving the appearance of a wooded grove (arañña) (Sp.iii.532). On the outskirts of the monastery was a mango-grove (J.iii.137). In front of the gateway was the Bodhi-tree planted by Anāthapindika, which came later to be called the Anandabodhi (J.iv.228f). Not far from the gateway was a cave which became famous as the Kapallapūvapabbhāra on account of an incident connected with Macchariyakosiya (J.i.348).

According to the Divyāvadāna (Dvy.395f), the thūpas of Sāriputta and Moggallāna were in the grounds of Jetavana and existed until the time of Asoka. Both Fa Hien (Giles: p. 33ff) and Houien Thsang (Beal.ii.7ff) give descriptions of other incidents connected with the Buddha, which took place in the neighbourhood of Jetavana - e.g., the murder of Sundarikā, the calumny of Ciñcā, Devadatta's attempt to poison the Buddha, etc.

[unquote] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jetavana

↧

Yato dharmas tato jayah -- Supreme Court logo inscription. Freeze the Sabarimala order. Follow this founding faith in Sabarimala. -- Arghya Sengupta

October 19, 2018, 8:11 am

≫ Next: Book announcement: Indus Writing is Mlecchita Vikalpa: Meluhha Rebus Cipher of Indian sprachbund (language union), c. 3300 BCE

≪ Previous: KalpaVr̥kṣa from BesNagar (Vidiśa) ~ 2nd century BCE or earlier. Bags of coins hang from branches of tree are Indus Script Hypertexts of wealth

The Constitution dharma: Intention to protect religious freedoms of groups, no matter how small, is unarguable

October 19, 2018, 2:00 AM IST Arghya Sengupta

That there is something deeply iniquitous about not allowing menstruating women to enter Sabarimala temple to pray to Lord Ayyappa is a platitude. So is not allowing women priests to officiate in the Church, keeping widows in shelter homes secluded from the world and refusing women entry into mosques. When framed as pure moral questions, any right-thinking individual can only affirm their fundamental wrongness.

But courts of law are not moral guardians of society. Quite to the contrary, they are expected to judiciously determine fundamental questions on the basis of the Constitution. Framed as a constitutional question, not allowing menstruating women to enter Sabarimala temple presents a conflict between the scope and extent of an individual right to pray and a community right to manage its own affairs of religion. It is a clash of competing autonomies where judges must balance the claims made on the basis of what the Constitution demands.

Unfortunately, the majority judgments of Chief Justice Misra and Justice Nariman in the Sabarimala case deftly skirt the balancing question. By refusing to hold the worshippers of Lord Ayyappa as a ‘religious denomination’ they deny the existence of a group right in the first place.

By holding that Ayyappans do not have a distinct belief, a common entity, a common name and do not exclude persons of other faiths from the Sabarimala temple, they are disentitled to any group right to manage their own affairs. This is flawed on two counts – first, it ignores the text of the Constitution which vests such a right not only in religious denominations but sections thereof. The intention of the Constitution to protect religious freedoms of groups, sects and sub-sects, no matter how small, is unarguable.

Second, if the tests for determining a religious denomination are to be applied dogmatically as they have been in this case, the court has unwittingly pushed a sterile and exclusionary version of Hinduism that has little basis in Hindu texts. Exclusion of other faiths, streamlined organisation and dogmatic pathways to achieving salvation are alien to Hindu scripture. Constitutional doctrine cannot emerge in a vacuum and be applied so pedantically.

Arindam

More troubling is the short shrift given to the letter and spirit of the Constitution in the concurring opinion of Justice Chandrachud. While as a matter of law, like the other majority opinions, he denies the status of a religious denomination to the Ayyappans, unlike the others, he goes further and presents an eloquent, albeit gratuitous reading of the Constitution to justify his position.

The fulcrum of Justice Chandrachud’s view is that “the founding faith on which the Constitution is based is the belief that it is in the dignity of each individual that the pursuit of happiness is founded.” This is a laudable proposition but one that is certainly not evident from reading the Indian Constitution, let alone capable of being its founding faith.

At a philosophical level, the pursuit of individual happiness is, at best, an incidental goal for our Constitution to aspire to. It has no basis in text, doctrine or debates of our framers. Our philosophical traditions highlight the dissolution of the self rather than its assertion, as Justice Chandrachud has done. Importing an evocative Jeffersonian phrase and making it the founding faith of our Constitution makes for terrific reading but poor reasoning.

A reading of our Constitution demonstrates that different provisions of the Constitution serve different but equally significant objectives – liberty, equality, fraternity, diversity and so on. Equally, the Constitution speaks of duties of individuals and responsibility of the state to distribute resources to serve the common good. Limiting the breadth of the Constitution to a single virtue – dignity – is an instance of uni-dimensional holism, an entirely discredited method of constitutional interpretation.

By failing to recognise the multi-dimensional moral outlook of the Constitution, Justice Chandrachud has made the majestic Indian Constitution look like a pale replica of the American one. The Indian Constitution is not just a charter of individual dignity. It is a recognition of India’s natural plurality, a dream of a humane state that strives towards creating a more equal society, a prudent practical assessment of where the writ of the state should stop, and an embodiment of the vastness of our civilisational ethos. Each of these objectives is possible when there is dharma – as is inscribed in the logo of the Supreme Court, ‘yato dharma tato jaya’; where there is dharma, there is victory. If the Constitution can at all be said to have a founding faith, this is it.

Questionable fidelity to the text of the Constitution combined with importing alien concepts and giving them an exalted status in the constitutional scheme is a fraught approach for the Supreme Court to adopt when confronted with contested moral questions. It is beside the point whether the court, all things considered, reached the right answer or not. Its institutional legitimacy can weather immediate protests from those who think the court erred on facts. But it is the duty of the court to not only faithfully interpret the Constitution of India but also interpret it for India. The damage in not doing so is likely to be more far-reaching.

https://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/toi-edit-page/the-constitution-dharma-intention-to-protect-religious-freedoms-of-groups-no-matter-how-small-is-unarguable/

↧

Book announcement: Indus Writing is Mlecchita Vikalpa: Meluhha Rebus Cipher of Indian sprachbund (language union), c. 3300 BCE

October 19, 2018, 5:12 pm

≫ Next: Sabarimala temple in the ‘secular’ world -- Anjali George

≪ Previous: Yato dharmas tato jayah -- Supreme Court logo inscription. Freeze the Sabarimala order. Follow this founding faith in Sabarimala. -- Arghya Sengupta

https://tinyurl.com/y6unu2ez

Indus Writing is Mlecchita Vikalpa: Meluhha Rebus Cipher of Indian sprachbund (language union), c. 3300 BCE October 19, 2018

by S Kalyanaraman

Indus writing is a lipi art form called mlecchita vikalpa, Meluhha metalwork cipher -- vātsyāyana; nikṣepavarta lipi 2. utkṣepavarta lipi -- Lalita vistara. Meluhha, mleccha signify spoken Bhāratiya sprachbund (language union)

Table of Contents

Section 1. Indus writing is a lipi art form called mlecchita vikalpa, Meluhha metalwork cipher -- vātsyāyana; nikṣepavarta lipi 2. utkṣepavarta lipi -- Lalita vistara. Meluhha, mleccha signify spoken Bhāratiya sprachbund

Section 2. Some Meluhha Indus Script words in Etymologisches Woerterbuch (JPokorny)

Section 3. Wealth-accounting ledger, metalwork catalogues of Indus Script Hypertexts on a Susa cylinder seal, ca. 3100 BCE

Section 4. On the Most Frequently Used Symbol in the Indus Script -- B. B. Lal (1979) Sign 342 of world's oldest writing ca. 3300 BCE signifies Meluhha rebus scribe, supercargo

Section 5. Gold pendant of arka sun's rays Indus Script Hypertext on kõda young bull of Mohenjodaro pectoral signifies kundaṇa'fine gold'

Section 6. Wealth accounting ledgers of Indus Script Hypertexts of Lakṣmi sculptural friezes with lotus, elephants

Section 7. Elamite sculptural frieze kātī 'spiner' rebus khātī 'wheelwright‘validateds Indus Script hypertexts and Meluhha cipher

Index

↧

Sabarimala temple in the ‘secular’ world -- Anjali George

October 19, 2018, 5:50 pm

≫ Next: apasmāra. Epilepsy patients reveal the secrets of consciousness. In human neurons, there is more electrical compartmentalisation for cortical computation.

≪ Previous: Book announcement: Indus Writing is Mlecchita Vikalpa: Meluhha Rebus Cipher of Indian sprachbund (language union), c. 3300 BCE

Sabarimala temple in the ‘secular’ world

09:59 PM, Feb 03, 2016
Anjali George

The holy hill of Sabari, Sabarimala, is located amidst the dense jungles of the Western Ghats in Kerala, bordering the state of Tamil Nadu. Vrischikam, the fourth month of the Malayalam calendar (November -December) marks the beginning of the annual pilgrimage to the temple. This is also when devotees observe 'mandala vratham' - 41 days of strict penance to cleanse oneself ahead of the trek to the shrine, through the dangerous jungle path. Such is the devotion that not only pilgrims, but even the faithful who cannot go to the shrine due to reasons like ill health also observe the 'vratham'. The popularity of the shrine is an eyesore for the "breaking India forces" and attempts to destroy it have been on since long

The Ayyappa concept

It is not easy to decipher the ‘Devata sa~Nkalpa’( concept of divine deities) of Hinduism. Most of the deities are represented using complex cryptic epithets (paroksha priyaahi iva devah). In Kerala, Dharma shAstA (teacher of Dharma) is worshiped mainly in four places - Kulathupuzha, Aryankavu, Achankovil, and Sabarimala. While in Kulathupuzha, he is in the form of a `balaka’ (child), he takes the form of a 'Grihasthi' (home maker) with wives in Achankovil, and as an old `tApasa’ (ascetic) in Aryankavu. Whereas in Sabarimala, Ayyappa is in the form of a `kumara’ (teenager) observing brahmacharya (literally means pursuit of brahma but in modern times, is interpreted as celibacy). These four pratishtas (installations) denote the four stages of human life – childhood, teenage, family man and old age.

Ayyappa pratiShTha in Sabarimala sits in Arddhasana or Yogapadasana. This posture reveals the mood of asceticism, the tapobhAvaM. The knees are bound by `yogapatta’ (a belt made of cloth) and hands are in yoga mudra. Lord Ayyappa is a Brahmachari and an ascetic, his murti (idol) is made in sitting posture with the legs bent with his knees pointing upwards. Symbolically, this shows that the figure leaves no space for anyone to sit on its lap. Ayyappan in this state elevates one to the conscious awareness (observing) state which is called Sat-Chit-Ananda or meditative state.

With his Chinmudra, gesture of the hand, Ayyappa expounds the meaning of the supreme philosophy `Tat Tvam Asi’ (that art thou – you are that). The vrataM (austerities) is the basis for devotion. Since the deity is in the form of a naiShTika brahmachAri (absolute brahmachari), it is therefore believed to be the duty of every devotee who observes the pilgrimage to follow the vrataM with utmost sincerity and purity like a student who devotes his complete attention to the pursuit of knowledge. Once the believer starts the `Vratham’, he purifies his mind and body to become Ayyappa himself. So much so that he is called a swami thereafter. That’s the whole idea behind the hard and strict observance. Every devotee becomes a ‘Swami/God’ himself and acts as the Supreme Being would. They do this till they remove the rosary (which they don at the beginning of the vratham) from their neck upon return from the temple. The pilgrimage and associated rituals amply illustrate the sanatana dharma concepts of union of jIvAtmA (individual soul) with paramAtmA (supreme soul). This is also the underlying principle of ‘Advaita’, which says the two are not different, but one.

When foreigners, ignorant of the traditions and shAstras, tried to decipher and translate the complexities of India’s systems and customs through a Semitic prism, we lost the sense behind most of the rituals and customs. The secular western education we subsequently acquired somehow made us unable to understand these cryptic epithets (parokSha sa~Nkalpa).

‘Secular’ attacks against Sabarimala

The hugely popular Sabarimala temple has always been the target of interests inimical to Sanatana Dharma. Attacks on the shrine are as old as the ‘secular state’. One such major incident was the fire in the temple on 16th June 1950. The sanctum sanctorum was completely gutted and the deity was broken. An inquiry report by the Special Branch (CID) reportedly concluded that the fire was deliberate and hinted at a Christian angle to the crime. But what was the truth will never be known as governments have till this date shied away from making it public. In fact, the Communist party once even fought the polls on the promise of making it public, but went back on its promise after winning the elections.

The second `attack’ was more recent and came in the form of attempts to construct a church in front of the Mahadeva temple at Nilakkal (on the way to the temple), in the area regarded as Poonkavanam (Garden) of Ayyappa. As is commonly followed by church planters, a Cross was found near the Nilakkal temple on March 24, 1983. Media carried news of the ‘discovery’ of the church claiming it was planted by none other than Jesus Christs’ disciple St Thomas. Christian pilgrims started flowing to the spot. Soon, the road to the temple was named St Thomas Road and the Christians started calling the Nilakkal hill as St Thomas Mount. On May 19, within a month of the discovery, Kerala government approved a grant of 1 hectare of land to build Church in Nilakkal. This was fiercely opposed by Hindu organizations and thousands of believers, who took to protests, were arrested. But the relentless struggle of the Hindus ensured that Church planters had to shift the cross to a new location.

If this was not enough, there are still attempts being made by a section of Leftist historians to portray Ayyappa, who according to Hindu beliefs was the son of Lord Siva and Mohini (Lord Vishnu in female form) as a Buddhist.

The failed attempt to ‘make a church in Nilakkal, is off late being sought to be set off by linking Ayyapa’s story to another Church – Arthungal Church - in Alappuzha district. A rumour has been spread that the Ayyappa devotees after visiting Sabarimala must go to Arthunkal church where they should remove their ‘vratamAla’ (the beaded rosary worn during the vrataM). Some media houses actively serve this distortion. This fake story has `helped’ mislead many pilgrims coming from outside Kerala. False stories about Ayyappa killing a Christian saint St Sebastian (who according to Christian belief, he was killed during the Roman emperor Diocletian’s persecution of Christians) are also doing the rounds, with the active backing of vested interests. There is also the targeted propaganda portraying Ayyappa as a misogynist. The ‘secular’ attack on Sabarimala has been a coordinated activity, and is given a tweak from time to time.

Sabarimala and Women

A major charge levelled by some people against the temple is that Ayyappa is a misogynist. They link their allegation to restrictions placed on the entry of women in the 10-50 age group to the temple. They advertise this as a case of bias against women in general conveniently hiding the fact that girls below the age of 10 and women above the age of 50 are allowed entry to the temple. Their attempt is to present Hinduism as a regressive philosophy.

Yes, there are regulations regarding entry for young women of 10–50 age groups in Sabarimala. A tale substantiating this practice is the promise of Ayyapa to Malikapurathamma, the goddess of the nearby shrine. The destiny of Ayyapa’s birth was to kill the demoness Mahishi. Once he had killed the demoness, a beautiful woman emerged from the body. She requested Ayyapa to marry her. But since Ayyappa’s ambition was to practice brahmacharya and care for his devotees, he said no to the request. However, careful not to break her heart, he promised her that he will remain a Brahmachari till `kanni’ swamis (first-time devotees) stop coming to Sabarimala. But that is yet to happen as thousands of first time devotees climb the hill every year and Malikapurathamma still waits patiently with a heart full of love for the day she can marry Ayyappa. And mind you, her shrine is right beside that of Ayyappa on the Holy hill and the pilgrims to Sabarimala pay their respects to both deities.

As a matter of fact, the controversy surrounding the restrictions in Sabarimala to women in their reproductive age group seem to stem from an ignorance of the principles and practices of sanatana dharma, which is the forerunner of Hinduism) than any inherent problem with the religion (the Supreme Court calls it a way of life) itself. Sanatana Dharma is so complex and diverse that a mere cursory reading will not be sufficient to comprehend it. Such is the diversity of Hinduism that if there are restrictions on women in Sabarimala, there are restrictions on men in the Attukal temple in Thiruvananthapuram, there are temples where transgenders are accorded divine status as in Kottankulangara and also shrines where the menstrual phase of a woman is celebrated as in the Mahadeva temple in Chengannur. How can a ``way of life’’ where the three main portfolios of finance, education and defense are handled by women – Lakshmi, Saraswati and Durga respectively – be anti-women?

But unfortunately, because of decades of physical and cultural invasion we have lost the precious knowledge necessary to interpret the wealth of information that was passed on to us by our forefathers. The Indic outlook has been replaced by the Semitic thinking infused through years of cultural annihilation carried out by the invaders.

If Lord Ayyappa was a misogynist, we would not have seen MalikaPurAth amma’s shrine near his abode. Women would not have visited Sabarimala temple before and after reproductive age. According to Hindu beliefs, Ayyappa is a brahmachari and stamping misogyny on brahmacharya is a Semitic tendency. Sanatana Dharma offers space for both men and women to practise brahmacharya. If brahmacharya by a man is interpreted as hatred for women, does that mean brahmacharya by a woman is hatred for men?

Faith and menstruation

A ludicrous theory being floated by ‘feminists’ about Sabarimala is that restrictions on the entry of women in their reproductive phase to the temple is because they become ``impure’’ during their menstruating phase. It’s an outright lie. I have to say that such misconceptions stem from a lack of proper understanding of the evolution and process of dharma. Before explaining why, let us take a peek into what menstruation itself is.

Menstruation is just one of the special physical features bestowed on women by nature to make their body compatible for pregnancy and motherhood. It is the physiological process in which the body discards unfertilized ovum with the tissues of the endometrial lining of the uterus. The menstrual blood is not pure blood and has traces of dead tissue and vaginal discharges too. Most women experience disabling symptoms such as a headache, lower abdominal cramps, and dysmenorrhea when they have periods. The body turns tender and a majority of them feel weak and lethargic due to blood loss during this period and avoid strenuous physical activities and observe dietary restrictions. A study of societies across the globe would show that all of them have in one form or the other, kept women away from strenuous physical labor during this delicate phase. The logic behind this practice was not `impurity’ as the feminists would want us to believe, but the care for the physiological changes in the women’s body during the time. But many ignorant people interpreting the age-old wisdom has ensured that its positives are buried making it a tool in the hands of those who want man and woman to be in a state of perpetual conflict.

For a detailed discussion on menstruation and related practices in the Hindu community, do read the following: https://mythrispeaks.wordpress.com/2015/05/28/unearthing-menstrual-wisdom-why-we-dont-go-to-the-temple/

Menarche (first menstruation) of girls is a big celebration for Hindus who also worship the blood stained cloth of the goddess of Chengannur Mahadeva temple. The menstrual periods of Sri Kamakhya Devi is worshipped in the Ambubachi festival of the Kamakhya temple. What does this tell us about the Hindu view on menstruation and the feminine?

Haindava sampradAya (system) isn’t one of prohibition or bans. Neither is it dogmatic. The mode of observance change from place to place and from deity to deity. The faithful understand and follow this voluntarily. This explains why in the past, the 41 day vrataM was compulsorily adhered to before the pilgrimage to Sabarimala. The vrathaM involved a rigorous routine like waking up in the wee hours and visiting temples after bath, eating frugally. For a woman, her monthly periods follow a 28-day cycle. As already discussed, the period requires utmost care and rest which would not be possible for a devotee on 41-day vrathaM. Besides, the trek uphill involved steep climbs though a dangerous forest which forms the core of what is now the Periyar Tiger Reserve infested with wild animals. Just imagine a woman having to trek miles and miles through the dense jungles in an era when they did not even have a sanitary napkin to depend on!

The journey uphill and the 41 days vrataM represents vAnaprasthaM which is also the last phase of a man/woman’s earthly existence. It comes after `gArhastyaM’ which means household life. So Vanaprasham should be performed after household life or gArhasthyaM. The fertility of a woman represents her dharma as a householder and the ability to create life. Accordingly women are advised to fulfill their grihastha dharma after which they can perform vAnaprasthaM. This is where Feminists brought up in western milieus go wrong with their interpretation. For them the very call to a woman to perform her garhasthya dharma is something unnatural and imposed by the patriarchal society which wants to bind her down in the name of duties. But what they fail to understand is the difference between duty and dharma. Duty is a manmade construct unlike dharma which is more fundamental and has more to do with man’s existence as an animal, for the collective upkeep of a larger ecosystem from where he/she draws certain things and returns some.

Sabarimala and the state

After the fire attack of 1950, Sabarimala temple and its rituals underwent significant changes and restructuring. More changes were introduced after the dhvajastaMbha (flag mast) was installed in 1969. These changes were intended to protect the sanctity of the temple. Legal sanctity for the restrictions to entry of women of particular age came after the Kerala Hindu Public of Public Worship (Authority of Entry) Rules, 1965 enacted by the ‘secular state’.

Initially though the temple was open only during the pilgrimage season (maNDalakAlaM) every year, better transport facilities and rush of pilgrims forced authorities to keep it open for a few days in the 1st week of the Malayalam months for `masapooja’ (monthly Pooja). Though women were allowed for the masapooja and annaprAsha (what is English for annaprasha), rarely would any women do that. Later, a High Court verdict totally banned darshan of women between the age group of 10 and 50. So if anything, it was actually the laws framed by the so called progressive secular forces which made even legitimate entry impossible.

Why Sabarimala?

From time immemorial, Sabarimala has been a devasthAna (abode of god) which attracts all devotees from every realms of humanity irrespective of caste and creed. Caste divisions accentuated by the colonial systems have been the bane of Hindu society. Many proselytizing forces trying to convert Hindus have exploited these differences to the fullest in the past and continue to do so. The Ayyappa of Sabarimala is a much revered figure not only in Kerala, but also in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Discrediting the deity is the best way to ensure that it loses appeal among the masses. The controversies surrounding Sabarimala are intended to achieve this nefarious objective.

Let me draw your attention to an extract from the K Keshava Menon Report on the 1950 Sabarimala Temple Arson case 1950. The report copies of which are floating in the cyberworld, confirms the worst fears about Sabarimala.

http://t.co/Vb35nB3Kdp

“It is reasonable to consider, Christians have got more familiarity and knowledge than Hindus in this direction, as they and they alone occupy the places and the base of this hills and they are the only persons who hunt and poach in the vicinity of the temple day in and day out. “

“… The desire for a church near the Sabarimala orthodox route seems to have been deeply rooted on their mind as otherwise there was no necessity for all these muthalalies (barons) to join on this business….. Thus, it can be seen that since some time, they have begun to feel the increasing number of lower caste Hindus visiting the Sabarimala temple in ecstasy and devotion, which in all probability they would have thought if not checked would inevitably result in a check to the growing process of conversion of low-caste Hindus to Christianity. Further, the existence of a church at Nilakkal and Pampakadavu would, in the long run attract Christians to colonise the area and thereby they could exploit these fertile regions and improve their financial conditions. “

Interestingly, the fire in Sabarimala as well as the formation of Hindu maha Mandalam to unite all castes of the Hindu community was in 1950.

Last but not the least

It will not be wrong to assume that the controversies that crop up during the Sabarimala pilgrim season reflect the secular contempt and intolerance for anything Hindu. The brainwashed lot want to impose Eurocentric monotheism on a population as divergent as the Hindus who see God in all beings, which taught the world that whichever faith you follow, you reach the same goal. This is what they did to the Greeks and all those people whom they sardonically refer to us pagans. For the Hindu, this has created a do or die situation. It’s time to stand up and be counted. It’s time to tell them – yes we are pagans, and we are proud of our diversity.

The Honorable Supreme Court of India defined Hinduism as a way of life. That leads us to the question how a way of life be governed by any single rule? Will that not kill the diversity and reduce the way of life to a mere ritual?

https://www.myind.net/Home/viewArticle/sabarimala-temple-in-the-secular-world/

↧

apasmāra. Epilepsy patients reveal the secrets of consciousness. In human neurons, there is more electrical compartmentalisation for cortical computation.

October 19, 2018, 7:24 pm

≫ Next: Buddha as dharmakaya is comparable to Brahman -- Sanjeev Nayyar

≪ Previous: Sabarimala temple in the ‘secular’ world -- Anjali George

Neuroscientists Have Found a Difference in Human Brain Cells That Could Help Explain Our Unique Intelligence

It's not just size.

MIKE MCRAE

19 OCT 2018

Human brain cells have been found to carry electrical signals in a fashion that could significantly increase the power of individual neurons.

Comparing the speed of signals travelling down the branches of human neurons with similar cells taken from rats, researchers have found a difference in signal strength that hints at deeper processing.

New research led by scientists from MIT took advantage of an opportunity to retrieve a fingernail-sized sample of excitatory neurons from deep inside the brains of volunteers undergoing surgery for epilepsy.

The tissue was removed from a section of the anterior temporal lobe that could cope with the loss of a few neurons, so didn't affect the patients in any way.

But it did provide the researchers with the right kind of tissue to observe how human nerves manage to carry electrochemical messages across long distances.

It's no secret that despite being as smart as they are, rats have rather tiny brains with a comparatively thin outer cortex. (No offence to any rats reading this.)

But that thin outer layer is also organised in a similarly layered fashion to our own, raising the question of how our own neurons deal with sending signals over longer distances.

The text-book neuron typically resembles a tree stripped of its leaves. Branches called dendrites collect signals from other cells and transmit them down through a cell body into a long, slender trunk called an axon.

These transmissions are in the form of charged particles weaving in and out of the neuron's membrane through ion channels, producing ripples of voltage down the cell's length.

Yet those branches are more than conduits for signals – they actively tweak the message, playing a key role in the processing of the information they carry.

In some ways, we can think of dendrites as transistors, mediating signals by amplifying some and blocking others. It now seems they can also play an even more involved role in how our nervous system processes information, at least in humans.

"It's not just that humans are smart because we have more neurons and a larger cortex," says the study's lead scientist Mark Harnett.

"From the bottom up, neurons behave differently."

Taking their sample of neurons from deep inside their volunteers' brains, the researchers immersed them in a spinal fluid-like medium to keep them alive for the next day or so, while they measured how signals travelled down their length.

Similar studies have already been carried out on rat neurons. But getting the same kind of cells out of living human brains hasn't been as easy.

"These are the most carefully detailed measurements to date of the physiological properties of human neurons," Nelson Spruston told MIT News Office's Anne Trafton.

Spruston wasn't involved in the research, but as senior director of scientific programs at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, he understands the significance of the study.

"These kinds of experiments are very technically demanding, even in mice and rats, so from a technical perspective, it's pretty amazing that they've done this in humans."

With comparative studies on both animals, researchers have finally been able to share notes on whether a long distance sprint makes much of a difference in signal strength.

It turns out those signals do weaken over the distance of a human neuron, far more than they do in the same kinds of cells taken from rats.

Interestingly, both kinds of cells have the same number of ion channels in their membranes, which are simply spread out a little more in our neurons. Models developed by the researchers suggest this can account for the signal's differences.

"In human neurons, there is more electrical compartmentalisation, and that allows these units to be a little bit more independent, potentially leading to increased computational capabilities of single neurons," says Harnett.

Whether this architecture can explain differences in how our species processes information is left to be seen. But it's a hypothesis well worth exploring, according to Harnett.

"If you have a cortical column that has a chunk of human or rodent cortex, you're going to be able to accomplish more computations faster with the human architecture versus the rodent architecture," he says.

This research was published in Cell.

https://www.sciencealert.com/human-excitatory-neuron-dendrites-signal-processing-differs-to-rats

Cell ARTICLE| VOLUME 175, ISSUE 3, P643-651.E14, OCTOBER 18, 2018

Enhanced Dendritic Compartmentalization in Human Cortical Neurons

DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.08.045

Summary

The biophysical features of neurons shape information processing in the brain. Cortical neurons are larger in humans than in other species, but it is unclear how their size affects synaptic integration. Here, we perform direct electrical recordings from human dendrites and report enhanced electrical compartmentalization in layer 5 pyramidal neurons. Compared to rat dendrites, distal human dendrites provide limited excitation to the soma, even in the presence of dendritic spikes. Human somas also exhibit less bursting due to reduced recruitment of dendritic electrogenesis. Finally, we find that decreased ion channel densities result in higher input resistance and underlie the lower coupling of human dendrites. We conclude that the increased length of human neurons alters their input-output properties, which will impact cortical computation.

https://www.cell.com/cms/10.1016/j.cell.2018.08.045/attachment/bf3bc315-4419-40b6-969a-f796cb014a21/mmc2.mp4 (Video URL)

(mp4, 8.3 MB)

https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(18)31106-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867418311061%3Fshowall%3Dtrue

Introduction

Human pyramidal neurons possess larger dendritic arbors than rodent and primate neurons (

Elston et al., 2001

Mohan et al., 2015

), but their input-output properties remain unknown. Dendrites filter synaptic events as they propagate toward the soma (

Magee, 2000

Spruston, 2008

); however, dendritic spikes can amplify local signals to overcome electrical compartmentalization (

Schiller et al., 1997

Schiller et al., 2000

Spruston, 2008

Williams, 2004

Williams and Stuart, 2002

). These opposing attributes enable dendritic compartments to perform local operations on their inputs (e.g., coincidence detection). Multiple functionally independent compartments, integrating different streams of information (e.g., feedforward and feedback inputs) (

Halgren et al., 2018

Petreanu et al., 2009

Spruston, 2008

), could endow individual neurons with the sophistication of small computational networks (

Guerguiev et al., 2017

Häusser and Mel, 2003

Jadi et al., 2014

London and Häusser, 2005

Poirazi et al., 2003

Polsky et al., 2004

Tran-Van-Minh et al., 2015

We reasoned that the increased length of human dendrites could further compartmentalize synaptic integration and information processing within individual neurons. However, because compartmentalization critically relies upon details of membrane properties and active conductances (

Atkinson and Williams, 2009

Stuart and Spruston, 1998

), which cannot be predicted by anatomical features alone, it is not known to what degree human neurons differ from their non-human counterparts. Here, we employ direct patch-clamp electrophysiology to test the hypothesis that dendritic integration is more functionally segregated in human pyramidal neurons.

Results

Reduced Burst Firing in Human Neurons

We performed whole-cell recordings from layer 5 (L5) pyramidal neurons in acute human brain slices obtained from the anterior temporal lobe of neurosurgical patients (Figure 1A; STAR Methods). Compared to rat temporal association cortex (TEA) (

Eyal et al., 2016

Mohan et al., 2015

) somas, human somas were less excitable (Figures 1H and 1I). Most rat L5 neurons exhibited high frequency (>150 Hz) bursts of action potentials (APs) with threshold current injections (rheobase), but few human L5 neurons did (Figures 1G and S1). Consistent with previous rodent research (

Connors et al., 1982

de Kock and Sakmann, 2008

), burst firing was more prevalent in L5 than in L2/3 neurons (Figure S2). Electrical coupling between somatic and dendritic compartments and the recruitment of dendritic voltage-gated channels have been proposed to underlie bursting in rodent L5 pyramidal neurons (

Larkum and Zhu, 2002

Mainen and Sejnowski, 1996

Williams and Stuart, 1999

). We observed a reduction in AP amplitude and first derivative (dV/dt) in rat L5 bursts (Figures 1C and 1D), indicative of a strong dendritic depolarizing envelope (

Williams and Stuart, 1999

). These features were not present in the firing patterns of human L5 neurons. Our results suggest that somatic inputs are less likely to engage dendritic electrogenesis eliciting bursting in human L5 neurons.

Figure thumbnail gr1 — Figure 1Human Cortical Pyramidal L5 Neurons Exhibit Reduced Burst Firing
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Figure thumbnail figs1 — Figure S1Additional Properties of L5 Neurons, Related to Figures 1 and 2
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Figure thumbnail figs2 — Figure S2Somatic Properties of L2/3 Neurons, Related to Figure 1
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Increased Input Resistance in Human Dendrites

To directly assess the properties of human apical dendrites, we performed dendritic whole-cell recordings up to 1,834 μm from the soma (Figure 2). Rodent L5 apical dendrites are known to possess high densities of ion channels, including hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels (

Atkinson and Williams, 2009

Harnett et al., 2015

Kole et al., 2006

Williams and Stuart, 2000

), resulting in low input resistance and prominent voltage sag. Using local hyperpolarizing current injections, we mapped the subthreshold properties of rat and human dendrites at various distances from the soma (Figures 2A and 2B; rat: n = 88 recordings from 22 rats; human: n = 42 recordings from 7 patients). We observed an increase in voltage sag as a function of distance in both groups (Figure 2C), but the distance-dependent profile in human neurons extended across their greater length. Interestingly, input resistance was dramatically larger in human distal dendrites (Figures 2C and S1; median [Q1–Q3]: 15.7 [13.7–19.5] versus 35.1 [29.8–47.9] MΩ, ∗∗∗p < 10−12, Wilcoxon rank sum test; rat: n = 72 recordings from 19 rats; human: n = 26 recordings from 7 patients). Despite the apparent enrichment of HCN channels in distal human dendrites, higher resistance indicates that human dendrites may possess fewer open conductances at rest.

Figure thumbnail gr2 — Figure 2Increased Input Resistance in Human Dendrites
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

We ensured that dendritic properties were not affected by methodological issues associated with the acquisition of human tissue. We used the same slicing procedure in terms of equipment, solutions, recovery time, and slice thickness for human and rat brains. Because of the transport of human tissue from the hospital, the time from brain extraction to slicing differed for the two groups. However, we found no differences in dendritic excitability between rat slices that were directly sliced and those that underwent a sham transport (25 min in the same cooler used to transport human samples; Figure S3). We also controlled for the impact of cut dendritic branches during slicing and the incubation time after slicing (Figure S3). Finally, we used adult rats and human tissue from adult patients to avoid age-dependent changes (

Atkinson and Williams, 2009

) in dendritic properties (Figure S3).

Figure thumbnail figs3 — Figure S3Impact of Methodological Constraints on Dendritic Properties, Related to Figure 2
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Enhanced Electrical Compartmentalization in Human Neurons

We next measured signal transfer with multi-site dendritic or somato-dendritic recordings (Figures 3A–3D). For a similar distance, voltage spread toward the soma was conserved in rat and human dendrites (Figure 3E and 3G). The half attenuation points (Figure 3E) were not statistically different (50% attenuation [95% CI]: 453 [406, 531] versus 456 [384, 536] μm; rat: n = 17 recordings from 9 rats; human: n = 16 recordings from 4 patients). However, because human dendrites were much longer, the attenuation experienced by distal dendrites was much more pronounced (Figure 3G). Voltage transfer is dependent on the impedance profile of the neurons and will be lower for transfer from high to low impedance compartments. Because rat distal dendrites had much lower impedance than rat soma, backward attenuation was stronger than forward attenuation (Figure 3E). The impedance profile of human neurons diverged significantly, such that backward attenuation (Figure 3F) was less severe than forward attenuation (50% attenuation [95% CI]: 277 [248, 305] versus 533 [467, 582] μm; rat: n = 19 recordings from 10 rats; human: n = 15 recordings from 3 patients). Overall, distal dendrites were more electrically remote from the soma in human neurons, and the attenuation of distal inputs toward the soma was especially strong. Thus, the longer physical length of human neurons translates into a longer electrotonic length.

Figure thumbnail gr3 — Figure 3Increased Electrical Compartmentalization in Human Neurons
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Capacitive filtering contributes to dendritic compartmentalization, but its influence on steady-state voltage attenuation is rather limited. Specific membrane capacitance has recently been suggested to be ∼0.5 μF/cm2 in human neurons as opposed to ∼1.0 μF/cm2 in rodent neurons (

Eyal et al., 2016

). Lower capacitance was predicted to limit the attenuation of transient events, such as excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). We directly tested the spread of phasic signals by injecting EPSC-shaped currents in multi-site recordings (Figure S4). We found that EPSP attenuation toward the soma was similar in rat and human neurons (50% attenuation [95% CI]: 408 [328, 470] versus 417 [350, 485] μm; rat: n = 13 recordings from 8 rats; human: n = 11 recordings from 2 patients), with backward attenuation being slightly less pronounced in human neurons (50% attenuation [95% CI]: 474 [442, 513] versus 683 [570, 880] μm; rat: n = 14 recordings from 9 rats; human: n = 10 recordings from 2 patients). These results are consistent with our findings for steady-state attenuation and demonstrate that the spread of EPSPs is not facilitated in human L5 neurons. Moreover, somatic and dendritic impedance profile in response to current sinewaves of increasing frequencies were similar across species, and dendritic effective time constants were larger in human neurons (Figure S1). Thus, the integrative properties of human neurons are inconsistent with lower capacitive filtering. However, other factors, such as HCN channels (

Vaidya and Johnston, 2013

), influence these functional properties. We therefore directly measured specific membrane capacitance in nucleated patches. We found that rat and human L5 neurons both had specific membrane capacitance values ∼0.9 (Figure S4), consistent with previous rodent L5 measurements (

Gentet et al., 2000

). Together with functional evidence, our nucleated patch recordings establish that capacitance is not lower in human L5 neurons. Our results demonstrate that both resistive and capacitive filtering are more pronounced in human neurons due to their increased length and suggest the absence of compensatory mechanisms.

Figure thumbnail figs4 — Figure S4Conserved Specific Membrane Capacitance in Rat and Human Neurons, Related to Figure 3
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Compartmentalization Limits Dendritic Spikes and Somatic Bursts in Human Neurons

Distal inputs can be amplified by voltage-gated ion channels to overcome electrical compartmentalization: therefore, we compared the active properties of human and rat dendrites. In a rat neuron, current injection near the main bifurcation point (536 μm from the soma) triggered typical wide dendritic spikes coupled to somatic bursts (Figure 4B) (

Williams and Stuart, 1999

). However, current injection at a comparable site in a human neuron (1,256 μm from the soma) elicited dendritic spikes that failed on their way to the soma (Figure 4A). Furthermore, dendritic spikes were weaker in human dendrites with significantly reduced width and area (Figures 4E and 4F). The maximal instantaneous voltage change (dV/dt) decreased similarly with distance from the soma in rat and human neurons, such that distal human spikes had slower onsets (Figure 4D). Together, these features indicate that distal dendritic integration has limited influence on somatic output in human neurons.

Figure thumbnail gr4 — Figure 4Weak Dendritic Spikes in Human Neurons
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

What underlies the distinct somatic and dendritic spike properties in human neurons? The properties and distributions of voltage-gated conductances controlling the initiation and propagation of spikes could be different. Alternatively, we reasoned that enhanced electrical segregation between somatic and dendritic compartments in human neurons might limit regenerative interactions between the different compartments. To test these scenarios, we designed a novel approach to dissociate dendritic spikes from somatic APs in rat neurons, mimicking the increased compartmentalization of human neurons (Figure 5). We predicted that decoupling rat neurons would result in human-like spike properties if voltage-gated conductances are conserved. First, we used somatic voltage clamp to silence the soma (Figures 5E and S5). This manipulation did not prevent dendritic depolarization due to poor space-clamp (

Beaulieu-Laroche and Harnett, 2018

Dembrow and Zemelman, 2015

Spruston et al., 1993

Tran-Van-Minh et al., 2016

Williams and Mitchell, 2008

). By preventing somatic AP generation, we observed much narrower dendritic spikes in response to dendritic current injection (Figures 5E and 5F). Somatic voltage clamp effectively converted rat distal dendritic spikes into human dendritic spikes in terms of width, area, and dV/dt (Figures 5G–5I). Next, we performed the converse experiment to test whether somatic AP bursts were dependent on active interactions with distal dendrites. We voltage clamped rat mid-distal (378 ± 39 μm from the soma, n = 8 recordings from 5 rats) dendrites during somatic current injections to prevent dendritic electrogenesis (Figures 6A–6C and S6). APs were still elicited, but artificially decoupling the dendrites completely eliminated burst firing (Figures 6F and 6G). Thus, our voltage-clamp experiments indicate that the distinct human spike properties represent weaker somato-dendritic coupling rather than different complements of voltage-gated ion channels.

Figure thumbnail gr5 — Figure 5Increased Compartmentalization Limits Human Dendritic Spikes
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Figure thumbnail figs5 — Figure S5Rat Dendritic Properties under Somatic Voltage Clamp, Related to Figure 5
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Figure thumbnail gr6 — Figure 6Increased Compartmentalization Limits Somatic Burst Firing in Human Neurons
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Figure thumbnail figs6 — Figure S6Rat Somatic Burst Properties under Dendritic Voltage Clamp, Related to Figure 6
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Stretched Ion Channel Distributions in Human Neurons

How do ionic conductances compare in rat and human dendrites? Our voltage-clamp experiments and the similar voltage sag indicate that rat and human dendrites possess similar ion channel distributions. However, the size difference between the two neuron types suggests a redistribution of the conductances. We constructed a biophysical rat L5 pyramidal neuron model constrained by our recordings (Figures 7A–7C; STAR Methods) and evaluated two alternative mechanisms to extend the model to the length of a human neuron: stretching and scaling. Stretching the apical dendrites without affecting the relative distribution and total numbers of ion channels (Figure 7B) reproduced the reduced somato-dendritic coupling and the distinct human spike properties (Figure 7D). Surprisingly, a scaled model, where local ion channel densities were maintained such that total numbers of channels increased, failed to capture the limited coupling of human neurons (Figure S7). Our simulations therefore suggest that both ionic channel densities and gradients are stretched in human dendrites, which could account for the higher input resistance we observed (Figure 2C).

Figure thumbnail gr7 — Figure 7Stretched Ion Channel Distributions in Human Neurons
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

Figure thumbnail figs7 — Figure S7Stretched and Scaled Biophysical Models, Related to Figure 7
Show full caption
View Large Image
Download Hi-res image
Download (PPT)

We tested the model prediction that local ion channel densities are lower in human dendrites by directly measuring dendritic conductances. Following whole-cell recordings from distal dendrites, we pulled outside-out patches (Figures 7F–7H) of consistent sizes (pipette resistance: 10.44 ± 0.16 versus 10.44 ± 0.18 MΩ, p = 0.99, unpaired t test; rat: n = 56 recordings from 8 rats; human: n = 34 recordings from 2 patients). We recorded ensemble HCN-mediated currents with hyperpolarization steps (

Harnett et al., 2015

) and discovered that HCN ensemble currents were significantly smaller in human dendrites (Figures 7I and 7J; median [Q1–Q3]: 13.1 [8.9–21.3] versus 4.6 [3.3–8.0] pA, ∗∗∗p < 10−9, Wilcoxon rank sum test). In the same population of dendrites, input resistance was significantly higher in human dendrites (median [Q1–Q3]: 15.0 [13.5–17.7] versus 31.0 [29.8–43.0] MΩ, ∗∗∗p < 10−14, Wilcoxon rank sum test), consistent with Figures 2C and S1. These results suggest that lower ion channel densities underlie the increased input resistance of human dendrites, providing strong support for the stretched conductances model (Figure 7A).

Discussion

Our understanding of synaptic integration stems almost exclusively from rodent studies. Here, we reveal that human cortical neurons exhibit distinct integrative properties. We find that the size of human neurons results in increased electrical compartmentalization, which changes their input-output properties. By artificially increasing compartmentalization in rat neurons, we demonstrate that enhanced compartmentalization underlies the weaker dendritic spikes and reduced somatic bursting of human neurons. Furthermore, we reveal that ion channel densities are decreased in human dendrites, suggesting that ionic conductances are more dispersed in the longer dendrites of human neurons. Compensatory mechanisms were not apparent. Contrary to a recent report (

Eyal et al., 2016

), we did not find lower specific membrane capacitance in human neurons (Figure S4). While rat L5 neurons may be comparable to human L2/3 neurons in terms of size, their electrophysiological properties (input resistance, voltage sag, and AP properties; Figures 1, S1, and S2) are more closely related to human L5 neurons. Our voltage-clamp experiments and stretched conductances model further support the notion that cell-type-dependent features are roughly conserved across species, consistent with the laminar expression patterns of most cell-type-specific genes being preserved (

Zeng et al., 2012

). Thus, human L5 neurons are approximately stretched rat L5 neurons that, due to elongation without compensatory changes, have unique integrative capabilities.

An important caveat in our study is the distinct origins of the rodent and human brain tissues. We standardized our slicing approach across species and controlled for numerous factors, including age, transport, and time after slicing (Figure S3). Nevertheless, the disease etiology, pharmacological treatment, and anesthesia procedure could influence dendritic integration. Our non-pathologic samples came from a population of epileptic patients, but previous studies with more extensive patient history and surgery types failed to observe significant correlations between disease history and dendritic morphology (

Mohan et al., 2015

) or synaptic plasticity (

Verhoog et al., 2013

). Despite no concrete evidence yet that disease and medical treatment affect the basic physiological properties of neocortical neurons, this continues to be an important concern for research involving human tissue.

Humans have the thickest cortex among mammals (except for manatees) (

Defelipe, 2011

DeFelipe et al., 2002

Mota and Herculano-Houzel, 2015

Sun and Hevner, 2014

), indicating that human neurons possess exceptionally long and compartmentalized apical dendrites. In rodent neurons, distal inputs arriving in supragranular layers can drive repetitive somatic spikes with the help of dendritic spikes (Figure 4B). The increased electrotonic length of human dendrites disrupts this relationship; distal inputs provide very little excitation to the soma even with dendritic spikes. This arrangement may seem counterintuitive: distal synaptic integration would incur significant metabolic costs without purpose. However, this extreme electrical isolation may be evolutionarily advantageous from a computational standpoint. Theoretical studies have proposed that dendritic compartments can perform parallel processing as well as subsequent nonlinear transformations prior to final integration at the axon (

Häusser and Mel, 2003

Jadi et al., 2014

London and Häusser, 2005

Poirazi et al., 2003

Polsky et al., 2004

Tran-Van-Minh et al., 2015

). Recent experimental evidence in rodents also supports the role of dendritic processing in cortical computation (

Cichon and Gan, 2015

Harnett et al., 2013

Lavzin et al., 2012

Schmidt-Hieber et al., 2017

Smith et al., 2013

Takahashi et al., 2016

Xu et al., 2012

). With more isolated or additional compartments capable of nonlinear transformations, the electrical structure of human dendrites could provide single neurons with a richer computational repertoire. However, other factors not studied here, such as the patterns of synaptic inputs and neuromodulatory control, may compensate in vivo for the increased length of human neurons. Is extreme compartmentalization in human dendrites a bug (

Häusser and Mel, 2003

) necessitating correction or a feature that enhances computational power? We demonstrate here that the integrative properties of human and rat neurons differ ex vivo, but future work is needed to determine how these intrinsic features interact with circuit factors in vivo to mediate cortical computation.

https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(18)31106-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867418311061%3Fshowall%3Dtrue

↧

Buddha as dharmakaya is comparable to Brahman -- Sanjeev Nayyar

October 20, 2018, 4:43 am

≫ Next: Mekong-Ganga, physical, metallurgical connections, geographical evidences from Valmiki Ramayana -- K. Gopalakrishnan

≪ Previous: apasmāra. Epilepsy patients reveal the secrets of consciousness. In human neurons, there is more electrical compartmentalisation for cortical computation.

Why did Buddhism vanish from India

By Sanjeev Nayyar

July 2003

esamskriti@suryaconsulting.net

At the outset note that what Dr B R Ambedkar said, 'Buddhism in its material form had disappeared. I agree. But as a spiritual force it still exists'. At the Parliament of Religions Swami Vivekananda said that Buddhism is the fulfillment of Hinduism. If Jainism continues to exist and prosper in India for centuries there has to be solid reasons why Buddhism vanished from India.

Here are nine reasons why Buddhism vanished from India. It ends with Dr S Radhakrishnan's words on the origin of the Four Noble Truths stated by Buddha.

One, Buddhists paid importance to the life of a monk and not householder thus the ordinary man was at a loss how to live life. Two, deterioration in the political and economic life. Monasteries were supported by the people and kings like Ashoka. When support dwindled it affected popularity of Buddhism.

Three, was admission of women into monasteries and the more or less indiscriminate conversion of men, women into monks and nuns. While true renunciation and celibacy were appreciated, people wanted to see them well practiced. If monks and nuns had lived by the rules that they were taught, people would have supported them inspite of any hardship that they faced.

Four, Buddhism existed in the monasteries and unlike the dharmaasutras (ethical codes) lacked a moral code. So when monasteries disappeared, Buddhism disappeared. Muslim invasions followed by destruction of the great monastery of Uddandapura (Bihar). The wholesale massacre of its monks might make us visualize how the great monasteries of Nalanda, Vikramasila and others met with a tragic end.

Five, "Buddhism absorbed various thoughts and beliefs from many different cultures, religions and philosophies. Thus a variety of spiritual practices and mythologies arose between the first century B.C. and the sixth century a.d. for e.g. some Buddhists adopted the tantric sadhanas and distorted them for the sake of enjoyment and comfort. This undigested knowledge of tantra - led these Buddhist followers to their complete downfall". 4 Note this distortion happened only in some places - in Tibet it is very pure. Since Tibet was not subject to Muslim invasions, the purity remained. Tibet has now become a source of knowledge for India.

Six, Pandit Rajmani Tugnait, Spiritual head of the Himalayan Institute wrote, "three schools Vajrayana, Siddhayana and Sahajayana developed between the 5-10th centuries in north-eastern India and then to Nepal, Sikkim and Tibet. The founders were great yogis but their teachings and practices were misused by unworthy followers. As a result anyone who had difficulty in earning a living became a monk. As a result society had the responsibility of supporting the ever increasing population of monks. And so things came to such a pass that Kumarila Bhatta and Sankara uprooted Buddhism from its motherland India". 4

Seven, Dr B R Ambedkar addressed delegates of Young Men’s Buddhist Association in May 1950 at Colombo on ‘Rise & fall of Buddhism in India’ and said, "Buddhism in its material form had disappeared. I agree. But as a spiritual force it still exists." On the decline and downfall of Buddhism he said: the adoption of some rituals and practices from Buddhism by the Vaishnava and Shaiva cults who were vociferous in their propaganda against Buddhism. During the invasion by Allauddin Khilji thousands of priests in Bihar were massacred and consequently some of them fled for their lives to Tibet, China and Nepal. In the meanwhile, the majority of Buddhists went over to Hinduism. Another cause was that Buddhism was difficult to practice while Hinduism was not. Lastly, the political atmosphere in India had been unfavourable to the advancement of Buddhism he concluded." 3 pg 422

Eight, at the Parliament of Religions Chicago Swami Vivekananda said, " I am not a Buddhist, as you have heard and yet I am. If China, or Japan, or Ceylon follow the teachings of the Great Master, India worships him as God incarnate on earth. You have just now heard that I am going to criticize Buddhism, but by that I wish you to understand only this. Far be it from me to criticize him whom I worship as God incarnate on earth. But our views about Buddha are that he was not understood properly by his disciples. The relation between Hinduism (by Hinduism, I mean the religion of the Vedas) and what is called Buddhism at the present day is nearly the same between Judaism & Christianity. Jesus Christ was a Jew, and Shakya Muni as a Hindu, The Jews rejected Jesus Christ, nay, crucified him, and the Hindus have accepted Shakya Muni as God and worship him. But the real difference that we Hindus want to show between modern Buddhism and what we should understand as teachings of Lord Buddha lies principally in this: Shakya Muni came to preach nothing new."

Read full text of Swami's speech Buddhism is a fulfilment of Hinduism

Nine, the extreme asceticism practiced and popularized by both Buddhism and Jainism disturbed the social life of India. Magadha, the seat of many imperial dynasties, became Bihar, the land of monasteries (viharas). There was nothing in these religions to emphasize the importance of life in this world and its values. These causes led to a bloodless revolt by the orthodox in the eight-century a.d.

The revolt was staged from two sides, the Brahmanic and the Upanisadic. Kumarila was the leader of the former and Sankara of the latter. Kumarila succeeded in reviving a strong positive attitude towards the world and its values and all that could be called human and activistic. On the other hand, Sankara said that everything that was good in Buddhism already existed in the Upanishads. In fact, Gaudapada, the grand teacher of Sankara, unified the current spanda (vibration) doctrine of Saivism, the vijnana (mind) doctrine of the Buddhists and the Atman doctrine of the Upanishads in his Mandukyakarikas. This paved the way for Sankara to assimilate and absorb Buddhism.

Note that inspite of the waning popularity of Buddhism in the 10-11th centuries the Brihadisvara Shiv Temple Thanjavur (completed in 1010 a.d.) has three depictions of Buddha. Probably it is because Buddha because an avatar of Vishnu by then. "However, is this Buddha the same as the Sakyamuni is a difficult question to comprehend. But the point to dwell on is the portrayal in both stone and paint - the size and the dignified manner in which he is portrayed. The reverence is very visible." External link

It is now made out to be as if Buddhism and Hinduism are separate religions. Without getting into too much of detail, scholar and former President of India Dr S Radhakrishnan wrote about what is common to Upanishadic and Buddhist thought in book Indian Philosophy. In same book he said that the four noble truths of Buddhism correspond to the four truths of Samkhya.

Dr Radhakrishnan said, "The 4 noble truths of Buddhism correspond to the 4 truths of Samkhya as put in the Samkhyapravacanabhasya: '1. That from which we deliver ourselves in pain. 2. Deliverance is the cessation of pain. 3. The cause of pain is the want to discrimination between prakrti and purusa, which produces the continuous union. 4. The means of deliverance is discerning knowledge'. Kapila rejects sacrifices, prayers and ceremonies as much as Buddha.

The Buddhists admit that Kapila, the sage to whom the Samkhya books ascribed the origin of their philosophy, lived several generations before Buddha, and that Samkhya ideas prevailed at the time of Buddha." 5

Pandit Rajmani Tugnait wrote, "Buddhism did not teach about existence of God or any permanent soul. Because it is human nature to lean on someone when one finds himself helpless, the concept of God or an all-loving Supreme Bring and almighty supporter was gradually developed among this devotees, with Buddha himself identified as an incarnation of transcendental Reality. This aspect of Buddha is called dharmakaya - the dharma body of Buddha." 4 pg 65

Thus, Buddha as dharmakaya is comparable to Brahman, the transcendent Reality as described in the Upanishads.

A lot is made of the Buddhist presence in S.E. Asia. Scholar Sanjay Rao wrote, "Buddhists went to countries where Hinduism had already entered as a school thought for eg Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia etc. This allowed easy access and acceptability. They entered so smoothly and went beyond where Hindus could reach."

Today, in India Hinduism and Buddhism are treated as two separate religions whilst in countries like Thailand there is no such iron-clad distinction. For e.g. Thais worship Buddha and Lord Indra whilst in India Indra is considered a Vedic God.

Pic of Indra temple at Sukumwit street Bangkok

Buddhism re-gained popularity when Dr Ambedkar became a Buddhist in 1956. However, his followers are called neo-Buddhists. Dalai Lama's presence in India and his international stature have contributed to Buddhism's global popularity.

References

1. Introduction to Comparative Philosophy by P T Raju.

2. History & Culture of Indian People by Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan.

3. Dr Ambedkar Life & Mission by Dhananjay Keer.

4. Seven Systems of Indian Philosophy by Pandit Rajmani Tugnait.

5. Indian Philosophy Volume 1 by Dr S. Radhakrishnan published by Oxford University Press.

Also read

1. Buddha and his Message

2. Hindu symbols in Thailand

3. Photographic exhibition Buddhist heritage in the world

https://www.esamskriti.com/e/History/Indian-History/Why-Did-Buddhism-Vanish-From-India-1.aspx

↧

Mekong-Ganga, physical, metallurgical connections, geographical evidences from Valmiki Ramayana -- K. Gopalakrishnan

October 20, 2018, 5:56 am

≫ Next: Elamites bring 3 lions as tribute, an Indus Script Hypertext rebus metaphor signifies brass smithy, forge

≪ Previous: Buddha as dharmakaya is comparable to Brahman -- Sanjeev Nayyar

Section 1. MEKONG – GANGES PHYSICAL CONNECTION – GEOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCES FROM VALMIKI RAMAYANA

K.Gopalakrishnan, Director-SG (retired), Geological Survey of India

Introduction

If one looks at the world map, one will find that Ganga (Ganges) river, India and Mekong river, Indonesia were wide apart physically and separated by many other major rivers of SE Asia like Irrawaddy, Salween and Mekong and intervened by many mountain ranges. Under those circumstances, the topic of this article will look absurd to many readers. At the same time, it may tempt some to read trough this article. That is the aim of this article. When the reader comes to the end of this presentation, he will find the truth and genuine nature of the statements of the heading. The connection between Mekong and Ganges will be traced through TIME (from 21 Century to Treta Yuga – around 2 Million years) andfinally through SPACE (Physical connection through Geography) during Ramayana period.

Fig. 1a Fig. 1b.

Fig. 1c.

TIN ROUTE – BRONZE AGE (3000 BC to 1200 BC) CONNECTION.

Recently a communication I received from Dr.S.Kalyanaraman, the eminent Indologist and an renowned expert on Saraswati Valley Civilisation showed what was described as an Ancient Tin Route from Hanoi, Vietnam to Haifa, Israel, a reverine cum maritime route, initially along reverine passage through the SE Asian rivers of Irrawaddy, Salween and Mekong to the ocean then a maritime route passing through Malacca Straights to the delta of Ganges – Brahmaputra rivers. Then again a reverine route was shown via Karatoya along Ganges and Yamuna to Rakhigarhi, Hariyana. Rakhigarhi was considered to be the capital of Saraswati valley civilisation which showed evidences of knowledge of Bronze metallurgy. Further riverine passage through the ancient Saraswati river to Arabian sea. From there the Tin route takes again a maritime rout via Gulf of Arabia and later land route through ancient Mesopotamia and Babylon to Haifa.

Fib-2 – Ancient Hanoi – Haifa Tin Route

It is significant that this link between Mekong and Ganges was mentioned for the period of Bronze age - 5,000 – 3,200 years before present. The mention of suggested linkage of Mekong and Ganges as a part of ancient Tin Route brought to my memory a few things about the known linkages of these two rivers known from different aspects during various periods of history. I will share some of these known facts, which will be a good prelude to my main article on the physical link between them.

Those readers who want to avoid these preliminaries can go directly to sub-heading - GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES FROM VALMIKI RAMAYANA.

MEKONG–GANGA COOPERATION – 21^ST CENTURY CONNECTION

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Mekong–Ganga Cooperation (MGC) was established on November 10, 2000, at Vientiane, Laos at the First MGC Ministerial Meeting. It comprises six member countries, namely India (Look-East connectivity projects), Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. The four areas of cooperation are tourism, culture, education, and transportation.^] The organization takes its name from the Ganga and the Mekong, two large rivers in the region. It is significant that the MGC was established during the previous NDA Government in India. The selection of the names of these two major rivers from for this six nation co-operation is of interest, instead of using a name generated from the initial letters of the names the member countries.

THUS WE SEE A CONNECTION BETWEEN MEKONG AND GANGA ON GOVERNMENT / POLITICAL LEVEL DURING THE BEGINNING OF 21^ST CENTURY.

THE GREATER INDIA CONCEPT – 15^TH CENTUY CONNECTION

Fig-3 - Map of Greater India – Wikipedia.

Next in consideration is the concept of “Greater India” and the term “Greater India”. The term Greater India is most commonly used to encompass the historical and geographic extent of all political entities of the Indian subcontinent, and the regions which are culturally linked to India or received significant Indian cultural influence. These countries have to varying degrees been transformed by the acceptance and induction of cultural and institutional elements of India. Since around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land and maritime tradehad resulted in prolonged socio-economic and cultural stimulation and diffusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs into the region's cosmology, in particular in Southeast Asiaand Sri Lanka. In Central Asia, transmission of ideas were predominantly of a religious nature.
By the early centuries of the common eramost of the principalities of Southeast Asiahad effectively absorbed defining aspects of Hindu culture, religion and administration. The notion of divine god-kingship was introduced by the concept of Harihara, Sanskrit and other Indian epigraphicsystems were declared official, like those of the south Indian Pallava dynastyand Chalukya dynasty. These Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdèsin his work Histoire ancienne des états hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient (1944), were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. THIS CONNECTION BETWEEN INDIA AND THE FAR EAST DATES BACK TO 15^TH CENTURY.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_India
This Greater India was achieved NOT by invasion, conquest, occupation, subjugation, coercion and conversion, but SOLELY through interactions between societies through Culture and Commerce. The people of the ancient SE Asia consisting of countries like Burma, Malasia, Indonesia, Thailand, Laos, Siam (Cambodia) and Vietnam had differences in their race, language, history, food and dress habits and their individual arts and culture. But the ‘Way of Life’ of the ancient Indians (the Sanatana Dharma), their knowledge in various spheres, the superior art forms of sculpture, painting, dance and dramas, their religious beliefs and faiths, their superior type of administration etc had made great impact on the SE Asian societies during the early periods and was an inspiration to follow. They simply imbibed them into their own walks of life forming a culturally well knit society merging with the ancient India, thus forming the “Greater India”, but still possessing their individual status. It should be remembered that even the present-day Republic of India, is a single country now governed by a federal structure. But before the invasion and occupation of Bharat by the Moguls and Britishers, it was made up of various States of different races, languages, customs and habits and individual cultures of their own, and ruled by different kings, but were unified by major cultural absorptions and a common way of life and Governance (by Sanatana Dharma).

MAPS OF CLAUDIUS PTOLEMY (100 TO 170 CE)- 2^ND CE CONNECTION The next link between Ganges and Mekong comes from ancient maps of the world and of India by Ptolemy, one of earliest Greek Astronemor, Mathematician, Geographer and Cartographer, whose maps of ancient India depicted ‘Intra-Gangem’ and ‘Extra-Gangem (meaning this side and that side of Ganges).

Fig.4. Ptolemy’s Map of Africa and Asia

Ptolemy, Latin in full Claudius Ptolemaeus, (born c. 100 ce—died c. 170 ce), an Egyptianastronomer, mathematician, and geographer of Greek descent who flourished in Alexandria during the 2nd century ce. In several fields his writings represent the culminating achievement of Greco-Roman science, particularly his geocentric (Earth-centred) modelof the universe now known as the Ptolemaic system. In the later centuries (from 14^th to 19^th century) based on Ptolemy’s map, many geographers prepared maps of India and SE Asia depicting Intra and Extra Ganges of India or East India / East of India etc.

See the below maps – Figures – 5a,b and c.

Fig-5a. -SE.ASIA, India, Burma,Indonesia,Malaysia -Van Den Keere, Cluver antique map 1661, showing Intra and Extra Gangem

Fig. 5b - 1720 Weigel Map of India and Southeast Asia, showing Intra and Extra Gangem based on Ptolemy’s maps.

Fig. 5c -Mercator Map 1595, showing India Extra-Gangem on the right and India Intra-Gangem on the left. See Sinus Magnem – South China Sea on right.

Thus it can be seen from the maps of Ptolemy and later maps based on them showed that the Far East (Indochina) was linked and formed a part of Ancient India from about 2000 years ago, confirming the Greater India concept (referred above) to those earlier times also.

BUT IT IS SIGNIFICANT THAT ALL THESE MAPS GAVE PROMINENCE TO THE TERM GANGEM / GANGA RIVER, WHILE REFERING TO GREATER INDIA THAT INCLUDED INDOCHINA. Some people consider that the name Mekong is derived from the pro-name of MA- GANGA (Mother Ganga). HOWEVER, THESE MAPS ALSO DO NOT CONFIRM ANY ACUAL PHYSICAL LINKS BETWEEN MEKONG AND GANGES RIVERS.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES FROM VALMIKI RAMAYANA – TRETA YUGA (2 Ma) CONNECTION

In my recent article on “ORIGIN OF GANGES AND TECTONICS OF HIMALAYAS –EMBEDDED GEOLOGICAL TRUTHS IN VALMIKI RAMAYANA”, the following points are brought out.

1. In the story related to bringing Ganga to the earth by king Bhageerata also, Valmiki described the complexly folded locks of hair on the head of Lord Shiva initially acted as a retardant to the mighty force of Ganga falling from the sky and holding and locking it up in his hair – jatamandala mohinta (1-43-9).

Fig.6

2. Valmiki later described the formation of ice on the peak of Mt. Kailash with the waters of Ganga. On melting later, the water was let out into the Manasarovar Lake at the foot of the great mountain – bhindu saraha prati gangaam visasarja (1-43-11).

3. After the fall on to the earth, Ganges was split into seven branches of flows – sapta strotamsi janjhirey (1-43-12). The seven branches however, flowed in THREE DISTINCT DIRECTIONS (3 Paths /THRIPATHAGAI).

4. Valmiki gives special significance and reference to the name of ‘Tripathaagai’ to Ganga at many places in Bala kandom of Ramayana.

5. The below maps (6a and b) show the Tripathaagai nature of Original River Ganga originating from Mt. Kailash / Manasarovar region flowing east as Yarlong / Tsangpo, west as Indus / Sindhu and south as Ganga / Ganges.

Fig.7a.

Fig. 7b.

6. The original Akaash Ganga flowed eastwards as ‘Hlaadinee, Pavanee and Nalinee rivers, while the flow westwards was covered by Suchakshu, Seetha and Sindu. The seventh branch Ganga flowed southwards following Bhageeratha. (1-43-13, 14 & 15).

7. THE ABOVE DESCRIPTION CLEARLY POINTS OUT THAT DURING ANCIENT TIMES, ALL THE THREE HOLY MAJOR RIVER SYSTEMS ORIGINATING FROM MT. KAILASH / MANASAOVAR LAKE REGION ARE CONSIDERED AS ONE GANGA RIVERTHAT FLOWED ALONG THREE PATHS.

8. THE DESCRIPTION ALSO COINCIDEDS WITH THE ACTUAL FLOWING OF MAJOR RIVERS FROM THE MT. KAILASH; RIVER TSANGPO /BRAHMAPUTRA AND ITS TRIBUTERIES FLOW EASTWARDS, WHILE SINDHU RIVER AND ITS TRIBUTERIES FLOW WESTWARDS AND GANGES AND ITS TRIBUTERIES FLOW SOUTHWARDS. THESE ARE THE THREE PATHWAYS (TRIPATHAGAIS) OF GANGES DESCRIBED BY VALMIKI IN RAMAYANA.

9. It is astonishing that the tripataagai nature of the three major river systems of India, a very important and interesting GEOGRAPHICAL TRUTH, was known to our ancients, which would have been possible ONLY FROM AN AERIAL VIEW OF THE ENTIRE REGION.

10.For easy reference and understanding, let us call these rivers in three directions as Eastern Ganga, Western Ganga and Main Ganga.

CONNNECTION OF GANGA ANG KAILASH MOUNTAINS – Fig.8.

Fig.8a.

Compare the above topographic expression of Mt. Kailash wit the Idol of Lord Shiva lingan with Aavudaiyar around it in the figure below.

Fig.8b.

11.Kailas Range, Chinese (Pinyin) Gangdisi Shan or (Wade-Giles romanization) Kang-ti-ssu Shan, Tibetan Gang Tise, also called Gangdisê Range, one of the highest and most rugged parts of the Himalayas, located in the southwestern part of the TibetAutonomous Region, southwestern China. The range has a roughly northwest-southeast axis and lies to the north of a trough drained in the west by the Langqên (Xiangquan) River—which is known as the Sutlej River in India—and in the east by the Damqog (Maquan) River, headwater of the Brahmaputra River (in China called the Yarlung [Yaluzangbu] River). In the middle of this depression lies Lake Mapam, reputed to be the highest freshwater lake in the world, 14,950 feet (4,557 metres) above sea level. To the north of this lake lies Mount Kailas, which reaches an elevation of 22,028 feet (6,714 metres); it is known as Gang Tise to the Tibetans and is the highest peak in the range. (https://www.britannica.com/place/Kailas-Range).

12.Gangdise - Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains
Located at the middle part of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Gangdise - Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains is a huge mountain chain extending from east to west. It is the boundary of South Tibet and East Tibet, and also the boundary of exterior and interior rivers. The mountains are 1500 km long and 80 km wide with an average altitude from 5000 to 6000 m. There are 25 peaks with altitude over 6000 m. The main peak of Gangdise mountains – Mount Kailash is 6656 m above the sea leavel. And Mount Nyainqentanglha of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains is 7717 m above the sea level. Mount Kailash is the famous pilgrimage site of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

13.PLEASE NOTE THAT THE NAMES ASOCIATED WITH KAILASH RANGES AS WELL AS WITH MT. KAILAS IN CHINESE AND TIBETAN LANGUAGES ALSO HAVE PREFIXES OF GANGDESI, GANGTISE, GANGDESE ETC. ONE OF THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS IN LHAASA TERRANE IS KNOWN AS “GANGDISE BATHOLITH”. All these are POINTING OUT THEIRPROBABLE CONNECTION TO RIVERGANGA.

14.Let us now turn to the Eastern Ganga formed of three branches. At the present day, one can see only one major river flowing eastwards from Manasarovar as Tsangpo / Yarlung / Dsangbo which on entering India is known as Brahmaputra. BUT AS PER VALMIKI RAMAYANA, EASTERN GANGA HAD THREE BRANCHES.

15.Our recent analysis of rivers from Tibetan Plateau shows that actually the three rivers – Tsangpo, Salween and Mekong joined and flowed as one during ancient times, but later got separated as three different rivers due to later tectonic activities. AS SUCH, WE CAN CONCLUDE THAT THESE THREE RIVERS ACTUALLY FORMED THE EASTERN GANGA. Our ancestors realised these facts and actually named one of these rivers as MAA GANGA WHICH WAS LATER CHANGED TO MEKONG.

16. We will demonstrate this activity through a number of maps.

17.The below map (Fig.9) shows the present-day major river basins of SE Asia.

Fig.9

GLACIERS AND GLACIATION IN TIBET

About two million years ago during the Pleistocene times, the earth entered a major ice age. Polar ice caps grew, reaching as far south as the northern US and covering the entire Tibetan Plateau and Himalayas. Ice sheets advanced and retreated four times, most recently retreating only 10,000 years ago - a few minutes in geologic time. Only the Antarctic have more ice than the glacial highlands of the Tibetan Plateau, earning it (the latter) the nickname "the third pole."

It is significant that this formation of huge Glaciation event covering Tibet during Pleistocene (around 2 Ma) coincides with Ramayana Times of TRETA YUGA (2Ma) as well as the analogy / allegory of Akash Ganga getting locked up in the matted and knotted hair of Lord Shiv and formed the great SWETA (WHITE) MOUNGTAINS (Kailas Ranges) as described in Valmiki Ramayana.

Fig.10a.

Note the present-day physical expression of Tibetan Plateau (in the centre of the map in pale pink colour, studded with white coloured ice capped ridges in different directions and small blue coloured Glacial Lakes. Mount Kailas and Manasarovar Lakes are seen at the left bottom of map bordering Nepal and just north of Gurla Mandata eak (∆7728).

NOW IMAGINE THAT YOU ARE LOOKING FROM ABOVE (SPACE) AT THE HEAD COVERED WITH MATTED AND KNOTTED HAIR OF LORD SHIVA AND HOLDING THE WATERS OF AAKASH GANGA WHICH HAD FORMED ICE AND SNOW ON THE RIDES OF THE MATTED HAIR AND THE IN- BETWEEN DEPRESSIONS HOLDING THE HOLY WATER OF GANGA. Now compare the above topo- map and your imagination above (which is actually the description in Valmiki Ramayana) and how they fit nicely. What we are seeing is that Lord Shiva is looking towards south with his long MANE of Matted hair flowing towards north. See also Kailas Ranges and Mt. Kailash at the southern edge of Tibet with Manasarovar at its base.

10b.

The effect of these ice sheets on topography was dramatic. Mountain tops were eroded to form jagged peaks and ridges while valleys were filled with glacial sediment. Strong winds winnowed out the fine silt (called loess), depositing thick layers of it across the entire upper Yellow River basin (hence its name), and leaving behind coarser sand and gravel which today chokes the river beds. As a result, the headwaters of all of the major rivers on the Tibetan Plateau are braided streams flowing over glacial gravels in broad valleys, characterized by constant moderate gradients and few significant rapids. By the time they begin to flow off the Plateau, the rivers have gained the volume necessary to erode these gravels and renew the process of cutting deep, narrow canyons in underlying bedrock. Where they flow over hard layers and giant boulders, there are huge rapids such as Tibetan Terminator and Dragon's Teeth on the Mekong, Leaping Tiger Rapids on the Salween, Tiger Leap Gorge on the Yangtze, and waterfalls such as Rainbow and Hidden Falls in the Great Bend of the Yarlung Tsangpo.

ZDROJ:http://www.shangri-la-river-expeditions.com/wchinageo/wchinageo.html

The below map (Fig.11) shows the braided / dendritic drainage pattern of SE Tibet during post- Pleistocene glaciation and prior to the uplift. Note that the three rivers, Tsangpo, Salween and Mekong join and form a single river (Red River), confirming the Eastern Ganga with three branches as depicted in Valmiki Ramayana. The other easterly tributaries like Yangtse, Yalong, Dadu etc shown in this map were probably not very prominent during Ramayana times.

Fig.11 - Geologie a geovědy v Číně, 2008

TECTONICS OF TIBET DUTING PRE TO SYN PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION

In the Figure-12 At 40 Ma ago during the initial collision of Indian block along the western margins, while the central and eastern Tibet were subjected to subduction of Tethys below Asia / Tibet. The direction of movement of Indian plate was NE.

Fig.12.

Fig.13

The above figure-13 shows the movement of India- Sri Lanka plate moving NE to collide with Asia during different geological periods from 71 Ma ago to present day. The anti-clockwise turning of the India – Sri Lanka block during collision from Cretaceous to present-day, which had resulted in the formation of Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis around Namche Bharwa in Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh.

IN THE BELOW MAP (Fig.14), NOTE THE BLACK ARROWS AROUND INDIA INDICATIONG THE MOEMENT DIRECTION OF INDIAN PLATE DURING COLLISION AND THE RESPONSE OF EURASIAN PLATE SWERVING AROUND THE EASTERN HIMALAYAN SYNTAXIS RESULTING IN BENDING OF OROGENIC BELTS AS WELL AS THE PRE-EXISTING DRAINAGES OF TIBETAN PLATEAU.

Fig-14.

This major and important tectonic activity had resulted in the complete change of the drainage direction of all the rivers flowing eastwards from the Tibetian Plateau towards south.

This activity had also brought in many other upliftswithin the Tibetan plateau itself, at places accompanied with distinct dextral strike-slip faulting, which had resulted in separation of the rivers Mekong, Salween and Tsangpo from the Red river.

In particular, this activity resulted in the acute bend and turning of Tsangpo river course from eastwards to westwards on the southern side of Himalayas in the plains of Assam as Brahmaputra river. THIS FACT CLEARLY DEMONSTRATES THAT THE CONFLUENCE OF PALEO-TSANGPO WITH SALWEEN EXISTED AT OR AROUND SIANG SYNTAXIAL BEND. (See the above map showing position of Collision during 40Ma ago).

In the map below (Fig.15), please note that while the NE motion of crust occurred at around 10 Ma. The clock-wise rotation of the southern and SE parts of Tibet as a response to the anti-clockwise rotation of the Indian Plate, is shown by black arrows. Also see that the NW-SE trending Red River Fault (along the right botoom of map), passing through the initial drainages of Salween, Mekong and Yangtse rivers. The dextral (right lateral) strike-slip faulting along this line during recent times had separated the drainages of the three river systems. According to geoscientists from the Seismological Bureau of Yunnan, MIT and Cal Tech, theRed River Fault has about three miles of right-lateral displacement.The displacement is quite recent - certainly in the last two to three million years. It is most likely to be Post- 2 Ma Pleistoceneglaciations and formation of Eastern Ganga with three branches.

Fig. 15 - Geologie a geovědy v Číně, 2008

For hundreds of miles before its confluence with the Yangbi, the Mekong is sandwiched in between the Salween (Nu) River on the west and the Yangtze (Jinsha) River on the east. In western Yunnan, the three rivers diverge - the Yangtze turns north, then east, the Mekong turns southeast, then south, and the Salween continues to the south (Fig.16).

Fig.16 - Geologie a geovědy v Číně, 2008

NOTE IN THE ABOVE MAP (Fig.14), SALWEEN AND MEKONG RIVERS SEPARATE AS INDEPENDANT RIVERS TOWARDS WEST FROM RED RIVER, WHILE YANGTSE RIVER (AS WELL AS THE PALEO-UPPER REACHES OF RED RIVER SEPARATE AND FLOW EAST, MAKING THE RED RIVER TO BE A VERY SMALL RIVER FROM ITS ORIGINAL SIZE FLOWING SE.

Thus, it can be seen that strain resulting from the collision of India with Asia has caused fundamental changes to Asian drainage patterns. It can be seen that the 4 major rivers, Yangtse, Mekong, Salween and Tsangpo which originally formed as branches of a dendritic drainage of RED river after the 2Ma Pleistocene Glaciation, got separated later due the above tectonic activities.

Valmiki Ramayana had described the Pleistocene Glaciation affecting the entire Tibet and in particular the Kailas Mountin ranges and forming ice and snow clad Sweta Mountains(Kailash Ranges) correctly at the specific geographical location from which the melt waters produced the flow of the Tripatagai Ganga river

The Ramayana period was supposed to be in Treta Yuga , about 2 Ma ago, wherein the three branch rivers of Eastern Ganga were described. It was shown from many maps described above that actually the Eastern Ganga was formed of both Ganga (Tsangpo) and Mekong, besides Salween, during Ramayana times and later got separated.

THUS VALMIKI RAMAYANA HAD DEMONSTRATED THE GEOGRAPHICAL (PHYSICAL) AND GEOLOGICAL (TECTONIC) TRUTH OF A LINK / CONNECTION BETWEEN ANCIENT GANGA AND MEKONG DURING PERIOD FROM ABOUT TWO MILLION YEARS AGO.

Section 2. Part-2- Mekong-Ganga Connection –Metallogenic Evidences from Valmiki Ramayana

By K.Gopalakrishnan, Director-SG (Retired), Geological Survey of India.

In the previous article on “ Mekong – Ganga connection – Geographical Evidences from Valmiki Ramayana”, a connection was traced through Time and Space from the present-day to Ramayana times to Ramayna times, with geographical evidences of physical link. In this article, the geological, metallogenic evidences for this link will be traced from another allegory mentioned in Valmiki Ramayana.

In the previous article, it was also shown that the geological setting between ancient Tibet and ancient Indo-China (SE Asia) was the same. Tibet – SE Asia remained as an E-W terrain during these ancient times that was later affected by Himalayan tectonics. The NE movement of the Indian Plate towards Asia during Mesozoic initiated the subduction of the Sea of Tethys below the Asian continent resulting in an Andean type tectonic environment which produced a series of magmatic arcs on the Asian continent and the same extended from Trans Himalayas to Sumatra. See the map below Fig.1.

Fig.1.

These arcs produced arc-related volcanics, sediments and granodiorites of batholitic dimensions with granites. The metallogeny related to arc environment produced many mineral deposits such as Copper± Gold and tungsten (wolfram), Lead – Zinc ± Silver, Iron and Chromite etc.

Then the actual collision between the Indian Plate and Tibet occurred at around 40 – 50 Ma ago along the western margins of Tibet, which resulted in a different type of metallogeny with formation of Tin – Tungsten and Uranium mineralisation with emplacements of S- type and I-type granites. During this period, the eastern parts of Tibet and SE Asia were under subduction conditions. See map above.

During Late Cenozoic times at about 10 Ma ago, the final phase of collision of Indian Plate still moving in a NE direction, with Asia was initiated, with closure of the entire Palaeo-Tethys sea. Thus the collision related metallogeny extended to eastern parts of Tibet and to entire SE Asia (Burma-Indochina) region.

During the final phase of the collision at around 2 Ma, the movement of Indian Plate was changing in an anti-clockwise direction. As a response to this anti-clockwise movement of India, the Asian plate moved clockwise, producing the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxial Bend around Siang – Lohit areas of Arunachal Pradesh of India. THIS MAJOR TECTONIC ACTIVITY PRODUCED A NUMBER OF RIGHT LATERAL (DEXTRAL) STRIKE-SLIP MOVENTS ALONG MANY FAULTS, BOTH ON THE INDIAN SIDE AND ON THE ASIAN SIDE.

The result of this dextral strike-skip movement on the central parts of Indian side had already been discussed in the article titled “ Origin of Ganges and the Tectonics of Himalayas – embedded Geological truths in Valmiki Ramayana”. Now let us examine the results of what had happened on the eastern part of India, Tibet- SE Asia side due to this major tectonic activity. This entire region was turned abruptly from an E-W orientation to near N-S direction around the syntaxial bend. The dextral movements along the various faults in the entire Tibet – SE Asia had resulted in the changes of the drainages of many major rivers of Asia had been discussed in the previous article on “Mekong – Ganges connection – Evidences from Geographical evidences from Valmiki Ramayana”.

The hill ranges of both Himalayas and Trans-Himalayas also turned and swung to N-S from original E-W orientations.

In the map below (Fig.2), note that the Himalaya ranges swing to the Indo-Burma ranges (Arakkan-Yoma – Naga hills- Patkai ranges), while the northern Trans Himalayan Tibetan Ranges in Lhassa Terrane and other northern Terranes turn to the ranges in Eastern Burma (to the east of the central Burmese Irrawaddy river basin), South China and Thailand. Note that the Quinghai basin of Tibet could have originally continued to Sichuan Chengdu basin of China.

Fig.2

Below is the Physiographic Map of SE Asia (Fig.3), showing mountain ranges (in light and dark brown colour) and central Burmese Irrawaddy basin( in green colour).

Fig.3.

Tectonic divisions of Tibet

On the Tibetan side, the tectonics due to the movement of Indian Plate towards NE and the consequent subduction of Paleao-tethys below Eurasian continent produced a series of resultant arc and back-arc basin environments with concomitant metallogeny from Late Mesozoic to Late Cenozoic times. This activity had produced four such sutures separated by four terranes. The below map shows these features – (from north to south) –

Qidam Terrane

AKMS - ALTYN – KUNLUN SUTURE

Kunlun Fault

Xiangshiha Fault / Kangting Fault

Songpan Ganze Terrane

JSSZ - JINSHA SUTURE ZONE– Yangtse river

Quiantang Terrane

BNS- BANGONG-NUJIANG SUTURE– Mekong river

Jiali Fault – Salween river

Shiquan River– Nam Tso mélange zone

Luobadui Milashan fault

Lhassa Terrane

ITS -INDUS – YARLUNG – ZANGPO SUTURE – Tsangpo river

Geological formations and associated mineral deposits were also shifted to new places because this major activity.

Fig. 3a.NOTE THE GANGDISE BATHOLITH OF LHAASA TERRAIN SWINGS TO BOMI-CHAAYU BATHOLITH IN SOUTH CHINA AND TO DIANXI-BURMA BATHOLITH IN EASTERN BURMA WEST OF GAOLIGONG FAULT AND EAST OF SAGAING FAULTS BNS COINCIDES WITH GAOLIGONG FAULT.

Fig-3b.NOTE THE ROCKS OF SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN LHASSA BLOCK SWINGS TO AND JOIN THE MOGOK METAMORPHIC BELT AND WESTERN GRANITE BELT OF BURMA, WHILE QUIANTNG AND SONGPAN GANZA BOLOCKS OF TIBET SWINGS TO SOUTHERN CHINA AND THAILAND FURTHER.

Fig.3c.

Fig.3-d. Note that the Gangdide granitoids are traceable to western Granites of Burma.

Fig. 3e. NOTE THE GANGDISE BATHOLITHIC GRANiTES AND THE LATE CRETACEOUS LINZIZONG VOLCANICS OF LHAASA TERRANE CONTINUES TO MOGOK BELT OF CENTRAL BURMA

Fig. 3f. SEE THE GANGDISE GRANITES OF LHASSA TERRANE SWINGING TO EASTERN BURMA (MOGOK METAMORPHIC BELT). Journal of Asian Earth SciencesVolume 110, 1 October 2015, Pages 170-188

NOTE IN THE BELOW MAP ALSO, THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS (AS WELL AS THE EARLY CENOZOIC BASINS WITHIN QUIANTANG TERRANE) IN THE THREE TERRANES OF TIBET SWERVES TO BURMA, SOUTH CHINA AND THAILAND.

Fig.3g.

The southerly extensions of the Burmese belts to Malaysia and Sumatra and eastern extensionsin parts of South China and Thailand are shown in the following maps (Searle et al., 2007) – (FIGs. 4a and 4b)

Fig-4a and 4.b.– NOTE THE CENTRAL MIGMATITE- S-GRANITES OF THE MAIN RANGES AND THE EASTERN BELT OF I- TYPE GRANITES CONTINUE FROM NORTHERN THAILAND TO MALASIA.MALASIA SEPARATED BY BENTOUNG – RAUB SUTURE.

Fig.5.Simplified map of major tectonic boundaries and Tertiary faults in Tibet continuing into China and Indochina regions. Note the Tectonic evolution of Tibet with Lhasa terrane in Eocene times, while Quiantang Terrane during Eocene – Oligoceme times, and Songpan Ganze Terrane during Oligocene – Miocene and Quaidam basin during Plio-Quaternary period.

The below map (Fig.6) shows the multiple effects of collision during 10 Ma and the strike-slip movements and the resultant separation of belts.

Fig.6.

As the geological formations and tectonics of SE Asia continue to Tibet, the associated metallogeny / mineralisation in the two areas also should be same.

METALLOGENY / MINERALISATION OF SE ASIA (INDOCHINA)

BURMA – INDOCHINA (THAILAND – MALASIA – LAOS – CAMBODIA – VIETNAM) - - INDONESIA REGION

Burma

Mineral belts in Myanmar

Myanmar hosts a variety of ore-deposits with economic significance and global recognition. It is a global source of true jade and produces some of the world’s finest rubies, with mines in the Mogok Valleyproviding the bulk of the world's supply for centuries.
Myanmar’s mineral deposits into different distinct metallogenic provincesby various workers. The following outlines the nine major ones:
1. Magmatic-hydrothermal granite and pegmatite-hosted minerals: World-class tin and tungsten mineralization can be found in the southern Myanmar. These mineralizations are often associated with Late Cretaceous-Eocene intrusive granites. It is dated around 45-62 Ma.
2. Skarn: Found along the Mogok Metamorphic belt, the native gold and base metalsulfideis hosted within phlogopite-bearing amphibolite-grade marbles. The age of the granite is dated back to 17Ma with zirconU-Pb geochronology.
3. Porphyry: The base metal sulphide and Au deposits are associated with magmatic intrusions. The mineralization at Shangalon in Myanmarpré is related with fine-grained diorite intrusion into the hosting batholith at 40Ma.
4. Epithermal: The epithermal Au-Cu mineralizationalong with auriferous quartz veins are hosted by Cretaceous granodioriteand diorite magmatic rocks.
5. Ultramafic: The ultramafic-hosted deposits are discovered along with ophiolite fragments within the Myanmar. The Tagaung-Myitkyina Belt (TMB) comprises ophiolitic mantle peridotiteand is a source of nickel laterite. In the Hpakant region, extensive pure | jade can be found. The Indo-Burman Range (e.g. Chin and Naga Hills) also harbors many Chromiteand nickel deposits.
6. Orogenic Au: Gold mineralization in Myanmarpré is inferred as Orogenic type and or Cretaceous–Paleogene fault zone related.
7. Sediment-hosted Pb-Zn: Several lead-zinc sulphide deposits hosted in carbonate rocks were found in the Upper Palaeozoic carbonate sequence of Shan Plateau.
8. Gemstone: The finest rubiesare sourced from Mogok Metamorphic Belt derived from marbles. The gem-quality rubies are formed under an Eocene-Oligocene high temperature metamorphism.
9. Sediment hosted Epithermal Au: The Kyaukpahto Mine is the largest gold-producing mine located around the Sagaing Division in Myanmarpé. Gold mineralization here is formed during extensional faulting (probably due to Sagaing fault) and intense hydrothermal alteration and silicification in late Eocene.

Petroleum basin

The hydrocarbon basins in Myanmarpré are mostly situated in the Central Myanmar Belt, e.g. Salin Basin, Chindwin Basin and Hukawng Basin over 1000km. The formations that comprise the hydrocarbon basins are sedimentary rocks of Eocene through mid-Miocene and sealed with interbedded Oligocene and Miocene shales and clays.

Major known mineral belts also run from north to south. Key mining areas include the tin-tungsten belt of the Tanintharyi Region, running along the eastern border with Thailand; the antimony belt in the states of Shan, Kayah and Mon; the lead-zinc-silver-barite belt of Shan State; the porphyry copper belt in Monwya and Wuntho; the nickel-chromite belt of the northern Chin Hills and Tagaung Taung; the gold-copper belt in the Sagaing Region; the oil-gas belt of central Myanmar and Ayeyarwady Delta; and the precious stone belts in the Kachin and Mogok Regions.

The below map (Fig.7) shows the mineral resources of Burma and adjoining areas of SE Asia.

Fig.7

MINERAL BELTS OF SOUTH EAST ASIA.

In the following maps, the mineral belts are classified as – (a) Basin Related deposits, (b) Porphyry related Skarn Deposits, (c) Sediment Hosted Orogenic Au deposits, (d) Epithermal Au Deposits.

Fig.- 8a. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major basin-related ore deposits. 1-Bawdwin (Myanmar); 2-Theingon (Myanmar); 3-Song Tho-Boh Yai (Thailand); 4-Duc Bo (Vietnam); 5-Bukit Ketaya and Bukit Botol (Tasik Chini) Malaysia; 6-Dairi (Sumatra). SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; regional tectonic map modified after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al. (2014).

Fig.-8b.SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major porphyry-related skarn Cu-Au deposits. 1-Bohr Thong-KTL-Tharkhek (Laos); 2-Phu Kham (Laos); 3-Phu Lon (Thailand); 4-Padan-Thengkham South and North-Khanong-Phabing (Sepon Mining District) (Laos); 5-Phuthep (PUT1 & PUT2) (Thailand); 6-Phu Thap Fah (Thailand); 7-Khao Phanom Pha (Thailand); 8-Singto-Khao Lek (Thailand); 9-Ban Bothong-Khao Phra Ngam (Thailand); 10-Frenchman Mine (Thailand); 11. Khe Rin (Phuoc Son) (Vietnam);-12. Ho Ray-Thac Trang-Nui Kem (Bong Mieu Mine) (Vietnam); 13-Mengapur (Malaysia). SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; regional tectonic map modified after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al. (2014).

Fig.-8c. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major sediment hosted/orogenic gold deposits. 1-Kyaukpahto (Myanmar); 2-Kwinthonze (Myanmar); 3-Modi Taung (Myanmar); 4-Meyon (Myanmar); 5-Huai Kham On (Thailand); 6-Langu (Thailand); 7-Sepon (Laos); 8-Bai Dat & Bai Go (Phuoc Son) (Vietnam); 9-Ho Gan (Bong Mieu) (Vietnam); 10-Selinsing (Malaysia); 11-Penjom (Malaysia); 12-Tersang (Malaysia); 13-Raub Australian (Malaysia); 14-Abong (Indonesia); 15-Sihayo (Indonesia). SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; regional tectonic map modified after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al. (2014).

Fig.-8d. SE Asia regional map showing locationsof the major epithermaldeposits. 1 —Monywa high-S(Myanmar); 2 —Phu He low-S(Laos); 3 —LCT low-S (Laos);4 —Ban Houayxai low-S(Laos); 5 —WangYai low-S (Thailand); 6 —Chatree and LD Prospectlow-S (Thailand); 7 —Miwah high-S (Indone sia); 8 —Martabehigh-S (Indonesia); 9 —Mangani low-S(Indonesia);10 —Tembang–Lebong cluster low-S (Indonesia); 11 —Ojolali low to intermediate-S (Indonesia); 12 —Way Linggo low-S (Indonesia) - (PDF) Tectonics and metallogeny of mainland Southeast Asia – A review and contribution. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262524876_Tectonics_and_metallogeny_of_mainland_Southeast_Asia_-_A_review_and_contribution[accessed Oct 05 2018].

Tibet and Chinese Ore Deposits

No composite maps of mineral deposits of Tibet and adjoining areas of China are not available to the author. Data on mineral resources of Tibet are scarce. Some of the data from available sources are given below.

Many Cenozoic metal deposits have been found during the past decade. Among them, the Fuwan Ag deposit in Guangdong is the largest Ag deposit in China. Besides, the largest Cu deposit of China in Yulong, Tibet, the largest Pb-Zn deposit of China in Jinding, Yunnan, and the largest Au deposit of China in Jinguashi, Taiwan, were also formed in the Cenozoic.

. The major reason for so many important “present” deposits formed during such a short period of geological history is that different tectonic settings control different kinds of magmatic activity and mineralization at the same time.In southwestern China, porphyry-type Cu deposits such as Yulong were formed during the early stage of the Himalayan orogeny, sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits such as Jinding were formed within intermontane basins related to deep faults, and carbonatite-related deposits such as the Maoniuping REE deposit and alkalic magmatic rock-related deposits such as the Beiya Au deposit originated from the mantle source. In southeastern China, the Fuwan Ag deposit was related to continental rifting which was triggered by the mantle plume. In Taiwan, the Jinguashi Au deposit was formed during the subduction process of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate. (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229991575_Cenozoic_Mineralization_in_China).

Porphyry copper deposits are the most important one which concentrate in Gangdese, Changdu-Sanjiang, Dexing and East Tianshan. The Cenozoic and Mesozoic are the major metallogenic epochs. Four main metallogenic epochs are been studied based on the copper ore geochronological data including Precambrian Era (Archean and Proterozoic), Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era and Cenozoic Era..

(A Preliminary Review of Metallogenic Regularity of Tin Deposits in China -February 2015 · Acta Geologica Sinica),

A lot of new gold deposits have been found on the eastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau during the past two decades. Among them, three main types of gold deposits have been recognized, including quartz-vein-type, shearzone-type and porphyry-type. The former two types of gold deposits are mainly hosted within metamorphic rocks, while the latter is related to Cenozoic magmatism. Several gold deposits, such as the Sandiao deposit, the Baijintaizi deposit, the Pusagang deposits, provide new constraints on gold mineralization on the eastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Even though the gold deposits (for example, the Shuibaiyang deposit, Ruoji deposit and Pusagang deposit) were formed at different episodes, all of them are genetically related to tectonic movements in large-scale shear zones.It looks like that tectonic events (including large-scale strike-slip) between Paleogene and Neogene had a wide influence upon gold mineralization, with new deposits formed and old deposits enriched or superimposed to be a higher grade by new stage of mineralization. The above data suggest that gold deposits were not only concentrated in some areas, but also formed mainly at different boundaries of geological times, indicating that there existed some peak stages of gold mineralization (metallogenic episodes), and that the gold deposits were formed mainly by episodic mineralization. (Episodes of Cenozoic Gold Mineralization on the Eastern Margin of the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau: 40Ar/39...December 2010 · Acta Geologica Sinica)

Among the endogenetic deposits in the Sanjiang area and at the west margin of the Yangtze platform, Himalayan deposits are the most important and contribute a large proportion of the resources of superlarge deposits. Among the controlled resources of this region, 84% of copper resources, 67% of Pb-Zn, 31% of Ag, 77% of gold and 24% of tin come from Himalayan deposits on the east side of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Mineralization is manifested by gold deposits related to K-rich lamprophyre, REE deposits related to alkalic complexes and Cu-Au-polymetallic deposits related to alkaline porphyry. (Time Sequence of Himalayan Endogenetic Mineralization on the East Side of the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau-Acta Geologica Sinica 74(3):447 - 451 · September 2010).

The Yinyan tin-bearing granites are composite. They yield a K-Ar age of about 92 Ma. They are oversatured, peralkaline and rich in fluorine, tin, molybdenum and bismuth. They have a REE pattern which is similar to the S-type granites of south China. Explosive volcanic phenomena can generally be seen at the top of granites. so many important “present” deposits formed during such a short period of geological history

Ore bodies occur at the upper part of these granites, which have the shape of an inverted cup. Ore minerals are mainly major cassiterite and subordinate wolframite, bismuthinite and molybdenite. (A New Type of Tin Deposit — The Yinyan Porphyry Tin Deposit in China - Geology of Tin Deposits in Asia and the Pacific pp 487-494 | Guan Xunfan; Shou Yongqin; Xiao Jinghua; Liang Shuzhao; Li Jinmao).ol).

Chinese geologists have found deposits of copper, iron, lead and zinc ore along the Qinghai-Tibet Railroad route, the state news media said Thursday, adding that the area may also have petroleum potential.Total possible reserves could equal more than 20 million tons of copper and 10 million tons of lead and zinc(Valuable mineral deposits found along Tibet railroad route - Business - International Herald Tribune, JAN. 25, 2007).

Estimated reserves of 760 million tons of high-grade iron ore were found in the Kunlun Mountains on the western Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and southern Xinjiang Province. The midwestern part of the Qiangtang basin in northern Tibet, which is also along the railroad, has favorable conditions for oil and natural gas and promising reserves. Mineral discoveries since 1999, including three major copper deposits in Yulong and in the Pulang and Yangla regions of Yunan Province, will add 26.8 million tons of copper to Chinese mineral reserves.

Chinese geologists have discovered more than 600 new sites of copper, iron, lead and zinc ore deposits on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau since 1999. Preliminary estimates show the plateau has reserves of 30 million to 40 million tons of copper, 40 million tons of lead and zinc and billions of tons of iron. Geologists have discovered three large high-grade iron ore deposits on the plateau, including the one in Nyixung with reserves of 300 million to 500 million tons. Large quantities of oil shale resources, which could be turned into oil, were also found on the plateau.The plateau may have "large or super-large" deposits of hydrocarbon resources. China has started toexploit three of the plateau's copper mines in Qulong, Pulang and Yangla regions. (Huge mineral resources found on Qinghai-Tibet plateau- (Xinhua)
Updated: 2007-02-13 19:14).

THE OVERALL DISTRIBUTION OF ALL THE DEPOSITS OF VARIOUS MINERALS KNOWN FROM THE TIBET-CHINA REGION THAT ARE BEING EXPLORED AND EXPLOTER AT PRESENT FALLS ON THE EASTERN SIDE OF THE TIBET (QUINGHAI-TIBET) PLATEAU AND IN THE YUNON AREA OF SW CHINA BORDERING BURMA- INDOCHINA REGION.

The below maps (Fig.9a and Fig.9b) give the data on some of the mineral deposits in the southern Lhasa Terrane of Tibet.

Fig.9a - Geological setting of the Lhasa terrane, southern Tibet (modified from Wen 2007; Hou et al. 2009; Zhao et al. 2009). The broad pink line represents the present northern limit of the underthrust Indian plate beneath the Tibetan Plateau (Kumar et al. 2006; Kind and Yuan 2010; Zhao et al. 2010), whereas the broad blue line is its estimated location in the mid-Miocene; the convergence direction is shown with a black arrow (see text for data sources). The locations of major porphyry Cu – Mo ± Au

Fig.9b. Location of the Jiama deposit in the Gangdese Metallogenic Belt. (a) The Gangdese Metallogenic Belt in the context of the Tibetan Plateau. (b) Volcano-sedimentary strata, granitoids, and the major porphyry and skarn deposits. Modified from Zhu et al. (2011). Abbreviations: JSSZ = Jinsha suture zone; BNSZ = Bangong–Nujiang suture zone; SNMZ = Shiquan River– Nam Tso mélange zone; IYZSZ = Indus–Yarlung Zangbo suture zone.

THE ABOVE DATA CLEARLY DEMONSTRATE THAT THE METALLOGENY IN BOTH TIBET AND SE ASIA CONTINUE SIMILAR TO THE CONTINUATION OF DRAINAGES OF MAJOR RIVERS AS WELL AS THE INTERVENING MOUNTAIN RANGES. THUS THE MEKONG – GANGA LINK THROUGH METLLOGENY IS ALSO ESTABLISHED.

Now where are evidences from Valmiki Ramayana for this metallogenic link between Mekong and Ganga? In my earlier article on “Origin of Ganges and tectonics of Himalayas –embedded geological truths in Valmiki Ramayana”, I had described the following -

1. Valmiki through the words of Rishi Viswamitra narrated the story of the life ofGanga / Ganges and the birth of Lord Kaartikeya (Subramanya / Saravana -ஸுப்ரமணியா / சரவணா-Tamil). These two intermingled stories were allegories to a probable asteroid impact on the Palaeo-Tethys sea between Mount Kailash and Himalayas and related geological activities. The force of the asteroid impact was reduced and retarded by the huge fire engulfing the asteroid when it entered the earth’s atmosphere, and accompanied by the powerful winds and was further cooled down by the waters of Akash Ganga.

2. In the story of the birth of Lord Kaartikeya, it was stated that the ‘Tejus’ (Energy/spirit) of Lord Rudra was let out onto the earth – yetu kshubhitam tejaha hi tatu mahheetalay pramumocha (1-36-16 & 17), indicating a probable asteroid impact on earth from Outer Space.

3. It was accompanied by the excessive heat of Agni and Vaayu (wind) - hutasyanam vaayusamanvitaha (1-36-18 & 19), indicating probably eruption of volcanoes and emplacement of white granites, which was later covered by white snow –White Mountain -(swetaparvataha samjaataha)(1-36-19).

It is significant that Mt Kailash and the Kailash ranges are known in Chinese and Tibetan languages as Gangdisi Shan, and Gang Tise, Gangdisê Range respectively, indicating its affinity to river Ganga.

4. The below map shows that the Sweta (White) Mountain is nothing but a part of Kailash range of mountains.

5. The volcanic eruption accompanied by excessive heat was cooled down by the Aakaasa Ganga (Ganges from the sky), which not only formed white (Snow and iceclad) mountains, but also precipitated many of the precious metals such as gold (kaanchanam cha), silver(hiranyam yeva), copper(tammram yeva), steel (kaarshyaayasam cha), Tinsheet (trapu cha)- Tagaram (தகரம்)– Tin coated Iron sheet as a slag in the process – (in the process of special steel) -(thasya MALAM trapu cha ) and tin (seesakam yeva) (1-37-19 & 20).

6. Many parts of Himalayas were covered by this eruption (1-37-15). The entire volcanic material was later buried beneath the Himalayas- haimavatey paaday sannivesyataam (1-37-17).

7. It can be seen that the exact metallogeny of different minerals as has been proved today and being exploited in the southern Tibet has been described in great detail in the Valmiki Ramayana. Thus the knowledge of the geology and metllogeny of Tibetan Himalayas were known to ancient Indians as evidenced by this slokam.

↧

Elamites bring 3 lions as tribute, an Indus Script Hypertext rebus metaphor signifies brass smithy, forge

October 20, 2018, 3:52 pm

≫ Next: Punch-marked coin symbols are Indus Script Cipher continuum, signify wealth-accounting mint ledgers

≪ Previous: Mekong-Ganga, physical, metallurgical connections, geographical evidences from Valmiki Ramayana -- K. Gopalakrishnan

https://tinyurl.com/yc93poms

A pair of eagles ligatured with feline paws. Persepolis.
Image result for taurus lion persepolis

The famous Eastern Stairway of Apadana palace of Persepolis with preserved reliefs, depicting lion and bull,

Persepolis, King Darius’ palace, c. 6-5th. C. BC. Wall carving of tribute bearers.

Relief from Persepolis (Apadana east stairs) that shows the Elamites bringing tribute. In this case, it consists of a mother lioness and her two cubs, who are being individually carried by the Elamites.

kolom'three' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge'
ariye'lion' rebus: āra'brass'

One lion looks back: krammara'look back' rebus: kamar'smith'

On the bottom border of the frieze are a set of lotuses. tāmarasa'lotus' rebus: tāmra'copper'.

Thus, the tribute brought in by the Elamites is brass from smithy, forge.

Statuette of a man with an oryx, a monkey, and a leopard skin

Statuette of a man with an oryx, a monkey, and a leopard skin

Period: Neo-Assyrian

Date: ca. 8th century B.C.

Geography: Mesopotamia, Nimrud (ancient Kalhu)

Culture: Assyrian

Medium: Ivory

Dimensions: H. 5 5/16 x W. 3in. (13.5 x 7.6cm)

Classification: Ivory/Bone-Sculpture

Credit Line: Rogers Fund, 1960

Accession Number: 60.145.11

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/60.145.11/

Indus Script Hypertexts as tribute bearers

kõda'young bull-calf'. Rebus: kũdār'turner'; kundana 'fine gold' (Kannada).
sena'falcon' rebus: senvi'general', sena'thunderbolt', श्येन m. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man) RV. अशनि 'thunderbolt' rebus: āhangar 'blacksmith'
kuṭhāru = amonkey (Sanskrit) Rebus: kuṭhāru'armourer'
miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med'copper' (Slavic languages)...

↧

Punch-marked coin symbols are Indus Script Cipher continuum, signify wealth-accounting mint ledgers

October 21, 2018, 6:25 pm

≫ Next: Ancient Bhārat of 19th cent. BCE as a Maritime, ship-building nation along Indian Ocean Rim, evidence of sewn boats from Red Sea port of Ayn Sukhna comparable to Kerala catamarans

≪ Previous: Elamites bring 3 lions as tribute, an Indus Script Hypertext rebus metaphor signifies brass smithy, forge

https://tinyurl.com/yaqxxyk2

https://tinyurl.com/yc65vb6k

"Note:- The information about the subject has been Extracted/ Compiled from Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia and RBI Monetary Museum Site. It is very difficult to know today where the concept of coinage first evolved, but based on available evidences, it appears that the concept of money (as coins, which by definition here would be a piece of metal of defined weight stamped with symbol of authority for financial transaction), was conceived by three different civilizations independently and almost simultaneously. Coins were introduced as a means to trade things of daily usage in Asia minor, India and China in 6th century BCE. Most historians agree that the first coins of world were issued by Greeks living in Lydia and Ionia (located on the western coast of modern Turkey). These first coins were globules of Electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver. These were crude coins of definite weight stamped with incuse punches issued by the local authorities in ~650 BCE. Most likely the first coins of India were minted just before 5th century BCE in northern and central India. Although, few historian have suggested (based on vedic records) that India minted perhaps the first coins of the world which were introduced even earlier than Lydian/Ionian coins, in 8th century BCE; most scholars do not agree with this theory. Both, literary and archaeological evidence confirm that the Indians invented coinage somewhere between 5th to 6th century BCE. A hoard of coins discovered at Chaman Huzuri in 1933 contained 43 silver punch-marked coins (the earliest coins of India) with Athenian (coins minted by Athens city of Greece) and Achaemenian (Persian) coins. Bhir (Taxila) hoard discovered in 1924 contained 1055 punch-marked coins in very worn out condition and two coins of Alexander in mint condition. These archaelogical evidences clearly indicate that the coins were minted in India long before 4th century BCE i.e. before Greeks advanced towards India (Alexander's invasion of Persia and India). Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi in 4h-5th century BCE in which he has mentioned Satamana, Nishkas, Sana, Vimastika, Karshapana and it's various sub-divisions to be used in financila transactions. Thus coins are known in ancient Indian literature from 500 BC. There is also a strong belief that silver as a metal which was not available in Vedic India (pre 600 BC), became abundantly available by 500-600 BC. Most of the silver came from Afganistan and Persia as a result of international trade. Punch Marked Coins
The earliest coins of India are commonly known as punch-marked coins. As the name suggests, these coins bear the symbols of various types, punched on pieces of silver of specific weight. Interestingly earliest Indian coins have no defined shapes and they were mostly uniface. Secondly, these coins lack any inscriptions written in contemporary languages and almost always struck in silver. These unique characters makes early India coins very different than their contemporaries in Greece. Many early historians believed that concept of coinage was introduced in India by Greeks. But unlike Indian punch-marked coins, Greek coins had inscriptions, they were round in shape, were stamped on both the sides and minted using silver, electrum and gold too. Today we are certain that the concept of coinage was invented in India independent of foreign influence which imparted the unique characteristics to these punch-marked coins, not seen in any other coins of the ancient world.
Punch-marked coins are marked with 1-5 (and sometimes more) marks representing various symbols. Two well known numismatists, D. B. Spooner and D.R. Bhandarkar after careful study independently concluded that the punching of various symbols representing animals, hills, tree and human figures followed a definite pattern and these coins were issued by royal authority."

The 'twist' hieroglyph infixed within three 'oval- or lozenge-shaped' spokes or strands; the other three spokes or strands are 'arrowheads' -- all emanating from a dotted circle.

Imperial Punch Marked Coin Type 2

Imperial Punch Marked Coin Type 3

The 'twist's is a hieroglyph मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi) rebus: meḍ'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages) medhā 'yajna, dhanam'.

The bent-silver punch-marked coin has unique signifiers of three oval or lozenge-shapes and three arrowhead shapes emanating from a central dotted circle.

See Indus Script hypertext पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' signifies pōḷa ‘magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4', पोलाद pōlāda, 'crucible steel cake'--पोलाद pōlāda, 'steel' = ukku 'wootz steel' derived from Vedic utsa 'spring'; eraka, urku 'moltencast' https://tinyurl.com/y9so6ubv

http://indiancoinsgks.blogspot.com/2014/04/indias-first-coinage-punch-marked-coins.html

The oval or lozenge-shape has a unique significance in the context of crucible steel or steel cakes made in ancient India. This is also described as a buns-ahaped ingot.

This is an addendum to Slide 33. Early Harappan zebu figurine with incised spots from Harappa. Some of the Early Harappan zebu figurines were decorated. One example has incised oval spots. It is also stained a deep red, an extreme example of the types of stains often found on figurines that are usually found in trash and waste deposits. Approximate dimensions (W x H(L) x D): 1.8 x 4.6 x 3.5 cm. (Photograph by Richard H. Meadow) http://www.harappa.com/figurines/33.html
The oval spots are shaped like the copper ingots shown on this photograh of Maysar, c. 2200 BCE:
Maysar c.2200 BCE Packed copper ingots INGOTS
mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali)
Another artifact which compares with the described shape of mūhā mẽṛhẽt 'steel ingot' is shown in the characteristic oval shape of a crucible steel buttton.
Crucible steel button. Steel smelted from iron sand in a graphite crucible.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crucible_steel_button.jpg
Decipherment of the Harappa figurine on Slide 33:
पोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu' Rebus: magnetite, citizen.(See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/08/zebu-archaeometallurgy-legacy-of-india.html )
mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali)
खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. (Marathi)
The figurine signifies ingots of  पोळ [pōḷa], ‘magnetite’. This is a metalwork catalogue message in Indus Script Corpora.

The following proverb indicates the exalted status of the zebu, bos indicus which read rebus as पोळ‘magnetite, ferrite ore’ is the life-sustaining wealth of the artisans: ज्याची खावी पोळी त्याची वाजवावी टाळी. Of whom you eat the salt, him laud and exalt. टाळी (p. 196) ṭāḷī f (ताल S)  Beating the hands together.
There is a remarkable expression in Tamil which signifies the homonymous writing of similar sounding words as pictures in Indus Script. The expression is: போலியெழுத்து pōli-y-eḻuttu, n. < id +. 1. Syllable or letter resembling another in sound, as அய் for ஐ, அவ் for ஔ ஓர் எழுத்துக் குப் பிரதியாகஅவ்வொலியில் அமையும் எழுத்து. (நன். 124.) 2. Letter substituted for another different in sound, as in சாம்பர் for சாம்பல்; ஓர் எழுத்துக்குப் பிரதியாக வரும் எழுத்து. (நன்.)

போலியெழுத்து pōli-y-eḻuttu can thus be translated as rebus writing of Indus Script.

I suggest that since the majestic dewlap is the most characteristic feature of the zebu, the following etyma reinforce the identification of zebu,bos indicus as पोळ   pōḷa m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large: पोळी   pōḷī fig. A dewlap. पोळी पिकणें g. of s. To begin to fare sumptuously; to get into good living.

The oval-shaped incised spots on the zebu figurine signify crucible steel cakes and hence may be calledपोळ   pōḷa पोळें   pōḷēṃ   पोळा   pōḷā  पोळी   pōḷī f. n C A cake-form or flat honeycomb; fig. Any squeezed and compressed cakeform body or mass. पोळी (p. 305) pōḷī f A plain wheaten cake: also a cake composed of rice-flour boiled and rolled up with wheaten. 2 The cake-form portion of a honeycomb. 3 fig. Any squeezed and compressed cakeform body or mass. 4 Cotton steeped in a dye of lác, lodhra &38;c., flattened into the form of a cake, and dried;--forming afterwards, with water, a sort of red ink. 5 fig. A dewlap. पोळी पिकणें g. of s. To begin to fare sumptuously; to get into good living.
The smelting processes involved in making such crucible steel cakes are expressed by the following semantics of cognate words: अहारोळी   ahārōḷī f (अहार & पोळी) A cake baked on embers.पोळणें   pōḷaṇēṃ v i To catch, burn, singe; to be seared or scorched.  पोळा   pōḷā A kindled portion flying up from a burning mass, a flake.  पोळींव   pōḷīṃva p of पोळणें Burned, scorched, singed, seared. पोळभाज   pōḷabhāja f (पोळणें&38; भाजणें To burn &38;c.) In agriculture. A comprehensive term for the operations connected with the burning of the ground.

The cultural significance attached to the crucible steel cake may be seen from the practice of offering a cake atop the Holi festival fire which is called : होळीची पोळी (p. 527) hōḷīcī pōḷī f The right (of villagers, esp. of the मुखत्यार पाटील) of first placing a पोळी (or cake) upon the pile which is kindled at the close of the festival of the होळी. 2 The cake so designated and applied.

दुपोडी पोळी (p. 237) dupōḍī pōḷī f (दु, पूड, पोळी) A पोळी or stuffed cake doubled up.

दक्षिणा (p. 230) dakṣiṇā f (S) Money or presents given to Bráhmans or young virgins upon occasions. Pr. भातभक्षणा पोळी द0.
Combined rebus reading: ayakāra ‘iron-smith’ (Pali).

kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' Hieroglyph: kāˊṇḍa (kāṇḍá -- TS.) m.n. ʻ single joint of a plant ʼ AV., ʻ arrow ʼ MBh., ʻ cluster, heap ʼ (in tr̥ṇa -- kāṇḍa -- Pāṇ. Kāś.). [Poss. connexion with gaṇḍa -- 2makes prob. non -- Aryan origin (not with P. Tedesco Language 22, 190 < kr̥ntáti). Prob. ← Drav., cf. Tam. kaṇ ʻ joint of bamboo or sugarcane ʼ EWA i 197]

Pa. kaṇḍa -- m.n. ʻ joint of stalk, stalk, arrow, lump ʼ; Pk. kaṁḍa -- , °aya -- m.n. ʻ knot of bough, bough, stick ʼ; Ash. kaṇ ʻ arrow ʼ, Kt. kåṇ, Wg. kāṇ, kŕãdotdot;, Pr. kə̃, Dm. kā̆n; Paš. lauṛ. kāṇḍ, kāṇ, ar. kōṇ, kuṛ. kō̃, dar. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, kã̄ṛī ʻ torch ʼ; Shum. kō̃ṛ, kō̃ ʻ arrow ʼ, Gaw. kāṇḍ, kāṇ; Kho. kan ʻ tree, large bush ʼ; Bshk. kāˋ'n ʻ arrow ʼ, Tor. kan m., Sv. kã̄ṛa, Phal. kōṇ, Sh. gil. kōn f. (→ Ḍ. kōn, pl. kāna f.), pales. kōṇ; K. kã̄ḍ m. ʻ stalk of a reed, straw ʼ (kān m. ʻ arrow ʼ ← Sh.?); S. kānu m. ʻ arrow ʼ, °no m. ʻ reed ʼ, °nī f. ʻ topmost joint of the reed Sara, reed pen, stalk, straw, porcupine's quill ʼ; L. kānã̄ m. ʻ stalk of the reed Sara ʼ, °nī˜ f. ʻ pen, small spear ʼ; P. kānnā m. ʻ the reed Saccharum munja, reed in a weaver's warp ʼ, kānī f. ʻ arrow ʼ; WPah. bhal. kān n. ʻ arrow ʼ, jaun. kã̄ḍ; N. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, °ṛo ʻ rafter ʼ; A. kã̄r ʻ arrow ʼ; B. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ,°ṛā ʻ oil vessel made of bamboo joint, needle of bamboo for netting ʼ, kẽṛiyā ʻ wooden or earthen vessel for oil &c. ʼ; Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻ stalk, arrow ʼ; Bi. kã̄ṛā ʻ stem of muñja grass (used for thatching) ʼ; Mth. kã̄ṛ ʻ stack of stalks of large millet ʼ, kã̄ṛī ʻ wooden milkpail ʼ; Bhoj. kaṇḍā ʻ reeds ʼ; H. kã̄ṛī f. ʻ rafter, yoke ʼ, kaṇḍā m. ʻ reed, bush ʼ (← EP.?); G. kã̄ḍ m. ʻ joint, bough, arrow ʼ, °ḍũ n. ʻ wrist ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ joint, bough, arrow, lucifer match ʼ; M. kã̄ḍ n. ʻ trunk, stem ʼ, °ḍẽ n. ʻ joint, knot, stem, straw ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ joint of sugarcane, shoot of root (of ginger, &c.) ʼ; Si. kaḍaya ʻ arrow ʼ. -- Deriv. A. kāriyāiba ʻ to shoot with an arrow ʼ.kāˊṇḍīra -- ; kāṇḍakara -- , kāṇḍārā -- ; *dēhīkāṇḍa -- Add.Addenda: kāˊṇḍa -- [< IE. **kondo* -- , Gk. kondu/los ʻ knuckle ʼ, ko/ndos ʻ ankle ʼ T. Burrow BSOAS xxxviii 55]S.kcch. kāṇḍī f. ʻ lucifer match ʼ? (CDIAL 3023) kāṇḍakara ʻ worker with reeds or arrows ʼ. [kāˊṇḍa -- , kará -- 1]L. kanērā* m. ʻ mat -- maker ʼ; H. kãḍerā m. ʻ a caste of bow -- and arrow -- makers ʼ.(CDIAL 3024) Rebus: लोखंडकाम (p. 723) [ lōkhaṇḍakāma ] n Iron work; that portion (of a building, machine &c.) which consists of iron. 2 The business of an ironsmith.लोहोलोखंड (p. 723) [ lōhōlōkhaṇḍa ] n (लोह & लोखंड) Iron tools, vessels, or articles in general. khāṇḍa 'tools, metalware'.

The lozenge or oval shape has a unique significance in the context of crucible steel or cake of steel made in a crucible in ancient India.

kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Hieroglyph: kuṭilá ʻbent, crookedʼ Rebus 1: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) Hieroglyph:goṭa a seed or berry. Rebus 2: khōṭa 'alloy ingot' (Marathi) Alternative reading: muh 'ingot' (Oval or lozenge-shape) PLUS

kāˊṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: khāˊṇḍa 'equipment'. Thus, the three ovels and three arrow signify smithy/forge (for) ingots and equipment. The dotted circle is: dāya 'one in dice' rebus: dhāv 'ore' PLUS v r̥tta, vaṭṭa 'cirle' rebus together as an expression: dhāvaḍ 'smelter'.

M428 Mohenjo-daro. Sun's rays, hieroglyph on seal. arka 'sun, sun's rays' rebus: arka 'copper, gold', eraka 'molten cast'. Synonym of arka: kundaṇa 'fine gold'. This pictograph is signified on the belly of the one-horned bull of a pectoral from Mohenjo-daro.

Sun hieroglyph: arka 'sun' rebus: erako 'moltencast' arka 'copper, gold'.

Six spokes emanating from 'dotted circle' are topped with multiple counts (2 or 3 each) of ligatured hieroglyphs: arrow, loop (with variants of ovals, buds, fish, hour-glass, one-horned young bull). dula 'two' rebus; dul'metal casting' kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' kāca 'loop' rebus:kāsa 'bronze' mũh 'oval shape' rebus: mũh 'ingot' ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'metal alloy' aya 'iron' vajra (octagonal) samghāta 'adamantine glue', samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'.

"Kārshāpaṇas were basically silver pieces stamped with one to five or six rūpas ('symbols') originally only on the obverse side of the coins initially issued by the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas, and generally carried minute mark or marks to testify their legitimacy. Silver punch-marked coins ceased to be minted sometime in the second century BCE but exerted a wide influence for next five centuries." (Parmeshwari Lal Gupta. Coins, National Book Trust. pp. 7–11.)
Punch-Marked Coin from the Early Third Century B.C. (Image courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Errington, British Museum)

“Some Taxila coins bear the legend Pancanakame (Alan, CCBM, pp. 214-19, Pl. XXXi and XXXiv). The legend shows that the coins were either the issues of a joint body of five nigamas or of a guild called pancanigama. Further, it indicates that there existed, in the Gandhara region during the third-second centuries BCE, several guilds of traders who were authorised to issue coins bearing their particular names. The nigama or negama series of Taxila coins refer to Ralimasa which, like Dojaka, Dosanasa and Hiranasama, has been differently interpreted. DR Bhandarkar is inclined to take it as the name of a city.”(Paramanand Gupta, 1989, Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals, Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, p.147).

Taxila coin
Semantics of negama (Brahmi) and kojaka (Kharosthi) on Taxila coin which meant 'merchant caravans' and 'treasurer' respectively as may be seen from the glosses of Indian sprachbund (both Indo-Aryan including Prakritam and Dravidian):

नि-° गम a town , city , market-place A1past. Car. a caravan or company of merchants (ifc. f(आ).) R. Das3. Lalit. trade , traffic W.

नि-° गम the root (as the source from which a word comes ; hence ifc.” derived from “) (Nir.) the वेद or the Vedic text Hariv. Pa1n2. Pur.&c any work auxiliary to and explanatory of the वेदs Mn. iv , 19 ( Kull.)  a sacred precept , the words of a god or holy man MBh. Pur.doctrine , instruction in , art of (comp.) Ba1lar.&c m. insertion (esp.of the name of a deity into a liturgical formula) S3rS. the place or passage (esp. of the वेदs) where a word occurs or the actual word quoted from such a passage Nir

One meaning of the word nigama is: the place where the passage from Veda occurs. It is possible that the semantics of nigama as a market or merchant guild are relatable to this vedic inference as the production of metalwork from a yajna, treating the yajna as a smelting process of metals, bahusuvarNaka, metals of many colours.

नि-° गम [p= 545,3] a caravan or company of merchants (ifc. f(आ).) R. Das3. ;a town , city , market-place A1past. Car. Lalit. m. insertion (esp. of the name of a deity into a liturgical formula) SrS.the वेद or the Vedic text Hariv. Pa1n2. Pur. &cany work auxiliary to and explanatory of the वेदs Mn. iv , 19 ( Kull. )doctrine , instruction in , art of (comp.) Ba1lar.= परिशिष्ट Cat. (Monier-Williams)

nigamá m. ʻ marketplace ʼ Āpast. [√gam]Pa. nigama -- m. ʻ market town ʼ, Pk. ṇigama -- m.; OSi. niyama ʻ marketplace ʼ.(CDIAL 7158)nigamagrāma ʻ market village ʼ. [nigamá -- , grāˊma -- ]Si. niyamgama* ʻ large village ʼ.(CDIAL 7159) Go<tiniGam>(A) {V} ``to ^start (doing something)''.(Munda etyma) It is possible that the gloss is linked to grAma 'village'. grāˊma m. ʻ troop, village ʼ RV., °aka -- m. MBh.Pa. gāma -- , °aka -- m. ʻ village ʼ, Aś. gāma -- , KharI. grama, Dhp. gama, NiDoc. grame pl.; Pk. gāma -- m. ʻ collection, village ʼ; Gy. eur. gav m. ʻ village, town ʼ; Ash. glam ʻ village ʼ, Kt. gŕom, Pr. gəm, Dm. gram, Paš. dar. lām, kuṛ. lāma, chil. lōm, ar. dlōm, lōm (not dialects in which it would collide with lām < kárman -- IIFL iii 3, 109), Niṅg. Shum. lām, Woṭ. gām m., Gaw. lām, Kal. grom, Kho. gram (in cmpds. and place names), Bshk. lām, Tor. gām, Mai. gã̄, Gau. gaõ, Sv. grām, Phal. grōm, Sh. girōm ʻ cowpen ʼ (earlier → Bur. *gir**lm ʻ clan, village ʼ Morgenstierne in Lorimer BurLg I, xxii), dr. gām ʻ village ʼ, gur. gāõ (← Ind. ~ kui < kuṭī -- ); K. gām m. ʻ village ʼ, S. gã̄u m., L. girã̄ m., P. grã̄, girã̄, °rāũ m., WPah. bhad. ḍḷã̄, bhiḍ. bhal. ḍḷaũ n., paṅ. cam. grã̄; cur. girã̄ ʻ field ʼ; rudh. gyeũ ʻ village ʼ, khaś. grão, Ku. gaũ, gng. gɔ̃, N. A. gāũ, B. Or. gã̄, Bi. gã̄w, Mth. gã̄o, gām, Bhoj. Aw. lakh. H. gã̄u m., Marw. gã̄v, G. gām n., M. gã̄v, gāv m.n., Ko. gã̄vu m., Si. gama; -- ext. -- ṭa -- : Sk. grāmaṭikā -- f. ʻ wretched village ʼ, Pk. gāmaḍa -- m., G. gāmṛũ n. ʻ small village ʼ.grāmín -- ; agrāmin -- , agrāmya -- , nirgrāmika -- , saṁgrāmá -- ; grāmakūṭa -- , grāmaṇīˊ -- , grāmadāra -- , grāmadhāna -- , grāmavāsin -- , grāmastha -- , grāmāntá -- , grāmārdha -- ; gōgrāma -- , nigamagrāma -- , paragrāma -- , pāṇḍavagrāma -- , pālagrāma -- , mātr̥grāma -- .Addenda: grāˊma -- : WPah.kṭg. (kc.) graũ m. (obl. kṭg. graũ, kc. grama) ʻ village ʼ.(CDIAL 4368)

Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/8 karshapana, makara type Weight: 1.17 gm., Diameter: 10x8 mm.

Obv.: Makara to right in form of an aquatic creature with fishtail and head of an elephant; Ujjain symbol at top.
Rev.: Ujjain symbol with a dot in each angle.
Reference: Pieper 366 (plate specimen)

The makara is the vāhana (mount) of Ganga, the goddess of the river Ganges, and of the sea-god Varuna. Its frontal part is that of a terrestrial animal, its hind part that of a sea-creature. The depiction of a creature with fish-tail and elephant's head, like on this coin, is frequently used in depictions of a makara.

धमक m. " a blower " , blacksmith (as blowing the forge) Un2. ii , 35 Sch.धम mfn. blowing , melting (ifc. ; cf. करं- , खरिं- , जलं- &c )धम् or ध्मा cl.1 P. ध्/अमति (A1. °ते Up. MBh. ; p. ध्मान्तस् = धमन्तस् BhP. x , 12 , 7 ; perf. दध्मौ ,. pl. A1. °मिरे MBh. ; aor. अध्मासीत् Ka1v. ;Prec. ध्मायात् or ध्मेयात् Gr. ; fut. धमिष्यति MBh. ; ध्मास्यति,ध्माता Gr. ; ind.p. -ध्म्/आय Br. ) to blow (either intrans. as wind [applied also to the bubbling सोम RV. ix , 73] or trans. as, to blow a conch-shell or any wind instrument) RV. &c  ;  to blow into (loc.) MBh. l , 813  ; to breathe out , exhale RV. ii , 34 , 1 MBh. xiv , 1732  ; to kindle a fire by blowing RV. ii , 24 , 7 MBh. ii , 2483  ; to melt or manufacture (metal) by blowing RV. &c  ; to blow or cast away MBh. v , 209 : Pass. धम्यते , ep. also °ति , ध्माय्/अते , °ति ( S3Br. MBh. ) to be blown &c : Caus. ध्मापयतिMBh.
(aor. अदिध्मपत् Gr. ; Pass. ध्माप्यते MBh. ) to cause to blow or melt  ; to consume by fire , reduce to cinder MBh. Sus3r. : Desid. दिध्नासति Gr.: Intens.  देध्मीयते Pa1n2. 7-4 , 31  ; दाध्मायते , p.
°यमान being violently blown (conch-shell) BhP. i , 11 , 2. [cf. Slav. dumo " smoke "]
धम mfn. blowing , melting (ifc. ; cf. करं- , खरिं- , जलं- &c ) धमनि f. the act of blowing or piping RV. ii , 11 , 8; (also °नी) a pipe or tube , (esp.) a canal of the human body , any tubular vessel , as a vein , nerve &c AV. ChUp. MBh. Sus3r. &c (24 tubular vessels starting from the heart or from the navel are supposed to carry the रच or chyle through the body)धम्यत् mfn. being blown or melted (Monier-Williams)

ध्म mfn. blowing , a blower (cf. तूण- , शङ्क-). ध्मा--कार m. a black-smith. I suggest that this expression is signified by the hieroglyph/hypertext: (dh)makara मकर m. a kind of sea-monster (sometimes confounded with the crocodile , shark , dolphin &c ; regarded as the emblem of काम-देव [cf. मोकर-केतन &c below] or as a symbol of the 9th अर्हत् of the present अवसर्पिणी ; represented as an ornament on gates or on head-dresses) VS. &c;one of the 9 treasures of कुबेर; one of the 8 magical treasures called पद्मिनी Ma1rkP.; a partic. magical spell recited over weapons R. (Monier-Williams)(Monier-Williams)

ध्मा or धम् √धम् cl.1 P. ध्/मति (A1. °ते Up. MBh. ; p. ध्मान्तस् = धमन्तस् BhP. x , 12 , 7 ; perf. दध्मौ ,3. pl. A1. °मिरे MBh. ; aor. अध्मासीत्Ka1v. ; Prec. ध्मायात् or ध्मेयात् Gr. ; fut. धमिष्यति MBh. ; ध्मास्यति,ध्माता Gr. ; ind.p. -ध्म्/आय Br. ) to blow (either intrans. as wind [applied also to the bubbling सोम RV. ix , 73] or trans. as, to blow a conch-shell or any wind instrument) RV. &c; to blow into (loc.) MBh. l , 813  ; to breathe out , exhale RV. ii , 34 , 1 MBh. xiv , 1732  ; to kindle a fire by blowing RV. ii , 24 , 7 MBh. ii , 2483  ; to melt or manufacture (metal) by blowing RV. &c  ; to blow or cast away MBh. v , 209 : Pass. धम्यते , ep. also °ति , ध्माय्/अते , °ति ( S3Br. MBh. ) to be blown &c : Caus. ध्मापयतिMBh. (aor.
अदिध्मपत् Gr. ; Pass. ध्माप्यते MBh. ) to cause to blow or melt  ;  to consume by fire , reduce to cinder MBh. Sus3r. : Desid. दिध्नासति Gr.: Intens. देध्मीयते Pa1n2. 7-4 , 31  ; दाध्मायते , p. °यमान being violently blown (conch-shell) BhP. i , 11 , 2. [cf. Slav. dumo " smoke "]
ध्मान n. blowing , puffing , swelling Sus3r.; ध्मापन (Caus. of √ धम्) n. the act of reducing to (powder , &c ) or any contrivance for it Car.; ध्मायत् mf(अन्ती)n. being blown , being melted &c (Monier-Williams)
ध्मात mfn. blown , blown up or into RV. &c; ध्मातृ m. a blower , smelter or melter (of metal) RV. v , 9 , 5; n. a contrivance for blowing or melting ib.;

dhmākara may have been a cognate of मकर [ makara ] m (S) An aquatic monster understood usually of the alligator, crocodile, and shark, but, properly, a fabulous animal. It is the emblem of the god of love. (Marathi) H گهڙيال घड़ियाल ghaṛiyāl [S. घण्टिका+आलः or आलु], s.m. A crocodile; the Gangetic alligator, Lacerta gangetica (cf. magar).H مگر मगर magar [Prk. मकरो; S. मकरः], s.m. An alligator; a crocodile. mahā kara = मकर [ makara ] is a hypertext or hieroglyph multiplex composed of a number of hieroglyph components:

1. Crocodile snout, ghara Rebus: khār ‘blacksmith’
2. Fish-tail, xolā Rebus: kolle 'blacksmith'
3. Elephant trunk as snout, ibha 'elephant' Rebus: ib 'iron'

కారుమొసలి a wild crocodile or alligator (Telugu).
Rebus: khār ‘blacksmith’ khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith.

Synonym: ayo ‘fish’ (Mu.); rebus: aya ‘(alloyed) metal’ (G.) kāru  a wild crocodile or alligator (Te.) Rebus:khār  a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār) (Kashmiri)
Traders’ Guild Coin – Nigama (2nd century BC), Copper, 1.29 g, Brahmi legend written in circular fashion, Nigamaye (of Nigam). The other side has a motif similar to capital U. The U hieroglyph on the reverse is a crucible: kuThara ‘crucible’ rebus: kuThAru ‘armourer’ koThAr ‘warehouse’.

Taxila, regional 'Guild' coinage, c. 2nd century BC, 'Five Guilds' type, MAC4423-4425, 4.76g. Obv: Dharmachakra (Wheel of Law) Rev: a row of Buddhist symbols (Triratna, Swastika, Triratna), Kharoshthi legend Panchanekame below.
http://classicalnumismaticgallery.com/searchauctionitem.aspx?auctioncode=2&pricerange=&keyword=&category=1&material=0&lotno=

“That the guilds or corporations of taders were empowerd to issue coins is attested by the Negama coins from Taxila. The word Negama (Skt. Naigamah here should be taken to mean ‘the śreṇis or corporations of merchants’. The Taxila Negama coins bear several other words: Dojaka, Atakataka, Ralimasa, Kaare, etc. (Allan, Catalogue of Coins of Ancient India, pp. 214-219, pls. XXXI and XXXIV). I think that these terms refer to the merchants’ localities where the respective coins were minted. Some Taxila coins bear the legend Pancanekame mening probably that they were issues of a joint body of five nigamas or of a guild called Panchanigama. This would indicate that in the Gandhara region during the 3^rd-2^nd centuries BCE, there existed several guilds of traders who were authorized to issue coins bearing their particular names.” (Bajpai, KD, 2004, Indian numismatic studies, Abhinav Publications, Delhi, p.2)

After Fig. 10.13. ibid. Coinage ascribable to the Mauryan and immediately post-Mauryan period. 6,7,8 silver punchmarked coins, national series; 9,10,11 coper cast coins; 12,13,15,16 die-struck copper coins; 14. inscribed copper coin, Taxila; obv. negama (Brahmi script), rev. kojaka (Kharosthi script). "We believe it is reasonable to conclude that during the Mauryan period silver punchmarked coins of the national series were very widely distributed in South Asia, and were accompanied by coins of the cast copper varieties."(Allchin, FR & George Erdosy, 1995, The archaeology of early historic South Asia: the emergence of cities and states, Cambridge University Press, p.221).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana

కాసు (p. 280) kāsu kāsu. [Tel.] n. A small copper coin, a pie. A coin in general, whether gold, silver or copper, thus బంగారు కాసు a gold coin. మడికాసు a silver coin (lit. white coin. "అది సుధాకరబింబమా కాదు మడికాసువన్నె వేలుపుటన్నువత్తి గాని." P. iv. 251, 551. కాసైనా లేదు there is not even a farthing. (The కాసు or farthing was called cash by the English, and the coin called ten cash was about one halfpenny: "twenty cash" being a penny, and eighty cash a fanam.) కాసంత kāsanta. n. A pie's worth కాసంతలేదు not a bit remains. Ta. kācu gold, gold coin, money, a small copper coin. Ma. kāśu gold, money, the smallest copper coin. Ko. ka·c rupee. To. ko·s id. Ka. kāsu the smallest copper coin, a cash, coin or money in general. Tu. kāsů an old copper coin worth half a pie, a cash. Te. kāsu a cash, a coin in general, a gold coin, money. Go. (Ko.) kāsu
pice (< Te.; Voc. 663). / ? Cf. Skt. karṣa-.(DEDR 1431) काश् [p= 280,2] cl.1 A1. काशते (perf. चकाशे , 3. pl. °शिरे) , to be visible , appear MBh. &c ; to shine , be brilliant , have an agreeable appearance ib. : cl.4. काश्यते Dha1tup. xxvi , 53 : Intens. P. A1. च्/आकशीति , चाकश्य्/अते , to shine brightly S3Br. ii Ka1tyS3r.;
to see clearly , survey S3Br. xi Pa1n2. 7-3 , 87 Va1rtt. 1 Pat.

காசு³ kācu , n. prob. kāš. cf. kāca. [M. kāšu.] 1. Gold; பொன். (ஆ. நி.) 2. Necklace of gold coins; அச்சுத்தாலி. காசும் பிறப்புங் கலகலப்ப (திவ். திருப்பா. 7). 3. An ancient gold coin = 28 gr. troy; ஒரு பழைய பொன்னாணயம். (Insc.) 4. A small copper coin; சிறுசெப்புக்காசு. நெஞ்சே யுனையோர் காசா மதியேன் (தாயு. உடல்பொய். 72). 5. Coin, cash, money; ரொக்கம். எப்பேர்ப்பட்ட பல காசா யங்களும் (S.I.I. i, 89). 6. Gem, crystal bead; மணி. நாண்வழிக் காசுபோலவும் (இறை. 2, உரை, பக். 29).

कर्ष [p= 259,3] m. ( √कृष्) , the act of drawing , dragging Pa1n2. mn. a weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy ; in common use 8 Rettis are given to the माष , and the कर्ष is then about 280 grains troy) Sus3r. VarBr2S. &c கஃசு kaḵcu, n. cf. karṣa. A measure of weight = ¼ பலம். தொடிப்புழுதி கஃசா வுணக்கின் (குறள், 1037). कार्षापणः णम् (or पणकः) A coin or weight of different values; पुराकल्प एतदासीत् षोडश माषाः कार्षापणं Mbh. on P.I.2.64. कार्षापणं तु विज्ञेयस्ताम्रिकः कार्षिकः पणः Ms.9.136,336;9.282. (= कर्ष). न हि काकिन्यां नष्टायां तदन्वेषणं कार्षापणेन क्रियते ŚB. on MS.4.3.39. -णम् Money, gold and silver. **कार्षा* पण[p= 276,3]** mn. (g. अर्धर्चादि ; cf. कर्ष्) " weighing a कर्ष " , a coin or weight of different values (if of gold , = 16 माषs » कर्ष ; if of silver , = 16 पणs or 1280 Kowries , commonly termed a Kahan ; if of copper , = 80 रक्तिकाs or about 176 grains ; but accord. to some = only 1 पण of Kowries or 80 Kowries) Mn. viii , 136 ; 336 ; ix , 282 (ifc.) worth so many कार्षापणs Pa1n2. 5-1 , 29 n. money , gold and silver L.

कर्ष [p= 259,3] 'a boat' (Monier-Williams)

కాసె (p. 280) kāse kāse. [Tel.] adj. Appertaining to the stonecutter trade, masonry, or brick-laying. కాసెవాడు or కాసెభట్టు a mason, a stonecutter, a bricklayer. కాసెపని masonry, building. కాసెయులి a stonecutter's chisel. రాయితొలిచే ఉలి, టంకము. కాసీడు (p. 280) kāsīḍu kāsīḍu. [Tel.] n. A mason. రాతి పనివాడు.

[quote] Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas* of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin –
कार्षापणशो ददाति
"he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or
कार्षापणम् ददाति
"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",
while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin".^[2] The Shatapatha Brahmana speaks aboutKārshāpaṇas weighing 100 ratis which kind were found buried at Taxila by John Marshall in 1912. The Golakpur (Patna) find pertains to the period of Ajātaśatru.^[3] The Chaman – I – Hazuri (Kabul) find includes two varieties of punch-marked Indian coins along with numerous Greek coins of 600-500 BCE, thereby indicating that those kind of Kārshāpaṇaswere contemporaneous to the Greek coins and in circulation as legal tender.^[4]
During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇa or Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part).The early indigenous Indian coins were called Suvarṇa (made of gold), Purāṇa or Dhārana (made of silver) andKārshāpaṇa (made of copper). The Golakpur (Patna) find is mainly pre-Maurya, possibly of the Nanda era, and appear to have been re-validated to make them kośa- praveśya (legal tender); the coins bearing larger number of marks are thought to be older in origin. The Maurya Empire was definitely based upon money-economy.^[5] The punch-marked copper coins were called paṇa.^[6] This type of coins were in circulation much before the occupation of Punjab by the Greeks ^[7] who even carried them away to their own homeland.^[8] Originally, they were issued by traders as blank silver bent-bars or pieces; the Magadha silver punch-marked Kārshāpaṇa of Ajatashatru of Haryanka dynasty was a royal issue bearing five marks and weighing fifty-four grains, the Vedic weight called kārsha equal to sixteen māshas.^[9]
Even during the Harappan Period (ca 2300 BCE) silver was extracted from argentiferous galena. Silver Kārshāpaṇas show lead impurity but no association with gold. The internal chronology of Kārshāpaṇa and the marks of distinction between the coins issued by the Janapadas and the Magadhan issues is not known, the Arthashastra of Kautilya speaks about the role of the Lakshanadhyaksha ('the Superintendent of Mint') who knew about the symbols and the Rupadarshaka ('Examiner of Coins'), but has remained silent with regard to the construction, order, meaning and background of the punched symbols on these coins hence their exact identification and dating has not been possible.^[10]
The English word, "Cash", is derived from the Sanskrit word, kārsha.^[11] The punch-marked coins were called "Kārshāpaṇa" because they weighed one kārsha each.^[12]Indian merchants, through land and sea routes, have traded with the east African, Arab and middle-east people from 12th century BCE onwards. The term Kārshāpaṇa referred to gold, silver and copper coins weighing 80 ratis or 146.5 grains; these coins, the earliest square in shape, followed the ancient Indian system of weights described in Manu Smriti.^[13] Use of money was known to Vedic people much before 700 BCE. The words,Nishka and Krishnala, denoted money, and Kārshāpaṇas , as standard coins, were regularly stored in the royal treasuries.^[14] The Local silver punch-marked coins, included in the Bhabhuā and Golakpur finds, were issued by the Janapadas and were in circulation during the rule of the Brihadratha Dynasty which was succeeded by the Magadha empire founded by the Haryanka dynasty in 684 BCE; these coins show four punch-marks - the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, arrows (three) and taurine (three) which were current even during the rule of Bimbisara (604-552 BCE). Ajatashatru (552-520 BCE) issued the first Imperial coins of six punch-marks with the addition of the bull and the lion. The successors of Ajatashatru who ruled between 520 and 440 BCE and the laterShishunaga dynasty and the nanda dynasty issued coins of five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol and any three of the 450 symbols. The Maurya coins also have five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, three-arched hill with crescent at top, a branch of a tree at the corner of a four-squared railing and a bull with a taurine in front. Punch-marked copper coins were first issued during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya or Bindusara. The Bhīr find includes Maurya coins and a coin of Diodotus I (255-239 BCE) issued in 248 BCE.^[15]

Sunga Empire, AE 1/2 Karshapana, c.187 BC-78 BCE
(No legend)
Elephant standing left facing tree, swastika above
(No legend)
Mountain, anchor, altar and voided cross
12mm x 14mm, 1.80g (across the flats)
Mitchener ACW 4378

kammaṭamu 'portable goldsmith's furnace' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

karibha ‘elephant trunk’ ibha ‘elephant’ rebus: karb ‘iron’ ib ‘iron’.

sattuvu (Kannada), svastika: sāthiyo (G.); satthia, sotthia (Pkt.) rebus: sattuvu pewter (Kannada), jasta 'zinc' (Hindi)

kaṇḍ 'fire-altar' (Santali)

kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'

OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse' PLUS ḍāng 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'.

khareḍo 'a currycomb (Gujarati) Rebus: karaḍā खरडें 'daybook, wealth-accounting ledger'. Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati)

The symbols on ancient coins signify metalwork wealth produced in ancient mints.
With the decipherment of Meluhha script & langauge of the Corpora of Inscriptions dated from ca. 3300 BCE (which is the date of the Harappa potsherd with three inscribed hieroglyphs signifying tagara 'tabernae montana' rebus: tagara 'tin'), it is now possible to delineate a glossary of hieroglyphs and readings in Meluhha for the parallels identified in a brilliant and lucid article of 1834 in JRAS.

Find spots of ancient coins of India
Find spots of late hoards of India Punch-marked coins

JOURNAL ARTICLE
ELIZABETH ERRINGTON The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-) Vol. 163 (2003), pp. 69-121
http://www.jstor.org/stable/42667165

http://coinindia.com/Fifty%20Coins%20map.jpg

Monographs of Theobald (1890, 1901) list 342 symbols deployed on punch-marked coins. These symbols also survive on later coinages of Ujjain or Eran or of many janapadas. One view is that early punch-marked coinage in Bharatam is datable to 10th century BCE, predating Lydia's electrum coin of 7th cent. BCE. “The coins to which these notes refer, though presenting neither king’s names, dates of inscription of any sort, are nevertheless very interesting not only from their being the earliest money coined in India, and of a purely indigenous character, but from their being stamped with a number of symbols, some of which we can, with the utmost confidence, declare to have originated in distant lands and inthe remotest antiquity…The coins to which I shall confine my remarks are those to which the term ‘punch -marked’ properly applies. The ‘punch’ used to produce these coins differed from the ordinary dies which subsequently came into use, in that they covered only a portion of the surface of the coin or ‘blank’, and impressed only one, of the many symbols usually seen on their pieces…One thing which is specially striking about most of the symbols representing animals is, the fidelity and spirit with which certain portions of it may be of an animal, or certain attitudes are represented…Man, Woman, the Elephant, Bull, Dog, Rhinoceros,Goat, Hare, Peacock, Turtle, Snake, Fish, Frog, are all recognizable at a glance…First, there is the historical record of Quintus Curtius, who describes the Raja of Taxila (the modern Shahdheri, 20miles north-west from Rawal Pindi) as offering Alexander 80 talents of coined silver (‘signati argenti’). Now what other, except these punch-marked coins could these pieces of coined silver have been? Again, the name by which these coins are spoken of in the Buddhist sutras, about 200 BCE was ‘purana’, which simply signies ‘old’, whence the General argunes that the word ‘old as applied to the indigenous ‘karsha’,was used to distinguish it from the new and more recent issues of the Greeks. Then again a mere comparison of the two classes of coins almost itself suffices to refute the idea of the Indian coins being derived from the Greek. The Greek coins present us with a portrait of the king, with his name and titles in two languages together with a great number and variety of monograms indicating, in many instances where they have been deciphered by the ingenuity and perseverance of General Cunningham and others, the names of the mint cities where the coins were struck, and it is our ignorance of the geographical names of the period that probably has prevented the whole of them receiving their proper attribution; but with the indigenous coins it is far otherwise, as they display neither king’s head, neame, titles or mongrams of any description…It is true that General Cunningham considers that many of these symbols, though not monograms in a strict sense, are nevertheless marks which indicate the mints where the coins were struck or the tribes among whom they were current, and this contention in no wise invalidates the supposition contended for by me either that the majority of them possess an esoteric meaning or have originated in other lands at a period anterior to the ir adoption for the purpose they fulfil on the coins in Hindustan.”

(W. Theobald, 1890, Notes on some of the symbols found on the punch-marked coins of Hindustan, and on their relationship to the archaic symbolism of other races and distant lands, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Bombay Branch (JASB), Part 1. History , Literature etc., Nos. III & IV, 1890, pp. 181 to 184) W. Theobald, Symbols on punch-marked coins of Hindustan (1890,1901).

1. A good example of constructed orthography of hieroglyph multiplex is a seal impression from Ur identified by CJ Gadd and interpreted by GR Hunter:

Seal impression, Ur (Upenn; U.16747); dia. 2.6, ht. 0.9 cm.; Gadd, PBA 18 (1932), pp. 11-12, pl. II, no. 12; Porada 1971: pl.9, fig.5; Parpola, 1994, p. 183; water carrier with a skin (or pot?) hung on each end of the yoke across his shoulders and another one below the crook of his left arm; the vessel on the right end of his yoke is over a receptacle for the water; a star on either side of the head (denoting supernatural?). The whole object is enclosed by 'parenthesis' marks. The parenthesis is perhaps a way of splitting of the ellipse (Hunter, G.R.,JRAS, 1932, 476). An unmistakable example of an 'hieroglyphic' seal. Hieroglyph: kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' (Telugu) Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron' (Santali) Hieroglyph: meḍha ‘polar star’ (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.Mu.) Thus, meḍ kuṭhi 'iron smelter'. (Parenthesis kuṭila is a phonetic determinan of the substantive gloss:  kuṭhi 'smelter'. It could also denote a smelter for kuṭila, 'tin metal').
kuṭi కుటి : శంకరనారాయణ తెలుగు-ఇంగ్లీష్ నిఘంటువు 1953  a woman water-carrier.
Splitting the ellipse () results in the parenthesis, ( ) within which the hieroglyph multiplex (in this case of Ur Seal Impression, a water-carrier with stars flanking her head) is infixed, as noted by Hunter.

The ellipse is signified by Meluhha gloss with rebus reading indicating the artisan's competence as a professional: kōnṭa 'corner' (Nk.); kōṇṭu angle, corner (Tu.); rebus: kõdā ‘to turn in a lathe’ (Bengali) Alternative reading; kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze'.

kõdā is a metals turner, a mixer of metals to create alloys in smelters.

The signifiers are the hieroglyph components: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal';  meḍha ‘polar star’ rebus: meḍ ‘iron’;  kōnṭa 'corner' rebus: kõdā ‘to turn in a lathe’; kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron/kuṭila, 'tin metal').

The entire hieroglyph multiplex stands deciphered: kõdā, 'metals turner' (with) meḍ ‘iron’ kuṭhi '
smelter', kuṭila, 'tin metal'.

2. This hieroglyph multiplex of the Ur Seal Impression confirms the rebus-metonymy-layered cipher of Meluhha glosses related to metalwork.

3. A characteristic feature of Indus writing system unravels from this example: what is orthographically constructed as a pictorial motif can also be deployed as a 'sign' on texts of inscriptions. This is achieved by a stylized reconstruction of the pictorial motif as a 'sign' which occurs with notable frequency on Indus Script Corpora -- with orthographic variants (Signs 12, 13, 14).
Signs 12 to 15. Indus script:

Identifying Meluhha gloss for parenthesis hieroglyph or ( ) split ellipse:  குடிலம்¹ kuṭilam, n. < kuṭila. 1. Bend curve, flexure; வளைவு. (திவா.) (Tamil) In this reading, the Sign 12 signifies a specific smelter for tin metal: kuṭi 'woman water-carrier'  rebus: rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron/ kuṭila, 'tin (bronze)metal; kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. āra-kūṭa, ‘brass’ (Samskritam) See: http://download.docslide.us/uploads/check_up03/192015/5468918eb4af9f285a8b4c67.pdf

It will be seen from Sign 15 that the basic framework of a water-carrier hieroglyph (Sign 12) is superscripted with another hieroglyph component, Sign 342: 'Rim of jar' to result in Sign 15. Thus, Sign 15 is composed of two hieroglyph components: Sign 12 'water-carrier' hieroglyph; Sign 342: "rim-of-jar' hieroglyph (which constitutes the inscription on Daimabad Seal 1).

kaṇḍ kanka ‘rim of jar’; Rebus: karṇaka ‘scribe’; kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar’. Thus the ligatured Glyph is decoded: kaṇḍ karṇaka ‘furnace scribe'
Daimabad Seal 1 (Sign 342: Two hieroglyph components: jar with short-neck and rim-of-jar) -- distringuished from broad-mouthed rimless pot which is another Sign hieroglyph.

Each hieroglyph component of Sign 15 is read in rebus-metonymy-layered-meluhha-cipher:  Hieroglyph component 1: kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron/kuṭila, 'tin metal'. Hieroglyph component 2: kanka, kārṇī-ka 'rim-of-jar' rebus: kanka, kārṇī-ka m. ʻsupercargo of a shipʼ 'scribe'.

Ligatured hieroglyph 15 using two ligaturing components: 1. water-carrier; 2. rim-of-jar. The ‘rim-of-jar’ glyph connotes: furnace account (scribe). Together with the glyph showing ‘water-carrier’, the ligatured glyphs of kuṭi ‘water-carrier’ + ‘rim-of-jar’ can thus be read as: kuṭhi kaṇḍa kanka ‘smelting furnace account (scribe)’.

m1405 Pict-97 Person standing at the centre pointing with his right hand at a bison facing a trough, and with his left hand pointing to the Sign 15.

This tablet is a clear and unambiguous example of the fundamental orthographic style of Indus Script inscriptions that: both signs and pictorial motifs are integral components of the message conveyed by the inscriptions. Attempts at 'deciphering' only what is called a 'sign' in Parpola or Mahadevan corpuses will result in an incomplete decoding of the complete message of the inscribed object.

barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c.(Marathi)

pattar 'trough'; rebus pattar, vartaka 'merchant, goldsmith' (Tamil) பத்தர்² pattar
, n. < T. battuḍu. A caste title of goldsmiths; தட்டார் பட்டப்பெயருள் ஒன்று.

eraka 'raised arm' Rebus: eraka 'metal infusion' (Kannada. Tulu)

Sign 15:  kuṭhi kaṇḍa kanka ‘smelting furnace account (scribe)’.

Thus, the hieroglyph multiplex on m1405 is read rebus from r.: kuṭhi kaṇḍa kanka eraka bharata pattar'goldsmith-merchant guild -- smelting furnace account (scribe), molten cast metal infusion, alloy of copper, pewter, tin.'

Sign 13 is a composition of hieroglyph component Sign 12 kuṭi 'woman water-carrier'  PLUS Sign ' which signifies hieroglyph: 'notch'. Reading the two hieroglyph components together Sign 13 reads: kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' furnace for iron/kuṭila, 'tin metal' Alternative:  kuṭi 'curve; rebus: कुटिल kuṭila, katthīl (8 parts copper, 2 parts tin)PLUS khāṇḍā ‘notch’ Marathi: खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘metal tools, pots and pans’. Thus, the reading is: kuṭhi khāṇḍā'smelter metal tools, pots and pans'.

Sign 14 add the hieroglyph component kōla 'arrow' or kaṇḍa ;'arrow-head' to Sign 12. This Sign 14 is deciphered as kuṭhi kaṇḍa 'smelter metal tools, pots and pans' (Thus, a synonym of Sign 13) OR kuṭhi kola 'smelter, working in iron' or kuṭhi kole.l 'smelter, smithy'.

Hieroglyph: eraka ‘raised arm’ (Telugu) Rebus: eraka ‘copper’ (Telugu); 'moltencast' (Gujarati); metal infusion (Kannada.Tulu)

Sign 15 occurs togethe with a notch-in-fixed fish hieroglyph on Harappa 73 seal:Harappa seal (H-73)[Note: the hieroglyph ‘water carrier’ pictorial of Ur Seal Impression becomes a hieroglyph sign] Hieroglyph: fish + notch: aya 'fish' + khāṇḍā m  A jag, notch Rebus: aya 'metal'+  khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’. kuṭi 'water-carrier' Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'. खोंड (p. 216) [khōṇḍa] m A young bull, a bullcalf; खोंडा [ khōṇḍā ] m A कांबळा of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood. खोंडरूं [ khōṇḍarūṃ ] n A contemptuous form of खोंडा in the sense of कांबळा-cowl (Marathi); kōḍe dūḍabull calf (Telugu); kōṛe 'young bullock' (Konda) rebus: kõdā ‘to turn in a lathe’ (Bengali) [The characteristic pannier which is ligatured to the young bull pictorial hieroglyph is a synonym खोंडा 'cowl' or 'pannier').खोंडी [ khōṇḍī ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a कांबळा, to hold or fend off grain, chaff &c.) ] खोंड (p. 216) [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf.(Marathi) खोंडरूं [ khōṇḍarūṃ ] n A contemptuous form of खोंडा in the sense of कांबळा-cowl.खोंडा [ khōṇḍā ] m A कांबळा of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood. खोंडी [ khōṇḍī ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a कांबळा, to hold or fend off grain, chaff &c.)

Hieroglyph: kōḍ 'horn' Rebus: kōḍ 'place where artisans work, workshop' কুঁদন, কোঁদন [ kun̐dana, kōn̐dana ] n act of turning (a thing) on a lathe; act of carving (Bengali) कातारी or कांतारी (p. 154) [ kātārī or kāntārī ] m (कातणें) A turner.(Marathi)

Rebus: खोदकाम [ khōdakāma ] n Sculpture; carved work or work for the carver.
खोदगिरी [ khōdagirī ] f Sculpture, carving, engraving: also sculptured or carved work.खोदणें [ khōdaṇēṃ ] v c & i ( H) To dig. 2 To engraveखोदींव [ khōdīṃva ] p of खोदणें Dug. 2 Engraved, carved, sculptured. http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/04/excavations-at-dholavifra-1989-2005-rs.html
The intimations of a metals turner as a scribe are also gleaned from the gloss: खोडाखोड or डी [ khōḍākhōḍa or ḍī ] f (खोडणें) Erasing, altering, interlining &c. in numerous places: also the scratched, scrawled, and disfigured state of the paper so operated upon; खोडींव [ khōḍīṃva ] p of खोडणें v c Erased or crossed out.Marathi). खोडपत्र [ khōḍapatra ] n Commonly खोटपत्र.खोटपत्र [ khōṭapatra ] n In law or in caste-adjudication. A written acknowledgment taken from an offender of his falseness or guilt: also, in disputations, from the person confuted. (Marathi) Thus, khond 'turner' is also an engraver, scribe.

That a metals turner is engaged in metal alloying is evident from the gloss: खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. Hence 2 A lump or solid bit (as of phlegm, gore, curds, inspissated milk); any concretion or clot. खोटीचाComposed or made of खोट, as खोटीचें भांडें.

Harappa Script continuum on punch-marked coin symbols.Insights of Fabri et al validated by Meluhha Script cipher

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/gu24z4h

This is a tribute to Pran Nath, KN Dikshit and CL Fabri who had provided insights citing parallels between Harappa (Indus Script) and symbols on Punch-marked coins.

With the decipherment of Meluhha script & langauge of the Corpora of Inscriptions dated from ca. 3300 BCE (which is the date of the Harappa potsherd with three inscribed hieroglyphs signifying tagara 'tabernae montana' rebus: tagara 'tin'), it is now possible to delineate a glossary of hieroglyphs and readings in Meluhha for the parallels identified in a brilliant and lucid article of 1834 in JRAS (which is embedded for ready reference).

ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal (tin+ copper alloy)' (Rigveda) PLUS  karavu'crocoile' (Telugu) rebus: khār 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) Together,ayakara 'metalsmith' (Pali)

barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c.(Marathi) PLUS pattar 'trough'; rebus pattar, vartaka 'merchant, goldsmith' (Tamil) பத்தர்² pattar , n. < T.battuḍu. A caste title of goldsmiths; தட்டார்.

पोळ pōḷa 'zebu, a bull set at liberty'  पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)'

rango 'buffalo' rebus: rango 'pewter' PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge'

karabha 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron'

kola 'tiger' Rebus:kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' kol 'blacksmith' PLUSkrammara 'look back' rebus: kamar 'smith, artisan' PLUS  kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi'smelter'

1. koDiya ‘rings on neck’, ‘young bull’ koD ‘horn’ rebus 1: koṭiya 'dhow, seafaring vessel' khōṇḍī 'pannier sack' खोंडी (p. 216) [ khōṇḍī ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a कांबळा, to hold or fend off grain, chaff &c.)
khOnda ‘young bull’ rebus 2: kOnda ‘lapidary, engraver’ rebus 3: kundAr ‘turner’ कोंड [kōṇḍa] A circular hamlet; a division of a मौजा or village, composed generally of the huts of one caste. खोट [khōṭa] Alloyed--a metal

2. sangaDa ‘lathe’ sanghaṭṭana ‘bracelet’ rebus 1: .sanghāṭa ‘raft’ sAngaDa ‘catamaran, double-canoe’rebusčaṇṇāḍam (Tu. ജംഗാല, Port. Jangada). Ferryboat, junction of 2 boats, also rafts. 2  jangaḍia 'military guard accompanying treasure into the treasury' ചങ്ങാതം čaṇṇāδam (Tdbh.; സംഘാതം) 1. Convoy, guard; responsible Nāyar guide through foreign territories. rebus 3: जाकड़ ja:kaṛ जांगड़ jāngāḍ‘entrustment note’ जखडणें tying up (as a beast to a stake) rebus 4: sanghāṭa ‘accumulation, collection’ rebus 5. sangaDa ‘portable furnace, brazier’ rebus 6: sanghAta ‘adamantine glue‘ rebus 7: sangara ‘fortification’ rebus 8: sangara ‘proclamation’ 9: samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'.

kkharā 'hare' (Oriya): kharabhaka ʻ hare ʼ. [ʻ longeared like a donkey ʼ: khara -- 1?]N. kharāyo* ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) ``^rabbit'' Sa. kulai `rabbit'.Mu. kulai`rabbit'. KW kulai @(M063)  खरगोस (p. 113) kharagōsa m ( P) A hare. (Marathi) Rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri)
So. ayo `fish'. Go. ayu `fish'. Go <ayu> (Z), <ayu?u> (Z),, <ayu?> (A) {N} ``^fish''. Kh. kaDOG `fish'. Sa. Hako `fish'. Mu. hai (H) ~ haku(N) ~ haikO(M) `fish'. Ho haku `fish'. Bj. hai `fish'. Bh.haku `fish'. KW haiku ~ hakO |Analyzed hai-kO, ha-kO (RDM). Ku. Kaku`fish'.@(V064,M106) Mu. ha-i, haku `fish' (HJP). @(V341) ayu>(Z), <ayu?u> (Z) <ayu?>(A) {N} ``^fish''. #1370. <yO>\\<AyO>(L) {N} ``^fish''. #3612. <kukkulEyO>,,<kukkuli-yO>(LMD) {N} ``prawn''. !Serango dialect. #32612. <sArjAjyO>,,<sArjAj>(D) {N} ``prawn''. #32622. <magur-yO>(ZL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. Or.<>. #32632. <ur+GOl-Da-yO>(LL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. #32642.<bal.bal-yO>(DL) {N} ``smoked fish''. #15163. (Munda Etyma) Rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' (Rigveda)

कर्णक karṇaka* m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 rebus: कर्णक karṇaka 'helmsman' PLUS meḍ 'body' (Santali.Ho. Mu.) rebus:mẽṛhẽt, meḍ iron (Santali.Ho.Mu.)
PLUS  eraka 'upraised hand' (Tamil)Rebus: erako 'moltencast, metal infusion', eraka, arka 'copper, gold'
PLUS

H. dãtāwlī f. ʻ rake, harrow ʼ. (CDIAL 6162). Ku. danīṛo m. ʻ harrow ʼ; N. dãde ʻ toothed ʼ sb. ʻ harrow ʼ; A. dãtīyā ʻ having new teeth in place of the first ʼ, dãtinī ʻ woman with projecting teeth ʼ; Or. dāntiā ʻ toothed ʼ; H. dãtī f. ʻ harrow ʼ; G. dã̄tiyɔ m. ʻ semicircular comb ʼ, dãtiyɔ m. ʻ harrow ʼ. (CDIAL 6163). G. dã̄tɔ m. ʻ a kind of rake or harrow ʼ(CDIAL 6153). Pk. daṁtāla -- m., °lī -- f. ʻ grass -- cutting instrument ʼ; S. ḍ̠andārī f. ʻ rake ʼ, L. (Ju.) ḍ̠ãdāl m., °lī f.; Ku. danyālo m. ʻharrowʼ danyāw (y from danīṛo < dantín -- ); N.dãtār ʻ tusked ʼ (← a Bi. form); A. dãtāl adj. ʻ tusked ʼ, sb. ʻ spade ʼ; B. dãtāl ʻ toothed ʼ; G. dãtāḷ n., °ḷī f. ʻ harrow ʼ; M. dã̄tāḷ ʻ having projecting teeth ʼ, dã̄tāḷ, °ḷē, dãtāḷ n. ʻ harrow, rake ʼ.Garh. dãdāḷu ʻ forked implement ʼ, Brj. dãtāl, dãtāro ʻ toothed ʼ, m. ʻ elephant ʼ. (CDIAL 6160).Rebus: dhatu 'mineral (ore)(Samskritam)

PLUS
dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'.kamaḍha 'archer, bow' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner'.

ḍhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: ḍhangar 'blacksmith'

kāṅga 'comb' Rebus: kanga 'brazier, fireplace' (See also semantics of 'harrow' above). khareḍo = a currycomb (Gujarati) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati)

tabar 'axe' rebus: tam(b)ra 'copper'.

Signs 288, 296, 301खांडा [khāṇḍā] A division of a field. (Marathi) खंडणें (p. 192) [ khaṇḍaṇēṃ ] v c ( खंडन S) To break; to reduce into parts (Marathi) Rebus: khāṇḍā '(metal) implements'

kana, kanac = corner (Santali); kañcu = bronze (Te.) kan- copper work (Ta.).

Oval shape:  mũhe 'ingot'Dotted circle:   dhātu.dhāū, dhāv 'a strand' rebus: dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻa partic. soft red ore' (Rigveda) dhātu 'mineral ore'
arā 'spokes' rebus: āra 'brass' eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast' arka 'copper, gold'.
kāca m. ʻ loop, string fastened to both ends of a pole, carrying yoke ʼ lex. [← Drav. Kui kāsa(CDIAL 3009) rebus: kāsa 'bronze'.
ḍato 'claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs' rebu: dhatu 'mineral' kāru 'pincers' rebus: khār'blacksmith'  'claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs
dhatu 'crossroad' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral';
karaṇḍa 'duck' rebus: karaḍa 'hard alloy'
koṭṭu cock's comb, peacock's tuft. rebus: खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down).ḍhāḷā 'sprig'  ḍhāḷāko 'large ingot'
मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi) rebus: meḍ'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages) medhā 'yajna, dhanam'
kaṇḍa 'water' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'
dhatu 'crossroad' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral' PLUS kaṇḍō 'a stool' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'.
kamaṭha 'turtle' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.
kāca m. ʻ loop, string fastened to both ends of a pole, carrying yoke ʼ lex. [←

Jayaswal, KP, 1834, Comment on: The punch-marked coins, a survival of the Indus Civilization, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society, 1834, pp. 72-721

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2016/10/harappa-script-continuum-on-punch.html

The Punch-Marked Coins: A Survival of the Indus Civilization

C. L. Fábri

The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland

No. 2 (Apr., 1935), pp. 307-318 (12 pages)

https://www.jstor.org/stable/25201111?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A94090a6441668ee0831cc5f4b7252bbf&seq=12#page_scan_tab_contents

Jayaswal, KP, 1834, Comment on: The punch-marked coins, a survival of the Indus Civilization, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society, 1834, pp. 72-721

kharā 'hare' (Oriya): **kharabhaka* ʻ hare ʼ. ... N. kharāyo ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) .rebus: khār'blacksmith' PLUS meṭṭu 'mound,height' Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Santali.Mu.Ho.)

gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-atar''implements' ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.Thus, alloy metals mint, smithy/forge, fire-altarr.

Kur. mūxā frog. Malt. múqe id. / Cf. Skt. mūkaka- id. (DEDR 5023) Rebus: mū̃h 'ingot' muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.'

dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAu, dhAtu 'mineral ore' PLUS meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ ‘iron’. मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper' (Munda. Slavic) mẽṛhẽt, meD 'iron' (Mu.Ho.Santali)

meď 'copper' (Slovak)

Santali glosses:

kolmo 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'

पोळ pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus taurus, bull set at liberty' rebus: पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)'

karba 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' ibbo 'merchant'

4 Recording the Progress of Indian History. Primus Books.
Jump up5 Radhakumud Mookerji. Chandragupta Maurya and his times. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 106, 107, 215, 212.
6ump up Indian Sculpture. University of California Press. p. 67.
Jump up7 Alexander Cunnigham. Coins of Ancient India. Asian Educational Services. p. 47.
Jump up8 Frank L. Holt. Into the Land of Bones. University of California Press. p. 161.
Jump up9 D.D.Kosambi. The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline. p. 124,129.
Jump up10 Hari C. Bhardwaj. Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 140, 142.
Jump up11 C.A.S.Williams. Chinese Symbolism and Art Motifs. Tuttle Publishing. p. 76.
Jump up12 A.V.Narsimha Murthy. The Coins of Karnataka. Geetha Book House. p. 19.
Jump up13 S.N.Naskar. Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture. Abhinav Publications. p. 186.
Jump up14 D.R.Bhandarkar. Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics. Asian Educational Services. pp. 55, 62, 79.
Jump up15 Parmeshwari Lal Gupta. Coins. National Book Trust. pp. 17–20, 239–240. [unquote] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana

I do NOT agree with his arguments and conclusions. For example, about the Taxila hoard examples discussed in this note he states as follows: "In each set of marks, the first four represent the king; the fifth, an issuing authority such as a crown prince. Often the fifth mark in one set becomes the fourth in another set, indicating the accession of the crown prince to the throne."

This is an example of mere speculation.

(loc.cit. DD Kosambi)

Padmam vajram parasu-khadga-trisula-gada-cakra-svastika-kalasa-minasan-khakundala-dhvaja-patakam

Pasa-ghantaka-dvarakadhanurnaraca-mudgara etairvividhakarapraharanamudraih (pp. 408-9)

Praharana mudra = stamped punch-marked coins. praháraṇa n. ʻ attack, weapon ʼ MBh., ʻ striking ʼ Pañcat. 2. praharaṇīya -- n. ʻ a weapon ʼ MBh. [√hr̥] 1. Pa. paharaṇa -- n. ʻ striking ʼ, °aka -- adj.; Pk. paharaṇa -- n. ʻ striking, weaponʼ; Si. paraṇa ʻ stroke, blow, flogging ʼ.2. Or. pāhāruṇi ʻ iron -- studded stick used in threshing rice ʼ.(CDIAL 8901) प्र-° हरण [p= 701,1] n.striking, beating , pecking Pan5cat. attack , combat MBh. (Monier-Williams) This is the closest equivalent in Indian sprachbund, of 'punch-marked'.

The expressions in Kannada anguli-praharaṇa, anguli-mudra clearly demonstrate that the word praharaṇa in the Prakrtam text cited by DD Kosambi, should be a reference to punch-marked mudra:

Taxila hoard (After Fig. 12.1)

Mauryan coin symbols (After Fig. 11.3 Amaravati hoard)

Mauryan coin symbols (After Fig. 11.2 Amaravati hoard)

Mauryan coin symbols (After Fig. 11.1 Amaravati hoard)

(After Fig. 10.5 Kosala region. Paila hoard)

(After Fig. 9.1 Five obverse and one reverse marks. Bodenayakanur hoard)

(After Fig. 8.1 Taxila hoard) Mauryan after Chandragupta. Additional marks are shown below dotted line of each frame.

(After Fig. 8.2 Taxila hoard)

(After Fig. 8.3 Taxila hoard)

(After Fig. 8.4 Taxila hoard)

Ancient India, Maghadan Empire. Late Period IV, c. 321 BC.

The Eight Sons of Mohapadina Nanda. Silver "punchmark" coin, Karshapana mint. Numerous symbols (see illustration below).

ref: Amennti IV, IX A3. 21x18 mm, 3.28 g.

Ancient India, Maghadan Empire. Late Period IV, c. 321 BC.

The Eight Sons of Mohapadina Nanda. Silver "punchmark" coin, Karshapana mint. Numerous symbols (see illustration below).

ref: Amennti IV, IX A3. 21x18 mm, 3.28 g.

East Khandesh hoard. Punch-marked coin

(After Fig. 4.1 Silver punch-marked coins. Taxila hoard)

(After Fig. 4.6 Silver punch-marked coins. Taxila hoard)

Arthasastra, A. II, 12, 30; Meyer, 9, p. 120. The text describes the alloys of copper used in coins.

Arthasastra, "Rupadarsaka is to establish or adjust the panayatra, or circulation of currency.

Saddahasi sigdlassa surapitassa brahmana

Sippikdnam satam natthi kuto kamsasata duve (Jat. I, 426)

“He hasn’t a hundred cowries, how could he have two hundred bronze coins? Those who examined coins were called herannika (Samskrtam haira-nyika) Heranilika’s are described in the Visuddhimagga, 14,4…” karsapana = kahapano

Karsharpanastu vighneya tamrigha karshigha panha ‘ karsapana = copper coin one karsa in weight’; karsa = 16 masaka."

https://indiacoinsmarks.wordpress.com/

[Pl. 39, Tree symbol (often on a platform) on punch-marked coins; a symbol recurring on many Indus script tablets and seals.] Source for the tables of symbols on punchmarked coins: Savita Sharma, 1990, Early Indian Symbols, Numismatic Evidence, Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan.

See more examples at http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/01/tree-yupa-indus-script-hieroglyphs.html

jm4heu

Image result for taxila punch marked coin

Punch-marked coin. Ashoka.

This hypertext on a Punch-marked coin is a Harappa (Indus) Script hieroglyph, a remarkable evidence of continuum of script tradition in Bharatam.The hieroglyph 'plait of three strands' gets expanded semantically to orthograph the unique hypertext on Gandhara Punch-marked coins.On this punch-marked silver bent-bar coin of Gandhara, the three plaits (strands) are duplicated to signify six plaits emanating from the central 'dotted circle. The hypertext is read rebus in Meluhha: dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAu, dhAtu 'mineral ore' PLUS meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ ‘iron’.

See Mohenjo-daro seal m1406 which signifies an identical three plaits. kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus, three 'plaited hieroglyphs' emanting from the central 'dotted circle' signify meḍ dhAtu 'iron mineral'. A pair of such hieroglyphs: dula 'pair' rebus;dul 'metal casting'. Thus, the six arms of six plaits (strands) signify: dul meḍ dhAtu 'cast iron mineral'.baTa 'six' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace'. Thus, the hypertext is a technical specification of mintwork repertoire of Gandhara mint with the centre-piece of a furnace to smelt mineral ores. See semantics of Rigveda: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour).

This semantic expansion explains the unique hypertext orthographed on Gandhara silver-bent-bar Punch-marked coin.

Archaic Silver Punch-marked coin, Gandhara region, silver 'bent-bar', early type (flat bar with wide flan), (c. 450-400 BCE), Rajgor series 34, 11.39g. Obv: two radiate symbols punched at extreme ends. Rev: blank.

A silver 1/8 karshapana coin from the mint at Taxila, c.400's BCE

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/gandhara/coins/coins.html

John Huntington has demonstrated the continuum from Vedic times related to some symbols on punch-marked coins, traceable to Harappa Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts.
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/10/vajra-six-angled-hypertext-of-punch.html Vajra षट्--कोण 'six-angled' hypertext of Punch-marked coins khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint'.

Metalworkers of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization expand their functions in janapada-s to manage mints and monetary transactions of the janapada-s.

With the decipherment of Harappa (Indus) Script as rebus cipher in Meluhha Script (Bharata sprachbund,language union), it is now possible to rename the punch-marked coins and symbols punched on the coins using Meluhha lexis (vocabulary) since most of the symbols used are a continuum from Harappa (Indus) Script tradition.

Thus, it is no longer necessary to name the symbols on Punchmarked coins with expressions such as taurine symbol, srivatsa, svastika, arrow, dotted circle, elephant, bull. All the symbols can now be expressed in Meluhha language, the lingua franca of Bhāratam Janam from ca. 7th millennium BCE. A coin is mudda ‘seal, stamp’. mudrāˊ f. ʻ seal, signet -- ring ʼ MBh. [Prob. ← Ir. EWA ii 654] Pa. muddā -- f. ʻ seal, stamp ʼ, muddikā -- f. ʻ signetring ʼ; NiDoc. mu(ṁ)dra, mutra ʻ seal ʼ; Pk. muddā -- , °diā -- f., °daya -- m. ʻ seal, ring ʼ; S. muṇḍra f. ʻ seal ʼ, °rī f. ʻ finger -- ring with seal ʼ; L. mundrī f. ʻ ring ʼ; P. mundar m. ʻ earring ʼ, mundī f. ʻ ring ʼ; Ku. munṛo ʻ earring ʼ, gng. mun*lṛ ʻ ring ʼ, N. mun(d)ro, MB. mudaṛī; Or. muda ʻ seal ʼ, mudi ʻ ring ʼ, mudā ʻ act of sealing ʼ; Bi. mū̃drī ʻ iron ring fastening blade of scraper ʼ; G. mū̃drī f. ʻ ring ʼ, M. mudī f., Ko. muddi; Si. mudda < muduva, st. mudu -- ʻ seal, ring ʼ; Md. mudi ʻ ring ʼ.mudraṇa -- , mudrayati; mudrākara -- . mudrākara m. ʻ maker of seals ʼ MW. [mudrāˊ -- , kará -- 1] Si muduvarayā ʻ goldsmith ʼ. (CDIAL 10203, 10204) முத்திரை muttira, n. < mudrā. 1. Impress, mark; அடையாளம். அசாதாரண முத்திரை யோடே வரவேணு மென்கிறார் (திவ்.பெரியாழ். 1, 8, 9, வ்யா.). 2. Seal, signet; இலாஞ்சனை. பொறித்த முத்திரையும் வேறாய்(திருவாலவா. 24, 8). 3. Stamp, as for postage, for court fees; தபால் முத்திரை முதலியன. 4. Badge of a soldier or peon; போர்ச்சேவகன் அல்லது சேவகனுக்குரிய அடையாள வில்லை.முத்திரைக்கணக்கர் muttirai-k-kaṇakkar, n. < முத்திரை +. A class of temple servants;கோயிற்பணியாளருள் ஒருவகையார். (மீனாட். சரித். i, 2.)

Four Harappa Script hieroglyphs are uambiguous on the Sunga coin and are relatale to the mineral/metal resources deployed in mint-work:

The Meluhha rebus readings, respectively, from l. to r. are: iron, implements, red ore, zinc

mēḍhā 'a twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl' rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'.

A variant for the 'twist' hieroglyph reading: kãsā 'twist, loo' rebus: kãsā 'bronze'.

kaṇḍa, 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa,'implements/sword
dhātu 'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore'
Hieroglyph: sattuvu (Kannada), svastika: sāthiyo (G.); satthia, sotthia (Pkt.) rebus: sattuvu pewter (Kannada), jasta 'zinc' (Hindi)

Thus, when a hypertext is orthographed including one or more of thee hieroglyphs, the message is clear and unambiguous, as, for example on a common hypertext on early Punch-marked coins which include three of these hieroglyphs: :mēḍhā 'twist' rebus: mēḍ 'iron', kaṇḍa 'arrow rebus:kaṇḍa,'implements' dhātu 'strand' rebus: dhātu 'red ore'.

An alternative reading is also apposite for the 'loop' imagery: kāca m. ʻloop' rebus: kāsa 'bronze'. Thus, the frequently signified hypertext on Punch-marked coins may be read: dhatu kāsa kaṇḍa 'mineral (metal), bronze implements'.

One some Punch-marked coins, hieroglyph mēḍhā 'twist' is elaborated with a hypertext which signfies:khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' (Lahnda CDIAL 13640) Ta. kampaṭṭam, kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Bhaja Chaitya ca. 100 BCE. Hieroglyphs are: fish-fin pair; pine-cone; yupa: kandə ʻpine' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements, fire-altar' khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' (Lahnda CDIAL 13640) Ta. kampaṭṭam, kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Yupa: Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrow ʼ(CDIAL 3023). Rebus: kāṇḍa,'implements'.

Sunga 185-75 BCE karabha'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron' kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' Yupa: Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrow ʼ(CDIAL 3023). Rebus: kāṇḍa,'implements'. kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter' Mountain range + crucible: OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse' PLUS ḍāng 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'

Four dotted circles joined together orthographed as 'Ujjaini symbol': gaṇḍa 'four' rbus: kaṇḍa'implements' PLUS dhātu 'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore'. Thus, metal implements (with a variety of ore alloys).

karṇaka कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 rebus: karṇaka 'helmsman' PLUS koḍa 'one'rebus: koḍ 'workshop'

पोळ [pōḷa] 'zebu' rebus: पोळ [pōḷa] 'magnetite, ferrite ore'

Kausambi 200 BCE
arA 'spokes' rebus: Ara 'brass' eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast' arka'copper'.PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' (Lahnda CDIAL 13640) Ta. kampaṭṭam, kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Thus, copper mint.
dala 'petal' rebus: ढाळ [ḍhāḷa] ḍhāḷako 'ingot' (Marathi)
kola 'tiger' rebus: kol'blacksmith' karabha 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron' kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' ḍāng 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'

Taxila. Pushkalavati 185-160 BCE Karshapana

Kalinga. Copper punch-marked 3rd cent. BCEarka 'sun' rebus: arka 'copper gold'

Mauryan Dynasty .(321 to 185 BC ) Silver punch marked coins. ಮುರ್ಯರ , ಮುದ್ರಂಕಿಥ ಬೆಳ್ಳಿ ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳು Hieroglyph: hare: N. kharāyo ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) Rebus: khār'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) खार् ।

Is it a stylized 'ram' in the centre, reduplicated? dula 'pair' rebus; dul 'metal casting' PLUS meḍho 'ram' rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'.

Janapadas, 600 - 300 BCE dhātu'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore'. Three combined are orthographed as a triangle with curved endings: tri-dhātu 'three strands' (Rigveda) rebus: tri-dhātu 'three red ores' (perhaps, magnetite, haematite, laterite). May also refer to eraka, arka 'red copper ores' (pyrites)..

Source: http://ancientcoinsofindiaaruns.blogspot.in/2010_03_01_archive.html

Ancient Indian Coins. "ಪ್ರಾಚಿನ ಭಾರತದ ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳು." Thanks to Arun joepaladka@yahoo.co.in for these excellent images.

Silver punch-marked

Mauryan. Ashoka. This braided orthography of three strands may be a variant to signify: tri-dhātu 'three strands of rope' Rebus: dhāv 'red ore' (ferrite) ti-dhāu 'three strands' Rebus: ti-dhāv 'three ferrite ores: magnetite, hematite, laterite'.

Image result for taxila symbol punch marked coin

Asmaka
OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse' PLUS gota 'roundish stone' Rebus: goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore''gold-lac, braid'.PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rbus: kaṇḍa 'implements'
ḍhāḷa 'sprig' rebus: ḍhāḷako 'large ingot'

kamaḍha 'archer, bow' Rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus:aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' PLUSmēḍhā 'a twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl' rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'.

Thus, alloy metal castings, iron castings.

Vidarbha janapada

Seven symbols

Five symbols

Taxila symbol. A hypertext composed of 'round stone''crucible pair''a pair of persons standing with spread legs':

gota 'roundish stone' Rebus: goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore''gold-lac, braid'.

OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ(CDIAL 3546) Rebus: koṭhār 'treasury, warehouse'

karṇaka कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 rebus: karṇaka 'helmsman'

Mauryan. Karshapanakuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'

http://www.worldofcoins.eu/forum/index.php?topic=1332.0

Mauryan.

ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rbus: kaṇḍa 'implements' Thus, metal alloy implements.

gota 'roundish stone' Rebus: goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore''gold-lac, braid'. PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rbus: kaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS mēḍhā 'a twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl' rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'.

Thus, the hypertext signifies: ferrite metal implements

Agrawal, Banu & Rai, Subas, Indian Punchmarked coins, 1994

PL Gupta, Amaravati hoard of silver punchmarked coins, 1963 http://coincoin.com/bGuptaAmarS.jpg maraka'peacock' Rebus: marakaka loha 'copper alloy' (Samskrtam)

Gupta, PL & Hardaker, 1985, Ancient Indian silver punchmarked coins, Magadha-Maurya series

Kothari, Narendra, 2006, Ujjaini coins. Hieroglyph 1: கமடம், [ *kamaṭam, ] s. A turtle, a tortoise, ஆமை (Winslow Tamil lexicon) rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'..

Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, multi-symbol type

Weight: 4.22 gm., Diameter: 18 mm.
Centrally placed Ujjain symbol; svastika and Indradhvaja on right and
railed tree on left; fish-tank above the Ujjain symbol and parts of
chakra on top right; river at the bottom.
Double-orbed Ujjain symbol
Reference: Pieper 379 (plate specimen)

Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/4 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 5.98 gm., Diameter: 17x15 mm.
Six-armed symbol in center; svastika and taurine above a railed tree on
    the left; Ujjain symbol above Indradhvaja on the right; river at the
    bottom; above the six-armed symbol is a square tank with two fishes
    and two turtles.
Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb.
Reference: Pieper 384 (plate specimen)

Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, tree type
Weight: 4.19 gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm.
Obv.: Tree-on-hill on right and six-armed symbol on left.
Rev.: Ujjain symbol with alternating taurines and svastikas in the orbs.
Reference: Pieper 400

Ujjain, inscribed AE 1/2 karshapana, 'tank between trees' type
Weight: 5.62 gm., Diameter: 14x14 mm.
Fishtank from which a water channel is branching flanked by two railed
trees; Brahmi legend part below reading 'sidhatho(madana)'
Ujjain symbol
Reference: Pieper 409 (plate specimen)

Until now the legend on this coin type had been read as 'rathimadana'. This is the first specimen to show at least the first three letters of the legend clear beyond doubt. Credit goes to Harry Falk to have read the legend as 'sidhato'. The second part of the name appears to have been correctly identified from the available specimens except for the last letter which still is somewhat doubtful but '...madana' is well possible. In that case the complete name would be 'Sidhathomadana'.

Tree in railing. Svastika and comb. Found in river bed 4 feet from surface immediately below the Ruhunu Maha Kataragama Temple. http://coins.lakdiva.org/codrington/chapter_iii_edit.html

dãtɔ m. a kind of rake or harrow (Gujarati) rebus: dhatu 'mineral, ore' PLUS satthiya 'svastika' rebus:svastika 'pewter', jasta 'zinc'.

Magadha janapada. Silver karshapana

c. 5th-4th century BCE
Weight: 3.08 gm., Dim: 26 x 24 mm.
Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others, plus banker's marks /
Banker's marks
Ref: GH 36.

meḍha 'polar star' (Marathi). meḍ 'iron' (Ho.Mu.) .

This hieroglyph, twist of three strands, signified on Punch-marked coins of Gandhara is traced to Harappa Script hieroglyph tradition. This signifies dhā̆vaḍ 'smelter' meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ‘iron’

See Mohenjo-daro seal m1406

m1406 Seal using

tri-dhAtu 'three-stranded rope': Rebus: tri-hAtu, three red ores.

Hieroglyph: धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c ; cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773)

Rebus: M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; (CDIAL 6773) धातु primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral, ore (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh. &c element of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]) (Monier-Williams. Samskritam) Harappa (Indus) script hieroglyphs signify dhAtu 'iron ore', Dharwar, Ib names of places in India in the iron ore belt.

S. mī˜ḍhī f., °ḍho m. ʻ braid in a woman's hair ʼ, L. f.; G. mĩḍlɔ, miḍ° m. ʻ braid of hair on a girl's forehead ʼ; M. meḍhā m. ʻ curl, snarl, twist or tangle in cord or thread ʼ.मेढा [ mēḍhā ] meṇḍa A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl. (Marathi) (CDIAL 10312). meḍhi, miḍhī, meṇḍhī = a plait in a woman’s hair; a plaited or twisted strand of hair (P.)(CDIAL 10312)].

Rebus: semantics 'iron': meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho)meṛed (Mundari);mẽṛed iron; enga meṛed soft iron; sanḍi meṛedhard iron; ispāt meṛed steel; dul meṛed cast iron; i meṛed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bica meṛed iron extracted from stone ore; bali meṛed iron extracted from sand ore; meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.)

There are two Railway stations in India called Dharwad and Ib. Both are related to Prakritam words with the semantic significance: iron worker, iron ore.

dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ (Marathi)(CDIAL 6773) PLUS kanka, karNaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo' PLUS mēd, 'boatman, one who plays drums at ceremonies' Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron (metal)’Alternative: dhollu ‘drummer’ (Western Pahari) dolutsu 'tumble' Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’.

A variant orthography shows a pair of three strands of twisted rope, signified as a total of six spokes emanating from a dotted circle in the centre (See image of Silver shatamana of Gandhara).

Six spokes: baṭa 'six' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'.

Rebus reading: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS , meḍhi 'plait' meḍ ‘iron’ Thus, cast iron.

PLUS dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(Marathi) The expression dhā̆vaḍ is composed of two words: dhāu 'strand' rebus: dhāu 'three red ores, minerals' PLUS vaṭa 'string'.

It is known that sculptors of Sanchi and Bharhut artifacts were in the tradition of ivory carvers of Begram.

The hieroglyphs -- for example, elephant, tiger, mountain-range, tree, fire-altar, sun's rays, svastika -- deployed on the coins of Mauryan period are comparable to the hieroglyphs on Indus Script Corpora. The later-day inventors of Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts are likely to have been adept at Indus Script hieroglyph writing (mlecchita vikalpa, i.e. Meluhha cipher).

arka 'sun' rebus: arka, eraka 'gold, copper moltencast'
kanda 'fire-altar'
kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'
Ku. ḍã̄g, ḍã̄k ʻ stony land ʼ; B. ḍāṅ ʻ heap ʼ, ḍāṅgā ʻ hill, dry upland ʼ; H. ḍã̄g f. ʻ mountain -- ridge ʼ; M. ḍã̄g m.n., ḍã̄gaṇ, °gāṇ, ḍãgāṇ n. ʻ hill -- tract ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : N. ḍaṅgur ʻ heap ʼ.
M. ḍũg m. ʻ hill, pile ʼ, °gā m. ʻ eminence ʼ, °gī f. ʻ heap ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Pk. ḍuṁgara -- m. ʻ mountain ʼ; Ku. ḍũgar, ḍũgrī; N. ḍuṅgar ʻ heap ʼ; Or. ḍuṅguri ʻ hillock ʼ, H. ḍū̃gar m., G. ḍũgar m., ḍũgrī f. S. ḍ̠ū̃garu m. ʻ hill ʼ, H. M. ḍõgar m.(CDIAL 5523) rebus: N. ḍāṅro ʻ term of contempt for a blacksmith ʼ; Or. dhāṅgaṛ ʻ young servant, herdsman, name of a Santal tribe ʼ,H.dhaṅgar m. ʻ herdsman ʼ, dhã̄gaṛ, °ar m. ʻ a non-- Aryan tribe in the Vindhyas, digger of wells and tanks ʼ(CDIAL 5524) For rebus readings of elephant, tiger, see following paragraphs.

Hieroglyph: svastika: satthiya 'svastika' rebus: satthiya, jasta 'zinc'.

Artifact finds of Sanchi and Bharhut demonstrate the use of Brahmi and Kharosthi syllabic writing which demonstrate that the language of the artists and artisans was Prakritam. Use of Brahmi and Kharosthi writing is also evidenced on a punchmarked coin of Taxila (Fig. 10.13.14) with inscriptions: obv. negama(Brahmi) and rev. kojaka (Kharosthi).

"In the northwest Kharosthi continued to flourish and most of the known inscriptions in that are were written in this script between c. BCE 200 and CE 200. Kharosthi gained wide currency for coin inscriptions in the same reion. That its use spread at an early date into the Ganges valley can be inferred from the fact that at Bharhut the masons used Kharosthi letters for their masonry marks. Recently a number of Kharosthi inscriptions have been discovered on potsherds from sites in Bengal. Coinage. Around the opening of the second century BCE the establishment of an Indo-Greek kingdom in Gandhara introduced into the northwest a major new currency system, with a predominantly silver and bronze coinage. At an early stage the Greeks employed bilingual inscriptions in Greek and in Prakrit in Brahmi or Kharosthi script, and their coins provided a model which later rulers in the region were to initiate. The Greeks were followed into India by a series of foreign groups, first the Sakas and later the Kusanas who were among those to emulate the Greek patterns of coin...On the coins of Kaniska and his successors in the second century CE a wide variety of deities was depicted, including, beside the mainly Iranian pantheon, the Buddha and Siva, as well as Greek and Egyptian deities."(Allchin, FR & George Erdosy, 1995, The archaeology of early historic South Asia: the emergence of cities and states, Cambridge University Press, p.311).

Malwa, clay sealing

Weight: 4.48 gm., Dimensions: 20×15 mm.

Railed yupa (sacrificial post) with side decorations and a Brahmi legend below reading khadasa

Reference: Pieper collection “Thanks to Shailendra Bhandare for the correct reading. According to Bhandare the legend refers to the worship of Skanda; similar objects pertaining to the Skanda cult have been reported from regions of Malwa, Vidarbha and the Deccan.”

http://coinindia.com/galleries-eran2.html

Indus Script hieroglyphs on Eran_Vidhisha coins deciphered:

yupa Skambha as mEDha ‘pillar, stake’ rebus: meD ‘iron’ med ‘copper’ (Slavic) dula ‘pair’ rebus: dul ‘cast metal’ kadasa kanda? rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’ Thus, fire-altar for cast copper/iron.

bhagila text: rebus: गर्भगळीत, गर्भगिळीत, गर्भगीळ (p. 225) [ garbhagaḷīta, garbhagiḷīta, garbhagīḷa ] a (गर्भ & गळणें) That has dropped or cast the womb. भागी (p. 607) [ bhāgī ] c भागीदार or भागीलदार c A partner, an associate in a joint concern. 2 A sharer or partaker; a shareholder.

DAng ‘hill range’ rebus: dhangar ‘blacksmith’ PLUS kuThara ‘crucible’ rebus: kuThAru ‘armourer’

Vedi in Vedisa: vedi ‘fire-altar’ rebus: vetai ‘alchemy, transmutation of base metals into precious metals’ vedha ‘pierced hole’ rebus: vedi ‘fire-altar’ वेदिका f. a sacrificial ground , altar VarBr2S

kulyA ‘hood of snake’ rebus: kol ‘working in iron’ kolle ‘blacksmith’ kolhe ‘smelter’ nAga ‘snake’ rebus: nAga ‘lead (ore)’.eraka ‘knave of wheel’ rebus: eraka ‘moltencast, copper’

poLa ‘zebu’ rebus: poLa ‘magnetite ore’

tAmarasa ‘lotus’ rebus: tAmra ‘copper’

kANDa ‘water’ rebus: khaNDa ‘metal implements’

gaNDa ‘four’ rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’ (see Ujjain symbol)

kariba ‘elephant trunk’ ibha ‘elephant’ rebus: karb ‘iron’ ib ‘iron’ kanga ‘brazier’ sangaḍa ‘brazier’ rebus: kanka ‘gold’ karNI ‘supercargo’ kammaṭamu 'portable goldsmith's furnace' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'

kuTi ‘tree’ rebus: kuThi ‘smelter’ kuThara ‘crucible’ rebus: kuThAru ‘armourer’ koThAri ‘warehouse’ dhAv ‘strand of rope’ rebus: dhAtu ‘ore’ kandit ‘bead’ rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’.

Tree shown on a tablet from Harappa. kuTi 'tree' Rebus: kuThi 'smelter'. In semantic expansion, tree as hieroglyph also signifies an armourer. कुठारु [p= 289,1] ‘a tree, a monkey, an armourer’ (Monier-Williams)

“Vidisha, Sanchi and Udayagiri complex, together with Dhar, Mandu and Eran, all in Madhya Pradesh, have yielded ancient metallic objects (exemplified by the Delhi iron pillar)…” http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/12-14/features3372.htm

Indus script hieroglyphs: karaDi ‘safflower’ rebus: karaDa ‘hard alloy’; poLa ‘zebu’ rebus: poLa ‘magnetite’; jasta ‘svastika’ rebus: sattva ‘zinc, spelter’ kariba ‘trunk of elephant’ ibha ‘elephant’ rebus: karb ‘iron’ ib ‘iron’; kuTi ‘tree’ rebus: kuThi ‘smelter’ sangaDa ‘brazier, standard device’ rebus: sangaTas ‘collection of implemnts’ dhAV ‘ strand of rope, dotted circle’ rebus: dhavaD ‘smelter’; dhAtu ‘mineral ore’; kANDa ‘water’ rebus: khaNDa ‘implements’. Infixed within the ‘standard device’ is a ‘twist’ hieroglyph: meDha ‘twist’ rebus: meD ‘iron’ med ‘copper’ (Slavic)

Billon drachm of the Indo-Hephthalite King Napki Malka(Afghanistan/Gandhara, c. 475–576). Obverse shows a fire altar with a spoked wheel on the left kanda ‘fire-altar’ eraka ‘knave of wheel’ rebus: eraka ‘moltencast, copper’. Eraka! this is the source for the name of Erakina. Eraka is also the appellation of Subrahmanya in Swamimalai, a place renowned for cire perdue castings of pancaloha murti-s and utsava bera-s. Eraka is an emphatic semantic indicator of copper metalwork and metalcastings.

We have been that a Mihirakula coin showed a fire-altar. Toramana’s coins are also found in plenty in Kashmir. (J F Fleet, Coins and history ofToramana, IA,1889 26.) See: “Notes on the Yuezhi – Kushan Relationship and Kushan Chronology”, by Hans Loeschner. Journal of Oriental Numismatic Society 2008, p.19

Erakina has a fort in ruins attributed to the Dangis who are kshatriya rajput, in Bundelkhand region, Rajasthanand spread across the statesMadhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana(in Haryana and Panjab they are called kshatriya Jat) , Gujarat, Uttrakhand,Maharashtra,Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Punjab, and Nepal. Dangi is a dialect of Braj Bhasha.

Eran was a coin-minting centre. Semi-circle on Eran coins may have signified a crucible: kuThAra ‘crucible’ Rebus: kuThAri ‘warehouse keeper’ kuThAru ‘armourer’.

Eran was on the Bharruch (Bhragu Kachha), Ujjain to Kaushambi, Mathura, Taxishila trade route.

Eran-Vidisha AE 1/2 karshapana, Bhumidata, six punch type

Weight: 5.10 gm., Dimensions: 21x21 mm.
Railed tree in centre; elephant on left and railed Indradhvaja on right;
river at the bottom; on top right taurine in fixed railing and on top left legend
punch reading rajno bhumidatasa
Blank reverse
Reference: S. Tiwari collection, p. 196, var.3 / Pieper 489 (plate coin)

Orthography of the 'dotted circle' is representation of a single strand:dhāu rebus: dhāū 'red stone minerals.

It is this signifier which occurs in the orthography of the dotted circle hieroglyph-multiplex on early punch-marked coins of Magadha -- a proclamation of the dhāū 'element, mineral ores' used in the Magadha mint. On one Silver Satamana punch-marked coin of Gandhara septa-radiate or, seven strands emerge from the dotted circle signifying the use in the mint of सप्त--धातु 'seven mineral ores'.

The 'dot' within the circle is a signifier of a mineral dhāū ingot खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'

A triskelion hieroglyph of Kuntala punchmarked coins can be signifiers of त्रि धातु 'three minerals'. The endings of the triskelion are curved like crucibles holding 'dots' or ingots. koṭhārī ʻ crucible ʼ (Old Punjabi) rebus: koṭhari 'chamber' (oriya) koṭṭhāgāra ʻstorehouse' (Prakrtam) खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'

The hieroglyphs which accompany such meaningful Indus Script cipher orthographs read rebus in Old Prakrtam are also metalwork catalogues:

Magadha. Silver Karshapana. c. 5th-4th century BCE

Weight: 3.37 gm., Dim: 21 x 22 mm.
Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others, plus a banker's mark /
Blank
Ref: GH 249.

arka 'sun' rebus: arka,'copper' eraka 'moltencast copper'

मेढा [mēḍhā] Atwist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu. Ho.) mRdu id. (Samskrtam)

kaṇḍa, 'arrow' rebus: 'implements/sword'

kariba 'trunk of elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron'

पोळ pōḷa 'zebu' rebus: पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (ferrite ore)'

khambhaṛā 'fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'coiner, coinage, mint' aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal'

Six dots above crucilbe+ ingot: baTa 'six' rebus: baTa 'iron' bhaTa 'furnace' koṭhārī ʻ crucible ʼ (Old Punjabi) rebus: koṭhari 'chamber' (oriya) koṭṭhāgāra ʻstorehouse' (Prakrtam) PLUS खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'

Sixth hieroglyph from left:kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'.

Ref: Rajgor, 502-509.

Kuntala janapada Punch-marked coin 450 BCE. Two angular shaped parallel lines having solid dot on the head connect to the circle. This addition indicates that a sun is not signified by the dotted circle. There is a A triskelion or triskele (which invariably has rotational symmetry) a motif consisting of three interlocked spirals between the two solid dots.

Hieroglyph: two chains with rings: śã̄gal, śã̄gaḍ ʻchainʼ (WPah.) śr̥ṅkhala m.n. ʻ chain ʼ MārkP., °lā -- f. VarBr̥S., śr̥ṅkhalaka -- m. ʻ chain ʼ MW., ʻ chained camel ʼ Pāṇ. [Similar ending in mḗkhalā -- ]Pa. saṅkhalā -- , °likā -- f. ʻ chain ʼ; Pk. saṁkala -- m.n., °lā -- , °lī -- , °liā -- , saṁkhalā -- , siṁkh°, siṁkalā -- f. ʻ chainʼ Rebus: Vajra Sanghāta 'binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue. (Allograph) Hieroglyph: sãghāṛɔ 'lathe'.(Gujarati) See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/03/metallurgy-alloying-competence-chain.html?view=magazine

Magadha. Silver karshapana. c. 5th-4th century BCEWeight: 3.07 gm., Dim: 14 x 21 mm.
Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others /
Banker's marks
Ref: GH 463.

Zebu over a hill: Ta. meṭṭu mound, heap of earth; mēṭu height, eminence, hillock; muṭṭu rising ground, high ground, heap. Ma. mēṭu rising ground, hillock; māṭu hillock, raised ground; miṭṭāl rising ground, an alluvial bank; (Tiyya) maṭṭa hill. Ka. mēḍu height, rising ground, hillock; miṭṭu rising or high ground, hill; miṭṭe state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) muṭṭe heap (as of straw). Tu. miṭṭè prominent, protruding; muṭṭe heap. Te. meṭṭa raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meṭṭumound; miṭṭa high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mēṭu, mēṭa, mēṭi stack of hay; (Inscr.) meṇṭa-cēnu dry field (cf. meṭṭu-nēla, meṭṭu-vari). Kol. (SR.) meṭṭā hill; (Kin.) meṭṭ, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. meṭṭ hill, mountain. Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) meṭṭa high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) maṭṭā, (Mu.)maṭṭa mountain; (M. L.) meṭā id., hill; (A. D. Ko.) meṭṭa, (Y. Ma. M.) meṭa hill; (SR.) meṭṭā hillock (Voc. 2949). Konḍa meṭa id. Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) meṭa sand hill. (DEDR 5058) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu. Ho.) mRdu id. (Samskrtam) Thus the nature of the ferrous ore is reinforced phonetically, as a ferrous (iron) ore.

Vidarbha janapada. Silver 1/3 karshapana

c. 5th century BCEFour punches / Blank
Weight: 1.21 gm., Dim: 16 x 16 mm.
Ref: Rajgor 27 var

Mauryan empire. Silver karshapana
c. 4th-2nd century BCEWeight: 3.19 gm., Dim: 16 x 17 mm.
Ref: GH 477.

Many so-called 'megalithic symbols' on ancient artifacts -- particularly punch-marked coins from Gandhara, Magadha, Maurya mints from ca. 6th century BCE (perhaps earlier, ca. 12th century BCE -- pace DK Chakrabarti's opinion) -- in Indian sprachbund of Bronze Age should be read as Indus Script cipher metalwork catalogues in Prakritam (Mleccha/Meluhha, the lingua franca).

dhamaka is blacksmith; dhammiya is righteous. The same gloss becomes the dominant hieroglyph on Nandipada, Srivatsa hieroglyph multiplex layers, a celebration of dharma-dhamma order.

It is possible to explain the so-called taurine, nandipada and srivatsa symbols as Indus script hieroglyph multiplexes read rebus in Prakritam (Mleccha-Meluhha).

Hieroglyph: kuṭi in cmpd.‘curve' (CDIAL 3231).  kuṭilá ʻ bent, crooked ʼ KātyŚr., °aka -- Pañcat., n. ʻ a partic. plant ʼ lex. [√kuṭ1]Pa. kuṭila -- ʻ bent ʼ, n. ʻ bend ʼ; Pk. kuḍila -- ʻ crooked ʼ, °illa -- ʻ humpbacked ʼ, °illaya -- ʻ bent ʼ(CDIAL 3231)  कुटिल a [p= 288,2] mf(आ)n. bent , crooked , curved , round , running in curved lines , crisped , curled Ka1tyS3r. MBh.&c; n. tin W. (Monier-Williams)

Rebus: kuṭi ‘smelter furnace’ (Santali) kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin)(CDIAL 3230). [cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass' (Samskritam)

Hieroglyph 1: dhánvan1 n. ʻ bow ʼ RV. [dhánus -- ]Pa. daḷha -- dhamma -- ʻ having a strong bow ʼ (< dṛḍhadhanvan -- MBh.); Pk. dhamma -- m. ʻ bow ʼ; Kal.rumb. thum, urt. thām ʻ bow ʼ (th -- due to Ir. influence, cf. Av.qanvarə ʻ bow ʼ?).(CDIAL 6728) Rebus: dhárma m. ʻ what is established, law, duty, right ʼ AV. [dhárman -- n. RV. -- √dhr̥]Pa. dhamma -- m. (rarely n.), Aś.shah. man. dhrama -- , gir. kāl. &c. dhaṁma -- ; NiDoc. dham̄a ʻ employment in the royal administration ʼ; Dhp.dharma -- , dhama -- , Pk. dhamma -- m.; OB. dhāma ʻ religious conduct ʼ; H. kāmdhām ʻ work, business ʼ; OSi. dama ʻ religion ʼ (Si. daham ← Pa.).(CDIAL 6753) dharmin ʻ pious, just ʼ Gaut. [dhárma -- ]Pa. dhammika -- ʻ righteous ʼ; NiDoc. dharmiyas̱a gen. sg. ʻ title of a king ʼ; Pk. dhammi -- , °ia -- ʻ righteous ʼ (dhamma -- < dharmya -- , cf. Pa.dhammiya -- , or < dhārmá -- ); Paš.ar. dräm ʻ friend ʼ; Si. dämi ʻ righteous ʼ.(CDIAL 6762)

Hieroglyph 2: kamaDha 'bow' Rebus: kampaTTa 'mint'

Normally, there are 5 hieroglyphs on punch-marked coins:

Hieroglyphs 3, 4 and 5 are: elephant, bull, bird, peacock, fish, crocodile, spoked wheel, bow and arrow, All these are Indus Script hieroglyphs and continue to be deployed on punch-marked coins to signify metalwork.

Hieroglyph: karibha 'trunk of elephant'; ibha 'elephant' Rebus: karba 'iron' (Tulu)

Hieroglyph: barad, barat 'bull' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c. भरताचें भांडें (p. 603) [ bharatācē mbhāṇḍēṃ ] n A vessel made of the metal भरत. 2 See भरिताचें भांडें.भरती (p. 603) [ bharatī ] a Composed of the metal भरत.(Marathi)

Hieroglyph: कारंडव (p. 159) [ kāraṇḍava ] m S A drake or sort of duck. कारंडवी f S The female. Rebus: करडा (p. 137) [ karaḍā ]  Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi)

Hieroglyph: maraka 'peacock' Rebus: marakaka loha'copper alloy, calcining metal'. Rebus: लोह lōha मारक a. calcining a metal (Samskritam)

aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron, metal' (Gujarati. Rigveda)

karA, ghariyAl 'crocodile' Rebus: khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü -ब&above;ठू&below; । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy-बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru -द्वकुरु‍&below; । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji -ग&above;जि&below;or -güjü -ग&above;जू&below; । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü -हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü -कूरू‍&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu -क&above;टु&below; । लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü -क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 -म्य&above;च&dotbelow;ू&below; । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3] ), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu -न्यचिवु&below; । लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun] ), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -च्&dotbelow;ञ । लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil. (Kashmiri)

Hieroglyph:  eraka 'nave of wheel' Rebus: eraka 'copper molten cast'. Hieroglyph:  arā (nave, spokes) Rebus: arA 'brass' as in ArakUTa आर--कूट [p= 149,2] m. n. a kind of brass. (Monier-Williams)

Taurine (hieroglyph multiplex: bent oval or kernel or seed PLUS crucible as superscript). The encircling dots around the hieroglyph multiplex signifies khōṭa 'alloy ingots.'

goṭi, ‘silver, laterite’ are signified by goṭa, ‘seed’ hieroglyph.

Hieroglyph: seed, something round: gōṭṭa ʻ something round ʼ. [Cf. guḍá -- 1. -- In sense ʻ fruit, kernel ʼ cert. ← Drav., cf. Tam. koṭṭai* ʻ nut, kernel ʼ, Kan. goṟaṭe &c. listed DED 1722]K. goṭh f., dat. °ṭi f. ʻ chequer or chess or dice board ʼ; S. g̠oṭu m. ʻ large ball of tobacco ready for hookah ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; P. goṭ f. ʻ spool on which gold or silver wire is wound, piece on a chequer board ʼ; N. goṭo ʻ piece ʼ, goṭi ʻ chess piece ʼ; A. goṭ ʻ a fruit, whole piece ʼ, °ṭā ʻ globular, solid ʼ, guṭi ʻ small ball, seed, kernel ʼ; B. goṭā ʻ seed, bean, whole ʼ; Or. goṭā ʻ whole, undivided ʼ, goṭi ʻ small ball, cocoon ʼ, goṭāli ʻ small round piece of chalk ʼ; Bi. goṭā ʻ seed ʼ; Mth. goṭa ʻ numerative particle ʼ; H. goṭf. ʻ piece (at chess &c.) ʼ; G. goṭ m. ʻ cloud of smoke ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ kernel of coconut, nosegay ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ lump of silver, clot of blood ʼ, °ṭilɔ m. ʻ hard ball of cloth ʼ; M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ a marble ʼ, goṭuḷā ʻ spherical ʼ; Si. guṭiya ʻ lump, ball ʼ; -- prob. also P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H. goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ.gōḍḍ -- ʻ dig ʼ see khōdd -- .Addenda: gōṭṭa -- : also Ko. gōṭu* ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271) Ta. koṭṭai seed of any kind not enclosed in chaff or husk, nut, stone, kernel; testicles; (RS, p. 142, items 200, 201) koṭṭāṅkacci, koṭṭācci coconut shell. Ma. koṭṭakernel of fruit, particularly of coconut, castor-oil seed; kuṟaṭṭa, kuraṭṭa kernel; kuraṇṭi stone of palmfruit. Ko. keṭ testes; scrotum. Ka. koṭṭe, goṟaṭe stone or kernel of fruit, esp. of mangoes; goṭṭa mango stone. Koḍ. koraṇḍi id. Tu. koṭṭè kernel of a nut, testicles; koṭṭañji a fruit without flesh; koṭṭayi a dried areca-nut; koraṇtu kernel or stone of fruit, cashew-nut; goṭṭu kernel of a nut as coconut, almond, castor-oil seed. Te. kuriḍī dried whole kernel of coconut. Kol. (Kin.) goṛva stone of fruit. Nk. goṛage stone of fruit. Kur.
goṭā any seed which forms inside a fruit or shell. Malt. goṭa a seed or berry. / Cf. words meaning 'fruit, kernel, seed' in Turner, CDIAL, no. 4271 (so noted by Turner).(DEDR 2069) Rebus: khōṭa 'alloy ingot' (Marathi)

Hieroglyph multiplex: koṭhārī f. ʻcrucible' PLUS khōṭa 'alloy ingot', kuṭi  in cmpd.‘curve' Rebus:kuṭhi'smelter' Rebus: koṭhārī ʻ treasurer ʼ

Hierolyphs 1 and 2 are: sun and six-armed hieroglyph multiplex.

Hieroglyph: arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc] Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624) अर्क [p=89,1]m. ( √ अर्च्) , Ved. a ray , flash of lightning RV. &cthe sun RV. &cfire RV. ix , 50 , 4 S3Br. Br2A1rUp.

Rebus: cast metal, metal infusion: arka copper L. Ka. eṟe to pour any liquids, cast (as metal);n. pouring; eṟacu, ercu to scoop, sprinkle, scatter, strew, sow; eṟaka, eraka any metal infusion; molten state, fusion. Tu. eraka molten, cast (as metal); eraguni to melt.(DEDR 866)
http://coins.lakdiva.org/codrington/images/CCC_006.jpg karibha 'elephant trunk' (Pali) rebus: karba 'iron' Dhanga 'mountain range' rebus: Dhangar 'blacksmith'. sal 'two' rebus: sal 'workshop' aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron, metal' (Rigveda. Gujarat).

↧

Ancient Bhārat of 19th cent. BCE as a Maritime, ship-building nation along Indian Ocean Rim, evidence of sewn boats from Red Sea port of Ayn Sukhna comparable to Kerala catamarans

October 22, 2018, 7:57 pm

≫ Next: The Spitzer Manuscript shows how Brahmi ka- is derived from Indus Script karṇaka 'rim of jar'

≪ Previous: Punch-marked coin symbols are Indus Script Cipher continuum, signify wealth-accounting mint ledgers

https://tinyurl.com/y9n2pa3j

"The Indian ships are much bigger than ours. Their bases are made of three boards .. face formidable storms." See, R. H. Major, ed. (1857), "The travels of Niccolo Conti"

https://archive.org/stream/indiainfifteenth00majorich#page/n181/mode/2up …

The boards are very thick: 9 to 13 cm. Retained widths are usually between 30 and 50 cm, but some are up to 70 cm. The analysis shows that the boards are predominantly cedar wood and sometimes oak. The posts are acacia. The structural parts are made of wood imported from Mediterranean while the connecting pieces are common species in Egypt.

Image result for ce alexandrie ain sukhna sewn boat

Catamarans built in Malabar coast compare with sewn boats of 19th cent. BCE Ain Sukhna, a Red sea port

Sewn boats of Kerala CEAlexandrie

Feb. 5, 2013 The technique of assembly by lashings is one of the world's oldest for constructing boats. It was in use in antiquity in egypt and in homeric greece. In the present day, this method is still used in the indian ocean, most notably in india itself, at kerala, where, nevertheless, the technique is unfortunately dying out. This film takes us to kerala on the malabar coast, and into a network of lakes and lagoons and canals known as the backwaters, where the last of these "sewn" boats are still employed. We shall follow the work of traditional carpenters who continue to practise this ancient technique and begin to understand its subtleties. Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xtpzpvprmr4 (26:00)

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/hqbne2m

Ain Sukhna, (Arabic: العين السخنة‎‎ el-ʿĒn el-Soḵna) archaeological explorations have shown an ancient pharaonic Red Sea port and settlement from which seafaring expeditions were organised.

The sewn sailing boats discovered at this site dated to 19th cent. BCE based on a study of ceramic materials and dating of wood by radiocarbonne (14C).

Research is ongoing on the techniques used in making the sewn boats studying the techniques used even today in Malabar Coast of Kerala. Preliminry results indicate that the techniques used for making the Ain Sukhna boats and the present-day rafts called catamarans (lit. kaTTUmaram) of Kerala are comparable.

See: http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/4029/Int_J_Naut_Archaeol_41_148a.pdf

Study of sewn plank built boats of Goa, India

http://www.persee.fr/doc/topoi_1161-9473_1993_num_3_2_1485 Lotika Varadarajan, 1993,

Indian boat building traditions. The ethnological evidence, Persee, Vol.3, No.2, pp. 547-568.
http://somasiridevendra.navy.lk/assets/files/p_research.pdf Sean McGrail, Lucy Blue, Eric Kentley, Colin Palmer, Boats of South Asia Book Review 2004)

The hypothesis posited is that boat-builders from the West Coast of India had transferred the technology of building catamarans.

"The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea or Periplus of the Red Sea (Greek: Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθράς Θαλάσσης, Latin: Periplus Maris Erythraei) is a Greco-Roman periplus, written in Greek (c. 1st-3rd cen.), describing navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along Northeast Africa and the Sindh and South western India...Many trade goods are mentioned in the Periplus, but some of the words naming trade goods are seen nowhere else in ancient literature, and so we can only guess as to what they might be. For example, one trade good mentioned is "lakkos chromatinos". The name lakkosappears nowhere else in ancient Greek or Roman literature. The name re-surfaces in late medieval Latin as lacca, borrowed from medieval Arabic lakk in turn borrowed from Sanskritic lakh, meaning lac i.e. a red-colored resin native to India used as a lacquer and used also as a red colorant. Some other named trade goods remain obscure." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea#

"Hatshepsut who came to the throne of Egypt in 1478 BCE had funded a mission to the Land of Punt.(which could be the horn of Africa close to Rann of Kutch). Five ships, each measuring 70 feet (21 m) long bearing several sails and accommodating 210 men that included sailors and 30 rowers. Many trade goods were bought in Punt, notably frankincense and myrrh."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatshepsut

Noting that several ships of 6th century Greece are sewn boats (assembly by lashings), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (The Centre d'etudes Alexandrines) has presented a splendid video on the techniques of making sewn boats in the Malabar coast of Kerala. These rafts are called கட்டுமரம் kaṭṭu-maram , n. < id. +. 1. Catamaran, used for deep sea fishing; raft made of logs of wood lashed or joined together; மீன்பிடிப்பதற்காக மரங்களாற் பிணைக்கப் பட்ட மிதவை. கோக்காமரம் kōkkā-maram is a seafaring raft: , n. prob. கோ- + கால்¹ +. Loc. 1. A kind of raft or catamaran;
கடலிற்செலுத்தும் கட்டுமரவகைகளில் ஒன்று. மேங்கா mēṅkā
, n. A kind of catamaran; கடலில் ஓடும் கட்டுமரவகை. Loc. Ancient Polynesian Catamaran:

Ancient Polynesian catamaran (developed as early as 1500 BCE)

Catamaran, Tamil Nadu.

கடப்பா kaṭappā, n. perh. கட்டு- + பாய். Sail of a catamaran; கட்டுமரத்திற் கட்டும் பாய். Loc.

மடி³ maṭi Double catamaran; இரட்டைக் கட்டுமரம். (G. Tn. D. I, 229.)

Hieroglyphs: 1. lathe; 2. body formed of two or more animals: G. sãghāṛɔ m. ʻ lathe ʼ; M. sãgaḍ f. ʻ a body formed of two or more fruits or animals or men &c. linked together, part of a turner's apparatus ʼ,sã̄gāḍā m. ʻ frame of a building ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻlatheʼCDIAL 12859)

Double-canoe, raft: saṁghāṭa m. ʻ fitting and joining of timber ʼ R. [√ghaṭ] Pa. nāvā -- saṅghāṭa -- , dāru -- s° ʻ raft ʼ; Pk. saṁghāḍa -- , °ḍaga -- m., °ḍī -- f. ʻ pair ʼ; M. sãgaḍ m.f. ʻ float made of two canoes joined together ʼ (LM 417 compares saggarai at Limurike in the Periplus, Tam. śaṅgaḍam, Tu. jaṅgala ʻ double -- canoe ʼ), Si. san̆gaḷa ʻ pair ʼ, han̆guḷa, an̆g° ʻ double canoe, raft ʼ (CDIAL 12859)

Boats of Ayn Sukhna

(French original and bibliography appended)

The site of Ayn Sukhna on the Egyptian shores of the Gulf of Suez (70 km south of Suez) delivered archaeologists 2 vessels used in the Middle Kingdom. Ongoing excavations have been conducted since 2001 by a Franco-Egyptian team led by prof. Mahmoud Abd el-Zaziq (University of Suez), Dr. Georges Castel (IFAO) and prof. Pierre Tallet (University of Paris IV-Sorbonne).

The site

The site has many inscriptions evoking maritime expeditions in the Middle Kingdom by Mantouhotep Pharaohs (Eleventh Dynasty, the early twentieth century. BC.), Amenemhat II, Sesostris I, Amenemhet III (twelfth dynasty, first quarter the second millennium). Excavations have also revealed the seals of the fourth and fifth dynasties pharaohs, which traces the use of the site to the High Empire (middle of the third millennium).

The site consists of tunnels dug into the rock to serve as warehouses, buildings, copper ore processing plants. The galleries are located approximately 500 m from the shore. Among the 6 galleries, 3 of them the access is through a building built under the High Empire.

Two other (G2 and G9 galleries) are freely and still retained the dismantled wooden boats. They are about 20 meters long, 3 meters wide and 2 meters high. However the storage timber were burned and reduced to the state of charcoal (the ceiling collapsed during the fire, the fire was smothered and continued smoldering). The best preserved parts of the G2 gallery could be consolidated and removed to a laboratory study. But parts of the G9 gallery were studied in situ.

Woods

The planks were carefully arranged, superimposed on an unknown height but that exceeded 70 cm G9 gallery and isolated from soil by wedges. The whole was bound by ropes. Have been identified very long parts forming the shell and a thicker which served as a keel. Other pieces in the particular morphology formed the ends. However there is a lack of structural members, superstructure and rigging. Several hypotheses: either they do not exist or they were on top and completely burned, or they are stored elsewhere in a still gallery to find.

The boards retain their assemblies combining two complementary, not exclusive techniques:

- Like a system resembling strips of wood taking place in mortise. The posts 7 cm wide, 2 cm thick and the depth of the mortise can reach 15 cm.

- Cords of a ligating system passing loop in mortises L cut along the edges of the boards to be joined (0.5 cm diam.). There are a dozen cords by ligation.

Sometimes pins (diam. 2 to 3 cm) complete the above assemblies.

the anchors

Gallery 9 contained two large limestone anchors, weighing respectively 80 and 100 kg.

Restitution

Room dimensions and morphology corresponds to those of the Empire through the vessels found in the funeral of Sesostris III at Dahshur complex. If we take these to model, it is then led to restore, as the volume of timber and distribution in galleries, boats of about 13.50 to 15 m long.

The region of destination of ships is probably located in the Sinai to Serabit El-Khadim where inscriptions confirm this, especially at a place called Rod el-Air. Rock carvings of boats which one can think that they are in direct contact with the remains of Ayn Sukhna show two types of vessels, both with a crescent-shaped hull and cabin but which are distinguished by their device steering (lateral or axial) and the cabin layout.

Dating

The study of ceramic materials and dating of wood by radiocarbonne (14C) indicate that the vessels were deposited in the late Middle Kingdom (late nineteenth century. BC.) Or at the beginning of the Second Intermediate period (early eighteenth century.). But the woods were in use during the Middle Kingdom and some parts date back to the end of the Old Kingdom (2500-2300 BC.). They should therefore be subject to special attention which reflect the storage in the underground galleries.

Use, maintenance and destruction

The destination of these ships was probably the Sinai at a distance of about 100 km, to enjoy its metal resources (copper) and precious stones (turquoise). They had used regularly but not permanently so they were arranged between two expeditions.

The long use of certain parts stored on shore shows that did not produce a new ship every shipment. The parts were carefully maintained. So do not imagine a royal workshop installed in the Nile valley constantly producing new parts for new boats. By cons, for several centuries one could replace parts alike; expertise was therefore never lost. Nothing says that the workshop was located so far from the place of use. No vestige does not prove the presence of an on-site workshop.

Why a fire broke out in two separate but adjacent galleries? It may be that a voluntary act of destruction intended to harm, by the interruption of shipments, on whom this advantage. Why then the site has he been used more? Have we completely stopped borrowing the sea or did you set up a different mode of travel, and in which locations?

Les bateaux à Ayn Sukhna

Le site d’Ayn Sukhna sur les rives égyptiennes du golfe de Suez (70 km au sud de Suez) a livré aux archéologues 2 navires ayant servi au Moyen Empire. Les fouilles en cours sont menées depuis 2001 par une équipe franco-égyptienne sous la direction du prof. Mahmoud Abd el-Zaziq (université de Suez), du Dr. Georges Castel (IFAO) et du prof. Pierre Tallet (université de Paris IV-Sorbonne).

Le site
Le site comporte de nombreuses inscriptions évoquant des expéditions maritimes sous le Moyen Empire par les pharaons Mantouhotep (XIe dynastie, début du XXe s. av. J.-C.), Amenemhat II, Sesostris I, Amenemhat III (XIIe dynastie, premier quart du IIe millénaire). Les fouilles ont également révélé des sceaux de pharaons des IVe et Ve dynasties, ce qui fait remonter l’utilisation du site au Haut Empire (milieu du IIIe millénaire).

Le site se compose de galeries creusées dans la roche pour servir d’entrepôts, de bâtiments, d’ateliers de transformation du minerai de cuivre. Les galeries se trouvent à environ 500 m du rivage. Parmi les 6 galeries, l’accès de 3 d’entre elles se fait par un bâtiment construit sous le Haut Empire.
Deux autres (galeries G2 et G9) sont d’accès libre et conservaient encore les bois de bateaux démontés. Elles mesurent environ 20 m de longueur, 3 m de large et 2 m de haut. Cependant les bois entreposés ont été calcinés et réduits à l’état de charbon de bois (le plafond s’est effondré lors de l’incendie, le feu a été étouffé et il s’est poursuivi en combustion lente). Les pièces les mieux conservées de la galerie G2 ont pu être consolidées et enlevées pour une étude en laboratoire. Mais les pièces de la galerie G9 ont été étudiées in situ.
Les bois
Les planches ont été soigneusement rangées, superposées sur une hauteur inconnue mais qui dépassaient les 70 cm de la galerie G9 et isolées du sol par des cales. Le tout était lié par des cordages. On a identifié des pièces très longues formant le bordé et une plus épaisse qui servait de quille. D’autres pièces à la morphologie particulière formaient les extrémités. En revanche on constate l’absence de pièces de charpente, de superstructure et de gréement. Plusieurs hypothèses : soit elles n’existaient pas, soit elles étaient sur le dessus et ont entièrement brulé, soit elles sont rangées ailleurs dans une galerie encore à trouver.

Les planches sont très épaisses : 9 à 13 cm. Les largeurs conservées sont le plus souvent comprises entre 30 et 50 cm, mais certaines mesurent jusqu’à 70 cm. L’analyse montre que les planches sont majoritairement en bois de cèdre et parfois en chêne. Les tenons sont en acacia. Les pièces de structures sont en bois importés de Méditerranée tandis que les pièces d’assemblage sont d’essences commune en Egypte.
Les planches conservent leurs assemblages alliant 2 techniques complémentaires et non exclusives :

un système de tenons ressemblant à des languettes de bois prenant place dans des mortaises. Les tenons mesurent 7 cm de largeur, 2 cm d’épaisseur et la profondeur des mortaises peut atteindre 15 cm.

un système de ligature de cordelettes (diam. 0.5 cm) passant en boucle dans des mortaises en L taillées le long des bords des planches à assembler. On compte une douzaine de cordelettes par ligature.
Parfois des chevilles (diam. 2 à 3 cm) viennent compléter les assemblages ci-dessus.

Les ancres
La galerie 9 contenait deux grosses ancres de calcaire, pesant respectivement 80 et 100 kg.
Restitution
Les dimensions des pièces et leur morphologie correspond à celles des bateaux du moyen Empire retrouvés dans le complexe funéraire de Sésostris III à Dahchour. Si on prend ces derniers pour modèle, on est alors conduit à restituer, selon le volume des bois et leur répartition dans les galeries, des bateaux d’environ 13,50 à 15 m de long.
La région de destination des navires est sans doute à situer dans le Sinaï, vers Serabit El-Khadim où des inscriptions le confirment, notamment au lieu-dit Rod el-Air. Des gravures rupestres d’embarcations dont on peut penser qu’elles sont en rapport direct avec les vestiges d’Ayn Sukhna montrent 2 types de navires, tous les deux avec une coque en forme de croissant et une cabine mais qui se distinguent par leur appareil de gouverne (latéral ou axial) et la disposition de la cabine.
Datation
L’étude du matériel céramique et les datations du bois par radiocarbonne (14C) indiquent que les navires ont été déposés à la fin du Moyen Empire (fin du XIXe s. av. J.-C.), voire au début de la Deuxième Période Intermédiaire (début du XVIIIe s.). Mais les bois étaient en usage pendant le Moyen Empire et certaines pièces remontent jusqu’à la fin de l’Ancien Empire (2500-2300 av. J.-C.). Ils devaient donc faire l’objet d’une attention particulière dont témoignent le rangement dans les galeries souterraines.
Usage, entretien et destruction
La destination de ces navires était sans doute le Sinaï à une distance d’environ 100 km, pour profiter de ses ressources métallifères (cuivre) et de pierres précieuses (turquoises). Ils ont dû servir régulièrement mais pas en permanence c’est pourquoi ils étaient rangés entre deux expéditions.
Le long usage de certaines pièces stockées sur ce rivage montre qu’on ne fabriquait pas un navire neuf à chaque expédition. Les pièces étaient soigneusement entretenues. Il ne faut donc pas imaginer un atelier royal installé dans la vallée du Nil produisant en permanence des pièces nouvelles pour des bateaux neufs. Par contre, pendant plusieurs siècle on a pu remplacer des pièces à l’identique ; le savoir-faire n’a donc jamais été perdu. Rien ne dit que l’atelier ait été situé si loin du lieu d’usage. Aucun vestige ne prouve non plus la présence d’un atelier sur place.
Pourquoi un incendie s’est déclaré dans 2 galeries adjacentes mais bien séparées ? Il ne peut s’agir que d’un acte volontaire de destruction destiné à nuire, par l’interruption des expéditions, à celui à qui cela profitait. Pourquoi ensuite le site n’a-t-il plus été utilisé ? A-t-on cessé complètement d’emprunter cette voie maritime ou a-t-on mis en place un autre mode de déplacement, et dans quels lieux ?

Bibliographie :

M. Abd el-Raziq , New inscriptions at El-Ein el-Sukhna, in Memnonia, vol. 10 , 1999

M. Abd el-Raziq, G. Castel, P. Tallet, V. Ghica, Les inscriptions d’Ayn Soukhna, in MIFAO , vol. 122 , 2002

M. Abd el-Raziq, G. Castel, P. Tallet, L’exploration archéologique du site d’Ayn Soukhna (2001-2004), in Actes Du Neuvième Congrès International Des Égyptologues, Grenoble, 6-12 septembre 2004, Leuven, Paris , 2007

P. Tallet, E. Mahfouz, The Red Sea in pharaonic times : Recent discoveries along the Red Sea Coast. Proceedings of the Colloquium held in Cairo/Ayn Soukhna 11th–12th January 2009, IFAO, Le Caire , 2009

P. Tallet, Prendre la mer à Ayn Soukhna au temps du roi Isesi, in BSFE, vol. 177/178 , 2010

P. Tallet , Les Égyptiens et le littoral de la mer Rouge à l’époque pharaonique, in CRAIBL , vol. 2 , 2010

P. Pomey, Les bateaux d’Ayn Soukhna. Les plus vieux vestiges de navires de mer actuellement connus., in Egypte Afrique & Orient, vol. 64, Les bateaux et la navigation en Egypte ancienne II, Centre vauclusien d'égyptologie , 2012

Pierre Tallet, Ayn Sukhna and Wadi el-Jarf : Two newly discovered pharaonic harbours on the Suez Gulf , in British Museum studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan, vol. 18, British Museum, Londres , 2012

http://www.marine-antique.net/Les-bateaux-a-Ayn-Sukhna

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xtpZPvpRMr4 (26:00)

The Sewn Boats of Kerala

Published on Feb 5, 2013

"The technique of assembly by lashings is one of the world's oldest for constructing boats. It was in use in Antiquity in Egypt and in Homeric Greece. In the present day, this method is still used in the Indian Ocean, most notably in India itself, at Kerala, where, nevertheless, the technique is unfortunately dying out.
This film takes us to Kerala on the Malabar Coast, and into a network of lakes and lagoons and canals known as The Backwaters, where the last of these "sewn" boats are still employed. We shall follow the work of traditional carpenters who continue to practise this ancient technique and begin to understand its subtleties."

Asian maritime technology, Catamarans of Kerala

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2016/07/catamarans-built-in-malabar-coast.html

Ain Sukhna, (Arabic: العين السخنة‎‎ el-ʿĒn el-Soḵna) archaeological explorations have shown an ancient pharaonic Red Sea port and settlement from which seafaring expeditions were organised.

The sewn sailing boats discovered at this site dated to 19th cent. BCE based on a study of ceramic materials and dating of wood by radiocarbonne (14C).

Research is ongoing on the techniques used in making the sewn boats studying the techniques used even today in Malabar Coast of Kerala. Preliminary results indicate that the techniques used for making the Ain Sukhna boats and the present-day rafts called catamarans (lit. kaTTUmaram) of Kerala are comparable.

See: http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/4029/Int_J_Naut_Archaeol_41_148a.pdf

Asian maritime & trade chronology to 1700 CE

   Abbreviated references in text; fuller references at foot of page. Some entries have precise dates, some have a range, and some are approximate - so the ordering is also subjective, but we have attempted to list events in rough chronological order, up to an arbitrary cutoff date of 1700 CE.
   No such list can be definitive. Apart from many omissions, this selection reflects the interests of the compiler, with incompatible biases towards the early, the underdocumented, and the archaeologically or historically reliable, and specifically relating to maritime and trade history. Not all of this information is reliable - but a few decades ago, perhaps very little of the early history would have been believed by the cynical and Euro-centric, and archaeological discoveries since then have so often validated or exceeded legend that we are not inclined to be too dismissive. There is an extraordinary volume of documentary evidence in Asian and Middle Eastern languages not directly accessible to us. Also, the combination of snippets of varying quality, and from different cultures, may sometimes build up to an overall impression more convincing than the individual parts.
   Sources are of very variable quality - sometimes tertiary or even more distant from the first hand accounts, but we have tended to include interesting assertions, using the best references to hand, and allow the reader to discriminate. The intention is to improve references over time, to the original documents or more reliable secondary sources - but we will retain multiple references, if potentially useful leads to books or internet content. All errors are the fault of the compiler, Claire Barnes. Contributions and suggestions are welcome: please send them to info@maritimeasia.ws.
   Names of discovered shipwrecks are highlighted in bold. Italicised names without quotation marks are the original names of the ships (e.g. Avondster). Italicised names in quotation marks are reference names invented recently (e.g. 'Turiang'). Place names used to refer to wrecks are in bold but unitalicised (e.g. the Hoi An wreck), and are the names by which the specific wrecks are generally known (if other wrecks are found near Hoi An, they will doubtless be given other reference names). Events with date ranges are entered towards the later end of the range.

c.33000-38000 BCE: Humans settled in Australia, after crossing open sea.
Peter Bellwood, 'Ancient seafarers', Archaeology Vol.50 No.2, Mar/Apr 1997, http://www.archaeology.org/9703/etc/specialreport.html.
c.6000-4000 BCE: Neolithic dugout boats and wooden paddles have been excavated at Hemudu and Xiaoshan in China's Zhejiang province. A Neolithic wooden oar and possible fragments of two boats dated up to 6000 BCE have been excavated in Changnyeong, South Korea. A wooden oar dated c.4000 BCE has been found in Japan. Neolithic maritime contact between Japan and the Korean peninsula has been mooted.
Hemudu boats & paddles - c.5000 BCE per Quanzhou museum caption; Xiaoshan boat - http://china.org.cn/english/culture/49406.htm; Korean & Japanese finds - http://www.physorg.com/news201274900.html.
3000-2000 BCE: Cowry shells (Cypraea moneta) were used for money in China's Gansu province (far inland).
Guangzhou museum caption.
c.2200 BCE: Australia, which had been isolated after the initial human settlement, received significant gene flow from India, coinciding with sudden changes in plant processing and stone tool technologies.
http://www.mpg.de/6818105/Holocene-gene-flow_India-Australia
Xia dynasty - c.2000 BCE: Multi-planked boats were developed in China.
Quanzhou museum caption.
C11th BCE: After collapse of the Shang dynasty, Chinese general You Houxi led 250,000 troops to the South Pacific and the Americas.
Quanzhou museum caption.
'A Link Between Chinese and American Cultures? The Olmec and the Shang', Sinorama magazine, Vol. 22 no.5 May 1997, http://www.sinorama.com.tw/en/8605/605006e1.html, mirrored at http://www.taiwaninfo.org/info/sinorama/en/8605/605006e1.html; article with examples of similar characters http://abcnews.go.com/ABC2000/abc2000science/newworld991019.html; The Olmecs and the Shang: a summary of the artistic evidence: http://members.tripod.com/~kon_artz/cultures/olmshang.htm; at around the same time the Chavin of Peru started making bronze jaguars similar to Shang bronze tigers: Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.28, citing Garry Tee, 'Evidence of the Chinese origin of the jaguar motif in Chavin art', Asian Perspectives 21:1 (1978), 27-29; summary of legends and theories about early contacts of Chinese and other explorers with America by the Northern Archaeology Group (UK): http://www.n-a-g.freeserve.co.uk/DOCUMENTS/ISS14_11JAN2000/ISS14_11JAN2000.htm; another summary http://hussle.harvard.edu/~zhang/docs/Pre-Columbian%20Contact.pdf
C10th BCE: King Solomon of Israel and King Hiram of Tyre sent ships from Ezion-geber on the Red Sea (near Eilat/Aqaba) to Ophir (probably in India). Every three years the ships brought gold, silver, precious stones, almug trees (sandalwood), ivory, apes, and peacocks.
The Bible, I.Kings, 9:26-28; 10:11; and 10:22
1200 - 900 BCE: Obsidian tools found at Bukit Tengkorak in Sabah may have originated in Papua New Guinea, 3500km away.
Stephen Chia, The obsidian industry at Bukit Tengkorak, Sabah, Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2005, http://eprints.usm.my/7396/1/The_obsidian_industry_at_Bukit_Tengkorak_Sabah_Malaysia.pdf; Stephen Chia, 'Prehistoric sites and research in Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia', Bulletin of the Society for East Asian Archaeology Vol.2 (2008). ISSN 1864-6018, http://www.seaa-web.org/bulletin2008/bul-essay-08-01.htm
947-858 BCE: Cowry shells were still in use in the middle of the Western Zhou dynasty; they have been excavated at Rujiazhuang, Baoji (west of Xi'an - slightly coastwards from Gansu).
Shaanxi Provincial Museum, Xi'an, artefacts and captions
549 BCE: Various vessels had been developed for battles on inland waters in the Chinese states of Wu and Chu. One type was 24 metres long and carried 91 people, including 50 oarsmen, 26 soldiers, 4 men with long lances or similar weapons, 2 officers, etc.
Tang Zhiba, 'The influence of the sail on the development of the ancient navy', p.60 - citing Yuan Kang, 'Yue Jue Shu' ('Lost records of the State of Yue') [in Chinese, East Han dynasty].
547-490 BCE: 'Qi Jinggong, king of Qi [on the coast of Shandong province] in 547-490 BCE, had a joyful tour at sea for six months.'
Ma Xiangyong, 'Xu Fu, one of the navigation forerunners in the world', p.185, quoting 'Talk of Tortuosity, Remonstrant Piece' [in Chinese, Han dynasty].
485 BCE: Fu Chai, king of Wu, commanded his navy 'to fight Qi from the sea and was defeated in the battle'.
Ma Xiangyong, 'Xu Fu, one of the navigation forerunners in the world', p.185.
425 BCE: Babylonians sailed to the South China Sea. Meanwhile, Chinese silk was sent to Greece by sea.
G'zhou Mar.Silk Rd 2001, p.17
C4th BCE: A lodestone compass was mentioned in the Chinese Book of the Devil Valley Master, 'they carry a south-pointer with them so as not to lose their way'.
Robert Temple, The Genius of China (from Needham), p.151
356-321 BCE: The Periplus (pilot book) of Niarchus, an officer of Alexander the Great, describes the Persian coast. Niarchus commissioned thirty oared galleys to transport the troops of Alexander the Great from northwest India back to Mesopotamia, via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, an established commercial route.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.28; http://lrrc3.plc.upenn.edu/indianocean/group5/penny01.htmlAlexander's officer Onesicrities sailed southwards, and later descriptions of the voyage mention Taprobane (Sri Lanka).
A. Denis N. Fernando, http://www.island.lk/2001/12/12/midwee03.html;
334-323 BCE: Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, drew a map which includes Sri Lanka and the mouth of the Ganges.
http://ias.berkeley.edu/orias/spice/textobjects/moreonmaps.htm
321-297 BCE: The Mauryan emperor Chandragupta established a naval bureaucracy with a charter.
http://jigyasa0.tripod.com/trade.html, citing Kautilya's Arthasastra; http://indiannavy.nic.in/maritime_history.htm
pre-Qin [-221 BCE]: the Southern Yue people, in the vicinity of Guangzhou, sourced goods such as rhinoceros horns, ivory and jewels through maritime trade. By the time of the Nanyue kingdom (203-111 BCE), Guangzhou was an established trade centre.
G'zhou Mar.Silk Rd 2001, p.28
210 BCE: The first emperor of China, Qin Shihuangdi, toured Eastern China by ship, both on rivers and along the coast. He also despatched Xu Fu to sail overseas in search of elixirs of immortality, accompanied by 3,000 virgin boys and girls, and large amounts of grain, materials, workers and guards. The emperor died later that year. History is entangled in legend; Xu Fu may have settled in Japan, with significant cultural implications, and may have become the first Japanese emperor.
Ma Xiangyong, 'Xu Fu, one of the navigation forerunners in the world, citing Si Maqian, 'Shi Ji' (Historical record) [in Chinese, Han dynasty] on the departure of Xu Fu.
late C3rd BCE: Arikamedu on the Coromandel coast of India had trade contact with the Mediterranean.
S.Suresh, Arikamedu: its place in the Ancient Rome - India contacts, as reviewed by Sila Tripati: http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/2590/1/Man_Environ_33_%20113.pdf

Plan of the Qin dynasty shipyard site in Guangzhou

Qin dynasty [221-207 BCE]: A shipyard site found at Zhongshansilu in Guangzhou, with Qin coins among the artefacts, is estimated to have built ships carrying 25-30 tons.
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.41, 46-47.
183 BCE: Han regime imposed trade sanctions and blocked the supply of iron to Nanyue.
Museum of the Nanyue king, 1999, p.133
122 BCE: King Zhao Mo of Nanyue died. His tomb in Guangzhou contains African ivory, and a silver box from Persia.
Museum of the Nanyue king, 1999, p.10.
118 BCE: Ptolemy VIII appointed Eudoxus of Cyzicus to lead a voyage from Egypt to India, guided by an Indian who had been shipwrecked in Egypt. Eudoxus returned with perfumes and precious stones. On a second voyage, Eudoxus was himself blown off course to Ethiopia, where he found the wreck of a ship which he thought to have come from Gades (Cadiz) by circumnavigating Africa. He later sailed from Gades down the west coast of Africa in an attempt to repeat the journey, but was forced to give up. On the voyages of Eudoxus or shortly afterwards (by 90BCE), a Greek named Hippalus started to sail to India with the monsoon winds and the open sea, rather than coast-hugging. Between 110 and 51BC, four Egyptian inscriptions mention Ptolemaic officers 'in charge of the Red and Indian seas'.
George Hourani, Arab seafaring, p.24-28; Strabo's Geography II:3.4, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2C*.html#3.4; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus
113 BCE: The Han emperor Wudi sent a fleet with 100,000 soldiers to suppress a rebellion in Guangzhou.
Tang Zhiba, 'The influence of the sail on the development of the ancient navy', p.61 - citing Ban Gu, 'Han Shu' ('History of the Han dynasty'), the life of Emperor Wudi [in Chinese, East Han dynasty].
111 BCE: Wudi, who had already conquered Zhejiang and Fujian and moved their inhabitants inland, defeated and divided the Nanyue kingdom (which had covered modern Guangdong, Guanxi, and north Vietnam).
Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese emperors, p37.
Emperor Wudi sent envoys to Southeast Asia and the Persian Gulf (as well as overland through Central Asia); the seafarers returned with coral from West Asia, plus tortoiseshell and rhinoceros horn.
captions in G'zhou Museum Annex, Feb 2002; rhino horn and tortoise or turtle shell from these expeditions were on display.

C1st BCE: A blue glass bowl excavated in a Han tomb in Guangzhou is probably Roman, made on the southern shores of the Mediterranean in the C1st BCE.
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.69
The Chinese were impressed by Roman glass, and started to import not just finished items but technology and possibly raw materials for sodium-calcium glassware. Import dependence was unsatisfactory, and the south coast glass industry waned. Even the knowhow was eventually lost, but a separate glass industry later developed in the north, with assistance from India during the reign of Wei emperor Shizu (424-452 CE).
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.116-120, citing the C3rd Guang Zhi on the maritime 'glass route' from Rome via India, Sri Lanka and Cambodia to China, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea on the export of 'crude glass' to the East, and Wei Shu (History of the Wei dynasty) on the Indian technology transfer to Pingcheng (Datong).
Official relations were established between Japan and Han China, after the establishment of the Han's Lelung Jun command nearPyongyang in 108 BCE.
Fukuoka City Museum caption.
24 BCE: Augustus Caesar sent an army to capture Aden. Thereafter, the Romans opened sea routes to India, where they could buy Chinese silk, bypassing war-torn areas and diminishing the role of Persians and Arabs who previously dominated the trade. An Indian delegation had visited Augustus in 25 BCE (and another in 21 BCE).
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.42; http://nabataea.net/redsea.html;
Indian delegations: Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.33, citing R.E.M. Wheeler, 'Arikamedu: an Indo-Roman trading station on the east coast of India', Ancient India 2 (1946): 19.
1-6 CE: During the reign of [boy emperor] Pingdi, Chinese officials were sent to several South Asian countries to 'spread the power and virtue' of the Han Emperor and search for precious objects.
Prof W.I. Siriweera, http://lakdiva.net/coins/media/cdn_1998.06.21_china_trade.htm
2 CE: A rhinoceros was offered to the Chinese emperor by Huangzhi, identified as Kanchipura (Conjeveram) in southeast India.
Yoshiaki Ishizawa, 'Chinese chronicles of C1st-5th century AD Funan', p.11, citing Hanshu vol.2 Pingdiji.
early C1st CE: Strabo described the expansion of Asian trade under the Roman emperor Augustus (27BCE-14CE); previously 20 ships a year passed from the Red Sea into the Indian ocean; now ships were departing in convoys of 120 from the upper Red Sea port of Myos Hormos alone.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.28-29, citing Horace Jones, transl, The Geography of Strabo, Cambridge, 1949, 2.5.12, 17.1.13.
23 CE: Chinese emperor Wang Mang died, after amassing a vast percentage of the world's gold reserves - which caused disruption in Rome, where emperor Tiberius banned the wearing of silk.
Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese emperors, p43. Tiberius is deemed to have been worried about the trade deficit and the outflow of hard currency.
C1st CE: C1st cloth, peppercorns and coconuts from India have been found at the Roman port of Berenike in Egypt, along with undated beads from Southeast Asia, and teak from India or Burma which may be recycled ships' timbers.
http://popular-science.net/history/india_egypt_trade_route.html; http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~jason2/papers/bnikeppr.htmRoman coin finds in India are predominantly in the south and suggest the use of an overland route from the Malabar to the Coromandel coast. The coins all have gold or silver content, and are predominantly from the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius (14-37 CE) - the two sound-money emperors. Fewer ships sailed around south India, but C1st Roman coins were found at Kadmat in the Lakshadweep islands.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.34-36, citing R.E.M. Wheeler, Rome beyond the imperial frontiers, London, 1954, p.138-145; Tripati & Gudigar, 'Shipwreck archaeology of the Lakshadweep Islands', IJNA (2001) 30.1, p.38
Roman amphorae and other artefacts found at Pattanam in Kerala may represent the trading port of Muziris, which flourished C1st BCE toC5th CE.
http://www.indolink.com/displayArticleS.php?id=042104091359
Arikamedu near Pondicherry in southeast India was a thriving port, peaking in 23-96 CE (the Roman trade between 30 & 50 CE), and a permanent base for western merchants known in Indian literature as yavana. Excavations show trade in pepper, pearls, gems, muslins, tortoise shell, ivory and silk; and from the west coral, lead, tin, glass, vases, lamps, wine and coins.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.28, citing R.E.M. Wheeler, 'Arikamedu: an Indo-Roman trading station on the east coast of India', Ancient India 2 (1946) 17-124, and M.P.Charlesworth, 'Roman trade with India, a resurvey', in Studies in Roman economic and social history in honour of Allen Chester Johnson, ed. P.R.Coleman-Norton, 131-143.
Tamil literature describes Kaverippumppattinam as an important trade port on the Coromandel coast with a huge warehouse; the king's tiger emblem was stamped on incoming and outgoing goods to certify payment of duty.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.34, citing Pattinapalai, a Sangam poem of the first centuries AD, quoted in K.V. Subrahmanya Aiyer, 'Largest provincial organisations in ancient India', Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society 65, 1 (1954-55): 38.
c.45 CE: Buddhist monks from Sri Lanka visited Emperor Claudius in Rome. Trade subsequently improved.
Susanne Loos-Jayawickrema / Sunday Times, http://www.is.lk/times/010930/plusm.html
52 CE: The Roman chronicler Pliny complained about India's trade surplus. He also described a kingdom in the south of Sri Lanka, probably Tissamaharama.
India: Pliny, Natural History 6.96-111 e-text http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/pliny-india.html; trade balance http://jigyasa0.tripod.com/trade.html; A. Denis N. Fernando, http://www.island.lk/2001/12/12/midwee03.html (Fernando says Pliny visited Sri Lanka personally); Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.29, citing H. Rackham, The natural history of Pliny the Elder, Cambridge, 1960, 6.26, 6.1 (Hall says Pliny's info on Sri Lanka was based on the envoys' visit to Claudius).
54-68 CE: The Roman emperor Nero debased the currency, which rapidly became unacceptable. Few Roman coins are found in India from Nero's reign onwards. Indian traders started to take more interest in opportunities to the east.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.36, citing R.E.M. Wheeler, Rome beyond the imperial frontiers, London, 1954, p.140-141.
57 CE: The king of Na Koku in Japan sent an envoy to Han China, and was presented with a gold seal.
Fukuoka City Museum caption.
C1st CE: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written by a Greek, describes trade in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, including the harbours of Sri Lanka and the west coast of India, the customs regime imposed by Rome in the Red Sea, and the difficult possibility of reaching China by sea (China had been known to Greeks since the C5th BCE, but the land route was better known). It also describes the flourishing trade through Adulis, the Red Sea port of the Aksumite civilisation in Ethiopia, which flourished C1st-7th.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.29-34, citing W. Schoff's translation of The Periplus, New York, 1912, and dating it to 40-75AD;
background http://lrrc3.plc.upenn.edu/indianocean/group5/penny01.html; e-text http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html;
Aksum summary http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aksu/hd_aksu_1.htm; Stuart Munro Hay, Aksum: an African civilisation of late antiquity, ch.8-4, http://users.vnet.net/alight/aksum/mhak3.html#c8-4.
97 CE: A Chinese envoy reached Parthia (northern Iran) and reported on comparative costs and control of land and sea routes.
http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/exhibit/rome/rome.html
116 CE: The Babylonian port of Spasinou-Chirax, near Basra, was an important port for traders carrying Asian luxury goods to the Mediterranean world during the C1st BCE and first two centuries CE. The Roman emperor Trajan visited in 116CE, saw the great ships setting sail for India, and wished he were young enough to go himself.
http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/notes10.html, citing Sitwell (1984) p.107-9.
125 CE: The Chinese thought the profits on trade from 'Ta'chin' (Roman territories in the Middle East, from Syria to Egypt) to Northwest India were tenfold but honest. Ta'chin products reaching China included glassware, including glass jewellery and ornaments, carpets, embroideries and precious stones.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.36, citing Hou Han-shu (History of the former Han), quoted in O.W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a study of the origins of Sri Vijaya, Ithaca, 1967, p.40.
131 CE: The king of Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) sent a diplomatic mission to China. Twelve more were recorded between the 5th and 10th centuries.
Prof W.I. Siriweera, http://lakdiva.net/coins/media/cdn_1998.06.21_china_trade.htm
113-135 CE: King Gajabahu I of Ruhuna in the south of Sri Lanka granted to a local temple the customs duties from the port of Godavaya. A shipwreck found offshore has been tentatively dated to the C4th or earlier. Ceramics from Persia and China, and Roman coins, are found at Godavaya. Garnets found in many European graves of C2nd-7th were sourced from India and Sri Lanka, and are found in the river at Godavaya.
http://www.archaeology.lk/maritime-archaeology/godawaya-an-ancient-port-city-2nd-century-ce-and-the-recent-discovery-of-the-unknown-wooden-wreck/, http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=32626, http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/godavaya.htm
c.150 CE: The Geographia of Ptolemy, who was based in Alexandria, includes details of places in Sri Lanka, India (incl. Coromandel coast) and Southeast Asia.
Peter Francis, Roman maps & Indian gems: http://www.thebeadsite.com/UNI-MAPS.html; A. Denis N. Fernando, http://www.island.lk/2001/12/12/midwee03.html; background http://lrrc3.plc.upenn.edu/indianocean/group5/penny02.html; Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.29 & 104, citing G.E. Gerini, Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia, London, 1909, & W.J. Van der Meulen, SJ, 'Ptolemy's geography of mainland Southeast Asia and Borneo', Indonesia 19 (April 1975): 16-22. Stuart Munro-Hay notes (Nakhon Sri Thammarat, p.11) that Ptolemy's comments were probably amplified subsequently, and that the text now attributed to him may not predate the earliest copies, C10-11th.
166 CE: Purported envoys of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius arrived in China by sea. They came from Rinan in central Vietnam, landed at Guangzhou, and proceeded to Luoyang, where they presented ivory, rhinoceros horn and hawksbill turtle to the Chinese emperor. The court thought the gifts ordinary, but agreed that the two great powers should establish official diplomatic and trading relations.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.43, citing the History of the later Han dynasty; also G'zhou Mar.Silk Rd 2001, p.28, and http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/exhibit/rome/rome.html; some sources doubt the diplomatic credentials.A gold medallion of Marcus Aurelius' predecessor Antoninus Pius dated 152 CE has been unearthed at Oc Eo, the main port of Funan in southern Vietnam, which flourished between the 1st and 6th centuries - especially after strife disrupted caravans across central Asia in the C2nd-3rd. The alternative land-sea route involved maritime sections from the Middle East to northwest India, across the Bay of Bengal to the Isthmus of Kra, across the Gulf of Thailand to Funan, and from Funan to China. Other C2nd-3rd finds at Oc Eo include Roman coins, Indian seals, and jewellery. At around the same time, a commercial centre developed at Ko-ying in the Sunda Straits; Malay seamen brought spices and forest products to Funan.
Funan & Antoninus medallion: David Chandler, A history of Cambodia, p.14, & Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.59, both citing Louis Malleret, L'archéologie du delta de Mekong, 4.vols (Paris 1959-63) - vol 3, La culture du Fou-nan, 1962; http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/hist190/SEA%20P&P%201.html; Land-sea route and Ko-ying: Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.20-21, citing O.W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a study of the origins of Sri Vijaya, Ithaca, 1967. Funan and Ko-ying are the Chinese names.
C2nd CE: Romans reached Yunnan from Burma via the Irrawaddy river, after travelling by sea from Arabia.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.42.
200 BCE - 200 CE: Trade pottery from Arikamedu in India reached Sembiran in Bali.
Ardika & Bellwood, 'Sembiran and the first Indian contacts with Bali', Antiquity, Mar 1997, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3284/is_n271_v71/ai_n28685066/
Han dynasty [206 BCE-220 CE]: Chinese shipbuilding innovations included iron nails, putty caulking, bamboo battens for sails, and the rudder.
Tang Zhiba, 'The influence of the sail on the development of the ancient navy', p.61 - citing Xi Longfei & Yang Xi, The history of the development of Chinese shipbuilding, The Wuhan Institute of Water Transport Engineering, 1985 [in Chinese].
The rudder had been invented in China in the C1st BCE; it spread to the Arab world in C10th CE, and to Europe in the C12th.
During the Han dynasty, ships from Fujian province sailed to Jiaozi [Vietnam].
Quanzhou maritime museum captions. Rudders are shown on several ship models found in Han tombs in Guangzhou, see eg Maritime Silk Route, 1996, p.64.
During the Han dynasty, occupied Vietnam (Chaio Chih) received ships travelling to China from Java, Burma, Iran and the Roman empire. Khmers and Indians were living in major centres. Overseas trade was controlled by the Chinese.
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a long history, p..24-25.A Han dynasty dragon bowl excavated in Indonesia is strikingly similar to one excavated in Guangzhou.
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.69Exchanges of envoys between China and the Roman empire are recorded in the Hou Han Shu (history of the later Han dynasty).
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.67
223 CE: A fleet of Wu warships were lost in a storm in the Yellow Sea, while at war with Lu (now Shandong).
Liu Pean, 'Viewing Chinese ancient navigation and shipbuilding through Zheng He's ocean expeditions', p.177
226 CE: Merchants from Roman Asia Minor visited the Wu court; emperor Sun Quan questioned them personally and sent an official to escort them on their return voyage.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.38, citing O.W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a study of the origins of Sri Vijaya, Ithaca, 1967, p.42.
240 CE: The Wu emperor Sun Quan [Wu Wudi] sent ambassadors Zhu Ying and Kang Tai to the 'nations of the south seas' [Funan and Southeast Asia]. The book 'Strange things from the south' reports the prosperity of Funan, its control of trade routes through vassal states in what is now Thailand and the Malay peninsula, and four-masted ships with sails set obliquely and woven from 10-foot leaves of the lu-tou tree.
Xin Yuanou & Yuan Suishan, 'The blue ribbon holder in the medieval age', p.66 - citing Wan Zhen, 'Nan Zhou Yi Wu Zhi' (Strange things from the South);
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.38, citing Wang Gungwu, 'The Nanhai trade: a study of the early history of Chinese trade in the South China Sea', JMBRAS 31, 2 (1958): 33, p.48 & 64-68 citing Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese, studies in the historical geography of the Malay peninsula before 1500, Kuala Lumpur, 1961, and other secondary sources;Yoshiaki Ishizawa, 'Chinese chronicles of C1st-5th century AD Funan', p.13, reckons the date of despatch to be 228AD.Kang Tai reported that a large ship could carry about a hundred passengers and needed 40-50 oarsmen. Wan Zhen, writing in the same Wu period, reported that a large foreign ship (from Funan?) was over 20 jo (48m) long and 2-3 jo (5-7m) above the water, and carried 6-700 passengers.
Yoshiaki Ishizawa, 'Chinese chronicles of C1st-5th century AD Funan', p.16, citing Wan Zhen, Nanzhou yuwuzhi.
281 CE: Roman envoys visited Luoyang via Guangzhou. A Buddhist monk from India arrived in Guangzhou and founded the Sangui and Wangren temples.
G'zhou Mar.Silk Rd 2001, p.28.
C3rd: The Sacred Bodhi tree of Buddha Gaya was brought to Sri Lanka through the port of Jambukola.
Rohan Jayatilleke, http://origin.sundayobserver.lk/2001/08/19/fea20.html
C3rd: Multi-masted ships were introduced in China by C3rd CE; possibly in the C1st.
Xin Yuanou & Yuan Suishan, 'The blue ribbon holder in the medieval age', p..66.
c.300 CE: Japan was trading actively with Korea.
K.Nomoto & K.Ishii, 'A historical review on ships of Japanese tradition', p.97
306 CE: The Indian monk Jiva was the first of many Buddhist monks to arrive at Guangzhou by sea.
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.59
320CE: Date of the earliest excavated Butuan boat (others date from 990 & 1250CE): large open-water boats found at Butuan in Mindanao, Philippines.
National Museum of the Filipino People, display & caption; http://members.tripod.com/philmuseum/archaeo.htm; Green, Vosmer et al http://www.museum.wa.gov.au/collections/maritime/march/documents/No.%20064%20PhilippinesReport.pdf
345 CE: Four hundred Syrian Christians arrived in Kerala (SW India), led by Thomas of Cana. Stories of the arrival of St Thomas the Apostle in 52CE are now questioned. Traditions also vary on the arrival date of Kerala's Jews, from Nebuchadnezzar's occupation of Jerusalem in 587 BCE to C4th CE.
Ishwar Sharan, http://hamsa.org/05.htm; http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index2.htm; http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index36.htm; http://www.shelterbelt.com/KJ/khjews.html
414 CE: The Chinese monk Fa Xian returned home from India by sea, after visiting Sri Lanka.
A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, Fa-Xian/Legge, p100; see www.maritimeasia.ws/topic/Malaysia_crossroads.html#FaXian for description of sea journey, http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/CA/texts/faxian.html for his prior travels on land, and http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/ancient/trade.htm for his vist to Anuradhapura.
383-484 CE: Persian coins of the Sassanian dynasty have been excavated at various places in Guangdong province, and are assumed to result from maritime trade.
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.72.
Late C4th - early C5th: Most east-west traffic started to go through the Straits of Malacca, instead of overland at the Isthmus of Kra, leading to the rise of Srivijaya in southeastern Sumatra. Srivijaya became a Chinese trade partner, controlled piracy, and dominated the Straits for over 500 years.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.20-23 & 26, citing O.W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a study of the origins of Sri Vijaya, Ithaca, 1967.
C 4-5th: Coin from Aksum (Ethiopia) found at Mahagama in Sri Lanka.
Susanne Loos-Jayawickrema / Sunday Times, http://www.is.lk/times/010930/plusm.html
422 CE: The Indian prince and Buddhist monk Gunavarman arrived in Java; he stayed for several years before continuing to China, and missed an expected stop in Champa due to unfavourable winds.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.40 & 104, citing George Coedès, The Indianized states of Southeast Asia, ed. Walter F.Vella, trans. Susan Brown Cowing, Honolulu 1968, p.54 & O.W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a study of the origins of Sri Vijaya, Ithaca, 1967, p.35.
428 CE: Sri Lankan king Mahanamo sent a jade Buddha statue to the Chinese emperor.
http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/ancient/trade.htm.
431 CE: The Cham kingdom of Lin-yi assembled over a hundred ships to pillage the north Vietnamese coast.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.74-5, citing George Coedès, The Indianized states of Southeast Asia, ed. Walter F.Vella, trans. Susan Brown Cowing, Honolulu 1968, p.56-7.
430-452 CE: The ruler of Ho-lo-tan in NW Java sent seven missions to the Chinese court.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.104, citing the Liu Sung shu [history of the early Sung] composed 470-478, per O.W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a study of the origins of Sri Vijaya, Ithaca, 1967: 151, 313 nn. 92, 95
mid-C5th: The people of Funan were said to charter ships to go both east and west, far and near; shipowners were paid only if on schedule.
Yoshiaki Ishizawa, 'Chinese chronicles of C1st-5th century AD Funan', p.16, citing Yiyuan.
467 CE: The Buddhist monk Hui-Shen and his Afghan companions travelled from China to Fu-Sang, which some interpret merely as Japan, and others as the west coast of North America, perhaps Mexico. Mayan art at this time develops features suggesting Hindu and Buddhist influence. Hui Shen returned to China in 499, and reported to emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty in 502 CE.
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan
Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.40-41, citing the Liang Shu (History of the Liang dynasty) and (i) Paul Shao, Asiatic Influence in Precolumbian art, Ames, Iowa State Univ 1976, p.5-7, 3, 163 and (ii) David H.Kelley, 'Nine lords of the night', Studies in the Archaeology of Mexico and Guatemala, 16, Berkeley, Univ of California Dept of Anthropology, Oct 1972 & 'Calendar animals and deities', Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 16, Albuqerque, Univ of New Mexico, 1960.http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/m/v/mvp111/karin.htm, citing vol.231 of The Great Chinese Encyclopedia, compiled by court historians of the Wang emperors from 502 to 556 AD (other refs give the editor's name as Ma Tuan-Lin);Prof V.G.Nair, Buddhist mission visits America before Columbus, http://www.saigon.com/~hoasen/mission.htm;
http://www.1s.com/hkmission/history/chinese.htm, citing hearsay of an 1100 page diary in the Chinese imperial archives of which only 75 pages of partial excerpts seen; http://users.wi.net/~maracon/; http://www.ventanawild.org/news/se01/fusang.html;
Kenneth L. Feder, Frauds, Myths and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology, p113-4, citing Frost, F, 1982, The Palos Verdes Chinese anchor mystery, Archaeology, Jan/Feb 23-27, quoted on www.kenspy.com/Menzies/Ships.html regarding irrelevance of these anchors.
484 CE: King Jayavarman of Funan sent merchants to Guangzhou to solicit trade. The Indian Buddhist monk Nagasena accompanied them on their return, and was then sent to the Chinese court to request help for Funan against marauding Chams from Lin-yi. Nagasena reported to the Chinese emperor that he had been shipwrecked on the Cham coast and robbed. In 491 the Chinese bestowed titles and anti-piracy responsibilities on Fan Tang, the ruler of Lin-yi.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.73-75.
C3rd-5th: Estimated date of the Pontian boat, discovered in Pahang, Malaysia in 1926, based on radiocarbon and accompanying ceramics similar to some at Oc-eo in south Vietnam, which is broadly dated to C1st-6th.
I.H.N. Evans, 'Notes on the remains of an old boat found at Pontian'; C.A. Gibson-Hill, 'Further notes on the old boat found at Pontian, in south Pahang'; Sean McGrail, Boats of the World, p.305; Pierre-Yves Manguin, 'Southeast Asian shipping in the Indian Ocean during the first millennium AD'.
mid-late C5th: a Sanskrit inscription found near Jakarta Bay records that king Purnavarman of Tarumanagara (the Tarum river basin) diverted the river to improve drainage and make the port more accessible for trading vessels.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.105, citing J.Ph. Vogel, 'The earliest Sanskrit inscriptions of Java', Publicaties van de Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 1 (1925):15-35; J.G. de Casparis, Indonesian Palaeography, 18-20; H.B. Sarkar, Corpus of the inscriptions of Java (up to 928 AD) Calcutta, 1971-72, vol 1:1-12; and J. Noorduyn & H.Th. Verstappen, 'Purnavarman's river works near Tugu', BKI Leiden 128 (1972): 298-307. The river diversion was in the 22nd year of Purnavarman's reign. Hall notes that Van der Meulen's belief that Purnavarman conquered Ho-lo-tan shortly after 452 AD, the date of its last embassy to China: W.J. Van der Meulen, 'In search of Ho-ling', Indonesia 23 (1977): 87-111.
Southern Dynasties [420-589 CE]: Guangzhou was a prosperous port filled with merchant ships, merchants and envoys. Many Buddhist monks came from India; the centre of their teaching and sutra translation was Guangxiao temple.
G'zhou Mar.Silk Rd 2001, p.29; Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.59, 74.
520-525 CE: Cosmas Indicopleustes, a theologian, geographer and merchant from Alexandria, visited Malabar, mentioning Christians, and a bishop ordained in Persia. He wrote of ships visiting Sri Lanka from many countries, including China.
Ishwar Sharan, http://hamsa.org/05.htm; Prof W.I. Siriweera, http://lakdiva.net/coins/media/cdn_1998.06.21_china_trade.htm
527 CE: The Indian monk Bodhidharma voyaged to Guangzhou to preach Buddhism. His landing place was later called Xi Lai Chu Di ('first landfall on journeying from the west'), and is the site of Hualin temple.
G'zhou Mar.Silk Rd 2001, p.29; Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.59, 74-5.
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhidharma
588-589 CE: Sui forces defeated Chen in major river battles on the Yangzi. Thousands of ships were involved; the largest had five decks and carried 800 men.
David Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, p.132-4, citing Sima Guang, Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive mirror for aid in government); Beijing, Guji chubanshe, 1956.
594 CE: The Sui emperor Wen (who started a major extension of China's canal network) ordered the establishment of the Nanhaishenmiao (temple to the god of the South China Sea), near today's Miaotou village at Huangpu near Guangzhou. During the Tang and Song dynasties it was customary for the crew of all ships, Chinese and foreign, to pray there before going to sea. Many stone tablets relating to overseas trade are preserved, along with statues and masks of foreigners.
G'zhou Mar.Silk Rd 2001, p.29; Maritime Silk Route 1996, p. 82-83.
595 CE: Emperor Wen ordered confiscation of vessels over 30 feet, except in the Sui heartland of Guanzhong.
David Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, p.139, citing Wei Zheng et al, Sui shu (history of the Sui dynasty); Beijing, Zhonghua shuju, 1973, and Arthur Wright, 'The Sui dynasty', in The Cambridge History of China, UK, 1979.
598 CE: Emperor Wen sent a fleet from Shandong to attack Pyongyang; many of the ships were lost in storms in the Yellow Sea. A land force fared no better.
David Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, p.145, citing Sima Guang, Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive mirror for aid in government); Beijing, Guji chubanshe, 1956.

Model of the Sui dynasty catamaran

Sui dynasty [581-618 CE]: A catamaran approximately 35 metres long has been excavated at Pingdu in the Shandong province of China.
Quanzhou maritime museum, model and caption; Qingdao museum
C 6th: Hindu writer Sundaramurthi Nayanar mentions Mahatittha in Sri Lanka as a port with many ships.
Rohan Jayatilleke, http://origin.sundayobserver.lk/2001/08/19/fea20.html
The cult of Buddha Dipamkara, the 'calmer of the waters', has been traced to 6th century bankers at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka who were financing trade with Southeast Asia. Fine Dipamkara statues of this period are distributed around Southeast Asia.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.37, citing Silvain Levi, 'Les "marchands de mer" et leur role dans le bouddhisme primitif', Bulletin de l'Association Francaise des Amis de l'Orient 7 (Oct 1929): 19-39, and Paul Wheatley, 'Satyanrta in Suvarnadvipa: from reciprocity to redistribution in ancient Southeast Asia' in Ancient Civilisation and Trade, ed. J.A. Sabloff & G.C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, p.234 & 261.
607 CE: Japan started sending occasional groups of ships to China with diplomats, trade goods and students. Those in the Sui dynasty and early Tang dynasty followed the coast around the Korean peninsula, using large dugouts with side planking.
K.Nomoto & K.Ishii, 'A historical review on ships of Japanese tradition', p.99.
612-615 CE: Naval forces supported massive armies in repeated assaults on Koguryo (Korea) by the Sui emperor Yang. All failed.
David Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, p.146-156, citing Sima Guang, Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive mirror for aid in government); Beijing, Guji chubanshe, 1956.
c.616 CE: The maternal uncle of the prophet Muhammad, Abu Waqqas, joined a trading voyage from Ethiopia to Guangzhou. He then returned to Arabia, and came back to Guangzhou 21 years later with a copy of the Koran. He founded the Mosque of Remembrance, near the Kwang Ta (Smooth Minaret) built by the Arabs as a lighthouse. His tomb is in the Muslim cemetery in Guangzhou.
Liu Chih, The Life of the Prophet (12 vols), 1721, quoted by the Islamic Council of Victoria, http://www.icv.org.au/history2.shtmlFour missionaries were sent to China by the prophet Mohammad, and two died in Quanzhou. They were buried as honoured guests, and the tombs repeatedly repaired and embellished until the present.
Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.99, and Quanzhou site captions, citing Ming Shu, 'A history of Fujian province'.

Model of Emperor Yangli's dragon boat

618 CE: China's canal network had grown to 2000km, linking the southern 'rice bowl' and the northern plains. Emperor Yang cruised it in a lavish 'Dragon Fleet', pulled by 80,000 men, accompanied by musicians and guards. His own boat had 4 decks, a throne room, and 120 exquisitely decorated rooms for concubines. Conspicuous extravagance fanned discontent and the fall of the Sui dynasty.
Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese emperors, p84-87; see also Liu Pean, 'Viewing Chinese ancient navigation and shipbuilding through Zheng He's ocean expeditions', p.177.
644 AD: The Tang emperor Taizong built 500 ships to support the planned attack on Koguryo.
David Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, p.196, citing Sima Guang, Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive mirror for aid in government); Beijing, Guji chubanshe, 1956, ch.197, p.6214, & Liu Xu et al, Jiu Tang shu (Old Tang history); Beijing, Zhonghua shuju, 1975, ch.199A, p.5322-3.
629-645 AD: Chinese monk Hiuen Tsang wrote about the choice of routes from Northern India to Sri Lanka (long coastal voyage deemed dangerous), and described Charitra in Orissa as a rendezvous for merchants.
S. Dhammika, http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/ancient/hiuen.htm

Japanese envoy ship, drawing in the Korokan museum, Fukuoka

Japanese envoy ship to Tang China: drawing in the Korokan museum, Fukuoka

630 CE: The first mission of Japanese envoys to China. There were 16 missions of such envoys ('kentoshi') between 630 and 894 CE; the officials were accompanied by scholars and monks, with about 500 people on each mission. About half were lost in shipwrecks.
Fukuoka City Museum captions.
651 CE: First Arab embassy to China.
Michael L.Bosworth, http://www.cronab.demon.co.uk/china.htm, citing Joseph Needham, Science & Civilization in China, Vol.1, p.179 - Cambridge Univ Press 1954.
663 CE: A Tang navy allied with Silla attacked the Japanese fleet allied with Paekche in a series of naval actions at the mouth of the Kum river in Korea, reportedly sinking over 400 Japanese ships.
David Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, p.199, citing Ouyang Xiu, Xin Tang shu (New Tang history); Beijing, Zhonghua shuju, 1959, ch.220, p.6200-1; Liu Xu et al, Jiu Tang shu (Old Tang history); Beijing, Zhonghua shuju, 1975, ch.199A, p.5331-3; & Sima Guang, Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive mirror for aid in government); Beijing, Guji chubanshe, 1956, ch.200, p.6323-4, 6329-30, & ch.201, p.6336-8.
670s: Chinese traveller I Ching visited Srivijaya in Sumatra, and found Buddhism well established. In 692 he noted that Srivijaya had absorbed Malayu [Jambi, SE Sumatra].
Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, 1.6.
by 674 CE: A colony of overseas Muslims existed on the west coast of Sumatra.
The Islamic Council of Victoria, http://www.icv.org.au/history2.shtml, citing Cesar Adib Majul, Muslims in the Philippines, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City, 1999 p.44.
682 CE: The first known inscription of a king of Srivijaya was incised on a river boulder at Kedukan Buket, Palembang in Sumatra.
Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, 1.6.
686 CE: The Kotakapur inscription found on Bangka island records preparation of a naval expedition by Srivijaya against rival ports in western Java.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.108, citing P.Pelliot, 'Deux itinéraires de Chine en Inde à la fin due VIIIe siècle', BEFEO 4 (1904), p.284. Hall notes that Taruma on the Sunda straits sent an embassy to China in 666-9, but the Chinese never heard from thisJavanese port again.
C7th: Some 200,000 Persians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, and other foreigners lived in Guangzhou as traders, artisans and metalworkers.
Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.39.
702 CE: Japanese missions to China had to switch to the open sea due to unrest in Korea, probably using ships built by Chinese immigrants. There were eight missions between 702 and 840 CE, each of two to four ships.
K.Nomoto & K.Ishii, 'A historical review on ships of Japanese tradition', p.99
716 CE: The Tang emperor Xuanzong was impressed by a visiting foreigner who told him about the riches of the south seas: huge pearls, beautiful feathers, and Sinhalese drugs. He ordered an expedition to accompany the foreigner home, but was dissuaded by the bureaucrat Yang Fanchen.
Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.36, citing Sima Guang, Zi zhi tong jian ('Comprehensive mirror for aid in governance'), written 1067-1084, Beijing, Zhonghua shuju, 1956, chap.211..
748 CE: Chinese monk Jian Zhen (Jianzhou, of Daming monastery in Yangzhou), failed in his fifth attempt to sail to Japan, and drifted to Guangzhou where 'many big ships came from Borneo, Persia, Qunglun [Indonesia/Java]... with... spices, pearls and jade piled up mountain high'. The largest ship looked like a mansion, with sails many zhangs high. [1 zhang = 3.11 metres.] Sri Lanka was by now the major shipping centre, with ships visiting from India, Persia and Ethiopia; Sri Lankan ships had gangways many zhangs high.
Tang Zhiba, 'The influence of the sail on the development of the ancient navy', p.61
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jianzhen
753 CE: Jianzhou reached Japan on the sixth attempt, on a ship sent from Japan. He founded Toshodaiji monastery near Nara, in the same style as Daming.
Quanzhou museum & Yangzhou museum captions.
758 CE: Arabs looted and burned Guangzhou.
Michael L.Bosworth, http://www.cronab.demon.co.uk/china.htm, citing Joseph Needham, Science & Civilization in China, Vol.1, p.179 - Cambridge Univ Press 1954.The emperor then closed Guangzhou to foreigners for fifty years.
Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.39.
762 CE: The Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur founded a new capital at Baghdad: a carefully chosen site to which, an advisor noted, supplies would come up the Tigris river in ships from China and India.
Abu Ja'far Muhammad Al-Tabari (839-923), 'The History of Al-Tabari', cited in Amira Bennison, 'The Great Caliphs', p.69
774 CE: Javanese attacked Champa, destroying the Po Nagar temple at Nha Trang.
Emmanuel Guillon, Cham Art, p.195
775 CE: The 'Ligor inscription' found in the region of Nakhon Si Thammarat to Chaiya [east coast of Thailand] records the dedication of three Buddhist stupas by the ruler of Srivijaya.
Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, 1.6 & 3.2, emphasizes that the stone was moved in the early C20th and provenance is confused, but that it tends to confirm Srivijayan activity in the region. On the reverse is an inscription about the Sailendra family, variously interpreted. The inscription is in the Sanskrit language, written in late Pallava letters - as are two other early inscriptions, one dated C6-7th on a huge rock at Hup Khao Chong Koy, and one dated C6-8th at Wat Maheyong in Nakhon Sri Thammarat (Munro-Hay 3.1 & 3.4).
670-780 CE: tentative date of the wreck discovered at Punjulharjo in Central Java.
http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/07/10/ancient-boat-reveals-shipbuilding-skills-java%E2%80%99s-seafarers.html; http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/maritime-museum-plan-runs-aground-threatening-nations-oldest-known-ship/396524;http://indocropcircles.wordpress.com/2012/02/13/ditemukan-perahu-tertua-di-indonesia/; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GNohWyUMcKw; Waluyo Agus Priyanto, 'Conservation Research and Treatment Programs: Case Study of Ancient Boat Site in Rembang Regency', http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1263
787 CE: Javanese attacked Champa for the second time, destroying a temple near the imperial capital at what is now Phan Rang.
Tran Ky Phuong, Unique Vestiges of Cham Civilization, p.9, Emmanuel Guillon, Cham Art, p.195
c.790 CE: the kingdom of Sailendra (builders of Borobodur, in Java), defeated Chenla (in Cambodia), and ruled it for twelve years.
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm
C8th: Chinese merchants had crossed oceans to trade in Japan, Champa, and Java.
Thuan Luc, http://www.charm.ru/coins/vn/nagasaki.shtmlQuanzhou by this time played an important part in the maritime trade of South China.
Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.14
China set up the Bureau of Merchant Shipping in Guangzhou, to monitor all imports and exports. Imports were subject to duties of up to 25%, but changed capriciously. Some frustrated merchants preferred Vietnam.
Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.38-39.
From C8th to C18th, the modern Thai provinces of Phatthalung, Songkhla and Nakhon Si Thammarat were major centres of trade. http://museum.bu.ac.th/Newsletter/SEACM_V8_no2.pdf, p5-14.
766-804 CE: China had very large river and canal boats, estimated at 700 tons. 'The crews of these ships lived on board; they were born, married and died there. The ships had... lanes (between the dwellings), and even gardens. Each one had several hundred sailors... South to Chiangsi and north to Huainan they made one journey in each direction every year, with great profit..... The sea-going junks (hai-po) are foreign ships. Every year they come to Canton and An-i. Those from Ceylon are the largest...When these ships go to sea, they take with them white pigeons, so that in case of shipwreck the birds can return with messages.'
Michael L.Bosworth, http://www.cronab.demon.co.uk/china.htm, citing Joseph Needham Vol. 4 Part III, p.452-3 (Cambridge Univ Press, 1971), which in turn quotes Tang Yu Lin's Tang Yu Lin (Miscellanea of the Tang Dynasty), compiled in the Song dynasty.
785-805 CE: Chinese merchant ships sailing from Guangzhou were calling regularly at Sufala on the east African coast, to cut out Arab middlemen.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.155,
786-809 CE: A diplomatic present of exquisite Chinese porcelain to Caliph Harun al Rashid of Baghdad caused a sensation at that court.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.163.
820 CE: A map by Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi of the Sea of Java includes the Cape York Pensinsula, a "V" shaped Gulf of Carpentaria, and a curved Arnhem Land. (A later map, by Abu Isak Al-Farisi Istakhari in 934 CE, also includes an outline of the northern coast of Australia.)
The Islamic Council of Victoria, http://www.icv.org.au/history2.shtml, citing Eric B.Whitehouse, Australia in Old Maps 820-1770, Boolarong Press, Queensland, 1995 p.65-66.
826 CE: date written on a bowl on the Arab / Persian ship which probably sailed not long after, and sank at Batu Hitam, off Belitung island, between Sumatra and Kalimantan. The cargo was entirely from China, apparently destined for the Middle East, on a through voyage via the Sunda Strait. The ship was of Middle Eastern construction, made of mostly African timber, sewn together with rope (possibly hibiscus, implying resewing in Southeast Asia); it was 20-22m long and 5m wide. The bulk of the cargo comprised mass-market Changsha ceramics, including 40,000 bowls, 1635 ewers, 763 inkpots, and 915 spice jars: motifs include Buddhist symbols, Persian-carpet and geometric designs, date palms, and Arabic Muslim scripts. In one area of the stern, there were items of imperial quality, which include fine Ding and Yue ceramics, three blue-and-white saucers (the earliest intact blue-and-white so far found), an octagonal gold cup with decorations including a Persian dancer and Central Asan figures, and exquisite silver boxes - a royal commission or gift? perhaps to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad? Other finds include a cast & wrought iron & wood anchor, lead ballast, silver ingots, many coins from 618-626CE, and star anise.
*** Regina Krahl, John Guy, J.Keith Wilson & Julian Raby, ed, Shipwrecked: Tang treasures and monsoon winds ***, Smithsonian Books, 2011. ISBN 978-978-1-58834-305-5, 978-0-934686-18-1.
Michael Flecker, 'A 9th-century Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesian waters', IJNA (2000) 29.2: 199-217; addendum, IJNA (2008) 37.2: 384-386;
Michael Flecker, 'A ninth century AD Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesia: first evidence for direct trade with China', World Archaeology (2001) Vol 32(3):335-354;
Detailed descriptions of the artefacts from the 2004 catalogue of the Belitung wreck by Seabed Explorations:
Michael Flecker, 'Miscellaneous artefacts', http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/22_flecker_misc_kat_656to705.pdf; Francois Louis, 'Gold & silver artefacts', http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/08_louis1_kat_154to191.pdf; Francois Louis, 'Bronze mirrors', overview, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/09_louis2_%20192to199.pdf; Francois Louis, 'Bronze mirrors', artefacts, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/10_louis2_kat_200to223.pdf; Hsieh Mingliang, 'White wares with green décor', http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/13_hsieh2_kat_246to299.pdf; Regina Krahl, 'White wares of Northern China',http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/15_krahl1_kat_312to349.pdf; Regina Krahl, 'Green wares of Southern China', http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/17_krahl2_kat_368to463.pdf; Liu Yang, 'Changsha ceramics', part 1,http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/19_liu_kat_b_504to567.pdf; part 2, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/20_liu_kat_b_568to639.pdf;
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia, Belitung 2004 catalogue, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf.
'Shipwrecked: Tang treasures and monsoon winds', Smithsonian museum exhibition site, https://www.asia.si.edu/Shipwrecked/; http://maritime-explorations.com/belitung.htm; Lim Ya Chiew, 'Changsha blue and copper red wares and the religious motifs', www.koh-antique.com/lyc/belitung_shipwreck.htm; Andreas Rettel, 'The concept of the conservation of seawater finds', 2004, http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/SW-CulturalHeritage/downloads/05Rettel092-115.pdf; http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/06/tang-shipwreck/worrall-text/1;http://www.cnngo.com/singapore/play/displaying-tang-dynasty-treasures-ninth-century-shipwreck-786465; exhibition opened Feb11 http://www.marinelink.com/news/shipwrecked-treasures337223.aspx; http://idlethink.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/curating-the-oceans-the-future-of-singapores-past/; http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/7675866.stm; http://thejakartaglobe.com/artsandentertainment/unearthed-treasure-waits-in-singapore/331093; http://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/2007/06/28/the-belitung-shipwreck/;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dkrbQ7DH2Oc&feature=related; http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-1200yearold-sunken-treasure-that-revealed-an-undiscovered-china-559906.html; http://www.sail-world.com/Asia/Another-ancient-sailing-ship-to-set-forth/65387;www.china.org.cn/english/2004/May/96658.htm; Der Spiegel Jan06 on dispute www.cronaca.com/archives/002259.html; Smithsonian press release Mar11 on exhibition controversy http://www.asia.si.edu/press/2011/prShipwreckedBackgrounder.asp; Smithsonian, 'Underwater cultural heritage: issues raised by the Belitung shipwreck', http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/SW-CulturalHeritage.asp; Robin McDowell, 'Indonesian waters mean riches and headaches', http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/03/31/indonesias-shipwrecks-mea_n_1393473.html; ceramics remaining in Indonesia, http://museum.bu.ac.th/Newsletter/SEACM_V8_no1.pdf;
National Geographic documentary 'Secrets of the Tang treasure ship' part 1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7sLMa78nUtc, part 2 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kjefPjDFN0A, part 3 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkcYSiT1rrc, part 4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ih95eOkrA8;
video in Mandarin & English http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4A_e34OMacU;
reconstruction and voyage of the 'Jewel of Muscat', www.jewelofmuscat.tv; Georgetown interview with Dr Tom Vosmer http://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/2010/06/16/aboard-jewel-muscat/
2nd quarter of C9th: Large quantities of Changsha ceramics have been discovered in Egypt and Oman; they were exported via Guangzhou.
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.92.
830 CE: estimated date of colonization of Madagascar by Indonesians - who may or may not have intended to travel so far.
Murray Cox et al, 'A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar', Proc.R.Soc.B rspb20120012; http://news.discovery.com/history/madagascar-women-120320.html; http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46809678/ns/technology_and_science-science/#.T7ynoVJq3ZA;http://www.physorg.com/news/2012-03-indonesian-eves-colonised-madagascar-years.html
838-847 CE: Japanese monk Ennin visited China, keeping a detailed diary. Yangzhou, the major grain transport hub of the Tang dynasty was flourishing: 'market places dot a ten league thoroughfare; when night markets open, a myriad lights glow under the azure sky.'
Kevin Bishop, China's Imperial Way, p.123; replica of Ennin's journal, and of the list of Buddhist scriptures he brought back, in Fukuoka City Museum.
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennin
846 CE: Arab geographer Ibn Khurdadhbih wrote that the ruler of Srivijaya would throw a gold bar daily into the sea. On the ruler's death, the gold bars were retrieved and distributed - first to the royal family, next to military commanders, and the remainder to the subjects. In 916, Abu Zaid recorded the same custom.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.80-81, citing G. Ferrand, 'L'empire sumatrannais de Crivijaya', JA 20 (1922): 57 & G.R. Tibbetts, A study of the Arabic texts containing material on Southeast Asia, Leiden, 1979, p.29 & 33-34.
850 CE: The stone epitaph on the tomb of Li Jingshi, Governor of Guangzhou and shiboshi or Commissioner of Maritime Affairs, notes that the port was at this time 'thronged with foreign merchants and precious goods'. The 'livelihood and economy' section of the Songshi (history of the Song dynasty) refers to the Guangzhou Commisssion of Maritime Affairs and records the history of trade with Southeast and West Asia.
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.80
first half of the C9th, or earlier: tentative date of the 'Phanom Surin' ship found at a river site in Samut Sakhon province on the Gulf of Thailand, about 30km from Nakhon Pathon, an important centre of the Dvaravati civilisation. The ship is about 25 metres long (keelson 17.65m), sewn together in Arab style and structurally similar to the Belitung ship, with two round masts (one 17.37m high). It was carrying stoneware jars similar to C8th amphoras produced in Greece and Egypt, but which may be from the Middle East or India; these contained dammar. It also contained carinated Dvaravati-style earthenware pots, green-glazed jars from the Guanchong kilns in Guangdong, and another jar from the Fengkai kiln in Guangdong. Finds include rattan and fibre ropes, halved and pierced coconut shells, toddy palms, betel nuts, rice, fish and animal bones and elephant tusk. The unexcavated Khuan Thani ship in Kantang district of Trang province on the southwest coast of Thailand is said to be similar.
http://museum.bu.ac.th/Newsletter/SEACM_V8_no1.pdf; http://www.bangkokpost.com/lifestyle/family/413237/up-from-the-deep
first half of the C9th: finds of many Chinese ceramics, some Persian blue glazed ware and glass beads suggest thriving trade at the port of Laem Pho on the Gulf of Thailand near the modern city of Surat Thani, and across the isthmus to the port of Thung Tuk on the Andaman Sea in Ko Kho Khao.
http://museum.bu.ac.th/Newsletter/SEACM_V8_no1.pdf
851 CE: Arab merchant Suleiman al Tajir saw the manufacture of Chinese porcelain, and marvelled at its transparency.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.163.
He also described the port of Guangzhou and its mosque, public granaries and dispensaries, complex administration, written records, treatment of travellers, and the use of ceramics, rice-wine and tea.
Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo go to China?, p.143, citing Abbé Renaud, Anciennes Relations de l'Inde et de la Chine de deux voyageurs Mahoumetans qui y allèrent dans le IXe siècle, 1718, per Col. Sir Henry Yule, Cathay and the way thither, London 1916.
-863 CE: Chinese author Duan Chengshi described the slave trade and production of ivory and ambergris in the country of Bobali, thought to be Berbera in Somalia. From the C9th onwards, Chinese sources have good descriptions of Africa.
Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.38, citing Duan Chengshi, d.863AD, Yuyang za zu (Miscellany of Yuyang moutains), transl. G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, The East African coast, select documents C1-19th, London 1975 [863].
878 CE: Chinese rebel forces under Huang Chao, who sacked Guangzhou, killed an estimated 120,000 Jews, Christians, Muslims and other foreigners, in addition to local residents.
Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.39, citing the C10th Arab writer Abu-Zayd of Siraf, and George F. Hourani, Arab seafaring, Princeton, 1951, p.76-78.
Tang dynasty [618-907 CE]: Arab merchant Shulama praised the seaworthiness of large Chinese-built ships, but noted that the draft was too deep to enter the Euphrates, necessitating small boats to land passengers and cargo. Ships crossing the Indian ocean were about 20 zhang long and could carry 6-700 passengers.
Liu Pean, 'Viewing Chinese ancient navigation and shipbuilding through Zheng He's ocean expeditions', p.178Abbasid pottery imitations of Tang white ware, made in Mesopotamia, have been found at Mantai and Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka alongside the Chinese originals.
John Carswell, Blue & White, p.59.Fustat (old Cairo) was a major destination for Chinese ceramic exports for 500 years, starting in the Tang dynasty.
John Carswell, Blue & White, p.65-67. citing Tsugio Mikami, 'China and Egypt: Fustat', Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society 1980-81, vol 45, London, 1982, p.67-89.

839-907 CE: Thirty seven voyages were registered between the Chinese port of Ningbo and Japan; the ships used were now built by Chinese workmen, whether in Chinese or Japanese yards, and said to be safer than the boats used in earlier years by Japanese envoys to China.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.154.
903 CE: Arab geographer Ibn Faqih described China as renowned for three major exports: silk, porcelain, and lamps.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.163.
908-11 CE: A two-part Cham inscription records two official missions to Java by an envoy of the Cham king Jaya Simhavarman. A contemporary Javanese inscription refers to both Khmer and Cham merchants in Java.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.184, citing Edouard Huber, 'Lepigraphie de la dynastie de Dong-du'o'ng', Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 11 (1911):299 and A.M.Barrett, 'Two old Javanese copper-plate inscriptions of Balitung', MA thesis, Univ of Sydney, 1986, p.129.
930 CE: A large turquoise jar of the Sasanian / Islamic type was in the tomb of Lia Hua near Fuzhou.
John Carswell, Blue & White, p.59-60, citing Feng Xianming, 'Persian and Korean ceramics unearthed in China', Orientations 17.5, Hong Kong, 1976, p.4-7.
932 CE: An inscription notes a 'king of the Sunda Straits', restored to royal status.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.108, citing F.D.K. Bosch, 'Een Maleische inscriptie in het Buitenzorgsche', BKI 100 (1941): 49-53, and L.C. Damais, 'Études d'epigraphie Indonésienne, III. Liste des principales inscriptions datées de l'Indonésie', BEFEO 46 (1952-4): 98-103, no.275, 283, 289. Hall suggests that this plus three Javanese inscriptions of similar date found on the Sumatran side of the straits suggests a reemergence of Javanese authority, often subordinate to Srivijaya.
938 CE: Ngo Quyen defeated a fleet of the occupying Chinese on the Bach Dang river near Hai Phong, by enticing the ships upriver at high tide, to be impaled on metal-tipped stakes as the tide fell. He declared independence.
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a long history, p.29-30.
early-mid C10th: tentative date of the wreck found near the Intan oil field in the Java Sea, thought to be an Indonesian lash-lugged craft bound from Palembang to central or eastern Java, with a diverse cargo of Chinese, Thai, Indonesian and Arab goods. A Chinese coin of 918 CE gives the earliest date.
Michael Flecker, The Archaeological Excavation of the 10th century Intan shipwreck; Michael Flecker, 'Treasure from the Java Sea (the 10th century Intan shipwreck)', http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Intan.pdf; http://maritime-explorations.com/intan.htm
mid-late C10th: tentative date of the Cirebon (aka Nan Han) wreck in Indonesia, apparently bound for Central or Eastern Java. The site was 40m square, and the ship of lashed-lug Southeast Asian construction, carrying ceramics from China, Thailand, Vietnam & Persia, Chinese bronze mirrors and Indonesian bronze statues, Middle Eastern glass vessels and swords, and artefacts of Egyptian origin. Finds include pearls, rubies, sapphires, garnets, gold jewellery, Fatimid rock crystal, Iranian glassware, and 2 tons of lapis lazuli. Chinese ceramics made up 75% of the cargo volume, and include many pieces of imperial quality. Lead coins on the Cirebon wreck were from the Demesne of Nan Han, around Guangzhou, 917-971 CE. One bowl had a date thought to equate to 968CE.
http://cirebon.mariemont.museum; Yvonne Tan, 'Cirebon Cargo of Yue Ceramics Vessels', Asian Art newspaper May 2007, http://www.seaceramic.org.sg/articles/cirebon_cargo.html; Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum Newsletter Vol III no3 May06, Vol III no7 Dec06;http://english.epochtimes.com/news/5-10-29/33803.html; http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aSHV6Zb9pDeU; http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6162804.stm; dispute news Mar06 http://nationmultimedia.com/worldhotnews/read.php?newsid=30000939; auction due May10 http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iKWgt-j1CJujMXf4dXrBNj6wrl6w.
mid-late C10th: tentative date of the Karawang wreck in Indonesia, also apparently bound for Central or Eastern Java. Many of the ceramics are similar to those on the Cirebon wreck, but of lower quality and with no such masterpieces. Coins are from the Kingdom of Min in Fujian, 916-946 CE and the demesne of Nanhan, around Guangzhou 917-971CE.

979 CE: A Cham naval expedition attacked the Vietnamese capital Hoa Lu in the Red River delta, but the fleet was destroyed in a gale, and only the king's ship survived. The Vietnamese retaliated in 982, destroying the Cham capital Indrapura; the Cham capital was eventually moved south to Vijaya (Binh Dinh).
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.181, citing Henri Maspero, 'Le protectorat general d'Annam sous les T'ang', Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 10 (1910): 678.
981 CE: The Song dynasty attacked Vietnam by land and sea, with clashes at the Bach Dang river and further south, and were repulsed by general Le Hoan.
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a long history, p.30; Hanoi History Museum captions
990-1007 CE: Intermittent war between the Javanese kingdom of Mataram and Srivijaya.
Nicholas Tarling, Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, p.207; http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm.
993 CE: The Yemeni captain Abu Himyarite, a frequent visitor to China, toured Guangzhou port.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.157-8.
C 7-10th: Chinese ceramics found at Mahatittha and monastic sites in Sri Lanka indicate brisk ceramic trade.
Prof W.I. Siriweera, http://lakdiva.net/coins/media/cdn_1998.06.21_china_trade.htm
C9-10th: Islamic ceramics of the C9-10th have been found at Trang Soi sand dune near the Hoi An river.
Museum of Trade Ceramics, Hoi An, artefacts and captions
C10th: 'Citong' (Paulownia) trees were planted around the newly expanded city walls of Quanzhou (circumference 10km), citong became a city nickname, and visitors from the Middle East recorded this as Zaiton - which means olive in Arabic, leading to later confusion. Satin (the cloth) derived its name from Zaiton.
Quanzhou museum caption.
C10th: Seafarers and merchants from Champa had contacts with Brunei and Ma-yi (Mindoro, in the Philippines).
Allison Diem, 'Vietnamese ceramics from the Pandanan shipwreck excavation in the Philippines', Taoci, 2001, citing William Henry Scott, Filipinos in China before 1500, Manila, 1999.
C10th: The geographer Ibn Rusta recorded an island in the Riau or Lingga archipelago, whose ruler headed the Srivijayan army, famous for camphor and its ability to protect or harass passing ships.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.94, citing G.R. Tibbetts, A study of the Arabic texts containing material on Southeast Asia, Leiden, 1979, p.31.
late C10th: Egyptian and Arabic ceramics of this period have been found in the Philippines - always in association with Chinese products.
Dr Jesus T. Peralta, http://www.ncca.gov.ph/phil._culture/traditional_arts/glimpses/prehistory/glances/glances_ceramic-age.htm

The Qingjing mosque, Quanzhou

c.1000 CE: Srivijaya levied 20,000 dinars before allowing a Jewish merchant to continue his voyage to China.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.85, citing the 'Aja'ib al-Hind, in G.R. Tibbetts, A study of the Arabic texts containing material on Southeast Asia, Leiden, 1979, p.44. The same source records that merchants in Srivijaya were confined to the capital, but accepted this for fear of wild animals.
1001 CE: China's Song dynasty recorded the arrival of a diplomatic mission from the 'kingdom of Butuan' in Mindanao.
http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/321334/scitech/science/massive-balangay-mother-boat-unearthed-in-butuan
1003 CE: a Butuan chieftain petitioned the Chinese imperial court to allow direct trade with Guangdong, rather than via Champa as designated; the petition was declined.
http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/321334/scitech/science/massive-balangay-mother-boat-unearthed-in-butuan
1008 CE: Egyptian sea captain Domiyat, a frequent visitor to China, joined an imperial pilgrimage to a Buddhist site in Shandong, presented the Song emperor Zhenzong with gifts from the Egyption king, and established diplomatic relations.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.158.
1009 CE: The Qingjing mosque (originally known as the Aisuhabu mosque) was built in Quanzhou.
Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.101.
1016 CE: The Javanese suffered a devastating raid from Srivijaya, which sent a mission to China the following year referring to their ruler as 'king of the ocean lands'.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.194, citing Tamil inscriptions in Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1956-57, no.161,164,166, and Epigraphia Indica, 22:213-281; both journals published by the Archaeological Survey of India.
1025 CE: Rajendra Chola, the king of Coromandel in India, launched a massive raid on Srivijayan ports on both sides of the Straits of Malacca. The Tamil inscription suggests total conquest; however a new king of Srivijaya sent tribute to China in 1028.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.23, 85-86, 102, 194, citing a Chola inscription from Tanjavur in south India dated 1030-1031, Nilakanta Sastri, The history of Srivijaya, Madras, 1949, p.80, and George W. Spencer, The politics of expansion, the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya, Madras, 1983, p.100-150; ports attacked on the Malay peninsula named in the Tanjavur inscription of 1030, South Indian Inscriptions, 2:105-109. Possibility conquest exaggerated: Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, 1.8.
1029-35 CE: Two inscriptions in Arabic script from Panduranga on the Cham coast (Phan Rang, just north of the Mekong delta) provide evidence of a major port there. One records the selection of a Muslim as 'agent of the bazaar' to represent merchants in their dealings with Cham authorities.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.183, citing Paul Ravaisse, 'Deux inscriptions coufiques du Campa', Journal Asiatique, Paris, 20,2 (1922): 247-289.
1037 CE: The Brantas river in east Java was dammed by royal order to reduce flood dangers for port users, 'including ships' captains and merchants from other islands and countries'.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.18, citing Kamalagyan inscription, trans. Jan Wisseman, 'Markets and trade in pre-Majapahit Java', in Economic exchange and social interaction in Southeast Asia, ed. Karl Hutterer, 1977, p197-212 - one of a number of inscriptions recording royal decisions on ports, warehouses, weights & measures, duties, appointment of tax collectors at ports, etc.
1044 CE: A Vietnamese seaborne expedition routed the Chams and killed their king.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.181, citing George Coedès, The Making of Southeast Asia, trans H.M.Wright, Berkeley, 1966, p.83.
1050 CE: A Cham inscription records a royal expedition against the rebellious Cham port of Panduranga.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.181& 185, citing E.Aymonier, 'Première étude sur les inscriptions Tchames', Journal Asiatique, Paris, 17 (1891): 29.
1067 CE: The Cholas attacked Kadaram (thought to be Takuapa, on the west coast of Thailand's Isthmus of Kra), destroying it as the dominant regional port.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.199, citing Perumbur inscription, 7th year of Virarajendra I, South Indian inscriptions, 3,no.84, and Alastair Lamb, 'Kedah and Takuapa, some tentative historical conclusions', Federated Museums Journal 6 (1961):84.
1068 CE: Vira Rajendra, the king of Coromandel, captured Kedah (northwest Malaysia) from Srivijaya.
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htmVietnamese attacking the Cham capital of Vijaya by sea were surprised to encounter no naval resistance.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.186, citing Georges Maspero, Le royaume de Champa, Paris, 1928, p141-2.
1068-1077 [Xining reign]: Chinese official Huang Huaixin outlined a plan involving a drydock for the repair of imperial dragon boats.
Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.77, citing Shen Kuo, Mengxi bi tan, bu bi tan ('Supplement to notes taken in Mengxi') written 1086-1093, annotated by Hu Daojing, Hong Kong, Zhonghua shuju, 1975, 313.
1087 CE: The Song government established an office in Quanzhou to regulate maritime trade. Commercial tax receipts soon matched or exceeded those of South China's largest port, Guangzhou. The rapid development of foreign trade stimulated advances in shipbuilding, ceramics, textiles, metallurgy, and agricultural processing.
Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.14
C 11th: Persian ceramics of the 11th century are found in Sri Lanka; thereafter, Chinese ceramics predominate.
Prof W.I. Siriweera, http://lakdiva.net/coins/media/cdn_1998.06.21_china_trade.htm
C 11th: tentative date of the 7-metre pine vessel found off Kunsan in the west of Korea with a cargo of ceramics.
http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/200406/kt2004061014355253460.htm
2nd half of C11th: tentative date of the 9-metre flat-bottomed Korean vessel found off Wando island in SW Korea with a cargo of celadon from Haenam province.
http://www.seamuse.go.kr/en/?sub=6 , http://www.mm.wa.gov.au/Museum/march/department/oseas.html; Kim Zae-Geun, 'The Wreck excavated [from] Wando island'.
late C11th / early C12th: tentative date of the 22-metre sailing barge found at Kadakkarapally in Kerala, SW India (the Thaikkal find).
http://wedigboats.org/Thaikkal.htm; http://www.rpmnautical.org/india.htm
late C11th / early C12th: Song qingbai and other ceramics found in a sand dune at Allaipiddi in Sri Lanka.
John Carswell, Blue & White: Chinese porcelain around the world, p.168-171; Prof W.I. Siriweera, http://lakdiva.net/coins/media/cdn_1998.06.21_china_trade.htm.
C11th-C12th: Fortified Chinese trade bases were established in the Philippines, to gather forest products and distribute imports, and the archaeological sites of Laguna, Mindoro and Cebu show significant social change.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.24, citing Karl L.Hutterer, 'The evolution of Philippine lowland societies', Mankind, 9 (1974): 287-299, and An archaeological picture of a pre-Spanish Cebuan community, Cebu, 1973.
1117: Regulations and navigation for sea-going ships were described by Zhu Yu, son of a former high port official and then governor of Guangzhou. Large ships carried several hundred men, the smaller ones more than a hundred. They navigated by the coasts, the stars, the compass, and seabed sampling.
Robert Temple, The Genius of China (from Needham), p.150, citing Pingzhou Ketan (Pingzhou chats).The same book describes the loading of ships - 'the greater part of the cargo consists of pottery, the small pieces packed in the larger, till there is not a crevice left' - and the keeping of foreign slaves in Guangzhou.
Ceramics: John Carswell, Blue & White, p.59, citing Chu Yu, P'ing-chou k'o'tan, Taipei, 1975. Slaves: Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.37, citing Zhou Qufei, Ling wai dai da (about regions beyond the mountain passes), 1178, per J.J.L. Duyvendak, China's discovery of Africa, London Univ, 1949, p. 24. Text of Pingzhou Ketan shown in The Maritime Silk Route, 1996, p.88.It also describes the Srivijayan government's monopoly over sandalwood exports, the Chinese Trade Office monopoly over frankincense imports, and the official fixing of commodity prices in the ports of Srivijaya.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.99-100.
1129: Khmer king Suryavarman II sent a fleet to plunder the Vietnamese coast.
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a long history, p.126
1129: Gaozong, who had declared himself emperor of China after the fall of Kaifeng and spent the first eight years on the run, escaped in 1129 only after taking to sea. He went on to establish the southern Song dynasty with its capital at Hangzhou - and with half his land gone, to encourage maritime trade and the resultant revenues. The government funded harbour improvements, warehouse construction and navigation beacons. In 1132, the emperor ordered the establishment of China's first permanent navy, and offered rewards for innovative ship design. Chinese scholars studied and extended Arab and Hindu knowledge of geography and navigation.
Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese emperors, p136; Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the seas, p.41-42.
1154: Al-Idrisi, a Moroccan geographer, published his Geography, which contained a world map, and described Chinese merchant ships carrying iron, swords, leather, silk, velvet and other textiles to Aden, the Indus and Euphrates. He commented that Quanzhou's silk was unparalleled, and Hangzhou renowned for both glassware and silk.
http://lrrc3.plc.upenn.edu/indianocean/group5/penny05.html; Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.159-161.
1161: The invading Jin attacked Hangzhou with 600 warships and 70,000 men, and simultaneous land assaults, but were repulsed with grenades launched by catapult; possibly the first time that gunpowder was used in battle. The Song navy, with only 120 warships and 3,000 men, then defeated a huge Jin armada off the Shandong peninsula.
Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.43-47
early 1160s: Five Sri Lankan ships attacked lower Burma, after the Burmese blocked the overland trade route to Angkor.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.203-4 & 209, citing a Sinhalese inscription of 1165 about rewarding the perpetrator with land, Epigraphia Zeylonica, 3:321, no.34 (Archaeological Survey of Ceylon).
1178: Champa attacked the Khmers by water, having attacked by land in the previous year. A Chinese pilot guided the invaders up the Mekong and the Siem Reap river; they pillaged the capital and killed the king. Jayavarman VII counter-attacked, defeated the Chams in another naval battle, and killed their king.
David Chandler, A history of Cambodia, p.59, citing G.Maspero, Le Royaume de Champa (Paris, 1928) p.164 & K.485, stele from Phimeanakas, Inscriptions de Cambodge, vol.2 p.171
Guangzhou customs officer Zhou Qufei wrote of an island in the west (Madagascar?) from which people 'black as lacquer' with frizzy hair were captured and sold as slaves to Arab countries.
Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.37, citing Zhou Qufei, Ling wai dai da (about regions beyond the mountain passes), 1178, per J.J.L. Duyvendak, China's discovery of Africa, London Univ, 1949, p. 22.
Zhou Qufei also wrote that Srivijaya now had few goods of its own to sell, and relied on force to compel passing ships to stop at its ports.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.102, citing Chou Ch'u-fei, Ling wai tai ta, noted by Chao Ju-kua and transl. O.W. Wolters, 'A few miscellaneous Pi-chi jottings on early Indonesia', Indonesia 36 (oct 1983): 56.
1163-1190: During the reign of Xiaozong, the southern Song took to seaborne trade, previously dominated by Arabs and others. Chinese ships sailed east to Korea & Japan, and west to India, the Persian gulf and the Red Sea. China imported raw materials and luxuries (rare woods, precious metals, gems, spices and ivory), and exported manufactured goods (silk and other cloths, ceramics, lacquerware, copper cash, dyes, books and stationery).
Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese emperors, p142.
1190: Compass first mentioned by a European, Alexander Neckam in De Naturis Rerum. The first mention in Arabic writings is approximately 1232.
Robert Temple, The Genius of China (from Needham), p.149
C11th-12th: tentative date of the Pulau Buaya wreck in Indonesia.
Abu Ridho & Edmund Edwards McKinnon, The Pulau Buaya wreck: finds from the Song period, 1998; Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
C12th: A ship about 25 feet long was wrecked near Taean in Korea; the cargo included high-quality ceramics.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6915941.stm, http://museum.bu.ac.th/SEP%202007.pdf
C12th: A ship sent by the Burmese king arrived at Weligama in Sri Lanka.
Prof Sia, http://members.tripod.com/~hettiarachchi/port.html
C12th: Sri Lankan king Parakrama Bahu I gathered a fleet at Mahatittha to invade the Pandyan kingdom.
Rohan Jayatilleke, http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/ancient/ports.htm
C12th: Japanese merchants were trading in China. Japan ceased to mint coins, and bought them from China.
Thuan Luc, http://www.charm.ru/coins/vn/nagasaki.shtml
1150-1200: tentative date of the Jepara wreck in Indonesia, which carried ceramics and a 2.5m stone anchor stock from Fujian in China. Coins date the wreck to no earlier than 1130.
http://www.koh-antique.com/jepara/jepara%20wreck.htm; Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum newsletter III/5, Sep-Oct06.
early C13th: The Song navy controlled the seas from Fujian to Japan & Korea, and patrolled China's main rivers. The total number of ships reached 600, the largest of which were 24 feet wide with a crew of 42. All warships had battering rams, catapults, incendiary weapons, protective screens, and fire equipment.
Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.43
1225: Quanzhou's commissioner of foreign trade noted a Chinese court order banning trade with Java, as the import of pepper was causing excessive outflow of copper cash; Javanese traders avoided the ban by calling their country Sukadana (Su-ki-tan).
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.244, citing F. Hirth & W.W. Rockhill, Chau Ju-kua: his work on the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, entitled Chu-fan-chi, St Petersburg, 1911.
1245: Joannes de Plano Carpini was the first of several Franciscan monks to chronicle their China travels. William of Rubruck followed in 1253, Giovanni di Monte Corvino in 1294, and Odoric of Pordenone in 1318.
Donald Wigal, Historic Maritime Maps, p38-39; John of Monte Corvino, Report from China 1305, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/corvino1.html; Charles Carlson http://atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/EH28Ag02.html
1247: A fleet from Ligor under Candrabhanu attacked Sri Lanka from Kedah (and again in 1270).
http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/hindu.htm
mid-C13th: estimated date given Nov 2015 for the merchant ship referred to as 'Nanhai-1', initially said to be Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279). The wreck was found at a depth of 24m near Yangjiang in Guangdong province, preserved to the upper deck. The hull and cargo were raised as a unit, and are now being excavated in the purpose-built Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong, where the work can be viewed from the public galleries. The recovered hull is 30.4m long, 9.8m wide, and 4.8m high. The ship was fully laden with export ceramics from three provinces: Jiangxi (Jingdezhen), Zhejiang (Longquan) and Fujian (Dehua etc). Quanzhou is a possible port of origin, and some ceramics have patterns suggesting that the target market was in the Middle East. The cargo is estimated at 60-80,000 items. Other finds to date include jade statues of Avalokitesvara and arhats; a gold belt, rings and other gold ornaments of designs unknown in China; gold leaf; bronze bracelets; 130kg silver; lacquer objects; a 3-metre granite anchor stock weighing 420kg, and over 10,000 copper coins, the latest being from the Shaoxing reign (1131-1162).
http://indianasarah.com/nihao-nanhai-one/; http://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MjM5ODI3NzkzOQ==&mid=402616452&idx=1&sn=24ca94120952db406c0a663d15b7ce0b&scene=1&srcid=0111al619qX4MhzsGwWlJLD8 (Jan 2016 article in Chinese with many pictures); http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-09/28/content_8743828.htm; http://china.org.cn/english/culture/222723.htm; http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/21/content_11575992.htm; http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/22/content_7296095.htm;http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-12/22/content_6341437.htm; http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-05/06/content_6062746.htm; http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200303/06/eng20030306_112821.shtml; http://www.chinaheritagenewsletter.org/articles.php?searchterm=001_maritimesilk.inc&issue=001; video - locating the bow, http://english.cntv.cn/program/cultureexpress/20110427/104523.shtml; Zhang Wei, 'L'Archéologie sous-marine en Chine', Taoci, 2001.
from mid C13th: Japanese became notorious for smuggling and piracy around Korea.
K.Nomoto & K.Ishii, 'A historical review on ships of Japanese tradition', p.100
Song dynasty (960-1279): Guangzhou was China's largest foreign trade port during the Song dynasty; many copper coins were exported.
Guangzhou museum caption.
Song records describe detailed customs inspections at Cham ports, where one fifth of each commodity was collected for the Cham king before remaining goods could be sold. Concealed goods were confiscated.
Kenneth Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, p.183, citing Georges Maspero, Le royaume de Champa, Paris, 1928, p.29.
A ship's hull discovered under an old wharf at Ningbo was roughly dated to the Song dynasty.
Lin et al, 'Waterfront excavations at Dongmenkou, Ningbo'.
Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279): reported date of the Huaguangjiao I wreck found in the Xisha islands southeast of Hainan province, 20 metres long and carrying over 10,000 ceramic pieces from Fujian and Guangdong kilns.
http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en/2007-05/17/content_98069.htm; http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/photo/2007-05/09/content_868756.htm; http://www.apollo-magazine.com/features/630196/part_4/porcelain-raised-from-the-sea.thtml; http://museum.bu.ac.th/May06.pdf; Zhang Wei, ed, The Xisha Islands Underwater Archaeology Project Report.
c.1272: An Odd Ball was made at the Chinese court, with representations of land, rivers, oceans, and a grid of lines... latitude & longitude?
http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=H-Asia&month=0511&week=a&msg=x515H1jaKh6%2b9FvwTswQ9Q&user=&pw, citing the Yuan shi 48:999
1273: Yuan China sent the first of four missions to Sri Lanka (Kublai Khan declared himself emperor of China in 1271, although the southern Song were finally defeated only in 1279); the dates were 1273, 1284, 1291 and 1293. In 1293, Sri Lanka sent one mission back.
Prof W.I. Siriweera, http://lakdiva.net/coins/media/cdn_1998.06.21_china_trade.htm
1274: Kublai Khan sent a fleet with 23-28,000 men from Korea to attack Japan, after earlier requests for tribute were refused. The fleet looted Hakata (Fukuoka), but withdrew with heavy losses after a great storm. The locals then built a 20km defensive wall, parts of which have been excavated.
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,61-545301,00.html; defensive wall http://www.seinan-gu.ac.jp/university/english/living/mongol/genko.htm
1275-76: The Mongols, with unbeatable cavalry but initially inferior seapower, recruited Song traitors to help them capture port towns. By 1275 they controlled the Yangzi and had confiscated 3,000 boats. Two opportunistic Song merchants supplied a further 500 boats and several thousand crew for the assault on Hangzhou, which fell in 1276; the boy emperor Gongzong was captured.
Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.48
1276-1279: The Song emperor was dethroned and captured, and replaced by his half brother Duanzong who had been sent to Fujian for safety. The entire court took to the sea, moving gradually southwards as the Mongols advanced. After capturing Guangzhou, the Mongols launched a naval attack, forcing the court further out to sea. The emperor's ship sank in a hurricane; Duanzong was rescued, but died after a further attack (possibly at Lantau island, home to Hong Kong airport); his younger brother became the emperor Bing Di. In 1279 the Mongols again attacked and drove the court to sea. A three week battle ensued. More than 1000 Chinese ships had been chained together line-abreast; over 800 were captured, and 100,000 men died. Bing Di was drowned. 16 Chinese ships escaped, carrying the dowager empress Yang, who drowned herself from grief and was later worshipped as a goddess.
Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese emperors, p146-7.

Model of the Quanzhou ship

1274-77: tentative date of the Song dynasty ship found at Quanzhou, a three-masted compartmentalized 34-metre vessel with bamboo sails and rope made of palm, bamboo, rattan and flax. She was returning from Southeast Asia with sandalwood and other fragrant woods, medicinal products (2.4 tonnes in these categories), jewellery, peppercorns, areca nuts, frankincense, ambergris, tortoise shell, coral, copper coins, money cowries, bamboo, and wooden tags tied to the cargo with the name & address of each merchant, including one 'Ali'.
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sultan/archeology.html; Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.74-80; Quanzhou ship museum artefacts & captions.
1280s: After capturing Quanzhou, the Yuan emperor despatched envoys overseas ten times. Yang Tingbi was sent in 1280 and 1282 to Quilon in Malabar, receiving promises of support from Egyptian traders and Muslim chieftains, and went on to Kenya. By 1286, ten states in Malaya, Sumatra, India and Africa had sent envoys back.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.158.

Drawing of Mongol ships and boats, Takashima museum

Mongol ship, landing craft & water carrier: drawing in the Takashima museum

1281: Kublai Khan launched a second attack on Japan, with fleets from Korea and China: thousands of ships and 100-140,000 men. A typhoon destroyed most of the invaders. The Japanese named the storms 'winds of god', or 'kamikaze', and assumed they were under divine protection. The Takashima ship, one of hundreds sunk in Imari Bay in Kyushu, has been excavated. She was estimated to be 70m long, and the wood and granite used in her 7m anchor both come from Fujian. Finds include red leather armour, a commander's bronze seal engraved in Chinese and Mongolian, helmets and weapons, mortars for pounding gunpowder, and shrapnel-filled ceramic grenades.
James Delgado, Khubilai Khan's Lost Fleet: History's Greatest Naval Disaster; James Delgado, Relics of the Kamikaze, http://www.archaeology.org/magazine.php?page=0301/etc/kamikaze; Jun Kimura, 'Recent survey and excavation on the Mongolian fleet sunk off Japan: the Takashima underwater site', Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (2006), 30: 7-13; Kublai Khan fleet timber analysis 2004, http://www.rpmnautical.org/japan.htm;http://www.h3.dion.ne.jp/~uwarchae/project%20takashima.htm; http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111231a7.html; http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15452071;http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111231a7.html; Takashima museum captions.
Muslims from Jambi (in Sumatra) sent an embassy to Kublai Khan.
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm
1282: Mongol general Toa Do (Gogetu) landed in Champa; he seized the capital in 1283, but encountered fierce resistance. In 1285 Mongols took control of the Red River delta, but were evicted.
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a long history, p.45-48.
-1284: A Chinese celadon bowl and two white Ding bowls were found at Yapahuwa in Sri Lanka, which was destroyed and abandoned in 1284.
John Carswell, Blue & White: Chinese porcelain around the world, p.63, citing Carswell, 'China & Islam in the Maldive islands', Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society, London, 1978, p.128.
1288: A new Mongol fleet was defeated in the Bach Dang river by Tran Hung Dao, using metal-tipped stakes just as 350 years earlier. 30,000 Mongols died; 100 of their ships were destroyed, and 400 captured. Archaeologists have found wooden stakes of both periods, but as yet no ships.
Le Ti Lien et al,'Understanding the Bach Dang Battlefield from Recent Research Results', www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1266; www.themua.org/vietnam/bdp.php; Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a long history, p.49-50; Hanoi History Museum captions; Dr Trinh Cao Tuong, Institute of Archaeology, personal conversation; Mark Staniforth, 'The lost fleet of Kublai Khan', http://www.latrobe.edu.au/news/articles/2011/podcasts/the-lost-fleet-of-kublai-khan/transcript.
1291-1292: Kublai Khan despatched a princess as replacement bride for the Persian king Arghun, by sea since she had encountered problems on the land journey - escorted by the three Polos, returning home after almost two decades, with messages from the khan for the pope and the kings of Christendom.
Marco Polo, The Travels, p.42-43. (See also Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo go to China? She argues that the whole account, supposedly dictated in Genoa in 1298, was largely invented. In any case a lot of information came into European circulation, albeit partially garbled.)
1292-1293: Kublai Khan sent 1000 ships to attack Java. Hit by a typhoon, and refused permission to land in Champa, the fleet arrived enfeebled. Vijaya, the ruler of Majapahit, joined the Mongols to attack Kediri, and then launched a surprise attack on the Mongols, who withdrew.
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm
C12th-13th: tentative date of the Korang Cina wreck in Indonesia, and the North Palawan, Bolinao I, and San Antonio wrecks in the Philippines.
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
C13th: tentative date of a Chinese wreck found at Kota Cina in Medan Marelan, Sumatra.
http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/news/ancient-trinkets-unearthed-in-medan/500412; http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/02/24/relics-shipwreck-found-medan.html
C13th: Vietnam's external trade was tightly controlled; goods were exchanged in designated places at ports and border towns. Chinese fabrics were traded for essential oils, ivory, salt and minerals. Javanese and Siamese vessels called at Van Don port. The shipbuilding industry was growing, producing ships with up to 100 oars.
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a long history, p.36-38.
C13th: Tentative date of a 25m ship among other balangay vessels of this date found at Butuan in Mindanao.
http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/321334/scitech/science/massive-balangay-mother-boat-unearthed-in-butuan
mid to late C13th: tentative date of wreck found in the Java Sea with 190 tonnes of iron (cast iron cauldrons and wrought iron bars), Chinese ceramics, Thai kendis, ivory and aromatics. The ship is of Indonesian wood, and possibly lash-lugged construction, but the cargo appears to have been divided by bulkheads.
Michael Flecker, 'The thirteenth-century Java Sea wreck: a Chinese cargo in an Indonesian ship', http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Java Sea MM.pdf; http://maritime-explorations.com/java%20sea.htm
mid to late C13th: tentative date of the Breaker Reef junk off NW Palawan in the Philippines, carrying ceramics from Fujian virtually identical to those of the Java Sea wreck, and copper items. The date was originally estimated by the excavators as late 11th/early 12th century, but has been assessed to C13th on the ceramic evidence.
National Museum of the Filipino People, Manila, artefacts and caption; Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum newsletter III/7, Dec 06; Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004,http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
late C13th: tentative date of Investigador Shoal Junk wreck, at Kalayaan, Palawan, Philippines. The cargo included celadon and qingbai ceramics, and a large jar with 54kg bronze bracelets under a layer of tea, suggesting illicit trade. China had banned export of all metal.
National Museum of the Filipino People, Manila, artefacts and caption.
c.1300: tentative date of the Jade Dragon wreck off the northern-most tip of Borneo, a Southeast Asian lash-lugged ship carrying exclusively Longquan celadon.
http://maritime-explorations.com/jade%20dragon.htm
1309: the gates of the Qingjing mosque in Quanzhou repaired by Ahmad of Jerusalem.
Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.101
1313: the Italian Andrew of Perugia was despatched by the pope to be third bishop of Quanzhou; he died in 1332.
Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.115; Quanzhou museum caption.

Model of the Shinan ship in the Fukuoka City Museum

Model of the Shinan ship, Fukuoka City Museum

1323: a two-masted Chinese ship sank off Shinan (or Sinan) in SW Korea. She was 32-36 metres long, 11m wide, about 200 tons, carrying large quantities of Song and Yuan dynasty ceramics and copper coins. Finds included nickel ingots, wooden clogs, and wooden pieces for 'Japanese chess', as well as many wooden cargo tags. The ship was compartmentalised, with wooden water-tanks on both sides amidships. A wooden tag shows that the ship was built in China, by order of the Tofukuji temple in Kyoto (also mentioned is the subordinate Jotenji Tacchu temple in Hakata), left Ningbo in 1323 (3rd year of Shiji), and was bound for Hakata (Fukuoka).
http://www.mm.wa.gov.au/Museum/march/department/oseas.html; Lee Chang-Euk, 'A study on the structural and fluid characteristics of a rabbetted clinker type ship (the sunken ship salvaged off Shinan)'; John Carswell, Blue & White, p.17 (discussing absence of blue and white on the ship, among 5,000 pieces from Jingdezhen, and arguing that production probably started later); http://www.seamuse.go.kr/en/?sub=6&p=2; Fukuoka City Museum captions.Celadon shards found at Nilaveli in northeast Sri Lanka, and thought to be from a ship wreck, are similar to those from Shinan.
John Carswell, 'Two unexplored wrecks of the 14th century in the Red Sea and off Sri Lanka', Taoci, 2001.
Song / early Yuan dynasty [1127-1368]: tentative date of the Bao Jiao I wreck in China (Dinghai area, Fujian province), which carried many black-glazed tea bowls.
Sarah Kenderdine, 'Bai Jiao I', IJNA, 1995.
early Yuan dynasty [1279-1333]: tentative date of the 21-metre ship found at Xui Zhong in China (district of San Dao Gang, Liaoning province), carrying iron objects and Cizhou ceramics; the latter are widely found in Japan and Korea.
Zhang Wei, 'L'Archéologie sous-marine en Chine', Taoci, 2001.
1316-1330: Franciscan monk Odoric of Pordenone travelled from Venice via Persia and South India to China, and stayed for several years, keeping a diary. Yangzhou was still flourishing (it later silted up). He visited Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan in the 1320s.
Kevin Bishop, China's Imperial Way, p.123 & 225; http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm
1328-1339: Wang Dayuan made two trips from Quanzhou on Chinese ships. In 1328-1333 he visited Luzon & Mindanao in the Philippines, many places in Southeast Asia, Sir Lanka and India, and reached Dhofar and Aden. In 1334-1339 he went to Aden, and joined Arab ships to visit north Africa (reaching the Atlantic coast of Morocco) and East Africa (including Mogadishu, and Kilwa in Tanzania). His book includes details on cultures, navigation, and commerce. Indian cotton fabrics were popular in Southeast Asia and Africa. Chinese ships were delivering coloured satin, blue and white ceramics, and ironware to Quilon and Mogadishu; Suzhou and Hangzhou silks to Aden, etc, and were also engaged in entrepot trade of sappanwood, rice, cloves, cardamon, cotton fabrics, ironware etc. A flourishing entrepot trade between India and the Mediterranean was run by merchants from Karami in Egypt, and Muslims dominated an East African trade in gold, ivory and slaves. Promising import items included Aceh horses, cheap Malabar rice, Calicut pepper, ambergris and gold ore from Malindi, and cobalt ore from Mogadishu.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.180-187, citing Wang Dayuan's brief account published as a supplement to Qing Yuan Xu Zhi in Quanzhou in 1349, and the full version Dao Yi Zhi Lüe published in Nanchang in 1350.
1341-49: Ibn Battuta, who had left Morocco in 1325, spent a few years in India from 1334-41, then travelled on to the Maldives and Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra and China. He arrived in Zaiton (Quanzhou) in 1345, and reckoned it one of the five largest ports in the world, along with Calicut and Quilon in India, Sudak in the Crimea, and Alexandria in Egypt. He later visited Fuzhou, Hangzhou and Guangzhou. His travel account was apparently written in 1355.
http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Eight.html & ensuing pages; Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo go to China?, p.145; http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm; Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, p.179-180 & 186.
1346: John Marignolli, author of 'A Mission to the East', visited Quanzhou, noting three magnificent cathedrals, and storage godowns.
Quanzhou museum caption
early C14th: Tentative date of the Quang Ngai wreck at Binh Chau village in central Vietnam, a Chinese vessel 20-25m long and 4-6m wide with 12-13 compartments, carrying Chinese ceramics from Longquan and southern kilns. Other artefacts include bronze coins and scale weights. Of three other wrecks found nearby, one salvaged in 2012 is premilinarily reported as C13th, and two salvaged in 2013 as C17th.
Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum Newsletter VI/2-3, Jun13; http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/47953/quang-ngai-blockades-the-shipwreck-with-500-year-old-antiques.html; http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/48238/shipwreck-yields-treasures-dating-from-14th-century.html; http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/65597/quang-ngai-s-shipwreck-to-be-excavated-in-two-months.html; http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/77724/quang-ngai--700-year-old-wreck-found-intact.html; http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/81083/make-or-break-for-ancient-wreck.html; http://vietnamcolors.net/2013/07/the-illuminating-700-year-old-excavation-finds/
Nearby wrecks: http://vietnamnews.vn/life-style/243607/second-ancient-shipwreck-unearthed-in-quang-ngai.html, http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/82375/another-ancient-shipwreck-discovered-in-quang-ngai.html, http://vietnambreakingnews.com/2013/08/more-old-shipwrecks-antiques-found-off-vietnam-central-coast/
1351: Wu Jian recorded seven mosques in Quanzhou, indicating a sizeable Muslim population.
Quanzhou Maritime Museum caption
Song & Yuan dynasties [960-1368]: From this period, Quanzhou not only has numerous large mosques, important Buddhist temples and Daoist sites, but also the remains of large and exquisitely decorated Hindu temples. It had become a major centre of the Manichaean religion, which originated in Persia in the C3rd and spread along the land silk road. There are many tombstones from the several Muslim cemeteries. There are inscriptions in Arabic, Syrian, Tamil and other languages - and they record embassies to Persia, visitors from Sri Lanka, high official positions held by Muslim residents, etc. The museum has a spectacular large peacock-blue vase from C11-12th Persia. The port was busy, and cosmopolitan.
Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.103-140; Quanzhou museum artefacts and captions.

Reconstruction of the Penglai ship. Scale is 5 metres.

1274-1376: tentative date of a narrow 28-metre ship found at Dengzhou in Penglai county, Shandong province, and thought to have been a fast naval patrol vessel of 'anchovy' class (named for the shape). Artefacts included a copper blunderbuss, fire-bottles, and other firearms.
Yuan Xiaochun & Wu Songgao, 'On the construction of Penglai fighting sailship of Yuan dynasty'; Xi Longfei and Xin Yuanou, 'Preliminary research on the historical period and restoration design of the ancient ship unearthed in Penglai'.
Yuan dynasty [1279-1368]: Tentative date of the 21x5metre merchant ship found at Heze in Shandong, China. The ship had ten cabins, and carried fine ceramics.
http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90782/7209838.html; http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90783/91324/7210006.html; http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90783/91300/7208582.html;http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90782/7146898.html
Yuan dynasty [1279-1368]: Appreciation of Chinese ceramics spread dramatically. The Safavid shahs of Persia and the Ottoman sultans acquired large quantities of Yuan (and later Ming) blue-and-white; large quantities have also been found in Damascus and Fustat (old Cairo), and archaeological evidence of the trade is to be found throughout Asia, the middle East, and east Africa, with a growing number of shipwreck sites supplementing finds on land. In 1349, Wang Dayuan in the DaoYi Zhi Lue ('A brief description of the island foreigners') listed 45 destinations where Chinese ceramics were in demand, including 18 which preferred blue-and-white to celadon and other types. Recent finds in the Red Sea, apparently from a shipwreck, include Yuan blue-and-white, including large dishes of up to 50cm diameter. Trade and other contacts with Japan continued even during the hostilities: over 220 Japanese monks visited China during the last 75 years of the Yuan dynasty, taking passage on merchant ships; Japanese temples & shrines funded commercial voyages to raise funds for building works.
John Carswell, Blue & White: Chinese porcelain around the world, p.13-14, 17, & 62 [citing Grace Wong, 'Chinese blue & white porcelain and its place in the maritime trade of China', in ST Yeo & Jean Martin, Chinese blue & white ceramics, Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, Singapore 1978]; & re Red Sea shipwreck p.175-182.; Fukuoka City Museum captions.
mid 14th century: very tentative date of the Unisan wreck, a Chinese ship wrecked at Tayabas Bay in the Philippines.
http://museum.bu.ac.th/newsletter4.pdf; http://museum.bu.ac.th/newsletter3.pdf
c.1370: tentative date of the 'Turiang' wreck, a Chinese ship wrecked between Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo with Thai, Vietnamese and Chinese ceramics.
Sten Sjostrand, Roxanna Brown, Claire Barnes: www.maritimeasia.ws/turiang/
1371: The new Ming emperor, Hongwu, banned private overseas trade, after earlier rumblings from 1369.
www.maritimeasia.ws/turiang/ceramicissues.htm#mingban
1377: The kingdom of Majapahit, in Java, sent a navy against Palembang, in Sumatra, and conquered it. The ruler of Palembang had requested protection from China - which the emperor promised, but his officials arrived too late, and were executed.
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm
c.1380: tentative date of the 'Nanyang' wreck, a South-China-Sea ship sunk off the east coast of the Malay peninsula, with Thai & Chinese ceramics, including Thai celadon.
Sten Sjostrand, Roxanna Brown, Claire Barnes: www.maritimeasia.ws/exhib01/pages/p013.html
1383: One of several official missions sent to Southeast Asia by emperor Hongwu carried 13,000 pieces of porcelain as diplomatic gifts.
John Carswell, Blue & White: Chinese porcelain around the world, p.79.
1377-1400: tentative date of the 28-metre canal boat found at Liangshan in Shandong province, with swords, arrows, and armour.
He Gouwei, 'Measurement and research of the ancient Ming dynasty ship unearthed in Liangshan'.
1380-1400: Tentative date of the Rang Kwien wreck in the Gulf of Thailand, with a keel over 25m, carrying Chinese Vietnamese and Thai ceramics, copper ingots, whetstones, and Chinese coins.
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf; Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum Newsletter VI/2-3, Jun13.
1380-1400: Tentative date of the Song Doc wreck, carrying early Ming celadon and ceramics from northern Thailand and Vietnam.
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
C14th or early C15th: tentative date of the Phu Quoc I wreck, sunk off Phu Quoc island in southern Vietnam with Thai Sawankhalok ceramics (no Sukhothai ware).
Michael Flecker, 'A preliminary survey of a Southeast Asian wreck', IJNA (1994) 23.2: 73-91; http://maritime-explorations.com/phu%20quoc.htm
c.1400: tentative date of the 'Longquan' wreck, a South-China-Sea ship sunk off the east coast of the Malay peninsula, with Thai & Chinese ceramics.
Sten Sjostrand, Roxanna Brown, Claire Barnes: www.maritimeasia.ws/exhib01/pages/p014.html
1402: The city of Melaka, in peninsular Malaysia, was founded by Parameshwara, a rebel prince from Palembang in Sumatra.
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm
1404: Parameshwara sent an embassy to Beijing, and was promised protection.
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm
1405: The Commission of Maritime Affairs in Guangzhou authorized construction of the Huaiyuanyi, with 120 rooms to accommodate foreign envoys and merchants.
Maritime Silk Route 1996, p.130, citing the 'livelihood & economy' section of the Ming shi (history of the Ming dynasty).

Speculative model of Zheng He treasure ship, in Quanzhou maritime museum

Model of a Zheng He 'Treasure Ship'
Quanzhou Maritime Museum

1405-1407: The first naval expedition under admiral Zheng He, on the orders of emperor Yongle, comprised 317 ships with 27,870 men. It sailed to Java, Semudera, Lambri (Aceh), Sri Lanka and Calicut, bearing gifts for local rulers. It routed the forces of pirate chief Chen Zuyi at Palembang. The fleet returned with envoys from Calicut, Quilon, the Sumatran states of Semudera and Aru (Deli), and Melaka - as well as Chen Zuyi, who was beheaded in Nanjing. The expeditions were to be chronicled by Fei Xin, Ma Huan, and others.
J.V.G.Mills, introduction, p.8-11, to Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan; Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.75-103.
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/533 & entry/1048.
'Zheng He's sexcentenary', China Heritage Newsletter no.2 June 2005, http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/articles.php?searchterm=002_zhenghe.inc&issue=002
1407: Siam sent envoys to the Ming court with gifts of elephants, parrots and peacocks.
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1070; Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.105.
1407-1409: The second Ming expedition, with 249 ships and commanded by Zheng He's subordinates, visited Thailand, Java, Aru, Lambri, Coimbatore, Cochin and Calicut, where it was present for the installation of a new king. A commemorative stone tablet was erected in Calicut. During this voyage, the sultan of Brunei visited the emperor, died in Nanjing, and was buried with imperial honours.
J.V.G.Mills, introduction, p.11, to Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan; Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.103-6; Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan.
1409-1411: The third Ming expedition involved 48 ships and 30,000 men, commanded by Zheng He. It visited Champa, Java, Melaka, Semudera, Sri Lanka, Quilon, Cochin and Calicut. A trilingual stone tablet was erected in Galle. The Sinhalese ruler Alakeswara was captured and taken with his entourage to China, where the emperor ordered their release.
J.V.G.Mills, introduction, p.11-12, to Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan; John Carswell, Blue & White, p.87; Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.107-118; Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan. Inscription in Galle: http://www.hum.uva.nl/galle/galle/trilingual.htm
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/605 & entry/1776 & 1778.
1411: The rulers of Calicut, Cochin, Java and Melaka visited the Ming court.
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1781 & entry/1783, 1784, 1787; Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.118.
1413-1415: The fourth Ming expedition under Zheng He reached the Persian Gulf. With 63 ships and 28,560 men, it visited Champa, Kelantan, Pahang, Java, Palembang, Melaka, Aru, Semudera, Lambri, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Cochin, Calicut and Hormuz. A splinter group under Yang Min went to Bengal, and returned to China with the new king of Bengal, who presented to the emperor a giraffe which he had received from the ruler of Malindi (in Kenya). The giraffe was thought to be a mythical qilin, and auspicious. On imperial orders to restore the rightful king of Semudera, Zheng He routed the usurper Sekandar, who was taken to China and executed. This was the first of three voyages in which chronicler Ma Huan participated.
J.V.G.Mills, introduction, p.12-13, to Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan; Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.137-142
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1902 & entry/2261 & 2229.
1417-1419: The fifth Ming expedition reached Africa. It carried envoys returning home from China, and visited Champa, Pahang, Java, Palembang, Melaka, Semudera, Lambri, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Cochin, Calicut, Hormuz, Aden, Mogadishu (in Somalia), and Malindi.
J.V.G.Mills, introduction, p.13, to Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan.
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/2336.
c.1400-1420: tentative date of the Ko Si Chang II wreck.
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
1421-1422: The sixth Ming expedition, with 41 ships, returned envoys from Hormuz and elsewhere. It probably visited Melaka, Aru, Semudera, Lambri, Coimbatore, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Cochin, Calicut, Hormuz, Dhofar, Aden, Mogadishu, Brava and Thailand.
J.V.G.Mills, introduction, p.14, to Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan; Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.151.
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/2768 & 2846.
c.1400-1430: tentative date of the Phu Quoc II wreck in southern Vietnam, with Sawankhalok celadon & Sukothai fishplates.
Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum newsletter I/2, Oct04; Roxanna Brown, lecture to the Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysia, July 2007; Michael Flecker, personal correspondence, Mar 2014.
c.1420-1430: tentative date of the Maranei wreck, a Chinese ship, with the earliest Chinese firearms found on a wreck.
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
1431-33: The seventh Zheng He expedition was despatched by emperor Xuande. With over 100 ships and 27,550 men, it went to Champa, Surabaya, Palembang, Melaka, Semudera, Sri Lanka, Calicut, Hormuz, Aden, and Jeddah; some participants visited Mecca. Zheng He died on the return voyage.
J.V.G.Mills, introduction, p.14-19, to Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan; Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas, p.168-173;
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1131 & 1296.
1419-1444: Venetian nobleman Nicolò de Conti left Italy in 1419, lived for a time in Damascus, travelled in South Asia, returned home in 1444, and dictated an account to the papal secretary. He describes five-masted, triple-planked ships 'of twoo thousande Tunnes' with watertight compartments.
J.V.G. Mills, introduction to Ma Huan, 'Ying-yai Sheng Lan' (The overall survey of the Ocean's shores), p.64-66.
early C15th: Coins of the Yongle reign (1403-1424) fix the earliest date of the Bakau wreck, a flat-bottomed Chinese ship wrecked between Sumatra and Borneo with bronze guns and mirrors, copper-alloy tweezers, Thai, Vietnamese and Chinese ceramics.
Michael Flecker, 'The Bakau wreck: an early example of Chinese shipping in Southeast Asia', IJNA(2001) 30.2: 221-230; http://maritime-explorations.com/bakau.htm
1456: Thais attacked Melaka by sea, and were repulsed (off Batu Pahat).
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm, http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/melaka1.htm
1456: Raja Abdullah of Melaka took Kedah and Pahang from the Thais.
http://home.iae.nl/users/arcengel/Indonesia/100.htm
c.1450-1460: tentative date of the Ko Khram wreck.
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
c.1460: tentative date of the 'Royal Nanhai' wreck, a hardwood South-China-Sea ship wrecked close to the east coast of the Malay peninsula, carrying Thai ceramics and supposed 'diplomatic gifts'.
Sten Sjostrand, Roxanna Brown, Claire Barnes: www.maritimeasia.ws/exhib01/pages/p015.html
c.1470: tentative date of the wreck found off Pandanan island in the Philippines, which would have travelled from Borneo, and carried both fine and utilitarian ceramics from China, Dai Viet and Champa, and Thailand, plus four antique Yuan pieces at least 100 years older. Finds included glass beads and bronze gongs, a crocodile-tooth pendant, two unusual small cannon, and a copper coin from the reign of Emperor Yongle (1403-24). The central Vietnamese ceramics are from Binh Dinh, around the Cham capital Vijaya, which was sacked by the northern Vietnamese in 1471.
Christophe Loviny, The Pearl Road: Tales of treasure ships in the Philippines. Asiatype, Philippines, 1996; Allison Diem, 'Vietnamese ceramics from the Pandanan shipwreck excavation in the Philippines', Taoci, 2001; Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004,http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf; National Museum of the Filipino People, Manila, artefacts and captions.
C15th: date of 16,000 fine Chu Dau ceramics recovered from a ?second shipwreck in the same area, Cu Lao Cham (the Cham islands) near Hoi An in Quang Nam province.
http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/75484/nearly-16-000-antiques-salvaged-from-a-wreck-in-hoi-an.html, http://dtinews.vn/en/news/017/29385/quang-nam-province-divides-treasure-from-sunken-ship.html
C15th: tentative date of some artefacts found with others dated to C12-13th on two wrecks at Tam Hai island in Quang Nam province, Vietnam.
http://vietnambreakingnews.com/2013/08/more-old-shipwrecks-antiques-found-off-vietnam-central-coast/, http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/83452/800-year-old-antiques-in-shipwreck-in-quang-nam.html
1471: The Cham capital Vijaya was razed by the northern kingdom of Dai Viet. Over forty thousand people were beheaded, and more than thirty thousand deported. Cham culture never recovered.
Menson Bound, 'Aspects of the Hoi An wreck: dishes, bottles, statuettes and chronology', Taoci, 2001
c.1470-1487: tentative date of the Belanakan, Prasae Rayong, and Ko Si Chang III wrecks.
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
1480-1500: tentative date of the compartmentalized ship found on the Lena Shoal west of Palawan island in the Philippines, estimated to have been 22 metres long, with a cargo of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai ceramics, plus bronze gongs, bracelets & cannon, iron & tin ingots, woks, elephant tusks, etc. Some ceramics are similar to products sent to the Middle East, and some are of types found only on Asian sites; the ship's destination is unclear.
Franck Goddio et al, Lost at sea: the strange route of the Lena Shoal junk; Franck Goddio, 'La jonque de Lena et le vaisseau Royal Captain', Taoci, 2001; Monique Crick, 'Les céramiques chinoises, vietnamiennes et thaïlandaises de la jonque de Lena', Taoci 2001; http://www.underwaterdiscovery.org/Sitemap/Project/LenaShoal/Default.aspx; National Museum of the Filipino People, Manila, artefacts & captions
1488-1500: tentative date of the junk found off Santa Cruz in the northern Philippines. The ship was 25m long and 5.8m wide, built in the Philippines. 15,000 artefacts were recovered in the 2001 excavation, including 11,500 ceramics of excellent quality, with 8,000 intact pieces. Cargo compartments were well preserved. The promised report is eagerly awaited.
http://www.franckgoddio.org/projects/ancient-trade-routes/santa-cruz.html; 2007 lecture to SEACS by Dr Roxanna Brown.
c.1488-1505: tentative date, based on recent ceramic evidence, of the wreck found off Cham island near Hoi An in central Vietnam, a South East Asian teak ship (Thai?) with over 240,000 ceramics from northern Vietnam (the Chu Dao kilns of Hai Duong province), China, Champa and Thailand. The excavation director had dated this wreck earlier, at 1435-1470.
Menson Bound, 'Aspects of the Hoi An wreck: dishes, bottles, statuettes and chronology', Taoci, 2001; Bui Minh Tri, Tong Trung Tin, Nguyen Quang Liem & Philippe Colomban, 'The Cù Lao Chàm (Hôi An) shipwreck', Taoci 2001; John Guy, 'Vietnamese ceramics from the Hoi An excavation: the Chu Lao Cham ship cargo', Orientations, Sept 2000, p125-8; Frank Pope, Dragon Sea: A true tale of treasure, archeology, and greed off the coast of Vietnam; Kim Fay, 'Hoi An hoard', www.thingsasian.com/goto_article/article.1196.html; Roxanna Brown, lecture to the Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysia, July 2007.
1487-1513: The Portuguese rounded the Cape in 1487-88, reached India in 1498, Sri Lanka by 1506, Melaka in 1509, and China in 1513. Knowledge preceded physical contact: the Cantino Map drawn in Lisbon in 1502 shows the Malay peninsula, Melaka, and the coast of China.
Luis Filipe Barreto, Cartography of the West-East encounter, p29,115; Vasco da Gama's account of 1487-8, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html
1508: The Portuguese ship Santa Cruz sank in the Maldives, the first of many European ships to be lost in Asia.
Claudio Bonifacio, Historical list of Spanish & Portuguese shipwrecks in Asia, http://www.arrakis.es/~histres/asia.htm
1509: A Portuguese squadron of five ships under Diego Lopez de Sequeira arrived in Melaka, the first contact of a major European power with the Malay peninsula.
http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/port.htm
1500-1511: tentative date of the Brunei wreck, which carried bronze gongs, glass paste bracelets, about 12,250 Thai Chinese and Vietnamese ceramics including two antique Yuan dynasty pieces around 150 years old, and seven firearms.
Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum newsletter I/3, Nov-Dec04; Michel L'Hour, La mémoire engloutie de Brunei; http://foundation.total.com/cultural-heritage/intercultural-dialogue/asian-art/underwater-archaeology-the-discovery-of-the-sunken-treasure-of-brunei-298.html; Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', 2004, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf; Roxanna Brown, lecture to the South East Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysia, July 2007.
1511: Portuguese capture Melaka.
http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/port1.htm
1512: Javanese counterattack on Melaka repulsed, with the loss of most of their ships.
Lettera di Giovanni da Empoli; The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires, Hakluyt, Vol.II p282.
1512-1515: The Portuguese traveller Tomé Pires recorded restrictions on Chinese merchants, and the system of tribute to China by Asian kingdoms.
The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires, Asian Ed.Services p118-119 & 268.
c.1519: The king of Arakan wrote a letter to the Portuguese king inviting trade.
Jacques Leider, 'Elephants slaves and rubies: Arakan's place in the trade network of the Bay of Bengal', http://www.rakhapura.com/scolumns/arakan_in_tradenetworkofbob.asp
1500-1520: tentative date of the wreck off Koh Kong province in Cambodia, which carried Thai and Chinese ceramics.
Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum newsletter III/2, Mar-Apr 06; Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum newsletter V/2, Mar-Apr 08; http://www.phnompenhpost.com/index.php/2009021024126/National-news/Govt-seeks-help-for-shipwreck.html
1500-1520: tentative date of the Ko Samui wreck in Thailand.
Roxanna Brown, lecture to the South East Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysia, July 2007.
1500-1520: tentative date of the Klang Aow I (Central Gulf of Thailand, Australia Tide) wreck, with Thai, Vietnamese and Chinese ceramics (no Sukhothai, no Sawankhalok underglaze), and small Chinese hand guns.
Michael Flecker,http://maritime-explorations.com/thailand.htm; Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum newsletter I/2, Oct 04; Roxanna Brown, lecture to the Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysia, July 2007.
1521: Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish king, reached Guam and the Philippines having sailed westwards from South America, and was killed, but shipmates completed the circumnavigation.
Donald Wigal, Historic Maritime Maps, p107-114; account by a Genoese pilot http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1519magellan.html. See also 'Was the first man to sail around the world a Malay?' on Sejarah Melayu, http://malaya.org.uk.
Raja Humabon told Magellan that boatloads of slaves had just left Cebu for Cambodia and Champa. http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/321334/scitech/science/massive-balangay-mother-boat-unearthed-in-butuan
1523: The Portuguese ship Nazare sank off Goa; ivory & copper was recovered.
Sila Tripati and Ian Godfrey, Studies on elephant tusks and hippopotamus teeth collected from the early 17th century Portuguese shipwreck off Goa, citing S.J.Stephen, Portuguese Nau
1533: China opened somewhat to Portuguese trade; settlements were precarious until 1557, when a more stable community was organised at Macau.
Joaquim Romero Magalhães, The Portuguese in the 16th century, p79-80
1539: A fleet of 160 vessels from Aceh invaded Aru, but was destroyed by Johor, with allies from Perak and Siak, at the battle of Sungei Paneh.
http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/johor1.htm
1512-1540: tentative date of the wreck found off Gujangan (Jolo) island in the southern Philippines, a stitched-plank vessel 18m long carrying Ming blue-and-white ceramics, and no Southeast Asian ceramics. The wreck was discovered by fishermen in 1997, reported in 1998, and excavated in 1999.
Larry Gotuaco, 'Ming in Jolo', Arts of Asia, Nov-Dec 2002; Ligaya S.P. Lacsina, 'Traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft in Philippine archaeological sites', http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1231; Roxanna Brown, lecture to the Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysia, July 2007. [Dr Brown noted in 2007 that an official report seems unlikely to be published.]
1512-1540: tentative date of the Klang Aow II wreck, from which 50-100 fragments of ceramics were excavated in 2004, including Sawankhalok underglaze black, celadon & monochrome white ceramics, and Chinese blue-and-white similar to that on Klang Aow I.
Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum newsletter I/2, Oct04; Roxanna Brown, lecture to the South East Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysia, July 2007. Dr Brown noted that the ceramics are now in the National Maritime Museum at Chanthaburi.
1530-1540: tentative date of the 'Xuande'wreck, sunk off the east coast of the Malay peninsula with Chinese and Thai ceramics, and small bronze cannon.
Sten Sjostrand, Roxanna Brown, Claire Barnes: www.maritimeasia.ws/exhib01/pages/p016.html; Roxanna Brown, lecture to the Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysia, July 2007.
1543: Portuguese arrived in Japan. They established a trading enclave at Hirado.
Joaquim Romero Magalhães, The Portuguese in the 16th century, p.81; http://www.hendrick-hamel.henny-savenije.pe.kr/holland3.htm
1544: Chen Kan was despatched as a Ming envoy to Ryukyu. The 5-masted, 15 zhang (46.65 metre) ship had been built in Fuzhou. She had 23 compartments, four anchors, four rudders (3 spare), and two boats. She had over 140 crew, and carried over 200 officers, craftsmen and soldiers.
Wang Guanzhou, 'A study of drawings of ancient Chinese ships preserved in Japan', p.122, citing Chen Kan, 'Shi Liu Qiu Lu' (record of diplomatic mission to Ryukyu) [in Chinese].
c.1550: tentative date of the 'Singtai' wreck, sunk off the east coast of the Malay peninsula; Thai ceramics similar to those on the 'Xuande' wreck.
Sten Sjostrand, Roxanna Brown, Claire Barnes: www.maritimeasia.ws/exhib01/pages/p017.html
mid C16th: tentative date of the San Isidro junk wreck on the Zambales coast of the Philippines.
National Museum of the Filipino People, Manila, caption
from mid C16th: Japanese smuggling and piracy became a problem in the Yangtze estuary and southern China.
K.Nomoto & K.Ishii, 'A historical review on ships of Japanese tradition', p.100-101.
1552: The São João, one of the largest Portuguese ships of the time, was wrecked off Natal in South Africa. Survivors trekked north, and a few were rescued. Cargo included Chinese ceramics, and carnelian beads from India.
Tim Maggs, 'The Great Galleon São João: remains from a mid-sixteenth century wreck on the Natal South Coast', Annals of the Natal Museum 26.1: 173-186 (Dec 1984); Laura Valerie Esterhuizen, 'History written in porcelain sherds', Taoci, 2001.
1554: The Portuguese ship São Bento was wrecked off Natal; survivors found the remains of the São João. Cargo included similar ceramics, mostly blue-and-white, carnelian beads, gold jewellery set with Sri Lankan rubies, and money cowries.
Chris Auret & Tim Maggs, 'The Great Galleon SãoBento: remains from a mid-sixteenth century Portuguese wreck on the Pondoland coast', Annals of the Natal Museum 25.1: 1-39 (Oct 1982); Laura Valerie Esterhuizen, 'History written in porcelain sherds', Taoci, 2001.
1558: the Portuguese ship Espadarte, returning from China with blue & white porcelain, broke her mast at the Cape and returned to Mozambique where she sank off Fort San Sebastian.
Alejandro Mirabal, Interim Report of the Marine Archaeological Survey performed in Ilha de Moçambique from May to July 2001, http://www.arq-publications.com/downloads/survey_report2001.pdf; Mensun Bound, 'Exploring the San Sebastian Wreck off Mozambique', The Explorers Journal, Summer 2004, http://www.arq-publications.com/downloads/moz_nov2004.pdf; http://www.mercopress.com/vernoticia.do?id=3518&formato=HTML
1565: Andres de Urdaneta sailed across the Pacific Ocean from West to East.
National Museum of the Filipino People, Manila, caption; Robert Bruce Cruikshank, http://blog.360.yahoo.com/blog-yenYfS08eqgwDsnprU8OffaUdTg_?l=246&u=250&mx=250&lmt=5; & index to sailings 1565-1815 http://ManilaGalleon.info.
1569: Mercator published his 'Nova et aucta orbis terræ descriptio ad usum navigantium emendate accommodata', the 'New and more complete representation of the terrestrial globe properly adapted for use in navigation', later known as Mercator's Projection. A straight line on this map corresponded to the compass bearing.
Nicholas Crane, Mercator, p 204-6.
1571: Spanish soldiers and merchants established themselves at Manila. They also rescued the crew of a sinking Chinese junk and repatriated the crew. In 1572 the rescued merchants returned to Manila and established a long-term trading relationship with the Spaniards. 'Manila galleons' were Spanish ships sailing from Manila to Acapulco. Galleons sailed in 1572, but returned to Manila in distress; the galleons of 1573 reached Mexico safely.
Edward von der Porten, 'Manila galleon porcelains on the American West Coast', Taoci, 2001.
1576: The San Felipe sailed from Manila & was wrecked off the west coast of Mexico. The 600 shards found in 1999-2000 suggest experimentation by the despatching Chinese merchants, not yet sure of Spanish tastes.
Edward von der Porten, 'Manila galleon porcelains on the American West Coast', Taoci, 2001; http://museum.bu.ac.th/newsletter%20jan-Feb.pdf.
1579: The English seafarer Francis Drake and his ship Golden Hind spent 36 days at Drake's Bay, 50km north of San Francisco, with porcelain on board after the capture of a Spanish ship. Shards of blue-and-white porcelain found at Drake's Bay have been identified with 77 bowls, plates, cups and bottles from this stay.
Edward von der Porten, 'Manila galleon porcelains on the American West Coast', Taoci, 2001; http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/03/20/drakes-bay-sir-francis-drake_n_1368693.html
1582: The Portuguese M1J wreck off Malacca has been tentatively identified as the ship commanded by Captain Luis Monteiro Coutinho which exploded while fighting an Acehnese fleet.
Michael Flecker, '16th century Portuguese wreck found off Malacca', Heritage Asia Jan-Mar 2007, p.9-15; http://www.maritime-explorations.com/malacca%20strait%20shipwrecks.htm
1587: The Santa Ana, a Manila galleon, was captured by the English privateer Thomas Cavendish off Baja California, with a rich cargo of Chinese goods, jewels and bullion.
http://militarymuseum.org/Expeditions.html ; http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Chumash/California_First_Europeans.html; http://math.ucr.edu/ftm/bajaPages/Stories/Coromuel.html
1591: English adventurer Captain James Lancaster visited Penang and the coast of Kedah in the vessel Edward Bonaventure.
Sabri Zain, personal correspondence.
1592: Japan introduced a system of foreign trade licences to prevent smuggling and piracy.
K.Nomoto & K.Ishii, 'A historical review on ships of Japanese tradition', p.101.
Japan, led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi who had decided to conquer Ming China, invaded Korea.
Fukuoka City Museum captions.
1595: The Spanish ship San Agustin sailed from Manila to Acapulco intending to explore the coast of California, and was wrecked off Point Reyes. Survivors reached Mexico. Shards from 158 porcelains of this date have been identified.
Marco Meniketti, 'Searching for a safe harbor on a treacherous coast: the wreck of the Manila galleon San Agustin'; http://www.ptreyeslight.com/stories/oct16/wreck.html; Edward von der Porten, 'Manila galleon porcelains on the American West Coast', Taoci, 2001; http://www.mercurynews.com/breaking-news/ci_20167593/researcher-says-he-knows-site-400-year-old; http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/03/20/drakes-bay-sir-francis-drake_n_1368693.htmlThe first Dutch fleet to Asia comprised 4 ships: 3 returned after visiting Java and Bali; the Amsterdam was deliberately set on fire near Bawean in Eastern Java.
Menno Leenstra, personal correspondence.
1597: Japan invaded Korea for a second time.
Fukuoka City Museum captions.
1598: Five Dutch fleets sailed for the East Indies via the Cape of Good Hope (eastern route), and two via the Straits of Magellan (western route). Some ships of each fleet returned; collectively they visited Aceh, Banda, Bantam, Ambon, Ternate, Tidore & Manila.
Menno Leenstra, http://maritimeasia.ws/topic/firstdutchfleets.html; http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/out_voyages/hendrik_frederik.html.
mid-late C16th: tentative date of the wreck found at Puerto Galera in the Philippines, with dragon jars and other ceramics.
http://www.mm.wa.gov.au/Museum/march/department/oseas.html
late C16th: tentative date of the Chinese ship found at San Isidro on the W coast of Luzon in the Philippines, with blue-and-white utilitarian ceramics thought to be made in Fujian 1550-1600.
http://www.denverartmuseum.org/exhibits/exhibits.cfm?range=Past
1600: The Dutch ship Liefde was lost off Kyushu in Japan. Her pilot was the Englishman William Adams, who came to be trusted by the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu, and spent the rest of his life in Japan. The shogun sent Captain Quackernaeck and the merchant Van Santvoort to invite their countrymen to trade in Japan. Quackernaeck reached the Dutch settlement at Patani (Thailand) with this message in 1604.
http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/out_voyages/liefde.html; http://www.geschiedenis.org/deliefde/English.html
The Dutch arrived in the Philippines. Commander Olivier van Noort heard that 400 Chinese ships a year called at Manila, and that two Japanese ships were due shortly, along with the Spanish galleon San Tomas carrying silver from Acapulco. The Dutch waited off Manila Bay, preying on merchant ships. The Spanish attacked; during a battle with the small Dutch ship Mauritius, which had only 59 men, the San Diego sank with many of her 450-strong crew. Japanese swords found on excavation suggest the presence of Japanese mercenaries.
http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/out_voyages/hendrik_frederik.html; http://www.underwaterdiscovery.org/english/events/exhibitions/madridSanDiego.asp; National Museum of the Filipino People, Manila, exhibition
1601: The Japanese shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, wrote to Lord Nguyen Hoang of Vietnam about the new licensing system; ships authorized to trade with foreign countries would henceforth carry a red seal. (Between 1604 and 1635, at least 124 red-seal ships visited Tonkin and Cochin-China. A Japanese quarter developed in the port of Hoi An, which already had a Chinese quarter.)
Thuan Luc, http://www.charm.ru/coins/vn/nagasaki.shtml
1602: Five Dutch ships attacked a larger Portuguese fleet blockading Banten in Java, and won a week-long battle. They mapped Jakarta Bay, and went on to the Spice Islands.
Duyfken history, http://www.mm.wa.gov.au/Museum/march/duyfken/bravship.htm
The Dutch landed at Batticaloa in Sri Lanka.
1605: Xia Ziyang was despatched as a Ming envoy to Ryukyu. This ship had only 3 masts, but like Chen Kan's 5-master sixty years earlier it was 15 zhang long and built in Fujian. The original 24 compartments had been divided into 28.
Wang Guanzhou, 'A study of drawings of ancient Chinese ships preserved in Japan', p.122, citing Chen Kan, 'Shi Liu Qiu Lu' (record of diplomatic mission to Ryukyu) [in Chinese].
1606: The Dutch ship Duyfken sailed along the south coast of New Guinea and mapped Australia's Cape York peninsula.
Duyfken history, http://www.mm.wa.gov.au/Museum/march/duyfken/bravship.htm; http://www.muffley.net/pacific/dutch/ozland.htm
The Dutch allied with Johor to attack Melaka. Dutch and Portuguese fleets fought the battle of Cape Rachado (which is locally known as Tanjong Tuan, but the wrecks are actually west of Port Dickson). The Dutch ships Nassau and Middelburg, and two Portuguese ships, the São Salvador and the galleon of Dom Duarte de Guerra, were sunk. (The Dutch ship Mauritius fought in this battle, and sank in 1609 off Gabon.) In October the fleets clashed again off Melaka, when the Portuguese lost and scuttled seven ships.
Transea Sdn Bhd, photo-essay; Mauritius wreck http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/home_voyages/mauritius.html
The Spaniard Torres encountered 'Moors' in New Guinea, and sailed through the Torres strait dividing that island from Australia.
N. Stevens, ed, New Light on the discovery of Australia; C.M.H. Clark, A History of Australia, MUP 1999, Vol .I p.9, quoted by the Islamic Council of Victoria, http://www.icv.org.au/history2.shtml
1607: The king of Arakan welcomed Dutch merchants, offering duty-free trade, and solicited their help against the Portuguese, now dominating the ports of Bengal and notorious for piracy and slave-trading. He captured the port of Dianga (20 miles south of modern Chittagong) and massacred several hundred Portuguese, but relations continued in subsequent decades.
D.G.E. Hall, 'The Rise and Fall of the kingdom of Mrohaung in Arakan', http://www.rakhapura.com/scolumns/r&fofmrauk-u.asp
1608: The VOC representative in Johore reported that Chinese merchant I Sin Ho and his junk were lost at sea: this may possibly be the Binh Thuan wreck, off Vietnam to the southwest of Holland Bank, which is otherwise dated to 1573-1643. This well-preserved Chinese ship, 23x7 metres with 24 transverse bulkheads, surviving mast structures and rudder, carried Zhangzhou ceramics and cast iron pans.
Michael Flecker: 'The Binh Thuan Shipwreck', Christie's Australia, 2004, http://maritime-explorations.com/BinhThuan.pdf; http://maritime-explorations.com/binh%20thuan.htm.
The Portuguese ship Nossa Senhora da Consolação was wrecked off Mozambique.
www.arq.de
1611: The Dutch captain Brouwer pioneered a new route, directly east from the Cape of Good Hope for 4,000 miles before turning north, cutting outbound sailing time to Batavia.
http://www.muffley.net/pacific/dutch/ozland.htm but see note: Leenstra
1613: The VOC ship Witte Leeuw, returning from Bantam to the Netherlands with 1,311 diamonds, a sapphire from the king of Arakan, spices, and Ming porcelain, exploded and sank at St.Helena after attacking two Portuguese carracks.
Robert Stenuit, http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/home_voyages/witte_leeuw.html; Robert Stenuit, 'Les porcelaines du Witte Leeuw', Taoci, 2001
1615: The VOC ships Banda and Geunieerde Provincien, returning from Batavia to the Netherlands with Ming porcelain and the retiring governor, sank off Mauritius.
Yann von Arnim & Kate Meileen Li Kwong Wing, Blue and white china from shipwrecks in Mauritius, Indian Ocean, Mauritius Museums Council, 2003.
1616: The Dutchman Dirk Hartog visited Western Australia in the ship Eendracht, and left an inscription.
http://www.walkabout.com.au/locations/WADirkHartogIsland.shtml
1573-1620: tentative date of the 'Nan'ao I' wreck (formerly known as 'Nanhai II'), some 90 feet long and equipped with bronze cannon, carrying more than 10,000 pieces of Ming blue-and-white export ceramics plus ironware and copper coins, off Nanao county, Guangdong province.
http://www.archaeology.org/1109/features/south_china_sea_ming_dynasty_shipwreck.html; http://english.cntv.cn/program/cultureexpress/20110524/102634.shtml; http://life.globaltimes.cn/art/2011-04/648512.html; http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/727768.shtml;http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90782/90873/6979104.html; http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-04/09/c_13244563.htm; http://en.ce.cn/National/culture/201004/09/t20100409_21251633.shtml; http://www.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Asia/Story/A1Story20100410-209524.html; http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-09/26/content_8739497.htm; http://www.lifeofguangzhou.com/node_10/node_37/node_84/2007/10/16/119249773428614.shtml; http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-06/13/content_6237169.htm; http://museum.bu.ac.th/SEP%202007.pdf
1622: The English East Indiaman Trial was wrecked off Western Australia. Survivors reached Batavia.
http://www.muffley.net/pacific/dutch/ozland.htm; http://www.mm.wa.gov.au/Museum/march/department/batavia.html
The VOC yacht Den Haan sank near Batavia. A European wreck on the outskirts of Jakarta Bay, 32m long, with six visible iron cannon, Chinese porcelain, and silver bars, is thought to be the Den Haan.
Michael Flecker, 'Unreported shipwrecks in Indonesia', Nautical Archaeology (newsletter of the Nautical Archaeology Society UK) 2005.4, p6-7.
The Portuguese flagship São Jose was sunk by an Anglo-Dutch fleet 'with an infinite wealth' bound for Goa; the accompanying Santa Teresa was beached and burnt to avoid capture. The two wreck sites have been tentatively identified.
Alejandro Mirabal, Intermediate Report on Underwater Archaeological Excavations off the Island of Mozambique and Mogincual, from April to November 2005, http://www.arq-publications.com/downloads/april_november2005.pdf
The Dutch set up a base in the Pescadores (between Taiwan and mainland China), but were later persuaded to move to Taiwan (encouraged by the Japanese, who disliked the presence of the Spanish). They colonized the southwest, importing labourers from Fujian for farms exporting rice and sugar. In 1624 they started construction of Fort Zeelandia on the islet of Tayouan near present-day Tainan.
http://www.npm.gov.tw/exhbition/formosa/english/04.htm, http://www.npm.gov.tw/exhbition/formosa/english/06.htm; Fort Zeelandia http://www.premier.com.tw/Touring/FortZeelandia.htm, http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Styx/6497/formosa.html
1625: estimated date of the 'Wanli' wreck, sunk off the East coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The ship is of European design, carrying Chinese blue-and-white tradeware, one with a Portuguese coat-of-arms. Excavators suggested that the ship may have exploded, perhaps sunk by rivals.
Sten Sjostrand & Sharipah Lok Lok bt Syed Idrus, 'The Wanli shipwreck and its ceramic cargo', 2007; http://www.thewanlishipwreck.com
1621-27: During the reign of the Ming emperor Tianqi, 'thousands of families of Fujian and Zhejiang provinces are living in the islands of Japan. They marry Japanese people and bring up their future generations there. The settlement is called Tang Street... The ships plying between the two countries are named Tang ships... and most Chinese commodities are sold in Japan.'
Wu Zhenglian, 'The verification of the merchant ships' types in the Sino-Japanese trade from the end of the Ming dynasty to the beginning of the Qing dynasty', p.143, quoting Nan Quyi, 'Ming Tian Qi Shi Lu' ('Veritable record of the Tianqi reign of Ming dynasty')
1627: The Dutchman Pieter Nuyts in the ship Gulde Zeepaard explored the southern coast of Australia.
http://users.senet.com.au/~hitek/holdfastdatasa/Nav.htm.
1628: The Chinese book Wu Bei Zhi lists over twenty types of warship used off the coasts of southern China against Japanese pirates.
Tang Zhiba, 'The influence of the sail on the development of the ancient navy', p.62 - citing Mao Yuanyi, 'Wu Bei Zhi' ('Treatise on armament technology')
1629: The Dutch East Indiaman Batavia sank on the Abrolhos reef off Western Australia.
http://www.mm.wa.gov.au/Museum/march/department/batavia.html; http://www.muffley.net/pacific/dutch/ozland.htm
1630: The Portuguese ship São Gonçalo, returning from Goa, sank near Plettenberg Bay in South Africa while undergoing repairs. Artefacts at the associated camp site include Chinese and European ceramics.
Jane Klose, Oriental Ceramic Society (UK) newsletter no.11, Jan 2003, citing A.B. Smith, 'Excavations at Plettenberg Bay, South Africa of the camp-site of the survivors of the wreck of the São Gonçalo, 1630', The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 1986, 15.1, p53-56.
early C17th: tentative date of the Portuguese wreck at Sunchi Reef off Goa, which carried Chinese ceramics, elephant tusks, and hippopotamus teeth.
Sila Tripati, A.S. Gaur, Sundaresh, 'Exploration of a Portuguese shipwreck in Goa waters, western coast of India'; Sila Tripati and Ian Godfrey, 'Studies on elephant tusks and hippopotamus teeth collected from the early 17th century Portuguese shipwreck off Goa'
1632: Moghul emperor Shah Jahan attacked the Portuguese at Hugli; the king of Arakan helped the Portuguese from Dianga to destroy the Moghul fleet, and discussed with the Portuguese viceroy at Goa an alliance to invade Bengal.
D.G.E. Hall, 'The Rise and Fall of the kingdom of Mrohaung in Arakan', http://www.rakhapura.com/scolumns/r&fofmrauk-u.asp
1633: The Dutch attacked Xiamen, but were repulsed by the forces of local warlord Cheng Chih-Lung.
http://www.npm.gov.tw/exhbition/formosa/english/04.htm
1636: Japan closed her borders. Between 1592 and 1636 some 400 licensed Japanese ships had sailed to Southeast Asia, where a number of Japanese settlements had been growing rapidly. In the early years Chinese ships were bought or chartered, and European navigators often hired; from about 1630 Japan was building her own ships of hybrid design, but only pictures in temples remain.
K.Nomoto & K.Ishii, 'A historical review on ships of Japanese tradition', p.97,101
Foreign traders in Japan were restricted to the artificial island of Dejima, in the bay of Nagasaki.
http://batavia.rug.ac.be/Japan/Desjima.htm; http://www1.city.nagasaki.nagasaki.jp/dejima/en/01_e.html
1641-83: During this 42-year period, 1171 cargo ships sailed from China to Japan. Chinese ships exported raw silk, textiles, porcelain and sugar to Japan; goods exchanged included gold, silver, copper and sulphur.
Wu Zhenglian, 'The verification of the merchant ships' types in the Sino-Japanese trade from the end of the Ming dynasty to the beginning of the Qing dynasty', p.143, citing Lin Ren Chuan, 'Sino-Japanese private maritime trade from end of Ming dynasty to beginning of Qing dynasty', Hua Dong Normal University Press, 1937 [in Chinese].
1638: The Spanish galleon Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion sank off Saipan while heading from Manila to Acapulco, with a cargo of late Ming blue-and-white, goods from around Asia including storage jars from Vietnam and Thailand, and fine gold jewellery of European style made in the Philippines.
Michael Flecker, http://maritime-explorations.com/concepcion.htm, Govt of Guam drawing on National Geographic http://ns.gov.gu/galleon/
1642: The Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sailed to Tasmania (which he named Van Diemen's land), New Zealand, Tonga and Fiji.
http://pacific.vita.org/pacific/dutch/tasman.htm
1656: The Dutch ship Vergulde Draeck was wrecked off Western Australia.
http://www.museum.wa.gov.au/collections/maritime/march/shipwrecks/Metro/verdra/vergulded.html; http://members.iinet.net.au/~tjv/public_html/voc/vergulde.html; http://www.vocshipwrecks.nl/out_voyages3/vergulde_draak.html
1658: Qing warships defeated Russian invaders at the mouth of the Songhua river in Heilongjiang. More battles followed at Yakesa in 1685-6.
Xi Longfei, 'Recovery of warships used inYakesa battles during Qing dynasty', p.257
1659: The Dutch East Indiaman Avondster (originally English, captured off Persia in 1653) sank in Galle harbour in Sri Lanka.
Maritime Lanka, http://www.hum.uva.nl/galle/avondster/story.html
1661-2: The Ming admiral Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga), having failed to recapture Nanjing from the invading Manchus, besieged the Dutch at Fort Zeelandia with a force of over 25,000 men and 400 ships, evicted them from Taiwan, and established Han Chinese rule over the island. (Chinese newspapers in 2002 reported the possible discovery of one of these ships off Fujian.)
Wang Lianmao (ed), Return to the City of Light, p.89; http://www.iacc.com.tw/newsletters/april%202003/april%202003.htm; http://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_Koxinga.htm; description of fort http://www.npm.gov.tw/exhbition/formosa/english/05.htm; terms of surrenderhttp://www.npm.gov.tw/exhbition/formosa/english/07.htm
1663: The Dutch sent a fleet, which failed to recapture Taiwan, but helped the Manchus (Qing dynasty) to expel Ming forces from Amoy (Xiamen) and Quemoy - temporarily. Control fluctuated until 1680, when Koxinga's son abandoned the mainland and retreated to Taiwan.
http://taiwanresources.com/info/history/chrono.htm
1666: Moghul forces attacked Dianga, decimated the Arakanese fleet, after years of conflict, and annexed the district of Chittagong.
D.G.E. Hall, 'The Rise and Fall of the kingdom of Mrohaung in Arakan', http://www.rakhapura.com/scolumns/r&fofmrauk-u.asp
1670: The Dutch established a fort at Dindings (Pulau Pangkor) with a small flotilla to blockade the coast of Perak in the Malay Peninsula.
http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/dutch4.htm
1673: A fleet of 75 warboats from Jambi in Sumatra sacked the Johor capital of Batu Sawar.
http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/johor1.htm
1683: After a fierce sea battle in the Pescadores, Qing forces captured Taiwan.
http://taiwanresources.com/info/history/chrono.htm
1685: The first British outpost in the East Indies was established at Bencoolen in Sumatra.
http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/straits.htm
1690: The Spanish galleon Nuestra Senora del Pilar, built in Cavite, sank off the southwest of Guam.
http://www.maritimeinvestment.com.au/pilar.html
1698: The Portuguese fort at Mombasa fell to besieging Omanis, and the frigate Santo Antonio de Tanna, sent from Goa to the rescue, was sunk.
http://www.diveturkey.com/inaturkey/mombasa.htm
C15-17th: tentative date of the ship with Chinese ceramics found off South Pagai in the Mentawai islands to the west of Sumatra. One report mentions VOC.
http://politic2011.blogspot.com/2011/03/treasure-seeker-voc-ship-aims-mentawai.html; http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/02/09/govt-plans-recover-centuriesold-sunken-ship-mentawai.html; http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/booty-laden-sunken-vessel-found-in-mentawai-waters/412155; http://us.en.vivanews.com/news/read/193859-indonesia-tsunami-draws-ancient-wreck-ashore
1690-1700: tentative date of the lorcha (Chinese-built ship with Portuguese-style hull, compartments, and Chinese rigging) sunk off Vung Tau in south Vietnam with Jingdezhen blue-and-white and other regional cargo, apparently bound from China to Batavia and ultimately destined for the Dutch market.
Michael Flecker, IJNA (1992) 21.3: 221-244; http://maritime-explorations.com/vung%20tau.htm; Christiaan J.A.Jörg & Michael Flecker, Porcelain from the Vung Tau wreck: The Hallstrom Excavation; Christiaan J.A.Jörg, 'The porcelain of the Vung Tau junk', Taoci, 2001.

Abbreviations:
BEFEO: Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient (Hanoi, Saigon, Paris)
BSOAS: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (London)
IJNA: The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (UK)
JA: Journal Asiatique (Paris)
JMBRAS: Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Kuala Lumpur, Singapore)
Bibliography:
I.Wayan Ardika, Peter Bellwood, I Made Sutaba, Kade Citha Yuliati, 'Sembiran and the first Indian contacts with Bali: an update', Antiquity, Mar 1997, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3284/is_n271_v71/ai_n28685066/
Yann von Arnim & Kate Meileen Li Kwong Wing, Blue and white china from shipwrecks in Mauritius, Indian Ocean. Mauritius Museums Council, 2003. ISBN 99903-22-17-1.
Luis Filipe Bareto, Cartography of the East-West encounter. Macau Territorial Commission for the Commemorations of the Portuguese Discoveries, Macau, c.2000.
Peter Bellwood, 'Ancient seafarers', Archaeology Vol.50 No.2, Mar/Apr 1997, http://www.archaeology.org/9703/etc/specialreport.html
Amira Bennison, 'The Great Caliphs: the golden age of the ‘Abbasid empire', I.B.Tauris & Co, London, 2009. ISBN 978-1-84511-737-5.
Kevin Bishop, China's Imperial Way. Odyssey, Hong Kong, 1997. ISBN 962-217-520-1.
Roxanna Brown, 'History of shipwreck excavation in Southeast Asia', The Belitung Wreck: sunken treasures from Tang China, Seabed Explorations New Zealand Ltd, 2004,http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/belitung/The%20Belitung%20Wreck/02_brown_040to055.pdf
Menson Bound, 'Aspects of the Hoi An wreck: dishes, bottles, statuettes and chronology', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.95-103. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
Bui Minh Tri, Tong Trung Tin, Nguyen Quang Liem & Philippe Colomban, 'The Cù Lao Chàm (Hôi An) shipwreck, Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.105-110. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
John Carswell, Blue & White: Chinese porcelain around the world. British Museum Press, 2000. ISBN 0 7141 1491 X.
John Carswell, 'Two unexplored wrecks of the 14th century in the Red Sea and off Sri Lanka', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.51-56. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
David P. Chandler, A history of Cambodia. 2nd edition, Allen & Unwin, Australia, 1993. ISBN 1 86373 465 1.
Stephen Chia, The obsidian industry at Bukit Tengkorak, Sabah, Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2005, http://eprints.usm.my/7396/1/The_obsidian_industry_at_Bukit_Tengkorak_Sabah_Malaysia.pdf
Stephen Chia, 'Prehistoric sites and research in Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia', Bulletin of the Society for East Asian Archaeology Vol.2 (2008). ISSN 1864-6018, http://www.seaa-web.org/bulletin2008/bul-essay-08-01.htm
Murray Cox, Michael Nelson, Meryanne Tumonggor, François-X. Ricaut & Herawati Sudoyo, 'A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar', Proc.R.Soc.B rspb20120012
Nicholas Crane, Mercator: the man who mapped the planet. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, UK, 2002. ISBN 0 297 64665 6.
Monique Crick, 'Les céramiques chinoises, vietnamiennes et thaïlandaises de la jonque de Lena', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.71-85. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
Stephen Davies, 'Maritime museums? Who needs them?', Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Working Paper No 11, 2012, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/working_papers/nscwps011.pdf.
James Delgado, 'Relics of the Kamikaze', Archaeology Vol. 56 No.1, Jan/Feb 2003, http://www.archaeology.org/magazine.php?page=0301/etc/kamikaze
James Delgado, Khubilai Khan's Lost Fleet: History's Greatest Naval Disaster. Bodley Head, UK, 2009. ISBN 978-1847920775.
Allison I. Diem, 'Vietnamese ceramics from the Pandanan shipwreck excavation in the Philippines', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.87-93. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
Giovanni da Empoli, Lettera di Giovanni da Empoli, written 1483-1517, publ. Arti Grafiche Scalia, Roma, 1970.
Laura Valerie Esterhuizen, 'History written in porcelain sherds: The São João and the São Bento, two 16th century Portuguese shipwrecks', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.111-116. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
I.H.N. Evans, 'Notes on the remains of an old boat found at Pontian', Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums, Vol 12/4 (1927) 93-96.
Fa Xian, translated by James Legge, A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, being an account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hien of his travels in India and Ceylon (AD 399-414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Paragon Book Reprint Corp, New York, 1965.
Kenneth L. Feder, Frauds, Myths and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology, McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN: 076742722X.
Michael Flecker, 'Excavation of an oriental vessel of c.1690 off Con Dao, Vietnam', The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (1992) 21.3: 221-244, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Vung Tau IJNA.pdf
Michael Flecker, 'A preliminary survey of a South-East Asian wreck, Phu Quoc island, Vietnam', The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (1994) 23.2: 73-91, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Phu Quoc IJNA.pdf
Michael Flecker, 'A 9th-century Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesian waters', The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (2000) 29.2: 199-217, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Tang IJNA.pdf
Michael Flecker, 'A ninth century AD Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesia: first evidence for direct trade with China', World Archaeology (2001) Vol 32(3): p.335-354, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Tang WA.pdf
Michael Flecker, 'The Bakau wreck: an early example of Chinese shipping in Southeast Asia', The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (2001) 30.2: 221-230, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Bakau IJNA.pdf
Michael Flecker, The Archaeological Excavation of the 10th Century Intan Shipwreck. BAR International Series 1047, UK, 2002. ISBN 1 84171 428 3.
Michael Flecker, 'The thirteenth-century Java Sea wreck: a Chinese cargo in an Indonesian ship', The Mariner's Mirror Vol.89 No.4 (Nov 2003), p.388-404, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Java Sea MM.pdf
Michael Flecker, 'Treasure from the Java Sea (the 10th century Intan shipwreck)', Heritage Asia Vol.2 No.2 Dec 2004 - Mar 2005, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/Intan.pdf
Michael Flecker, The Binh Thuan Shipwreck, Christie's Australia, 2004. ISBN 1-876981-31-8, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/BinhThuan.pdf.
Michael Flecker, '16th century Portuguese wreck found off Malacca', Heritage Asia Jan-Mar 2007, p.9-15, http://www.maritime-explorations.com/M1J article.pdf
Michael Flecker, 'A 9th-century Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesian waters: Addendum', The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (2008) 37.2: 384-386, http://maritime-explorations.com/Belitung-Addendum.pdf
H.A.R. Gibb, translator, Ibn Battuta Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1929.
C.A. Gibson-Hill, 'Further notes on the old boat found at Pontian, in south Pahang', Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol 25/1 (1952) 111-133.
Franck Goddio, 'La jonque de Lena et le vaisseau Royal Captain', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.11-20. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
Franck Goddio, Monique Crick, Peter Lam, Stacey Pierson, Rosemary Scott, Lost at sea: the strange route of the Lena Shoal junk, Periplus, UK, 2002. ISBN 978-1902699134.
David A. Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge, UK, US & Canada, 2002. ISBN 0-415-23955-9.
Jeremy Green, Tom Vosmer, Paul Clark, Ray Santiago & Mauro Alvares, Interim report on the joint Australian–Philippines Butuan boat project, October 1992: http://www.museum.wa.gov.au/collections/maritime/march/documents/No.%20064%20PhilippinesReport.pdf
G'zhou Mar. Silk Rd 2001 = Guangzhou, China, the cultural relics of the Maritime Silk Road, Social Science Programming Office of Guangzhou, editors Gu Jianqing and Huang Miaozhang, 2001. ISBN 7-80655-319-3/K.43. Sources generally not quoted.
Emmanuel Guillon, Cham Art. River Books, Bangkok, 2001. ISBN 974 8225 46 1.
John Guy, 'Vietnamese ceramics from the Hoi An excavation: the Chu Lao Cham ship cargo', Orientations, Sept 2000, p125-8.
Kenneth R. Hall, Maritime trade and state development in early Southeast Asia, Univ of Hawaii Press, 1985. ISBN 0-8248-0959-9.
He Gouwei, 'Measurement and research of the ancient Ming dynasty ship unearthed in Liangshan', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.237-244.
Michel L'Hour, La mémoire engloutie de Brunei, Textuel, France, 2001. ISBN: 978-2845970403.
George Hourani, Arab seafaring, revised and expanded by John Carswell. Princeton University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-691-00032-8.
Christiaan Jörg & Michael Flecker, Porcelain from the Vung Tau wreck: The Hallstrom Excavation. Sun Tree Publishing, UK, 2001. ISBN 981-04-5208-X.
Christiaan Jörg, 'The porcelain of the Vung Tau junk', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.117-122. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.

Sarah Kenderdine, 'Bai Jiao I - the excavation of a Song dynasty shipwreck in the Dinghai area, Fujian province, China', The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (1995) 24.4: 247-266.
Kim Zae-Geun, 'The wreck excavated [from] Wando island', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.56-58 - citing Kim Zae-Geun, 'Study on the structure of a wreck salvaged off the Wando island', Journal of the National Academy of Sciences, Republic of Korea, Vol.25, 1986.
Jun Kimura, 'Recent survey and excavation on the Mongolian fleet sunk off Japan: the Takashima underwater site', Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (2006), 30: 7-13.
Regina Krahl, John Guy, J.Keith Wilson & Julian Raby, ed, Shipwrecked: Tang treasures and monsoon winds, Smithsonian Books, 2011. ISBN 978-978-1-58834-305-5, 978-0-934686-18-1.
Kwa Chong Guan, 'Locating Singapore on the Maritime Silk Road: Evidence from Maritime Archaeology, Ninth to Early Nineteenth Centuries', Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Working Paper No 10, 2012, http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/working_papers/nscwps010.pdf
Ligaya S.P. Lacsina, 'Traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft in Philippine archaeological sites', www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1231
Le Thi Lien et al, 'Understanding the Bach Dang Battlefield from Recent Research Results', 2011: www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1266
Lee Chang-Euk, 'A study on the structural and fluid characteristics of a rabbetted clinker type ship (the sunken ship salvaged off Shinan), Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.154-168.
Lin, Shimin, Du Genqi, & Green, J., 'Waterfront excavations at Dongmenkou, Ningbo, Zhe Jiang Province, PRC', The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (1994) 20.4: 299-311.
Louise Levathes, When China ruled the seas: the treasure fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-33. Simon & Schuster, New York, 1994. ISBN 0-671-70158-4.
Liu Pean, 'Viewing Chinese ancient navigation and shipbuilding through Zheng He's ocean expeditions', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.176-180.
Ma Huan, Ying-yai Sheng Lan (The overall survey of the ocean's shores), 1433, translated from the Chinese text edited by Feng Ch'eng-Chün (Shanghai, 1935) by J.V.G. Mills. Hakluyt Society 1970, reprinted White Lotus, Bangkok, 1997. ISBN 974-8496-78-3.
[Ma Huan travelled on Zheng He's 4th expedition (1413-15), the 6th (1421-22), and the 7th (1431-33). Mills' introduction summarises the additional information and points of difference with other chroniclers, such as Kung Chen (mostly the same as Ma Huan), and Fei Xin, who travelled on Zheng He's 3rd expedition (1409-11), the 5th (1417-19), and the 7th, and in between on Yang Ch'ih's expedition (1411-14). Fei Xin's account, 'The overall survey of the star raft', is dated 1436; it covers many more countries than in Ma Huan's account, but less reliably.]
Ma Xiangyong, 'Xu Fu, one of the navigation forerunners in the world', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.181-190.
Joaquim Romero Magalhães, The Portuguese in the 16th century, Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, Lisbon, 1988. ISBN 972-8325-71-1.
Pierre-Yves Manguin, 'Southeast Asian shipping in the Indian Ocean during the first millennium AD', in Himanshu P. Ray and J.-F. Salles, editors, Tradition and Archaeology, Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean. Lyon and New Delhi: Manohan (Maison de l'Orient Mediterraneen/NISTADS), 1996, pp.181-198.
Maritime Silk Route 1996 = The Maritime Silk Route; 2000 years of trade on the South China Sea, ed. Joseph S.P. Ting, produced by the Hong Kong Museum of History, 1996. ISBN 962-7039-34-9.
Sean McGrail, Boats of the world: from the stone age to medieval times, OUP Oxford, 2004, p.305 ISBN13: 978-0-19-927186-3.
John Miksic, Singapore & the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800, NUS Press Singapore, 2013, ISBN 978-9971-69-574-3 / 978-9971-69-558-3.
Stuart Munro-Hay, Aksum: an African civilisation of late antiquity, 1991, e-text http://users.vnet.net/alight/aksum/mhak1.html.
Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat: the archeology, history and legends of a Southern Thai town. White Lotus, Bangkok, 2001. ISBN 974-7534-73-8.
Museum of the Nanyue King, 1999 = The Museum of the Western Han Tomb of Nanyue King, edited & published by that institution, Guangzhou, 1999.
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a long history. Foreign Languages Publishing House, Hanoi, 1987.
K.Nomoto & K.Ishii, 'A historical review on ships of Japanese traditions', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.97-112.
Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors. Thames & Hudson, London 1998. ISBN 0-500-05090-2.
Tomé Pires, The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires: an account of the East from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, translated & edited by Armando Cortesão, publ. (i) Hakluyt Society, London, 1944 & 2010, ISBN 978-1-4094-2487-1; (ii) Asian Educational Services, New Delhi & Madras, 1990.
Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo. Penguin Books, UK, 1958. ISBN 0 14 044 057 7.
Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, the Complete Yule-Cordier Edition. New York: Dover Publications, 1993.
Frank Pope, Dragon Sea: A true tale of treasure, archeology, and greed off the coast of Vietnam. Harcourt Books, US, 2006. ISBN-13/EAN: 9780151012077.
Edward P. von der Porten, 'Manila galleon porcelains on the American West Coast', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.57-61. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
Anthony Reid, Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia, Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai, 1999.
Andreas Rettel, 'The concept of the conservation of seawater finds', The Belitung Wreck: Sunken Treasures from Tang China, unpublished. Seabed Explorations Ltd, New Zealand, 2004. http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/SW-CulturalHeritage/downloads/05Rettel092-115.pdf
Abu Ridho & Edmund Edwards McKinnon, The Pulau Buaya wreck: finds from the Song period, Ceramic Society of Indonesia, 1998. ISBN 978-9799001108.
Shen Fuwei, Cultural flow between China and the outside world, Foreign Languages Press, Beijing, 1996. ISBN 7-119-00431-X.
Sten Sjostrand & Claire Barnes, 'The Turiang: a fourteenth century Chinese shipwreck upsetting South East Asian ceramic history', Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 74/1, 2001, p.71-109.
Sten Sjostrand & Sharipah Lok Lok bt Syed Idrus, The Wanli shipwreck and its ceramic cargo. Department of Museums Malaysia, 2007. ISBN 967-9935-74-4. Available from www.mingwrecks.com/publications.html.
Robert Stenuit, 'Les porcelaines du Witte Leeuw', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.27-34. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
S.J. Stephen, 'Portuguese nau: a study of the cargo ship in the Indian ocean during the sixteenth century', Shipbuilding and navigation in the Indian ocean region AD 1400-1800 (ed.Mathew, K.S.) Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi, 1997, p.113-131.
N. Stevens (ed), New light on the discovery of Australia as revealed by the journal of captain Don Diego de Prado y Tovar, Hakluyt Society, second series no. LXIV, 1929, repr. Liechtenstein 1967.
Strabo, Geography. c.23CE, transl. Horace Leonard Jones, ed. Bill Thayer. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/
S.Suresh, Arikamedu: its place in the Ancient Rome - India contacts, Embassy of Italy, Delhi, 2007 (review by Sila Tripati: http://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/2590/1/Man_Environ_33_%20113.pdf).
Abu Ja'far Muhammad Al-Tabari, 'The History of Al-Tabari', ed. Ehsan Yar-Shater, 38 volumes, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1985-.
Tang Zhiba, 'The influence of the sail on the development of the ancient navy', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.59-64 - citing East Han - Yuan Kang, 'Yue Jue Shu' ('Lost records of the State of Yue') [in Chinese].
Nicholas Tarling, The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press, UK, 1992. ISBN 9780521355056.
Robert Temple, The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention (summarizing the scholarship of Joseph Needham). Prion, UK, 1986. ISBN 1-85375-078-6.
Tran Ky Phuong, Unique Vestiges of Cham Civilization. The Guoi Publishers, Hanoi, 2000. English translation VN-TG-40107-1.
Transea Sdn Bhd, Archaeological excavation on the wreck of the Nassau at Bambek Shoal, Port Dickson, unpublished photo-essay submitted to Muzium Negara, Malaysia, 1996.
Sila Tripati, A.S. Gaur, Sundaresh, 'Exploration of a Portuguese shipwreck in Goa waters, western coast of India', Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (2006), 30: 127-136.
Sila Tripati & Ian Godfrey, 'Studies on elephant tusks and hippopotamus teeth collected from the early 17th century Portuguese shipwreck off Goa, west coast of India: Evidence of maritime trade between Goa, Portugal and African countries', Current ScienceVol.92, No.3, 10 Feb 2007, p.332-339.
Sila Tripati & P.Gudigar, 'Shipwreck archaeology of the Lakshadweep Islands, west coast of India', International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (2001) 30.1, p.37-47.
Geoff Wade, translator, Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, Singapore: Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/ accessed 27 Nov 2005.
Wang Guanzhou, 'A study of drawings of ancient Chinese ships preserved in Japan', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.113-129.
Wang Lianmao (ed) for Quanzhou Maritime Museum, Return to the City of Light: Quanzhou, an eastern city shining with the splendour of medieval culture. Fujian People's Publishing House, 2000.
Donald Wigal, Historic Maritime Maps 1290-1699. Parkstone Press, New York, 2000. ISBN 1 85995 750 1.
Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo go to China? Westview Press, US, 1996. ISBN 0-8133-8999-2.
Xi Longfei, 'Recovery of warships used inYakesa battles during Qing dynasty', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.256-262.
Xi Longfei and Xin Yuanou, 'Preliminary research on the historical period and restoration design of the ancient ship unearthed in Penglai', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.225-236.
Xin Yuanou & Yuan Suishan, 'The blue ribbon holder in the medieval age - Chinese junks', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.65-75.
Yoshiaki Ishizawa, 'Chinese chronicles of C1st-5th century AD Funan', in South East Asia & China: art, interaction & commerce, ed. Rosemary Scott & John Guy, Colloquies on Art & Archaeology in Asia no.17, Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, 1995. ISBN 0-7286-0247-4.
Yuan Xiaochun & Wu Songgao, 'On the construction of Penglai fighting sailship of Yuan dynasty', Proceedings of the International Sailing Ships Conference in Shanghai, 1991, p.169-175.
Zhang Wei, 'L'Archéologie sous-marine en Chine', Taoci (annual review of the Oriental Ceramic Society of France) no.2, Dec 2001, p.21-26. La Société Française d'Étude de la Céramique Orientale. ISBN 2-86805-102-2.
Zhang Wei, editor, 'The Xisha Islands Underwater Archaeology Project Report'. The Underwater Archaeology Research Office of the National Museum of Chinese History and the Cultural Heritage Administrative Office of Hainan Province, 2005. ISBN 7-03-016108-4.

Notes:

Menno Leenstra: re 1611 entry on the (southern) Brouwer route from the Cape to Strait Sunda, www.muffley.net/pacific/dutch/ozland.htm states that the voyage was shortened from a typical 16-18 months to 6 months. This is misleading. (The very shortest travel time on the southern route has been compared to the time used by ships taking part in naval actions on the East-African coast or stopping for months in Madagascar or Mauritius.) The normal travel time on the southern route was 8-9 months (see 'Dutch Asiatic Shipping': I). Normal travel time on the northern route was about a year. On the northern route winds were hardly predictable and for that reason ships were often not able to make the voyage from the Cape (or up to 1645 the refreshing station of St Helena), to the Sunda Strait, within the critical-for-scurvy period of 4-5 months, and so had to refresh at Mauritius or Madagascar, losing a lot of time. However, on the southern route ships were lost on the Australian coast, or had difficulty reaching the Sunda Strait. Severe personnel losses were reported by some ships which took the southern route and also took over a year to reach the Sunda Strait.

https://maritimeasia.ws/topic/chronology.html

Read on...https://tinyurl.com/y9n2pa3j

↧

The Spitzer Manuscript shows how Brahmi ka- is derived from Indus Script karṇaka 'rim of jar'

October 23, 2018, 12:02 am

≫ Next: Vemaka or Audumbara coins of 1st cent. BCE with Indus Script Hypertexts signify wealth-accounting ledgers

≪ Previous: Ancient Bhārat of 19th cent. BCE as a Maritime, ship-building nation along Indian Ocean Rim, evidence of sewn boats from Red Sea port of Ayn Sukhna comparable to Kerala catamarans

https://tinyurl.com/ydahojw8

The Spitzer Manuscript is the Oldest Philosophical Manuscript in Sanskrit

This monograph demonstrates that Brahmi ka- symbol is derived from Indus Script cipher for
The vikr̥ti-s of ka- include the following:
I suggest the common orthographic elements to signify ka- are derived from the word karṇaka'rim-of-jar'
The expression karṇaka is used in Indus Script with the hieroglyph of 'rim-of-jar' which has variants as follows in Indus Script Corpora to signify the rebus rendering of .
karṇika'scribe'. The orthographic emphasis is on the two short splinter strokes on either side of the narrow-necked jarto signify
Thus, the Brahmi symbol वि-कृति 'f. change , alteration , modification , variation , changed condition (of body or mind ; acc. with √ गम् , या , व्रज् , or प्र- √पद् , to undergo a change , be changed) MBh. Ka1v. &c' for the alphabet ka- is derived from karṇaka, the most frequently used expression

Print Edition

A-1011 Vienna, Dr. med. med. Ignaz Seipel-Platz 2
Tel. + 43-1-515 81 / DW 3402-3406, Fax + 43-1-515 81 / DW 3400
https://verlag.oeaw.ac.at, e-mail: verlag @ oeaw .ac.at

Series: Memoranda of the Philosophical-Historical Class , Volume: 323

Series: Contributions to the cultural and intellectual history of Asia , volume: 43

Publisher: VÖAW

Year of publication: 2004

ISBN13: 978-3-7001-3301-8

ISBN10: 3-7001-3301-4

Format: 29,7x21cm, paperback, volume 1 352 pages, volume 2 158 pages, 900 SW-fig.

ISBN 978-3-7001-3301-8 doi: 10.1553 / 3-7001-3301-4 2004 510 pages, volume I + II, 30x27 cm, paperback, contributions to the cultural and intellectual history of Asia 43, memoranda of the philosophical-historical class 323 € 139,00 Eli FRANCO is Professor of Indology at the University of Leipzig

The Spitzer Manuscript is one of the oldest Sanskrit manuscripts found on the Silk Road. The work preserved in it is unique; no further manuscripts have been discovered so far, nor is it transmitted in Tibetan or Chinese translations. The present volume contains an introduction which summarizes previous research and discusses grammatical, lexical and palaeographical aspects of the work, together with an outline of its content. It is followed by a complete facsimile edition of the fragmented by transliterations. These are supplemented by transcriptions of some fragments which are no longer available. Moritz Spitzer. A concordance juxtaposes the earlier and present-day arrangements of the fragment, and an extensive character table documents the peculiarities of the Kuṣāṇa-Brāhmā script used in the manuscript. A complete word index and a study which aims at reconstructing the last part of the manuscript conclude the volume. As well as Buddhist scholastics the work also deals with a number of non-Buddhist topics, such as a theory of Vaiśeṣika qualities completely unknown, it contains, inter alia, the oldest list of books of the Mahābhārata and an enumeration of the sixty -four arts and sciences. The last part of the work is devoted to dialectics. Such as a theory of Vaiśeṣika contains, inter alia, the oldest list of books of the Mahābhārata and an enumeration of sixty-four arts and sciences. The last part of the work is devoted to dialectics. Such as a theory of Vaiśeṣika contains, inter alia, the oldest list of books of the Mahābhārata and an enumeration of sixty-four arts and sciences. The last part of the work is devoted to dialectics.

The Spitzer manuscript is one of the oldest Sanskrit manuscripts found on the Silk Road. The work preserved in it is unique; So far, no other manuscripts of this work have been discovered and it has not survived in either Tibetan or Chinese translation. The present volume contains an introduction that summarizes the state of research, discusses grammatical, lexical and palaeographic aspects of the work and offers a summary of contents. This is followed by a complete facsimile output of the fragments along with their transliterations. These are supplemented by transcriptions of some lost fragments, which belong to the estate of the indologist dr. Moritz Spitzer were taken. A concordance contrasts with the present and earlier arrangement of the fragments; a detailed character map documents the peculiarities of the Kuṣāṇa-Brāhmā script of the manuscript. A complete word index and a study aimed at reconstructing the last part of the manuscript conclude the book. In addition to Buddhist scholastic themes, the book also deals with a number of non-Buddhist themes, such as a Vaiśeṣika theory of properties unknown from other sources; it also contains, inter alia the oldest list of books of the Mahābhārata and a list of the sixty-four arts and sciences. The last part of the work is devoted to dialectics. Noriyuki Kudo, Nagoya Studies in Indian Culture and Buddhism 26

http://hw.oeaw.ac.at/0xc1aa500d_0x00046257

The Spitzer Manuscript (1st-2nd Century CE) is the oldest surviving Sanskrit manuscript ever found. The highly fragmented material was discovered in 1906 by a German expedition team headed by Indologist Dr. Moritz Spitzer. The material was found in Qizil (Central Asia) which falls in the ancient silk route. The material is currently preserved in State library of Berlin, Germany. The work is unique in that no parallel work has ever been found related to it and also the text has not been transmitted to China/Tibet/Japan through translations like most other early Buddhist texts do.

This ancient manuscript was written with a broad-nib copper pen in Kuṣāṇa-Brāhmã script.

Contents

The account of the manuscript as edited by Franco is presented below with a few comments.

* avidyA-lakShaNa; godAna vastra-dAna, criticism of the ghR^ihastAshrama, brAhmaNa-s. None of this is clear as the pages are rather fragmentary.

* An account of AjIvika theories such as dharma and adharma having no consequence.

* Some account of sukha, dukha, death, bandha and mokSha, etc.

* An account of the properties (lakShaNa-s) of the primary substances teja, vAyu, Apa etc. A detailed account of vaisheShika theory of guNa-s, probably statement of a pUrvapakSha for a nAstika (?)

* The four Arya satyAni of the buddha and the concept of nairAtmya.

* Some account of principles of logical inference and argument.

* saMkSipta rAmAyaNa- a summary of vAlmIki’s epic. A parvan summary of the mahAbhArata. It should be noted that this is fragmentary with the so claimed missing virATaparvan being a lacuna in the manuscript with some name starting in ‘a’ or ‘A’, which might have read aj~nAtaparvan – effectively the same as the virATaparvan. The missing anushAsanaparvan cannot be confirmed as being really missing or: 1) poor preservation; 2) some Mbh manuscripts outside India, like Indonesia, combine the shAntiparvan and the anushAsanaparvan; simply accidental or ignorant omission by the author.

In conclusion, the evidence is just tenuous to insist that this fragmentary parvan list from a unique manuscript from uttarApatha (Central Asia) represented the state of the Mbh as was known elsewhere in jambudvIpa at that age. Franco also places a fragment of the text regarding the origin of daitya-s and dAnava-s, a legal procedure, an account of the gandharva veda, the chatuH ShaShTi kalA-s, vedA~Nga-s, and the duties of each varNa in this part of the text.

* Brief account of upaniShad-s, mantra-s and brAhmaNa injunctions. The concepts of adhidaiva and adhyAtman.

* Brief account of taxonomy of living beings.

* The claim that the buddha knew all of the veda, the vedA~Nga-s, astronomy, dance and music. Arguments [possibly of an Astika] as to why the buddha could not have been all-knowing.

* The buddha as an authoritative teacher, the merits of building stUpa-s, the evils of dishonest actions, destruction of desire by knowledge, a meditation on the bodily processes to end desire, mokSha, use of garlic vis-a-vis brAhmaNa-s and shaka-s.

* Nature of saMsAra, a refutation of Ishvara concept, law of conservation of matter and the beginningless nature of saMsAra.

* An attack on the bauddha-mata [Arguments of mImAMsaka-s]: The buddha’s teaching is not pramANa because he used prAkR^ita, examples of vulgar prAkR^ita

* Debate regarding whether compassion is dharma because it involves attachment to the object of compassion.

* sharabha and other animals.

* Existence of past and future dharma-s in addition to those of the present – bauddha theory of sarvAstivAda, which was popular in uttarApatha and among the chIna-s.

* Discourse on how the Arya satyAni of the buddha can be understood – by a gradual process or in a sudden revelation. The text explains that it is a gradual process.

* An attack on the Astika theory of the “self-luminescent” consciousness.

* The tathAgata’s place in the saMgha and the obscure question of whether making a donation to the saMgha is a donation to the buddha.

* The concepts of samyag-buddhi and mithyA-buddhi – correct and wrong cognition.

* An attack on the kAshyapIya theory of the action continuing to exist until it bears fruit.

* Lengthy philosophical considerations and debates between tAthAgata-s and naiyAyika-s, mImAMsaka-s and sAMkhyavAdin-s.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spitzer_manuscript

A brief note on the Spitzer manuscript and related issues

Posted on May 1, 2013by mAnasa-taraMgiNI

In his famed kAvya the buddhacharita, ashvagoSha states that when the tathAgata was about to renounce the world he had an “akShaya-dharma-jAta-rAgaH”, i.e., a “passion” of the indestructible dharma was born in him. When we encountered this term we realized that it was a nAstika’s version of the term sanAtana-dharma. Thus, ashvagoSha is continuing the trend in the bauddha-mata, seen right from its founder, of repositioning the realizations of the tathAgata as the real sanAtana-dharma as opposed to the shruti and its spirit transmitted by the itihAsa-s and the darshana-shAstra-s. Thus, despite all his urge to separate himself from the sanAtana-dharma, the bauddha needed it to provide an essential background for the very existence of his mata. Even the tathAgata, who seems to have seen his teachings as an absolute supersession of the sanAtana-dharma, needed to place himself in the context of its darshana-s. Thus, the bypassing of the yoga master ArADa kAlAma and the shrauta ritualist urubilvA jaTila kAshyapa are important events in his narrative. Even ashvagoSha in his kAvya tries to subtly hint this supersession by stating that siddhArtha’s father shuddhodhana was a great kShatriya soma ritualist in the manner of father manu the lawgiver, and pointing out that the buddha being raised in such a household was familiar with all that. Now the constant need for the Astika backdrop among the tAthAgata-s is something that has been misunderstood by several modern students of history, in part due to the influence of the white indologists and their fellow travelers. The primary misunderstanding is to interpret this background of sanAtana-dharma as being an integral bauddha innovation that has later been adopted by the Astika-s. For example, several have called ashvaghoSha as the originator of “real” kAvya literature. Some (e.g. Winternitz) have gone even as far as to claim that ashvaghoSha was the original exponent of kAvya and even vAlmIki borrowed from him! We also heard a claim that ashvaghoSha preceded the mahAbhArata as we know it. Of course there is much to suggest that none of these claims are consistent with the available facts. First, there is ample evidence from ashvaghoSha himself that he considered vAlmIki the founder of kAvya (i.e. kAvya in the later sense, as distinct from the R^ik mantra-s of the earlier vaidika kavI-s and their Iranian counterparts). Second, the whole of the background of ashvaghoSha’s buddhacharita as well as saundara-nanda is an Astika one, transparently borrowed from Astika contexts including the itihAsa-s. He knows of the rAmAyaNa, the mahAbhArata and paurANika tales like the burning of kAma by rudra and the birth of kumAra and uses them for similes to describe the buddha’s life. It was in this context that Spitzer manuscript was brought up to present a more subtle argument that the mahAbharata was not yet in its current parvan structure at the time of ashvaghoSha. While the Spitzer manuscript is useless to support this claim, it is still of enormous interest in terms of understanding the state of the indosphere in the first two centuries of the common era and the also the general framework of the Astika background within which the nAstika tradition placed itself at that time.

The Spitzer manuscript is a highly fragmented Sanskrit manuscript that was discovered in Qizil (Eastern Turkestan; today Han-occupied Xinjiang) during the German expedition of 1906 (3rd of the Turfan expeditions). Its exact date is not known, but is believed to be between the 100-300 CE. It appears to have been written with a broad-nib copper pen in brAhmI script following a style similar to that seen in the time of the kushAna-s, which forms the basis for the above temporal window. A very difficult to find version has been published by Eli Franco and some additional material in the form of fragments known only as copies has been studied by Japanese researchers. The contents of the manuscript are a rather diverse mixture of Astika and nAstika issues that are not entirely clear due to the state of the manuscript. However, it can be said this manuscript is rather unique in that there is no parallel text that has been found to date. The account of the manuscript as edited by Franco is presented below with a few comments.
* avidyA-lakShaNa; godAna vastra-dAna, criticism of the ghR^ihastAshrama, brAhmaNa-s. None of this is clear as the pages are rather fragmentary.
* An account of AjIvika theories such as dharma and adharma having no consequence.
* Some account of sukha, dukha, death, bandha and mokSha, etc.
* An account of the properties (lakShaNa-s) of the primary substances teja, vAyu, Apa etc. A detailed account of vaisheShika theory of guNa-s, probably statement of a pUrvapakSha for a nAstika (?)
* The four Arya satyAni of the buddha and the concept of nairAtmya.
* Some account of principles of logical inference and argument.
* saMkSipta rAmAyaNa- a summary of vAlmIki’s epic. A parvan summary of the mahAbhArata. It should be noted that this is fragmentary with the so claimed missing virATaparvan being a lacuna in the manuscript with some name starting in ‘a’ or ‘A’, which might have read aj~nAtaparvan – effectively the same as the virATaparvan. The missing anushAsanaparvan cannot be confirmed as being really missing or: 1) poor preservation; 2) some Mbh manuscripts outside India, like Indonesia, combine the shAntiparvan and the anushAsanaparvan; simply accidental or ignorant omission by the author. In conclusion, the evidence is just tenuous to insist that this fragmentary parvan list from a unique manuscript from uttarApatha (Central Asia) represented the state of the Mbh as was known elsewhere in jambudvIpa at that age. Franco also places a fragment of the text regarding the origin of daitya-s and dAnava-s, a legal procedure, an account of the gandharva veda, the chatuH ShaShTi kalA-s, vedA~Nga-s, and the duties of each varNa in this part of the text.
* Brief account of upaniShad-s, mantra-s and brAhmaNa injunctions. The concepts of adhidaiva and adhyAtman.
* Brief account of taxonomy of living beings.
* The claim that the buddha knew all of the veda, the vedA~Nga-s, astronomy, dance and music. Arguments [possibly of an Astika] as to why the buddha could not have been all-knowing.
* The buddha as an authoritative teacher, the merits of building stUpa-s, the evils of dishonest actions, destruction of desire by knowledge, a meditation on the bodily processes to end desire, mokSha, use of garlic vis-a-vis brAhmaNa-s and shaka-s.
* Nature of saMsAra, a refutation of Ishvara concept, law of conservation of matter and the beginningless nature of saMsAra.
* An attack on the bauddha-mata [Arguments of mImAMsaka-s]: The buddha’s teaching is not pramANa because he used prAkR^ita, examples of vulgar prAkR^ita
* Debate regarding whether compassion is dharma because it involves attachment to the object of compassion.
* sharabha and other animals.
* Existence of past and future dharma-s in addition to those of the present – bauddha theory of sarvAstivAda, which was popular in uttarApatha and among the chIna-s.
* Discourse on how the Arya satyAni of the buddha can be understood – by a gradual process or in a sudden revelation. The text explains that it is a gradual process.
* An attack on the Astika theory of the “self-luminescent” consciousness.
* The tathAgata’s place in the saMgha and the obscure question of whether making a donation to the saMgha is a donation to the buddha.
* The concepts of samyag-buddhi and mithyA-buddhi – correct and wrong cognition.
* An attack on the kAshyapIya theory of the action continuing to exist until it bears fruit.
* Lengthy philosophical considerations and debates between tAthAgata-s and naiyAyika-s, mImAMsaka-s and sAMkhyavAdin-s.

What the text illustrates is the degree to which the nAstika-s needed to place themselves in the context of the Astika-s. The darshana-bheda is well-know as it goes back to the tradition of the tathAgata himself trying to refute the darshana-s of other contemporary thinkers. But there is also a second stream – that of taking up and transmitting Astika knowledge regarding their texts and traditions. This is distinct from the parallel nAstika tendency (both among bauddha-s and jaina-s) of producing “fake” versions of the Astika traditions like the mahAbhArata, rAmAyaNa and purANa-s in order to present their doctrines as being superior to those of the Astika-s. Rather, the tendency which we note in this text is the faithful acquisition of Astika knowledge, perhaps as part of illustrating the omniscience of the buddha and also thereby attempting to show all Astika knowledge as a mere subset of nAstika knowledge. In historical terms, this appears to have accompanied to conversion of various brAhmaNa-s to the nAstikamata (like ashvaghoSha himself). Thus, we should see kAvya as being one of these appropriations of the “kalA-s” for the omniscient buddha, even as kAvya-composing brAhmaNa-s started falling for the seductions of the tAthagata -mata. Thus, the urge to create a life of the buddha in kAvya is more naturally seen as an imitation of the preexisting kAvya-s that Astika-s had starting from vAlmIki whom ashvaghoSha as a brAhmaNa still salutes as the first kavI.

In fact, we see more of a link between the Spitzer manuscript and ashvaghoSha: 1) There is evidence that copies of the buddha-charita, saundara-nanda and this bauddha play on the brAhmaNa student of the buddha, shari-putra, were widely distributed in Central Asia. 2) Tocharian plays have been recovered from the lost Indic civilizational centers of the Central Asian oases like Kucha, Agni and the like, which were destroyed by the invasions of Han imperialists and their Turkic ally Arshina Shuoel. The plays are Tocharian versions of Sanskrit originals that point to the transmission of kAvya to central along with the bauddha-dharma. This, reinforces the idea that certain nAstika-s of this period like ashvaghoSha saw it as important part of their tradition to create kAvya with bauddha themes but mirroring the astika originals, which is where a bulk of their metaphors and similes come from. 3) ashvaghoSha shows a wide knowledge of the Astika itihAsa-purANa and also strongly attacks saMkhya, vaisheShika and mImaMsa and vaidika traditions. Moreover, he specifically goes into a refutation of IshvaravAda (all of these through the mouth of maitreya who will come as the buddha of a future age) and show sevidence for specific knowledge of the upaniShad-s. These points covered by ashvaghoSha are key points in the Spitzer manuscript all together with an account of the itihAsa-s. Thus, we suspect that this manuscript represents some one belonging to the same tradition of ashvaghoSha. There is much debate as to whether ashvaghoSha was a sarvastivAdin or belonged to one of the many proliferating schools of nAstika thought from that period. But we feel this does not detract from the idea of a link between his school and the manuscript as they share some basic similarities which go beyond the general pUrvapakSha of Astika sources.

Finally, the case of the Spitzer manuscript illustrates how many ancient texts of our larger tradition might have been lost. In some measure this is due to climatic conditions in much of the sub-continent not being very conducive for manuscript survival. The drier and cooler climes of Central Asia are simply better for survival of manuscripts. Hence, the spread of Indian traditions to central Asia along with the creation of the greater India and indosphere helped in the survival of at least some of these traditions. However, the case of Nepal and South India where texts have survived to a much greater extant bring home the bigger problem, which many like to deny, namely Islam. Destruction of Hindu textual traditions by the wave after wave of depredations by the army of Islam, left Hindus with only a part of what they originally possessed – in fact over large swaths of northern India deeper Hindu traditions have simply become extinct. Even what survives would have gone had not certain Hindu rulers and officials in the courts of lapsed and active Islamic tyrants (often despite the destruction all around them unlike what white Indologists and secularists would tell us) had not taken steps to preserve what they could. In central Asia the destruction of traditions by the same army of Islam (the buddha-busters) brought a closure to the transmission of traditions to those regions. This points the importance of the need to spread the indosphere so that the traditions might survive even if bhArata falls.

https://manasataramgini.wordpress.com/2013/05/01/a-brief-note-on-the-spitzer-manuscript-and-related-issues/

How was our language written ~1900-1200 years ago: vikR^iti-s of da from the spitzer manuscript
2 replies9 retweets7 likes
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 2 hours ago
the vikR^iti-s of ka from the Spitzer manuscript
1 reply4 retweets5 likes
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 1 hour ago
A fragment of the spitzer manuscript mentioning something like: tryashra-chaturashra+apakR^iSTAdi… then: gaNana-libi-jn~Anam what exactly the triangle& the quadrilateral in the first are indicating is not clear. The second seems to talk of knowledge of calculations and scripts

manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 18 minutes ago
This little fragment has the word: kApAlikAH | If this indicates the shaiva sect then they were there by the kuShANa era.
1 like
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 31 minutes ago
The upper line of this fragment reads kapila-pa~nchashikhAdInA(m)[]: A reference to the founders of sAMkhyA.
1 reply2 likes
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 35 minutes ago
the lower line reads vaisheShikAnAm pANi[]: Is this an early juxtaposition of vaisheShika and pANinIyam in writing?
1 reply1 retweet2 likes
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 43 minutes ago
Interesting statement: []nR^itam saMskR^itaM satyaM kasmAd abhUta+artha+abhivAdAt prAkR^itaM hy abh[] []M nAma [] tach cha naivam abhihitaM bhavati tasmAt prAkR^itaM vA y[] A discussion on relationship of Sanskrit and prAkR^ita… The shift of the bauddha-s to the Skt had happened
1 reply1 retweet
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 57 minutes ago
since it refers to mantra-brAhmaNa the fragmentary mention of upaniShad beside it is likely an allusion to sAmaveda upaniShat
1 reply4 likes
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 59 minutes ago
fragment mentioning H texts: (upa)niShadam [ ] mantra-brAhmaNaM cha eta[d] bhUtAny uchyante [] aNDaja jarA(yuja) katamam adhidaivam [dai]vatam A [] @Sarvadamana
1 reply4 retweets6 likes
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 1 hour ago
A fragment mentioning old H arts and trades: kAvya+AkhyAyika+AkhyAna-parij~nAnam; (gIta)-kushalatA-nR^itta-kushalatA vAdyeshv a... shilpAny api karmAra-rajaka-takShaka-jatukaraka.[].kumbhak[].. lakShaNaM jyotiSham utpAtikam… i.e. theatrics, sculpture, washerman lac-worker etc
1 reply3 retweets3 likes
manasataramgini‏ @blog_supplement 1 hour ago
A fragment of the spitzer manuscript mentioning something like: tryashra-chaturashra+apakR^iSTAdi… then: gaNana-libi-jn~Anam what exactly the triangle& the quadrilateral in the first are indicating is not clear. The second seems to talk of knowledge of calculations and scripts
2 replies4 retweets3 likes

↧

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MRfL9_Fpnxw (2:34) Surya Sculpture from Sun temple, Konark at National Museum Shilpa Tiwari

The Many Mysteries Of The Konark Sun Temple

Snapshot

MAGNETS & THE FLOATING IDOL

Sabarimala live updates | Woman journalist injured as mob turns against police van

No one would be allowed to block pilgrims, says Devaswom Minister Kadakampally Surendran

Hindu Aikya Vedi leader slams government

Woman journalist injured

'Govt will expose the intentions of those trying to foment trouble'

CPI(M) lashes out at Congress, BJP

Chief priest says he supports peaceful protest

Former TDB president arrested

Police begin removal of protesters from Pampa

Protesters turn away women

Former MLA K. Sivadasan Nair addressing the Congress Satyagraha in Nilackal on Wednesday. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

TV crew attacked

RSS-BJP backed elements creating communal frenzy, says AIDWA

Woman devotee prevented from entering Sabarimala hill

No one will be allowed to block pilgrims: Minister

BJP leader Shoba Surendran reaches Nilackal base camp in her vehicle on Wednesday. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

Congress with devotees, says Sudhakaran

KPCC working president, K. Sudhakaran, at Nilackal base camp on Wednesday. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

Woman mobbed

Police remove the makeshift shed at Nilakcal base camp that had become the focal point of protests. | Photo Credit: Radhakrishnan Kuttoor

Day-long hartal

Pampa, Sannidhanam special security zones

Eight protesters held in late night crackdown

A group of women asking three girls travelling on a Pampa-bound bus to get down at Nilackal on Tuesday. | Photo Credit: LEJU KAMAL

Sabarimala Temple Opening LIVE Updates: Activist Rahul Easwar Detained as Irate Protesters Stop Women From Entering Shrine

On the Most Frequently Used Symbol in the Indus ScriptB. B. LalEast and WestVol. 29, No. 1/4 (December 1979), pp. 27-35 (11 pages)Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756504

The Origin, Context and Function of the Indus Script: Recent Insights from Harappa

The Indus Script

Introduction

Contents

Full Text Version of The Indus Script

Contents

Delineating Meluhha (Mleccha) language of ca. 4th millennium BCE, a date of Bronze Age which produced evidence of the earliest writing on a Harappa potsherd is a philological challenge.

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/06/ancient-near-east-evidence-for-mleccha.html Ancient Near East evidence for meluhha language and bronze-age metalware

The Constitution dharma: Intention to protect religious freedoms of groups, no matter how small, is unarguable

Indus Writing is Mlecchita Vikalpa: Meluhha Rebus Cipher of Indian sprachbund (language union), c. 3300 BCE October 19, 2018

Sabarimala temple in the ‘secular’ world

Neuroscientists Have Found a Difference in Human Brain Cells That Could Help Explain Our Unique Intelligence

Enhanced Dendritic Compartmentalization in Human Cortical Neurons

Summary

Introduction

Results

Reduced Burst Firing in Human Neurons

Increased Input Resistance in Human Dendrites

Enhanced Electrical Compartmentalization in Human Neurons

Compartmentalization Limits Dendritic Spikes and Somatic Bursts in Human Neurons

Stretched Ion Channel Distributions in Human Neurons

Discussion

Why did Buddhism vanish from India

MEKONG–GANGA COOPERATION – 21ST CENTURY CONNECTION

Mineral belts in Myanmar

Statuette of a man with an oryx, a monkey, and a leopard skin

The 'twist' hieroglyph infixed within three 'oval- or lozenge-shaped' spokes or strands; the other three spokes or strands are 'arrowheads' -- all emanating from a dotted circle.

Imperial Punch Marked Coin Type 3

The 'twist's is a hieroglyph मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi) rebus: meḍ'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages) medhā 'yajna, dhanam'.

The bent-silver punch-marked coin has unique signifiers of three oval or lozenge-shapes and three arrowhead shapes emanating from a central dotted circle.

The oval or lozenge-shape has a unique significance in the context of crucible steel or steel cakes made in ancient India. This is also described as a buns-ahaped ingot.

On the Most Frequently Used Symbol in the Indus Script
B. B. Lal
East and West
Vol. 29, No. 1/4 (December 1979), pp. 27-35 (11 pages)
Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756504

Delineating Meluhha (Mleccha) language of ca. 4^th millennium BCE, a date of Bronze Age which produced evidence of the earliest writing on a Harappa potsherd is a philological challenge.

MEKONG–GANGA COOPERATION – 21^ST CENTURY CONNECTION