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Sarasvati Script Slides

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22 Slides are presented. Some hypothesis are suggested for further researches:

Sarasvati Script is a continuum of Vedic culture of wealth-creation through yajña
- Sarasvati Script Corpora constitute Bronze Age metalwork catalogues
-Maritime Tin Route linking Hanoi and Haifa is posited which precedes the Silk Road by two millennia
-Angus Maddison has shown that Bhāratamcontributed to 32% of Global GDP in 1 CE. This wealth of a nation should have been preceded by wealth-creation activities of BhāratamJanamfor 7 or 8 earlier millennia BCE.
-   Impact of domesticated Cotton, rice and millet ca. 7thmillennium BCE in Bhāratam are contributory factors in wealth-creation economic activities, apart from śreṇi‘guild’ institutions evidenced as corporate forms for artha‘wealth-creation’ (consistent with the weltanschauung of dharma, ‘abhyudayam, general welfare through work-activities’.
Bronze Age revolution occurred when Tin-Bronzes replaced the scarce arsenical bronzes
The world’s largest source of tin is the Tin Belt of Himalayan River Basins: Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong which ground down granite rocks accumulating placer deposits of cassiterite (Tin ore)
-Dong Son/Karen Bronze Drums with cireperduetympanums signify metalwork using Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts
-The possibility of Munda-Austro-Asiatic links evidenced by Bhāratiyasprachbund(including Austro-Asiatic languages) (Sprachbund: language union where languages absorb language features from one another and make them their own)

- Significance of mlecchitavikalpa(cipher-writing) as an art/science to be learned by youth according to Vidyāsamuddeśaof Vātsyāyana to explain Bhāratiyasprachbund























Itihāsa of Uṣā,औषस and links to artisanal work of त्वष्टृ’s ten daughters

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/jqw4ltk

Uṣā Usually means physical dawn. Dawning of spiritual knowledge could be considered as Uṣā (spiritual)(Jñānodaya).

Uṣā is devata in the following Ṛca-s:
RV 1.30, 1.48, 1.49, 1.92, 1.95 (?), 1.113, 1.123, 1.124,
RV 3.61, 4.30, 4.51, 4.52, 5.79, 5.80, 6.64, 6.65, 7.41, 7.75 to 7.81, 8.47, 10.172

RV 1.95 adores auṣas'relating to uṣas. This Rca holds the key linking her to artisanal work.

Reference to त्वष्टृ’s ten daughters in RV 1.95.2
The reference occurs in the context of devatāऔषस .
त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ) AV. xii , 3 , 33; " creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम्अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/-रूप &c RV. ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x Hariv. 12146 f. R. ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns RV. AV. &c MBh. iv , 1178 Hariv. 587 ff. Ragh. vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ , सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम्प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i Ka1tyS3r. iii ; supposed author of RV. x , 184 with the epithet गर्भ-पति RAnukr. ; father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv. ; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv. 545 ff. VP. ; also father of त्रि-शिरस् or विश्वरूप ib. ; overpowered by इन्द्र who recovers the सोम [ RV. iii f. ] concealed by him because इन्द्र had killed his son विश्व-रूप TS. ii S3Br. i , v , xii ; regent of the नक्षत्र चित्रा 
TBr. S3a1n3khGr2. S3a1ntik. VarBr2S. iic , 4 ; of the 5th cycle of Jupiter viii , 23 ; of an eclipse iii , 6 ; त्वष्टुर्आतिथ्य N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. )

RV 1.95.2 recites:
Who are he ten daughters of त्वष्ट?  An asterism is called tvāṣṭ त्वाष्ट्र ष्ट्री 1 The asterism चित्रा;  rīत्वाष्ट्र a. [त्वष्टा देवताअस्यअण्] Belonging to Tvaṣṭṛi; U.6.3. (v. l.). 
Derived fr. उषस्, ‘dawn’, औषसी, औषस refer to 1. several सामन्1s and 2. ten daughters of त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] who is a form of the sun MBh. iii , 146 Hariv. 13143 BhP. iii , 6 , 15.
त्वष्टृ is surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम्प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i Ka1tyS3r. iii
Could the expression औषस refer to the generative energy of त्वष्ट and related to uṣas? If so, the reference औषस may explain the ‘dawn’ energy kindling agni to purify somabrought in the chariot by uas.
त्वष्टृis father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv. ; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv. 545 ff. VP. ;
औषस [p= 240,2] mf()n. (fr. उषस्) , relating to dawn , early , matutinal TBr. Ii; f. daybreak , morning S3Br. Vi; n. N. of several सामन्1s. (matutinal ‘of or occurring in the morning’).
1.095.01 Two periods, of different complexions, revolve for their own purposes, and each in succession severally nourishes a son; in one, Hari is the receiver of oblations, in the other, the brilliant Agni is beheld. [viru_pe, of various nature; i.e. of various complexions: black and white, night and day. Day is the mother of fire, which is then, as it were, in an embryo state and is not fully manifested or born until it is dark; hence, the sun is in the womb of night, and is born, or shines, in the morning; Hari, or the sun, being manifested in the morning, is then to be worshipped; Agni, shining at night, is to be worshipped in the evening---tasma_ agnaye sa_yamhu_yate su_rya_ya pra_tar (Taittiri_ya Bra_hman.a 2.1.2.6); aus.asagun.avis'is.t.o agni, s'uddho agnir va_: Agni endowed with the properties of dawn or the simple, discrete Agni].
1.095.02 The vigilant and youthful Ten beget, through the wind, this embryo Agni, inherent (in all beings), sharp-visaged, universally renowned, shining among men; him they conduct (to every dwelling). [Ten: the ten regions of space, which generate lightning, as an embryo in the clouds, using the winds: agner hi va_yuh ka_ran.am, va_yor agnih, wind is the cause of fire, fire of wind. Tvas.t.uh = wind or its agency: dipta_nmadhyama_d va_yoh sa_kas.a_t, the brilliant central proximity of wind. Ten: the ten fingers which generate Agni through the act of attrition as an embryo in the sticks. vibhr.tram = deposited in all creatures,i.e. inherent].
1.095.03 They contemplate three places of his birth; one in the ocean, one in the heaven, one in the firmament; and, dividing the seasons of the year for the benefit of earthly creatures, he formed, in regular succession, the eastern quarter. 
1.095.04 Which of you discerns the hidden Agni? a son, he begets his mothers by oblations; the germ of many (waters), he issues from the ocean, mighty and wise, the recipient of oblations. [hidden agni: latent heat in the waters, in the woods and in all fixed and moveable things; he begets his mothers: Agni, as lightning is the son of the waters collected in the clouds; he generates those waters by the oblations which he conveys; he issues from the ocean: upastha_t (smudra_t) nirgacchati, Agni is thought to rise in the morning in the shape of the sun from out of the ocean].
1.095.05 Appearing amongst them (the waters), the bright-shining (Agni) increases, rising above the flanks of the waving waters, spreading his own renown; both (heaven and earth) are alarmed, as the radiant Agni is born, and, approaching the lion, they pay him honour. [above the flanks of the waving waters: jihma_na_m apa_m upasthe, above, on the side, or tip, of the crooked waters; reference to Agni as the lightning; approaching the lion: sim.ha applied to Agni, implying sahanas'i_lam, abhibha_vana s'i_lam, ability to suffer or be overcome].
1.095.06 Both the auspicious ones (day and night or two pieces of wood rubbed together to produce flame) wait upon him like two female attendants, as lowing kine (follow their calves) by the paths (that they have gone); he has been the lord of might among the mighty, whom (the priests) on the right (of the altar) anoint.
1.095.07 Like the sun, he stretches forth his arms, and the formidable Agni, decorating both heaven and earth (with brightness), labours (in his duties); he draws up from everything the essential (moisture), and clothes (the earth) with new vestments (derived) from his maternal (rains).
1.095.08 Associated in the firmament with the moving waters, he assumes an excellent and lustrous form, and the wise sustainer (of all things) sweeps over the source (of the rains with his radiance), whence a concentration of light is spread abroad by the sportive deity. [budhna = antariks.a or firmament, as the source of the rains].
1.095.09 The vast and victorious radiance of you, the mighty one, pervades the firmament; Agni, who have been kindled by us, preserve us with all your undiminished and protecting glories.
1.095.10 He causes the waters to flow in a torrent through the sky, and with those pure waves he inundates the earth; he gathers all (articles of) food in the stomach, and for that purpose sojourns in the new-sprung parents (of the gain). [navasu prasus.u = in the new parents, or mothers; i.e. in the os.adhis, the annual crops which ripen after the rains and bear food, being impregnated by the terrestrial Agni].
1.095.11 Agni, who are the purifier, growing with the fuel we have supplied, blaze for the sake of (securing) food to us, who are possessed of wealth; and may Mitra, Varun.a, Aditi--ocean, earth, and heaven, preserve it to us.
Griffith: HYMN XCV. Agni 95
1. To fair goals travel Two unlike in semblance: each in succession nourishes an infant.
One bears a Godlike Babe of golden colour; bright and fairshining-, is he with the other.
2 Tvastars' ten daughters, vigilant and youthful, produced this Infant borne to sundry quarters.
They bear around him whose long flames are pointed, fulgent among mankind with native splendour.
3. Three several places of his birth they honour, in midair-, in the heaven, and in the waters.
Governing in the east of earthly regions, the seasons hath he stablished in their order.
4 Who of you knows this secret One? The Infant by his own nature hath brought forth his Mothers.
The germ of many, from the waters' bosom he goes forth, wise and great, of Godlike nature.
5 Visible, fair, he grows in native brightness uplifted in the lap of waving waters.
When he was born both Tvastars' worlds were frightened: they turn to him and reverence the Lion.
6 The Two auspicious Ones, like women, tend him: like lowing cows they seek him in their manner.
He is the Lord of Might among the mighty; him, on the right, they balm with their oblations.
7 Like Savitar his arms with might he stretches; awful, he strives grasping the worlds' two
borders.
He forces out from all a brilliant vesture, yea, from his Mothers draws forth new raiment.
8 He makes him a most noble form of splendour, decking him in his home with milk and waters.
The Sage adorns the depths of air with wisdom: this is the meeting where the Gods are worshipped.
9 Wide through the firmament spreads forth triumphant the far resplendent- strength of thee the
Mighty.
Kindled by us do thou preserve us, Agni, with all thy selfbright- undiminished succours.
10 In dry spots he makes stream, and course, and torrent, and inundates the earth with floods that glisten.
All ancient things within his maw he gathers, and moves among the new fresh sprouting- grasses.
11 Fed with our fuel, purifying Agni, so blaze to us auspiciously for glory.
This prayer of ours may Varuna grant, and Mitra, and Aditi and Sindhu, Earth and Heaven.



Four Rcas of Āngīrasa are succinct and precise statements on Uṣas: RV 10.172

RV 1.30:
20 What mortal, O immortal Dawn, enjoyeth thee? Where lovest thou?
To whom, O radiant, dost thou go?
21 For we have had thee in our thoughts whether anear or far away,
Redhued- and like a dappled mare.
22 Hither, O 
Daughter of the Sky, come thou with these thy strengthenings,
And send thou riches down to us.
RV 1.48
HYMN XLVIII. Dawn. 48
1 DAWN on us with prosperity, O Usas, Daughter of the Sky,
Dawn with great glory, Goddess, Lady of the Light, dawn thou with riches, Bounteous One.
2 They, bringing steeds and kine, boongivers- of all wealth, have oft sped forth to lighten us.
O Usas, waken up for me the sounds of joy: send us the riches of the great.
3 Usas hath dawned, and now shall dawn, the Goddess, driver forth of cars
Which, as she cometh nigh, have fixed their thought on her, like gloryseekers- on the flood.
4 Here Kanva, chief of Kanvas' race, sings forth aloud the glories of the heroes' names,
The. princes who, O Usas, as thou comest near, direct their thoughts to liberal gifts.
5 Like a good matron Usas comes carefully tending everything:
Rousing all life she stirs all creatures that have feet, and makes the birds of air fly up.
6 She sends the busy forth, each man to his pursuit: delay she knows not as she springs.
O rich in opulence, after thy dawning birds that have flown forth no longer rest.
7 This Dawn hath yoked her steeds afar, beyond the rising of the Sun:
Borne on a hundred chariots she, auspicious Dawn, advances on her way to Men.
8 To meet her glance all living creatures bend them down: Excellent One, she makes the light.
Usas, the Daughter of the Sky, the opulent, shines foes and enmities away.
9 Shine on us with thy radiant light, O Usas, Daughter of the Sky,
Bringing to us great store of high felicity, and beaming on our solemn rites.
10 For in thee is each living creatures' breath and life, when, Excellent! thou dawnest forth.
Borne on thy lofty car, O Lady of the Light, hear, thou of wondrous wealth, our call.
11 O Usas, win thyself the strength which among men is wonderful.
Bring thou thereby the pious unto holy rites, those who as priests sing praise to thee.
12 Bring from the firmament, O Usas, all the Gods, that they may drink our Soma juice,
And, being what thou art, vouchsafe us kine and steeds, strength meet for praise and hero might.
13 May Usas whose auspicious rays are seen resplendent round about,
Grant us great riches, fair in form, of all good things, wealth which light labour may attain.
14 Mighty One, whom the Rsis of old time invoked for their protection and their help,
O Usas, graciously answer our songs of praise with bounty and with brilliant light.
15 Usas, as thou with light to day hast opened the twin doors of heaven,
So grant thou us a dwelling wide and free from foes. O Goddess, give us food with kine.
16 Bring us to wealth abundant, sent in every shape, to plentiful refreshing food,
To allsubduing- splendour, Usas, Mighty One, to strength, thou rich in spoil and wealth.

RV 1.49
HYMN XLIX. Dawn. 49
1 EEN' from above the skys' bright realm come, Usas, by auspicious ways:
Let red steeds bear thee to the house of him who pours the Soma, juice.
2 The chariot which thou mountest, fair of shape, O Usas light to move,
Therewith, O Daughter of the Sky, aid men of noble fame today.
3 Bright Usas, when thy times return, all quadrupeds and bipeds stir,
And round about flock winged birds from all the boundaries of heaven.
4 Thou dawning with thy beams of light illumest all the radiant realm.
Thee, as thou art, the Kanvas, fain for wealth, have called with sacred songs.

RV 1.92
HYMN XCII. Dawn. 92
1.    THESE Dawns have raised their banner; in the eastern half of the midair- they spread abroad
their shining light.
Like heroes who prepare their weapons for the war, onward they come bright red in hue, the Mother
Cows.
2 Readily have the purple beams of light shot up; the Red Cows have they harnessed, easy to be
yoked.
The Dawns have brought distinct perception as before: redhued-, they have attained their fulgent
brilliancy.
3 They sing their song like women active in their tasks, along their common path hither from far
away,
Bringing refreshment to the liberal devotee, yea, all things to the worshipper who pours the juice.
4 She, like a dancer, puts her broidered garments on: as a cow yields her udder so she bares her
breast.
Creating light for all the world of life, the Dawn hath laid the darkness open as the cows their
stall.
5 We have beheld the brightness of her shining; it spreads and drives away the darksome monster.
Like tints that deck the Post at sacrifices, Heavens' Daughter hath attained her wondrous
splendour.
6 We have overpast the limit of this darkness; Dawn breaking forth again brings clear perception.
She like a flatterer smiles in light for glory, and fair of face hath wakened to rejoice us.
7 The Gotamas have praised Heavens' radiant Daughter, the leader of the charm of pleasant voices.
Dawn, thou conferrest on us strength with offspring and men, conspicuous with kine and horses.
8 O thou who shinest forth in wondrous glory, urged onward by thy strength, auspicious Lady,
Dawn, may I gain that wealth, renowned and ample, in brave sons, troops of slaves, farfamed- for
horses.
9 Bending her looks on all the world, the Goddess shines, widely spreading with her bright eye
westward.
Waking to motion every living creature, she understands the voice of each adorer.
10 Ancient of days, again again born newly, decking her beauty with the selfsame- raiment.
The Goddess wastes away the life of mortals, like a skilled hunter cutting birds in pieces.
11 She hath appeared discovering heavens' borders: to the far distance she drives off her Sister.
Diminishing the days of human creatures, the Lady shines with all her lovers' splendour.
12 The bright, the blessed One shines forth extending her rays like kine, as a flood rolls his
waters.
Never transgressing the divine commandments, she is beheld visible with the sunbeams.
13 O Dawn enriched with ample wealth, bestow on us the wondrous gift
Wherewith we may support children and childrens' sons.
14 Thou radiant mover of sweet sounds, with wealth of horses and of kine
Shine thou on us this day, O Dawn auspiciously.
15 O Dawn enriched with holy rites, yoke to thy car thy purple steeds,
And then bring thou unto us all felicities.
16 O Asvins wonderful in act, do ye unanimous direct
Your chariot to our home wealthy in kine and gold.
17 Ye who brought down the hymn from heaven, a light that giveth light to man,
Do ye, O Asvins, bring strength hither unto us.
18 Hither may they who wake at dawn bring, to drink Soma both the Gods
Healthgivers- WonderWorkers-, borne on paths of gold.
RV 1.113
HYMN CXIII. Dawn. 113
1. This light is come, amid all lights the fairest; born is the brilliant, farextending-
brightness.
Night, sent away for Savitars' uprising, hath yielded up a birthplace- for the Morning.
2 The Fair, the Bright is come with her white offspring; to her the Dark One hath resigned her
dwelling.
Akin, immortal, following each other, changing their colours both the heavens move onward.
3 Common, unending is the Sisters' pathway; taught by the Gods, alternately they travel.
Fairformed-, of different hues and yet oneminded-, Night and Dawn clash not, neither do they
travel.
4 Bright leader of glad sounds, our eyes behold her; splendid in hue she hath unclosed the portals.
She, stirring up the world, hath shown us riches: Dawn hath awakened every living creature.
5 Rich Dawn, she sets afoot the coiledup- sleeper, one for enjoyment, one for wealth or worship,
Those who saw little for extended vision. All living creatures hath the Dawn awakened.
6 One to high sway, one to exalted glory, one to pursue his gain, and one his labour:
All to regard their different vocations, all moving creatures hath the Dawn awakened.
7 We see her there, the Child of Heaven apparent, the young Maid, flushing in her shining raiment.
Thou sovran Lady of all earthly treasure, flush on us here, auspicious Dawn, this morning.
8 She first of endless morns to come hereafter, follows the path of morns that have departed.
Dawn, at her rising, urges forth the living him who is dead she wakes not from his slumber.
9 As thou, Dawn, hast caused Agni to be kindled, and with the Suns' eye hast revealed creation.
And hast awakened men to offer worship, thou hast performed, for Gods, a noble service.
10 How long a time, and they shall be together, Dawns that have shone and Dawns to shine hereafter?
She yearns for former Dawns with eager longing, and goes forth gladly shining with the others.
11 Gone are the men who in the days before us looked on the rising of the earlier Morning.
We, we the living, now behold her brightness and they come nigh who shall hereafter see her.
12 Foechaser-, born of Law, the Laws' protectress, joygiver-, waker of all pleasant voices,
Auspicious, bringing food for Gods enjoyment, shine on us here, most bright, O Dawn, this morning.
13 From days eternal hath Dawn shone, the Goddess, and shows this light today-, endowed with
riches.
So will she shine on days to come immortal she moves on in her own strength, undecaying.
14 In the skys' borders hath she shone in splendour: the Goddess hath thrown off the veil of
darkness.
Awakening the world with purple horses, on her wellharnessed- chariot Dawn approaches.
15 Bringing all lifesustaining- blessings with her, showing herself she sends forth brilliant
lustre.
Last of the countless mornings that have vanished, first of bright morns to come hath Dawn arisen.
16 Arise! the breath, the life, again hath reached us: darkness hath passed away and light
approacheth.
She for the Sun hath left a path to travel we have arrived where men prolong existence.
17 Singing the praises of refulgent Mornings with his hymns' web the priest, the poet rises.
Shine then today-, rich Maid, on him who lauds thee, shine down on us the gift of life and
offspring.
18 Dawns giving sons all heroes, kine and horses, shining upon the man who brings oblations,
These let the Somapresser- gain when ending his glad songs louder than the voice of Vayu.
19 Mother of Gods, Aditis' form of glory, ensign of sacrifice, shine forth exalted.
Rise up, bestowing praise on our devotion allbounteous-, make us chief among the people.
20 Whatever splendid wealth the Dawns bring with them to bless the man who offers praise and
worship,
Even that may Mitra, Varuna vouchsafe us, and Aditi and Sindhu, Earth and Heaven.

RV 1.123
HYMN CXXIII. Dawn. 123
1.    THE Daksinas' broad chariot hath been harnessed: this car the Gods Immortal have ascended.
Fain to bring light to homes of men the noble and active Goddess hath emerged from darkness.
2 She before all the living world hath wakened, the Lofty One who wins and gathers treasure.
Revived and ever young on high she glances. Dawn hath come first unto our morning worship.
3 If, Dawn, thou Goddess nobly born, thou dealest fortune this day to all the race of mortals,
May Savitar the God, Friend of the homestead, declare before the Sun that we are sinless.
4 Showing her wonted form each day that passeth, spreading the light she visiteth each dwelling.
Eager for conquest, with bright sheen she cometh. Her portion is the best of goodly treasures.
5 Sister of Varuna, sister of Bhaga, first among all sing forth, O joyous Morning.
Weak be the strength of him who worketh evil: may we subdue him with our car the guerdon.
6 Let our glad hymns and holy thoughts rise upward, for the flames brightly burning have ascended.
The farrefulgent- Mornings make apparent the lovely treasures which the darkness covered.
7 The one departeth and the other cometh: unlike in hue days', halves march on successive.
One hides the gloom of the surrounding Parents. Dawn on her shining chariot is resplendent.
8 The same in form today-, the same tomorrow, they still keep Varunas' eternal statute.
Blameless, in turn they traverse thirty regions, and dart across the spirit in a moment.
9 She who hath knowledge Of the first days' nature is born refulgent white from out the darkness.
The Maiden breaketh not the law of Order, day by day coming to the place appointed.
10 In pride of beauty like a maid thou goest, O Goddess, to the God who longs to win thee,
And smiling youthful, as thou shinest brightly, before him thou discoverest thy bosom.
11 Fair as a bride embellished by her mother thou showest forth thy form that all may see it.
Blessed art thou O Dawn. Shine yet more widely. No other Dawns have reached what thou attainest.
12 Rich in kine, horses, and all goodly treasures, in constant operation with the sunbeams,
The Dawns depart and come again assuming their wonted forms that promise happy fortune.
13 Obedient to the rein of Law Eternal give us each thought that more and more shall bless us.
Shine thou on us today-, Dawn, swift to listen. With us be riches and with chiefs who worship.
RV 1.124
HYMN CXXIV. Dawn. 124
1.    THE Dawn refulgent when the fire is kindled, and the Sun rising, far diffuse their brightness.
Savitar, God, hath sent us forth to labour, each quadruped, each biped, to be active.
2 Not interrupting heavenly ordinances, although she minisheth human generations.
The last of endless morns that have departed, the first of those that come, Dawn brightly shineth.
3 There in the eastern region she, Heavens' Daughter, arrayed in garments all of light, appeareth.
Truly she followeth the path of Order, nor faileth, knowing well, the heavenly quarters.
4 Near is she seen, as it were the Bright Ones' bosom: she showeth sweet things like a new
songsinger-.
She cometh like a fly awaking sleepers, of all returning dames most true and constant.
5 There in the east half of the watery region the Mother of the Cows hath shown her ensign.
Wider and wider still she spreadeth onward, and filleth full the laps of both heir Parents.
6 She, verily, exceeding vast to look on debarreth from her light nor kin nor stranger.
Proud of her spotless form she, brightly shining, turneth not from the high nor from the humble.
7 She seeketh men, as she who hath no brother, mounting her car, as it were to gather riches.
Dawn, like a loving matron for her husband, smiling and well attired, unmasks her beauty.
8 The Sister quitteth, for the elder Sister, her place, and having looked on her departeth.
She decks her beauty, shining forth with sunbeams, like women trooping to the festal meeting.
9 To all these Sisters who ere now have vanished a later one each day in course succeedeth.
So, like the past, with days of happy fortune, may the new Dawns shine forth on us with riches.
10 Rouse up, O Wealthy One, the liberal givers; let niggard traffickers sleep on unwakened:
Shine richly, Wealthy One, on those who worship, richly, glad.
Dawn while wasting, on the singer.
11 This young Maid from the east hath shone upon us; she harnesseth her team of bright red oxen.
She will beam forth, the light will hasten hither, and Agni will be present in each dwelling.
12 As the birds fly forth from their resting places, so men with store of food rise at thy dawning.
Yea, to the liberal mortal who remaineth at home, O Goddess Dawn, much good thou bringest.
13 Praised through my prayer be ye who should be lauded. Ye have increased our wealth, ye Dawns
who love us.
Goddesses, may we win by your good favour wealth to be told by hundreds and by thousands.
RV 3.61
HYMN LXI. Usas. 61
1. O Usas, strong with strength, endowed witli knowledge, accept the singers' praise, O wealthy
Lady.
Thou, Goddess, ancient, young, and full of wisdom, movest, allbounteous-! as the Law ordaineth.
2 Shine forth, O Morning, thou auspicious Goddess, on thy bright car awaking pleasant voices.
Let docile horses of farreaching- splendour convey thee hitherward, the goldencoloured.
3 Thou, Morning, turning thee to every creature, standest on high as ensign of the Immortal,
To one same goal ever and ever wending now, like a wheel, O newlyborn-, roll hi ther.
4 Letting her reins drop downward, Morning cometh, the wealthy Dame, the Lady of the dwelling;
Bringing forth light, the Wonderful, the Blessed hath spread her from the bounds of earth and
heaven.
5 Hither invoke the radiant Goddess Morning, and bring with reverence your hymn to praise her.
She, dropping sweets, hath set in heaven her brightness, and, fair to look on, hath beamed forth
her splendour.
6 From heaven, with hymns, the Holy One was wakened: brightly to both worlds came the wealthy Lady.
To Morning, Agni, when she comes refulgent, thou goest forth soliciting fair riches.
7 On Laws' firm base the speeder of the Mornings, the Bull, hath entered mighty earth and heaven.
Great is the power of Varuna and Mitra, which, bright, hath spread in every place its splendour.

RV 4.30
8 And this heroic deed of might thou, Indra, also hast achieved,
That thou didst smite to death the Dame, Heavens' Daughter, meditating ill.
9 Thou, Indra, Mighty One, didst crush Usas, though Daughter of the Sky.
When lifting up herself in pride.
10 Then from her chariot Usas fled, affrighted, from her ruined car.
When the strong God had shattered it.
11 So there this car of Usas lay, broken to pieces, in Vipas,
And she herself fled far away.

RV 4.51, 4.52
HYMN LI. Dawn. 51
1. FORTH from the darkness in the region eastward this most abundant splendid light hatb mounted.
Now verily the farrefulgent- Mornings, Daughters of Heaven, bring welfare to the people.
2 The richlycoloured- Dawns have mounted eastward, like pillars planted at our sacrifices,
And, flushing far, splendid and purifying, unbarred the portals of the fold of darkness.
3 Dispelling gloom this day the wealthy Mornings urge liberal givers to present their treasures.
In the unlightened depth of darkness round them let niggard traffickers sleep unawakened.
4 O Goddesses, is this your car, I ask you, ancient this day, or is it new, ye Mornings,
Wherewith, rich Dawns, ye seek with wealth Navagva, Dasagva Angira, the seventoned- singer?
5 With horses harnessed by eternal Order, Goddesses, swiftly round the worlds ye travel,
Arousing from their rest, O Dawns, the sleeping, and all that lives, man, bird, and beast, to
motion.
6 Which among these is eldest, and where is she through whom they fixed the Rbhus' regulations?
What time the splendid Dawns go forth for splendour, they are not known apart, alike, unwasting.
7 Blest were these Dawns of old, shining with succour, true with the truth that springs from holy
Order;
With whom the toiling worshipper, by praises, hymning and lauding, soon attained to riches.
8 Hither from eastward all at once they travel, from one place spreading in the selfsame manner.
Awaking, from the seat of holy Order the Godlike Dawns come nigh like troops of cattle.
9 Thus they go forth with undiminished colours, these Mornings similar, in selfsame- fashion,
Concealing the gigantic might of darkness with radiant bodies bright and pure and shining.
10 O Goddesses, O Heavens' refulgent Daughters, bestow upon us wealth with store of children.
As from our pleasant place of rest ye rouse us may we be masters of heroic vigour.
11 Wellskilled- in lore of sacrifice, ye Daughters of Heaven, refulgent Dawns, I thus address you.
May we be glorious among the people. May Heaven vouchsafe us this, and Earth the Goddess,

HYMN LII. Dawn. 52
1. THIS Lady, giver of delight, after her Sister shining forth, Daughter of Heaven, hath shown
herself.-
2 Unfailing, Mother of the Kine, in colour like a bright red mare,
The Dawn became the Asvins' Friend.
3 Yea, and thou art the Asvins' Friend, the Mother of the Kine art thou:
O Dawn thou rulest over wealth.
4 Thinking of thee, O joyous One, as her who driveth hate away,
We woke to meet thee with our lauds.
5 Our eyes behold thy blessed rays like troops of cattle loosed to feed.
Dawn hath filled full the wide expanse.
6 When thou hast filled it, Fulgent One! thou layest bare the gloom with light.
After thy nature aid us, Dawn.
7 Thou overspreadest heaven with rays, the dear wide region of midair-.
With thy bright shining lustre, Dawn.

RV 5.79
HYMN LXXIX. Dawn. 79
1. O HEAVENLY Dawn, awaken us to ample opulence today-
Even as thou hast wakened us with Satyasravas, Vayyas' son, highborn-! delightful with thy steeds!
2 Daughter of Heaven, thou dawnedst on Sunitha Sucadrathas' son,
So dawn thou on one mightier still, on Satyasravas, Vayyas' son, highborn-! delightful with thy
steeds!
3 So, bringing treasure, dawn today- on us thou Daughter of the Sky,
As thou, O mightier yet. didst shine for Satyatravas, Vayyas' son, highborn-! delightful with thy
steeds!
4 Here round about thee are the priests who laud thee, Bright One, with their hymns,
And men with gifts, O Bounteous Dame, splendid with wealth and offering much, highborn-!
delightful with thy steeds!
5 Whatever these thy bands perform to please thee or to win them wealth,
even fain they gird us round and give rich gifts which Never are reft away, highborn-! delightful
with thy steeds!
6 Give to these wealthy patrons fame, O affluent Dawn, with hero sons,
To these our princes who have brought rich gifts Never to be reft away, highborn! delightful with
thy steeds!
7 Bring lofty and resplendent fame, O thou munificent Dawn, to these
Our wealthy patrons who bestow rich gifts on us of steeds and kine, highborn-! delightful with thy
steeds!
8 Bring us, O Daughter of the Sky, subsistence in our herds of kine,
Together with the sunbeams, with the shine of pure refulgent flames, highborn! delightful with thy
steeds!
9 O Daughter of the Sky, shine forth; delay not to perform thy task.
Let not the Sun with fervent heat consume thee like a robber foe, highborn-! delightful with the
steeds!
10 So much, and more exceedingly, O Dawn, it suits thee to bestow,
Thou Radiant One who ceasest not to shine for those who sing thy praise, highborn! delightful with
thy steeds!

RV 5.80
HYMN LXXX. Dawn. 80
1. THE singers welcome with their hymns and praises the Goddess Dawn who bringeth in the sunlight,
Sublime, by Law true to eternal Order, bright on her path, redtinted-, farrefulgent-.
2 She comes in front, fair, rousing up the people, making the pathways easy to be travelled.
High, on her lofty chariot, allimpelling-, Dawn gives her splendour at the days' beginning.
3 She, harnessing her car with purple oxen. injuring none, hath brought perpetual riches.
Opening paths to happiness, the Goddess shines, praised by all, giver of every blessing.
4 With changing tints she gleams in double splendour while from the eastward she displays her body.
She travels perfectly the path of Order, nor fails to reach, as one who knows, the quarters.
5 As conscious that her limbs are bright with bathing, she stands, as it were, erect that we may
see her.
Driving away malignity and darkness, Dawn, Child of Heaven, hath come to us with lustre.
6 The Daughter of the Sky, like some chaste woman, bends, opposite to men, her forehead downward.
The Maid, disclosing boons to him who worships, hath brought again the daylight as aforetime.

RV 6.64, RV 6.65
HYMN LXIV. Dawn. 64
1. THE radiant Dawns have risen up for glory, in their white splendour like the waves of waters.
She maketh paths all easy, fair to travel, and, rich, hath shown herself benign and friendly.
2 We see that thou art good: far shines thy lustre; thy beams, thy splendours have flown up to
heaven.
Decking thyself, thou makest bare thy bosom, shining in majesty, thou Goddess Morning.
3 Red are the kine and luminous that bear her the Blessed One who spreadeth through the distance.
The foes she chaseth like a valiant archer, like a swift warrior she repelleth darkness.
4 Thy ways are easy on the hills: thou passest Invincible! Se1fluminous-! through waters.
So lofty Goddess with thine ample pathway, Daughter of Heaven, bring wealth to give us comfort.
5 Dawn, bring me wealth: untroubled, with thine oxen thou bearest riches at thy will and pleasure;
Thou who, a Goddess, Child of Heaven, hast shown thee lovely through bounty when we called thee
early.
6 As the birds fly forth from their restingplaces, so men with store of food rise at thy dawning.
Yea, to the liberal mortal who rernaineth at home, O Goddess Dawn, much good thou bringest.

HYMN LXV. Dawn. 65
1.    SHEDDING her light on human habitations this Child of Heaven hath called us from our slumber;
She who at nighttime- with her argent lustre hath shown herself even through the shades of
darkness.
2 All this with redrayed- steeds have they divided: the Dawns on bright cars shine in wondrous
fashion.
They, bringing near the stately rites' commencement, drive far away the nights' surrounding
shadows.
3 Dawns, bringing hither, to the man who worships, glory and power and might and food and vigour,
Opulent, with imperial sway like heroes, favour your servant and this day enrich him.
4 Now is there treasure for the man who serves you, now for the hero, Dawns! who brings oblation;
Now for the singer when he sings the praisesong-. Even to one like me ye brought aforetime.
5 O Dawn who standest on the mountain ridges, Angirases now praise thy stalls of cattle.
With prayer and holy hymn they burst them open: the heroes' calling on the Gods was fruitful.
6 Shine on us as of old, thou Child of Heaven on, him, rich Maid! who serves like Bharadvaja.
Give to the singer wealth with noble heroes, and upon us bestow widespreading- glory.
RV 7.41
HYMN XLI. Bhaga. 41
6 To this our worship may all Dawns incline them, and come to the pure place like Dadhikravan.
As strong steeds draw a chariot may they bring us hitherward Bhaga who discovers treasure.
7 May blessed Mornings dawn on us for ever, with wealth of kine, of horses, and of heroes,
Streaming with all abundance, pouring fatness. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

RV 7.75 to RV 7.81
HYMN LXXV. Dawn. 75
1. BORN in the heavens the Dawn hath flushed, and showing her majesty is come as Law ordaineth.
She hath uncovered fiends and hateful darkness; best of Angirases, hath waked the pathways.
2 Rouse us this day to high and happy fortune: to great felicity, O Dawn, promote us.
Vouchsafe us manifold and splendid riches, famed among mortals, manbefriending- Goddess!
3 See, lovely Mornings' everlasting splendours, bright with their varied colours, have approached
us.
Filling the region of midair-, producing the rites of holy worship, they have mounted.
4 She yokes her chariot far away, and swiftly visits the lands where the Five Tribes are settled,
Looking upon the works and ways of mortals, Daughter of Heaven, the worlds' Imperial Lady.
5 She who is rich in spoil, the Spouse of Surya, wondrously opulent, rules all wealth and
treasures.
Consumer of our youth, the seers extol her: lauded by priests rich Dawn shines out refulgent.
6 Apparent are the steeds of varied colour, the red steeds carrying resplendent Morning.
On her alllovely- car she comes, the Fair One, and brings rich treasure for her faithful servant.
7 True with the True and Mighty with the Mighty, with Gods a Goddess, Holy with the Holy,
She brake strong fences down and gave the cattle: the kine were lowing as they greeted Morning.
8 O Dawn, now give us wealth in kine and heroes, and horses, fraught with manifold enjoyment.
Protect our sacred grass from mans' reproaches. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

HYMN LXXVI. Dawn. 76
1. SAVITAR God of all men hath sent upward his light, designed for all mankind, immortal.
Through the Gods power that Eye was first created. Dawn hath made all the universe apparent.
2 I see the paths which Gods are wont to travel, innocuous paths made ready by the Vasus.
Eastward the flag of Dawn hath been uplifted; she hath come hither over the tops of houses.
3 Great is, in truth, the number of the Mornings which were aforetime at the Suns' uprising.
Since thou, O Dawn, hast been beheld repairing as to thy love, as one no more to leave him.
4 They were the Gods companions at the banquet, the ancient sages true to Law Eternal.
The Fathers found the light that lay in darkness, and with effectual words begat the Morning.
5 Meeting together in the same enclosure, they strive not, ofone mind, one with another.
They never break the Gods eternal statutes, and injure none, in rivalry with Vasus.
6 Extolling thee, Blest Goddess, the Vasisthas, awake at early mom, with lauds implore thee.
Leader of kine and Queen of all that strengthens, shine, come as first to us, O highborn- Morning.
7 She bringeth bounty and sweet charm of voices. The flushing Dawn is sung by the Vasisthas,
Giving us riches famed to distant places. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

HYMN LXXVIT. Dawn. 77
1. SHE hath shone brightly like a youthful woman, stirring to motion every living creature.
Agni hath come to feed on mortal? fuel. She hath made light and chased away the darkness.
2 Turned to this All, farspreading-, she hath risen and shone in brightness with white robes about
her.
She hath beamed forth lovely with golden colours, Mother of kine, Guide of the days she bringeth.
3 Bearing the Gods own Eye, auspicious Lady, leading her Courser white and fair to look on,
Distinguished by her beanis- Dawn shines apparent, come forth to all the world with wondrous
treasure.
4 Draw nigh with wealth and dawn away the foeman: prepare for us wide pasture free from danger.
Drive away those who hate us, bring us riches: pour bounty, opulent Lady, on the singer.
5 Send thy most excellent beams to shine and light us, giving us lengthened days, O Dawn, O
Goddess,
Granting us food, thou who hast all things precious, and bounty rich in chariots, kine, and horses.
6 O Usas, noblyborn-, Daughter of Heaven, whom the Vasisthas with their hymns make mighty,
Bestow thou on us vast and glorious riches. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

HYMN LXXVIII. Dawn. 78
1. WE have beheld her earliest lights approaching: her many glories part, on high, asunder.
On car sublime, refulgent, wending hither, O Usas, bring the Wealth that makes us happy.
2 The fire wellkindIed- sings aloud to greet her, and with their hymns the priests are chaming
welcome.
Usas approaches in her splendour, driving all evil darkness far away, the Goddess.
3 Apparent eastward are those lights of Morning, sending out lustre, as they rise, around them.
She hath brought forth Sun, sacrifice, and Agni, and far away hath fled detested darkness.
4 Rich Daughter of the Sky, we all behold her, yea, all men look on Dawn as she is breaking.
fler car that moves selfharnessed- hath she mounted, the car drawn onward by her wellyoked- horses.
5 Inspired with loving thoughts this day to greet thee, we and our wealthy nobles have awakened.
Show yourselves fruitful, Dawns, as ye are rising. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

HYMN LXXIX. Dawn. 79
1. ROUSING the lands where mens' Five Tribes are settled, Dawn hath disclosed the pathways of the
people.
She hath sent out her sheen with beauteous oxen. The Sun with light hath opened earth and heaven.
2 They paint their bright rays on the skys' far limits. the Dawns come on like tribes arrayed for
battle.
Thy cattle, closely shutting up the darkness, as Savitar spreads his arms, give forth their lustre.
3 Wealthy, most like to Indra, Dawn hath risen, and brought forth lauds that shall promote our
welfare.
Daughter of Heaven, a Goddess, she distributes, best of Angirases, treasures to the pious.
4 Bestow on us, O Dawn, that ample bounty which thou didst send to those who sang thy praises;
Thou whom with bellowings of a bull they quickened: thou didst unbar the firmset- mountains'
portals.
5 Impelling every God to grant his bounty sending to us the charm of pleasant voices,
Vouchsafe us thoughts, for profit, as thou breakest. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

HYMN LXXX. Dawn. 80
1 THE priests, Vasisthas, are the first awakened to welcome Usas with their songs and praises,
Who makes surrounding regions part asunder and, shows apparent all existing creatures.
2 Giving fresh life when she hath hid the darkness, this Dawn hath wakened there with newborn-
lustre.
Youthful and unrestrained she cometh forward: she hath turned thoughts to Sun and fire and worship.
3 May blessed Mornings shine on us for ever, with wealth of kine, of horses, and of heroes,
Streaming with all abundance, pouring fatness. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

HYMN LXXXI. Dawn. 81
1.    ADVANCING, sending forth her rays, the Daughter of the Sky is seen.
Uncovering, that we may see, the mighty gloom, the friendly Lady makes the light.
2 The Sun ascending, the refulgent Star, pours down his beams together with the Dawn.
O Dawn, at thine arising, and the Suns', may we attain the share allotted us.
3 Promptly we woke to welcome thee, O Usas, Daughter of the Sky,
Thee, Bounteous One, who bringest all we long to have, and to the offerer health and wealth.
4 Thou, dawning, workest fain to light the great world, yea, heaven, Goddess! that it may be seen.
We yearn to be thine own, Dealer of Wealth: may we be to this Mother like her sons.
5 Bring us that wondrous bounty, Dawn, that shall be famed most far away.
What, Child of Heaven, thou hast of nourishment for man, bestow thou on us to enjoy.
6 Give to our princes opulence and immortal fame, and strength in herds of kine to us.
May she who prompts the wealthy, Lady of sweet strains, may Usas dawn our foes away.
RV 8.47
HYMN XLVII. Adityas. 47
1. GREAT help ye give the worshipper, Varuna, Mitra, Mighty Ones! No sorrow ever reaches him whom
ye, Adityas, keep from harm. Yours are incomparable aids, and good the succour they afford.
2 O Gods, Adityas, well ye know the way to keep all woes afar.
As the birds spread their sheltering wings, spread your protection over us.
3 As the birds spread their sheltering wings let your protection cover us.
We mean all shelter and defence, ye who have all things for your own.
4 To whomsoever they, Most Wise, have given a home and means of life,
Over the whole riches of this man they, the Adityas, have control.
5 As drivers of the car avoid ill roads, let sorrows pass us by.
May we be under Indras' guard, in the Adityas' favouring grace.
6 For verily men sink and faint through loss of wealth which ye have given.
Much hath he gained from you, O Gods, whom ye, Adityas, have approached.
7 On him shall no fierce anger fall, no sore distress shall visit him,
To whom, Adityas, ye have lent your shelter that extendeth far.
8 Resting in you, O Gods, we are like men who fight in coats of mail.
Ye guard us from each great offence, ye guard us from each lighter fault.
9 May Aditi defend us, may Aditi guard and shelter us,
Mother of wealthy Mitra and of Aryaman and Varuna.
10 The shelter, Gods, that is secure, auspicious, free from malady,
A sure protection, triply strong, even that do ye extend to us.
11 Look down on us, Adityas, as a guide exploring from the bank.
Lead us to pleasant ways as men lead horses to an easy ford.
12 Ill be it for the demons' friend to find us or come near to us.
But for the milchcow- be it well, and for the man who strives for fame.
13 Each evil deed made manifest, and that which is concealed, O Gods,
The whole thereof remove from us to Trita Aptya far away.
14 Daughter of Heaven, the dream that bodes evil to us or to our kine,
Remove, O Lady of the Light, to Trita Aptya far away.
15 Even if, O Child of Heaven, it make a garland or a chain of gold,
The whole bad dream, whatever it be, to Trita Aptya we consign.
16 To him whose food and work is this, who comes to take his share therein,
To Trita, and to Dvita, Dawn! bear thou the evil dream away.
17 As we collect the utmost debt, even the eighth and sixteenth part,
So unto Aptya we transfer together all the evil dream.
18 Now have we conquered and obtained, and from our trespasses are free.
Shine thou away the evil dream, O Dawn, whereof we are afraid. Yours are incomparable aids, and good the succour they afford.


RV 10.172
HYMN CLXXII. Dawn. 172
1. WITH all thy beauty come: the kine approaching with full udders follow on thy path.
2 Come with kind thoughts, most liberal, rousing the warriors' hymn of praise, with bounteous ones,
3 As nourishers we tie the thread, and, liberal with our bounty, offer sacrifice.
4 Dawn drives away her Sisters' gloom, and, through her excellence, makes her retrace her path.

Witnesses: Kansas bar shooting was racially motivated

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Witnesses: Kansas bar shooting was racially motivated
Jim Suhr, Associated PressPublished 4:10 a.m. ET Feb. 24, 2017 | Updated 40 minutes ago
AP CORRECTION BAR SHOOTING OLATHE A USA MO(Photo: AP)
OLATHE, Kan. (AP) — A man accused of opening fire in a crowded suburban Kansas City bar, killing one man and injuring two others in an attack that some witnesses said was racially motivated, was charged Thursday with murder and attempted murder.
Authorities repeatedly declined at a news conference to say whether the shooting was a hate crime although local police said they were working with the FBI to investigate the case.
A bartender at Austins Bar and Grill in Olathe, Kansas, said that Adam Purinton used "racial slurs" before he started shooting on Wednesday night as patrons were watching the University of Kansas-TCU basketball game on television.
Srinivas Kuchibhotla, 32, died at an area hospital, police said. Alok Madasani, 32, and Ian Grillot, 24, were hospitalized and are in stable condition, they said. The Linkedin accounts for Kuchibhotla and Madasani say that they were engineers working at GPS-maker Garmin and had studied in India.
A spokesman for India's External Affairs Ministry, Vikas Swarup, said that Kuchibhotla was an Indian national from the southern state of Telangana.
Sushma Swaraj, India's External Affairs Minister, said Kuchibhotla's body will be transported to the city of Hyderabad, where his family lives.
Local, county, state and federal law enforcement authorities attended the news conference where the murder charges were announced.
Asked if the presence of federal authorities indicated the shooting could be considered a hate crime, FBI special agent Eric Jackson said it was too early to determine.
"This was a violent crime and we want the best prosecution that relates to this because there are victims of this crime and we want the community to know that ... we're looking to make sure that the individual involved in this is held accountable for his actions."

Bartender Garret Bohnen told the Kansas City Star that Kuchibhotla and Madasani stopped at Austins for a drink once or twice a week.
"From what I understand when he was throwing racial slurs at the two gentlemen (Kuchibhotla and Madasani), Ian (Grillot) stood up for them," Bohnen said. "We're all proud of him."
Witnesses also told the Star that Purinton, 51, yelled "get out of my country" before he opened fire.
Grillot said in an interview from his hospital bed that when the shooting broke out, he hid until nine shots had been fired and he thought the suspect's gun magazine was empty.
"I got up and proceeded to chase him down, try to subdue him," Grillot said in a video from the University of Kansas Health System posted on the Star website. "I got behind him and he turned around and fired a round at me."
Grillot said that the bullet went through his hand and into his chest, just missing a major artery.
"It's not about where he (victim) was from or his ethnicity," Grillot said. "We're all humans, so I just did what was right to do."
GoFundMe pages were started to help pay expenses for all three of the victims.
U.S. Sen. Jerry Moran of Kansas posted a statement on Facebook saying that he was very disturbed by the shooting.
"I strongly condemn violence of any kind, especially if it is motivated by prejudice and xenophobia," Moran said.
Purinton was taken into custody just after midnight on Thursday morning at an Applebee's about 70 miles to the southeast of Olathe in Clinton, Missouri, authorities said.
Assistant Clinton Police Chief Sonny Lynch said an Applebee's bartender summoned police to the bar where the man was drinking because he said he'd been involved in a shooting. The unarmed Purinton was taken into custody and interviewed by detectives from Olathe.
"He mentioned he had been involved in a shooting and we went out there and picked him up," Lynch said.

The bar where the shooting took place was closed Thursday, with a sign in the door that said it would remain closed indefinitely.





Hate groups explode on social media

Sculptural evidence for hieroglyphic hypertexts of Sarasvati Script

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Mirror:http://tinyurl.com/h4rnr7e
Sculptural evidence for hieroglyphic hypertexts of Sarasvati Script

Hieroglyphs/hypertexts of Sarasvati Script signify metalwork in rebus Meluhha cipher, not only on c. 8000 seals/tablets of Script Corpora, but also on sculptural friezes. An example is provided by a Susa spinner sculptural frieze. The plain-text message of the sculptural frieze is: copper alloy metal mintwork of Meluhha wheelwright

Image result for susa spinner bitumen
F ig. 141 La Fileuse (Lady spinning) Bitumen compound. H 9.3 cm. W. 13 cm. Neo-Elamite period, ca. 8th -7th century BCE. Susa. Sb 2834 (Louvre Museum) Excavated by Morgan.

Hieroglyph (cipher-text): Spinner (kātī) lady rebus khātī 'wheelwright‘

kola‘tiger’rebus: kol ‘working in iron’ kolhe ‘smelter’

kulya 'fly whisk' rebus: kulya n. ʻ receptacle for burnt bones of a corpse ʼ MBh., A. kulā ʻwinnowing
 fan, hood of a snake ʼ; B. kul°lā ʻ winnowing basket or fan ʼ; Or.kulā ʻ winnowing fan ʼ, °lāi ʻsmall do. ʼ; Si. kulla, st. kulu -- ʻ winnowing basket or fan ʼ.(CDIAL 3350) Rebus: kolle'blacksmith' kol 'working in iron, blacksmith'. kolhe‘smelter’

Hieroglyph: Pk. ṭaṁka -- m., °kā -- f. ʻ leg ʼ, S. ṭaṅga f., L. P. ṭaṅg f., Ku. ṭã̄g, N. ṭāṅ; Or. ṭāṅka ʻ leg, thigh ʼ, °ku ʻ thigh, buttock ʼ. 2. B. ṭāṅṭeṅri ʻ leg, thigh ʼ; Mth. ṭã̄gṭãgri ʻ leg, foot ʼ; Bhoj. ṭāṅṭaṅari ʻ leg ʼ, Aw. lakh. H. ṭã̄g f.; G. ṭã̄g f., °gɔ m. ʻ leg from hip to foot ʼ; M. ṭã̄g f. ʻ leg ʼ(CDIAL 5428).Rebus: A. ṭāṅī ʻ wedge ʼ  ṭaṅkaśālā -- , ṭaṅkakaś° f. ʻ mint ʼ lex. [ṭaṅka -- 1, śāˊlā -- ] N. ṭaksāl°ār, B. ṭāksālṭã̄k°ṭek°, Bhoj. ṭaksār, H. ṭaksāl°ār f., G. ṭãksāḷ f., M. ṭã̄ksālṭāk°ṭãk°ṭak°. -- Deriv. G. ṭaksāḷī m. ʻ mint -- master ʼ, M. ṭāksāḷyā m. Brj. ṭaksāḷī, °sārī m. ʻ mint -- master ʼ. (CDIAL 5434)

aya, ayo ‘fish' rebus: aya'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS khambhaṛā ʻfish-finʼ rebus: kammaṭa 'coiner, coinage, mint (Kannada) Note: कान्तkānta -अयसम् the loadstone ‘magnetite’; कृष्ण-अयसम्,’crude or black iron’;लोहा* यसany metal mixed with copper , (or) copper’ Br. Ka1tyS3r. लोहितlōhita -अयस् n. copper; -कृष्ण a. dark-red. Thus, ayas means ‘iron, metal’.

baṭa six' Sh.gil. băṭ m. ʻstoneʼ, koh.băṭṭ m., jij. baṭ, pales. baṭ ʻmillstoneʼ; K. waṭh, dat. °ṭas m. ʻround stoneʼ, vüṭü f. ʻsmall do.ʼ; L. vaṭṭā m. ʻstoneʼ, khet. vaṭ ʻrockʼ; P. baṭṭ m. ʻa partic. weightʼ, vaṭṭāba°m. ʻstoneʼ, vaṭṭī f. ʻpebbleʼ; WPah.bhal. baṭṭ m. ʻsmall round stoneʼ; Or. bāṭi ʻstoneʼ; Bi. baṭṭā ʻstone roller for spices, grindstoneʼ. [CDIAL 11348] rebus: bhaṭa'furnace‘.


S.Kalyanaraman Sarasvati Research Center February 24, 2017

Sarasvati script hieroglyph evidences from Elamite Diyala valley, other sites Ancient Near East

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http://tinyurl.com/zadb5cz
pōḷa ‘zebu’ पोळ (p. 534) [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large.(Marathi)


A zebu on a plaque from the Elamite Diyala Valley (Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C. and D.T. Potts. 2001. Excavations at Tepe Yahya, Iran, 1967-1975: The Third Millennium. Cambridge: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, HarvardUniversity,p.225)

Rebus 1: pōḷa ‘magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4'.
पोळ [ pōḷa ]  ‘magnetite (ore)’ (Asuri) पोलाद (p. 533) [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel (Marathi)

Rebus 2: pol m. ʻgate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate': Ka. por̤al town, city. Te. prōlu, (inscr.) pr̤ōl(u) city. ? (DEDR 4555) पोवळ or पोंवळ [ pōvaḷa or pōṃvaḷa ] f पोवळी or पोंवळी f The court-wall of a temple. (Marathi) *pratōlika ʻ gatekeeper ʼ. [pratōlī -- ] H. pauliyā, pol°, pauriyā m. ʻ gatekeeper ʼ, G. poḷiyɔ m.(CDIAL 8632) pratōlī f. ʻ gate of town or fort, main street ʼ MBh. [Cf. tōlikā -- . -- Perh. conn. with tōraṇa -- EWA ii 361, less likely with *ṭōla -- ] Pk. paōlī -- f. ʻ city gate, main street ʼ; WPah. (Joshi) prauḷ m., °ḷi f., pauḷ m., °ḷi f. ʻ gateway of a chief ʼ, proḷ ʻ village ward ʼ; H. paul, pol m. ʻ gate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate ʼ, paulī f. ʻ gate ʼ; OG. poli f. ʻ door ʼ; G. poḷi f. ʻ street ʼ; M. pauḷ, poḷ f. ʻ wall of loose stones ʼ. -- Forms with -- r -- poss. < *pradura -- : OAw. paüri ʻ gatepost ʼ; H. paur, °rī, pãwar, °rī f. ʻ gate, door ʼ.WPah.poet. prɔ̈̄ḷ m., prɔḷo m., prɔḷe f. ʻ gate of palace or temple ʼ.(CDIAL 8633) Porin (adj.) [fr. pora=Epic Sk. paura citizen, see pura. Semantically cp. urbane>urbanus>urbs; polite= poli/ths>po/lis. For pop. etym. see DA i.73 & 282] belonging to a citizen, i. e. citizenlike, urbane, polite, usually in phrase porī vācā polite speech D i.4, 114; S i.189; ii.280=A ii.51; A iii.114; Pug 57; Dhs 1344; DA i.75, 282; DhsA 397. Cp. BSk. paurī vācā MVastu iii.322. Porisa2 (nt.) [abstr. fr. purisa, *pauruṣyaŋ, cp. porisiya and poroseyya] 1. business, doing of a man (or servant, cp. purisa 2), service, occupation; human doing, activity M i.85 (rāja˚); Vv 6311 (=purisa -- kicca VvA 263); Pv iv.324 (uṭṭhāna˚=purisa -- viriya, purisa -- kāra PvA 252). -- 2. height of a man M. i.74, 187, 365.(Pali) పౌరము [ pauramu ] pauramu. [Skt. from పుర.] adj. Belonging to a city or town (పురము.) పౌరసతులు the ladies of the place: citizens' wives. పౌరలోకము paura-lōkamu. n. The townsfolk, a body of citizens. పౌరుడు pauruḍu. n. A citizen. పౌరులు citizens, townsfolk.(Telugu)
Toy animals made for the Pola festival especially celebrated by the Dhanoje Kunbis. (Bemrose, Colo. Derby - Russell, Robert Vane (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India: volume IV. Descriptive articles on the principal castes and tribes of the Central Provinces. London: Macmillan and Co., limited. p. 40).

Rebus: cattle festival: पोळा [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. "Pola is a bull-worshipping festival celebrated by farmers mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra (especially among the Kunbis). On the day of Pola, the farmers decorate and worship their bulls. Pola falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya (the new moon day) in the month of Shravana (usually in August)."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_(festival) Festival held on the day after Sankranti ( = kANum) is called pōlāla paNDaga (Telugu).
After Figure 1. Major domestic cattle species: (a) Spanish Tudanca taurine and (b) Pullikulam zebu bull (photographs by Marleen Felius and Anno Fokkinga, 2008, 2005). After Fig. 7 Pictorial evidence of the origin and dispersal of zebu. (a) Harappa seal (National Museum, India, [70]), 5000–3500 BP; (b) detail of cylindrical chlorite vessel (Mesopotamia (mid-5th millennium BP, The British Museum, London); (c) detail of conic object from Tarut Island near the Eastern coast of the Arabian peninsula (Metropolitan Museum, NY) and (d) detail of a painting: inspection of cattle belonging to Nebamun, Thebes,ca. 3400 BP, The British Museum, London). http://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/6/4/705/htm

miṇḍāˊl ʻ markhor’ mēṇḍha ‘ram’ mēṇḍha  m. ʻ ram ʼ, °aka -- , mēṇḍa -- A. mersāg ʻ ram ʼ ( -- sāg < *chāgya -- ?), B. meṛā m., °ṛi f., Or. meṇḍhā, °ḍā m., °ḍhi f., H. meṛh, 
meṛhā, mẽḍhā m., G. mẽḍhɔ, M. mẽḍhā m., Si. mäḍayā.2. Pk. meṁṭhī -- f. ʻ sheep ʼ; H. meṭhā m. ʻ ram ʼ.3. H. mejhukā m. ʻ ram ʼ.*mēṇḍharūpa -- , mēḍhraśr̥ṅgī -- .Addenda: mēṇḍha -- 2: A. also mer (phonet. mer) ʻ ram ʼ AFD 235.(CDIAL 10310)

मेढा [mēḍhā ] 'polar star'
मेढा (p. 665) [ mēḍhā ] m A stake, esp. as forked.

Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) meḍ 'iron'meṛed-bica'iron stone ore'. meḍ Iron, iron implements (Ho)  meḍho = Samskritam. Van.ik saha_ya, a merchant's clerk (Des.) medhā‘yajna, dhanam’
koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ (OP)(CDIAL 3546) rebus: koṭhrī ‘granary’,  koṭhrī  ‘temple treasury’:P. koṭhṛī f. ʻ room, house ʼ; Ku. koṭheṛī ʻ small room ʼ; H. koṭhrī f. ʻ room, granary ʼ; M. koṭhḍī f. ʻ room ʼ (CDIAL 3546)

kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' (Telugu-English Dictionary by Paluri Sankaranarayana, 1990, AES) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali)

mr̤ēka, mēḻẖ ‘goat’ Ka. mēke she-goat; mē the bleating of sheep or goats. Te. mē̃ka, mēka goat. Kol. me·ke id. Nk. mēke id. Pa. mēva, (S.) mēya she-goat. Ga.(Oll.) mēge, (S.) mēge goat. Go. (M) mekā, (Ko.) mēka id. ? Kur. mēxnā (mīxyas) to call, call after loudly, hail. Malt. méqe to bleat. [Te. mr̤ēka (so correct) is of unknown meaning. Br. mēḻẖ is without etymology; see MBE 1980a.] / Cf. Skt. (lex.) meka- goat. (DEDR 5087)

Rebus: mleccha-mukha ‘copper’ (Samskritam) milakkhu ‘copper’ (Pali)Milakkha [cp. Ved. Sk. mleccha barbarian, root mlecch, onomat. after the strange sounds of a foreign tongue, cp. babbhara & mammana] a barbarian, foreigner, outcaste, hillman S v.466; J vi.207; DA i.176; SnA 236 (˚mahātissa -- thera Np.), 397 (˚bhāsā foreign dialect). The word occurs also in form milakkhu (q. v.). Milakkhu [the Prk. form (A -- Māgadhī, cp. Pischel, Prk. Gr. 105, 233) for P. milakkha] a non -- Aryan D iii.264; Th 1, 965 (˚rajana "of foreign dye" trsl.; Kern, Toev. s. v. translates "vermiljoen kleurig"). As milakkhuka at Vin iii.28, where Bdhgh expls by "Andha -- Damil'ādi.
ranku‘antelope’ (Santali) Rebus: rã̄gā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼraṅga3 n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. [Cf. nāga -- 2, vaṅga -- 1]Pk. raṁga -- n. ʻ tin ʼ; P. rã̄g f., rã̄gā m. ʻ pewter, tin ʼ (← H.); Ku. rāṅ ʻ tin, solder ʼ, gng. rã̄k; N. rāṅrāṅo ʻ tin, solder ʼ, A. B. rāṅ; Or. rāṅga ʻ tin ʼ,rāṅgā ʻ solder, spelter ʼ, Bi. Mth. rã̄gā, OAw. rāṁga; H. rã̄g f., rã̄gā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; Si. ran̆ga ʻ tin ʼ.(CDIAL 10562)
kulā ʻ winnowing fan, hood of a snake ʼ(Assamese) (CDIAL 3350) खोळ (p. 216) [ khōḷa ] A hooded cloak for children. (CDIAL 3942)
Rebus: kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calōkam (five metals) (Tamil) kol ‘working in iron’, blacksmigth’; kolle ‘blacksmith’ kolhe ‘smelters’ kole.l ‘smithy, temple’ ; kollaṉ blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. kole·l smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwala·lKota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace; konimi blacksmith;(Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollëblacksmith. 
Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy (Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge.(DEDR 2133) 

kāṇḍə 
‘water’ Wg. káṇṭä ʻ water -- channel ʼ, Woṭ. kaṇṭḗl f., Gaw. khāṇṭ*l, Bshk. kāṇḍə (CDIAL 2680). காண்டம்² kāṇṭam, n. < kāṇḍa. 1. Water; sacred water; நீர். துருத்திவாயதுக்கியகுங்குமக்காண்டமும் (கல்லா. 49, 16) காண்டம்¹ kāṇṭam Mountain, hill; மலை. (பிங்.) 2. cf. kāṇḍa. Jungle, desert, wilderness; காடு. (திவா.)kã̄ṭhẽn. ʻ arable land near the edge of a hill. ʼ(CDIAL 2680) Gaw. khaṇḍa ʻ hill pasture ʼ (see ab.); Bshk. khan m. ʻ hill ʼ, Tor. khān, (Grierson) khaṇḍ, Mai. khān, Chil. Gau. kān, Phal. khã̄ṇ; Sh. koh. khŭṇ m., gur. khonn, pales.khōṇə, jij. khɔ̈̄ṇ ʻ mountain ʼ, gil. (Lor.) kh*ln m. ʻ mountain pass ʼ.(CDIAL 3792)

Rebus: khaṇḍa ‘implements (metal)’ *lōhōpaskara ʻ iron tools ʼ. [lōhá -- , upaskara -- 1]
N. lokhar ʻ bag in which a barber keeps his tools ʼ; H. lokhar m. ʻ iron tools, pots and pans ʼ; -- X lauhabhāṇḍa -- : Ku. lokhaṛ ʻ iron tools ʼ; H.lokhaṇḍ m. ʻ iron tools, pots and pans ʼ; G. lokhãḍ n. ʻ tools, iron, ironware ʼ; M. lokhãḍ n. ʻ iron ʼ (LM 400 < -- khaṇḍa -- ).(CDIAL 11171) 
लोखंडकाम (p. 723) [ lōkhaṇḍakāma ] n Iron work; that portion (of a building, machine &c.) which consists of iron. 2 The business of an ironsmith. लोहोलोखंड (p. 723) [ lōhōlōkhaṇḍa ] n (लोह & लोखंड) Iron tools, vessels, or articles in general. காண்டம்² kāṇṭam, n. < kāṇḍa. Weapon; ஆயுதம். (சூடா.)
After Figure 11: a. mountains landscape and waters; (upper part) a man under an arch with sun and crescent moon symbols; (lower part) man seated on his heels holding zebus; b. man holding a snake; c. two men (drinking) and zebus, on a small cylindrical vessel; d. Head of woman protruding from  jar, and snakes; 3. man falling from a tree to the trunk of which a zebu is tied; f. man with clas and bull-man playing with cheetahs, and a scorpion in the center (on a cylindrical vessel). 

Leopards weight from Shahi-Tump (Baluchistan) made using cire perdue technique.  "The artefact was discovered in a grave, in the Kech valley, in Balochistan, southern part of present Pakistan. It belongs to the Shahi Tump - Makran civilisation (end of 4th millennium -- beginning of 3rd millennium BCe). Ht. 200 mm. weight: 13.5 kg. The shell has been manufactured by lost-wax foundry of a copper alloy (12.6%b, 2.6%As), then it has been filled up through lead (99.5%) foundry. The shell is engraved with figures of leopards hunting wild goats, made of polished fragments of shellfishes. No identification of the artefact's use has been given. Mille, B., R. besenval, D. Bourgarit, Early lost-wax casting in Balochistan (Pakistan): the 'Leopards Weight' from Shahi-Tump in Persiens antike Pracht, Bergau-Handwerk-Archaologie, T. Stollner, R. Slotta, A. Vatandoust, A. ed., p. 274-80. Bouchum: Deutsches Bergbau Museum, 2004. 
An Indian on the eastern Apadana stairs, Persepolis. Carrying gold. 
kuṭi 'woman water-carrier' (Telugu-English Dictionary by Paluri Sankaranarayana, 1990, AES)

Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali)

S.Kalyanaraman
Saasvati Research Center February 25, 2017


Susa, sacrifice of goat
Relief with the sacrifice of goatca. Susa. 4000 BCE–ca. 3000 BCE Photo by  Marco Prins  Louvre Museum
http://www.livius.org/pictures/iran/susa/susa-museum-pieces/susa-sacrifice-of-goat

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Sarasvati script hieroglyphs poḷa ‘zebu' rebus polad 'steel', poḷa ‘magnetite ore’, dāẽ 'tied' rebus dhā̆vaḍ 'smelters'

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A historical challenge has been posited. 
What contributed to the status of Bhāratam as the which made the largest contribution to Global GDP in 1 CE? 
Ancient Bhāratam Janam worked with magnetite ore [pōḷa] which gave the root for the famed crucible wootz steel called [pōlāda] n ( or P)  [pōlādi]  'steel'. Role of caṣāla (wheat chaff) in the process of carburizing metal alloys has been explained in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa See: http://tinyurl.com/grj2uqd


A tentative answer is provided by the metallurgical contributions made during the 3rd to 1st milllennium BCE by Bhāratam janam (RV 3.53.12) lit. 'metalcaster folk' with artisanal excellence in making carburized metal implements, e.g. production of carburized or crucible steel. The quality of the swords made of ukku steel is of world-renown and a chronicle painting records gift of a sword by Purushottama to Alexander in 326 BCE after the Battle of the Hydaspes (or Jhelum). 
Three hieroglyhs of Sarasvati Script (3rd millennium BCE) signify (round stone, scorpion, zebu): goṭa‘laterite ore’, bichi ‘hematite ore’, poa‘magnetite ore’. 
Image result for zebu mohenjodaro sealMohenjo-daro Seals m1118 and Kalibangan 032, glyphs used are: Zebu (bos taurus indicus), fish, four-strokes (allograph: arrow). ayo 'fish' (Mu.) rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'alloy metal' (Rgveda) gaṇḍa 'four' kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus:khaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS poa ‘zebu' rebus polad 'steel'poa ‘magnetite ore'. Thus, the Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan seals inMeluhha Sarasvati Script cipher, signify plain-text message: poa ‘magnetite ore' PLUS ayas 'alloy metal' khaṇḍa 'implements'.


A gloss identifiable as part of meluhha-mleccha repertoire occurs in Ṛgveda and in Tocharian. The word is ancugveda refers to cognate amśu as a synonym of Soma. Tocharian attests ancu as meaning, ‘iron’. (cf. Dictionary and Thesaurus of Tocharian A. Volume 1: a-j. Compiled by Gerd Carling in collaboration with Georges-Jean Pinault and Werner Winter, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2009).
Image result for sibri cylinder sealA cylinder seal with zebu and lion, Sibri {Jarrige) Hieroglyphs: aryeh 'lion' rebus: arā 'brass'; [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods. pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’. Rebus: pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri) [ khāṇḍā ] m A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon); Rebus: khāṇḍā 'tools, weapons, metalware'.

Zebu + Indus ScriptIndus Script Corpora. A zebu bull tied to a post; a bird above. Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE. Cf. Fig. 2.18, J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Cat. No. 8. baTa 'bird' Rebus: baTa 'furnace' (Santali)
A zebu on a plaque from the Elamite Diyala Valley (Lamberg-Karlovsky and Potts 2001: 225).
Image result for gadd seal 6Gadd seal 6. (cut down into Ur III mausolea from Larsa level; U. 16220), enstatite; Legrain, 1951, No. 632; Collon, 1987, Fig. 611 Cylinder seal; BM 122947;humped bull stands before a palm-tree, a thorny stone(?), tabernae montana (five-petalled fragrant flower); snake; person with long legs; behind the bull a scorpion ... Deciphered Indus writing: pola 'zebu, bos indicus'; pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri); bichi 'scorpion'; 'hematite ore'; tagaraka 'tabernae montana'; tagara 'tin'; ranga 'thorny'; Rebus: pewter, alloy of tin and antimony; kankar., kankur. = very tall and thin, large hands and feet; kankar dare = a high tree with few branches (Santali) Rebus: kanka, kanaka = gold (Samskritam); kan = copper (Tamil) nAga 'snake' nAga 'lead' (Samskritam).

Ancient Meluhha blacksmiths

Ancient blacksmiths who started with the bronze age (ca. 7000 BCE) were aware of the iron-carbon phase diagram. This awareness was created during their forging work by observing color changes during heating and they could also test the hardness of produced metal by scratch tests. This process of scratching has an ancient Meluhha gloss: gota.Sa. gOta? `to scrape, scratch'.Mu. gOta? `to scrape, scratch'.KW gOta?@(M087)(Munda etyma). The same gloss was adopted to identify one of the mineral resources the ancient blacksmiths worked with: goṭa ‘laterite ore’.
Bolad (alternatively spelled PuladPulatPolat, or Polad in Persian and Turkic languages) is common given name among the Inner Asian peoples. The meaning of the word Bolad is "steel". In Khalkha Mongolian form of the word is Bold                                                        

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolad_(given_name)

Image result for swordmaker from damascus
Sword maker of Damascus. 1900 photo.
Purushottama gifts a UKKU sword to Alexander (SAIL Institute, Ranchi painting)
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PorusPurushottama meets Alexander
Alexander's retreat from Bharat campaign.


A tool used to use the magnetic qualities of iron is a lodestone (which is a natural magnetic iron oxide mineral). Such a tool could have enabled ancient blacksmiths to identify and distinguish a type if iron ore called ‘magnetite’ called in Meluhha: pola (which yields the Russian bulat steel) made from Latin wootz (Meluhha ukku).

CP Thornton had called for a paradigm shift in archaeometallurgical studies focusing on socio-cultural contexts. Consistent with this shift, in a remarkable monograph, Oleg D. Sherby and Jeffrey Wadworth underline the need for a fresh look at the categories called ‘bronze age’ and ‘iron age’. Reviewing the artistic accomplishments of Damascus steel swords using ultrahigh carbon steels (with 1.0 to 2.1% carbon), calling them hypereutectoid steels with improved mechanical properties, Oleg D. Sherby and Jeffrey Wadworth start with the question of ‘Iron Age’ the start of which received wisdom dates to 1000 BCE. They posit that possibility that iron age started well before the full bronze age, noting that ancient blacksmith had demonstrated the competence in three melting procedures needed to manufacture high-tin bronzes. They note: “The likelihood of wrought iron being utilized extensively at the start of, and even before, the copper and early Bronze Age is certainly supported by the fact that it is easier to produce. It would also have been motivated by the knowledge that wrought iron is considerably stronger than copper and early (unintentionally alloyed) bronze…wrought iron, even in its softest condition, has about the same hardness as hardened copper and early bronze. When wrought iron is cold or warm worked its hardness increases by a factor of two, making it considerably superior to copper and early bronze…When Damascus steels are warm worked their hardness is double that of warm worked wrought iron. Furthermore, Damascus steels can be heat treated to obtain very high hardness resulting in steels that are five times stronger than the strongest wrought iron. These steels represent a revolutionary change in the use of metals.”

Oleg D. Sherby and Jeffrey Wadworth proceed to suggest a provocative sequence of the iron and bronze ages. They speculate that Iron and early Bronze ages began at a similar time period (i.e. 7000 BCE) in large villages which were the scene of human activity. “Examples are Jericho, and Catal Huyuk and Hallan Cemi in Turkey. The town of Jericho is reported to have had 2,500 inhabitants at the time of its prime in 7000 BCE. The story of Catal Huyuk in Turkey is equally impressive with a history dating back to at least 6000 BCE, with a population estimated at over 7,000 people. Evidence of open hearths abounded in these ancient cities. Waldbaum (JC Waldbaum, in: Theodore A. Wertime and James D. Muhly (Eds.), The coming of the Age of Iron, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1980, pp. 127-150) has documented fourteen iron objects at another four sites dating before 3000 BCE. The oldest object is a four-sided instrument from a gravesite at Samara in northern Iraq, dated ca.5000 BCE. The object, which appears to be a tool, was identified as man-made iron. The full Bronze Age and the iron-carbon (Damascus steel) age are…at about 2500 to 2000 BCE where alloying was deliberately introduced as a way of increasing the strength of copper and iron. In this period, melting and remelting was extensively used. Contemporary metallurgists and blacksmiths who have made wrought iron, often consider that such a product could have been made going back to the era of Neanderthal man who dominated the European and African scene from 300,000 to 40,000 years ago. The original wrought iron was probably made in an open hearth where strong winds were available to reduce the starting material, iron oxide ore, into iron according to the reaction: iron oxide + charcoal + oxygen = iron + liquid slag + CO2…iron oxide was mined in many places. Iron oxide is known as ochre and the most common oxide is hematite (Fe2O3).”






















Bulat steel blade of a knife "Bulat is a type of steel alloy known in Russia from medieval times; regularly being mentioned in Russian legends as the material of choice for cold steel. The name булат is a Russian transliteration of the Persian word fulad, meaning steel. This type of steel was used by the armies of nomadic peoples. Bulat steel was the main type of steel used for swords in the armies of Genghis Khan, the great emperor of the Mongolian Empire. The technique used in making wootz steel has been lost for centuries and the bulat steel used today makes use of a more recently developed technique...Carbon steel consists of two components: pure iron, in the form of ferrite, and cementite or iron carbide, a compound of iron and carbon. Cementite is very hard and brittle; its hardness is about 640 by the Brinell hardness test, whereas ferrite is only 200. The amount of the carbon and the cooling regimen determine the crystalline and chemical composition of the final steel. In bulat, the slow cooling process allowed the cementite to precipitate as micro particles in between ferrite crystals and arrange in random patterns. The color of the carbide is dark while steel is grey. This mixture is what leads to the famous patterning of Damascus steel.Cementite is essentially a ceramic, which accounts for the sharpness of the Damascus (and bulat) steel. "
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulat_steel

Picture shows 18th-century Persian-forged sword made from DamascusCrucible steels, such as wootz steel and Damascus steel, exhibit unique banding patterns because of the intermixed ferrite and cementite alloys in the steel. "Wootz steel is a crucible steel characterized by a pattern of bands, which are formed by sheets of micro carbides within a tempered martensite or pearlite matrix in higher carbon steel, or by ferrite and pearlite banding in lower carbon steels. It is the pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in Southern India in the 6th century BCE and exported globally. It was also known in the ancient world by many different names including Wootz, Ukku, Hindvi Steel, Hinduwani Steel, Teling Steel and Seric Iron...Wootz steel originated in India.There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel since the time of Alexander's India campaignThe crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BCE,at production sites of Kodumanal in Tamil NaduGolconda in TelanganaKarnataka and Sri Lanka and exported globally; the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty producing what was termed the finest steel in the world, i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BCE The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz." The Tamilakam method was to heat black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give wrought iron, then heated and hammered to be rid of slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as Avārai.... A 200 BCE Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period.The Arabs introduced the South Indian/Sri Lankan wootz steel to Damascus, where an industry developed for making weapons of this steel. The 12th century Arab traveler Edrisi mentioned the "Hinduwani" or Indian steel as the best in the world...Another sign of its reputation is seen in a Persian phrase – to give an "Indian answer", meaning "a cut with an Indian sword." (Manning, Charlotte Speir. Ancient and Medieval India2. p. 365.) Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe and the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wootz_steel

Wootz was imported into the Middle East from Im India. (Jeffrey Wadsworth and Oleg D. Sherby (1980). "On the Bulat – Damascus Steel Revisited". Prog. Mater. Sci. 25 (1): 35–68)

urukku, n. < -. [T. ukku, K. urku, M. urukku.] 1. Steel; . ( .) 2. Anything melted, product of liquefaction; . ( . . 91). urukku-t-taṭṭār , n. < id. +. Goldsmiths; . ( . 5, 31, .) urukku-maṇal , n. < - +. Iron ore, iron-sand; . (W.) - uruku-, 5 v. intr. [M. uruhu.] 1. To dissolve with heat; to melt, liquefy; to be fused; . eḵkam, n. < -. 1. Sharpness, pointedness; . ( . . 12). 2. Any weapon made of steel; . ( .) 3. Sword; . ( . 19). 4. Lance; . ( . 119). 5. Discus; . ( .) 6. Javelin; . ( .) 7. Trident; . ( . . 11.) ² eḵku

, n. < -. 1. Edge, pointedness, keenness; . ( , 773). 2. Acuteness of intellect, mental acumen; . ( , 137). 3. Steel; . ( .) 4. Weapon in general; . ( .) 5. Lance; . ( . 10, 109). - eḵku-paṭu-, v. intr. < id. +. To melt; to soften; . ( . 15, 210, ) உருக்கு² urukku, n. < உருக்கு-. [T. ukku, K. urku, M. urukku.] 1. Steel; எஃகு. (சூடா.) 2. Anything melted, product of liquefaction; உருக் கினபொருள். செப்புருக் கனைய (கம்பரா. கார்கா. 91).உருக்குத்தட்டார் urukku-t-taṭṭār
n. < id. +. Goldsmiths; பொற்கொல்லர். (சிலப். 5, 31, உரை.)உருக்குமணல் urukku-maṇal
n. < உருக் கு- +. Iron ore, iron-sand; அயமணல். (W.) எஃகம் eḵkam
n. < எஃகு-. 1. Sharpness, pointedness; கூர்மை. எஃகவேற் புங்கவன் (கந்தபு. அவைய. 12). 2. Any weapon made of steel; உருக்காயுதப் பொது. (சூடா.) 3. Sword; வ��ள். எஃகம் புலியுறைகழிப்பு (பதிற்றுப். 19). 4. Lance; வேல். புலவுவாயெஃகம் (பெரும்பாண். 119). 5. Discus; சக்கரம். (திவா.) 6. Javelin; பிண்டி பாலம். (திவா.) 7. Trident; சூலம். (கம்பரா. மந் தரை. 11.)எஃகு² eḵku
n. < எஃகு-. 1. Edge, pointedness, keenness; கூர்மை. ஒன்றுற்றக்கா லூராண்மை மற்றத னெஃகு (குறள், 773). 2. Acuteness of intellect, mental acumen; மதிநுட்பம். இகலில ரெஃகுடையார் தம்முட் குழீஇ (நாலடி, 137). 3. Steel; உருக்கு. (சூடா.) 4. Weapon in general; ஆயுதப்பொது. (பிங்.) 5. Lance; வேல். எஃகொடு வாண்மா றுழக்கி (பரிபா. 10, 109).

"In the Muslim world of the 9th-12th centuries CE, the production of fuladh, a Persian word, has been described by Al-Kindi, Al-Biruni and Al-Tarsusi, from narm-ahanand shaburqan, two other Persian words representing iron products obtained by direct reduction of the ore. Ahan means iron. Narm-ahan is a soft iron and shaburqan a harder one or able to be quench-hardened. Old nails and horse-shoes were also used as base for fuladh preparation. It must be noticed that, according to Hammer- Purgstall, there was no Arab word for steel, which explain the use of Persian words. Fuladh prepared by melting in small crucibles can be considered as a steel in our modem classification, due to its properties (hardness, quench hardened ability, etc.). The word fuladh means "the purified" as explained by Al-Kindi. This word can be found as puladh, for instance in Chardin (1711 AD) who called this product; poulad jauherder, acier onde, which means "watering steel", a characteristic of what was called Damascene steel in Europe."

The magnetite ore stones are identified as pola iron by Meluhha speakers.  अयस्कान्त [p= 85,1] m. 
(g. कस्का*दि) , " iron-lover " , the loadstone (cf. कान्ता*यसRagh. xvii , 63 , &c;  ayaskānta m S (The iron gem.) The loadstone. (Marathi) Lodestone or Loadstone or Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring igneous and metamorphic rocks with black or brownish-black with a metallic luster. 

Lodestones are naturally-occurring magnets, which can attract iron. Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite.

[quote]Magnetite, a ferrimagnetic mineral with chemical formula Fe3O4, one of several iron oxides, is one of the more common meteor-wrongs. Magnetite displays a black exterior and magnetic properties....A piece of intensely magnetic magnetite was used as an early form of magnetic compass. Iron, steel and ordinary magnetite are attracted to a magnetic field, including the Earth's magnetic field. Only magnetite with a particular crystalline structure, lodestone, can act as a natural magnet and attract and magnetize iron. The name "magnet" comes from lodestones found in a place called Magnesia. [unquote] http://meteorite-identification.com/Hot%20Rocks/magnetite.html

See: Srinivasan, Sharada; Ranganathan, Srinivasa (2004). "India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World"Iron & Steel Heritage of India. Bangalore: National Institute of Advanced Studies: 69–82. 

See: http://tinyurl.com/nsfgedh Pōlāda: archaeometallurgy of ancient Indian metalwork. Signified on Indus Script Corpora by hieroglyph: zebu, bos indicus
See: http://met.iisc.ernet.in/~rangu/text.pdf (india's legendary 'wootz' steel - Materials Engineering)

Wootz Steel as the Acme of Mankind’s Metallurgical Heritage 

“Wootz was the first high-quality steel made anywhere in the world. According to reports of travelers to the East, the Damascus swords were made by forging small cakes of steel that were manufactured in Southern India. This steel was called wootz steel. It was more than a thousand years before steel as good was made in the West.” -J. D. Verhoeven and A. Pendray, Muse, 1998 
... ‘…’pulad’ of Central Asia. The oasis of Merv where crucible steel was also made by the medieval period lies in this region. The term ‘pulad’ appears in Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrianism and in a Manicheen text of Chinese Turkestan. There are many variations of this term ranging from the Persian ‘polad’, the Mongolian ‘bolat’ and ‘tchechene’, the Russian ‘bulat’, the Ukrainian and Armenian ‘potovat’, Turkish and Arab ‘fulad’, ‘farlad’ in Urdu and ‘phaulad’ in Hindi. It is this bewildering variety of descriptions that was used in the past that makes a study of this subject so challenging.’ (p.30)

PWLẠD (پولاد) > BOLD RUSSIAN (ПОЛАД) Origin: PERSIAN (TĀJĪK)  /  MONGOLIAN 
INDO-EUROPEAN > INDO-IRANIAN > INDO-ARYAN 
This name derives from the Mongolian (Qalq-a ayalγu) “Bold”, from the Persian (Tājīk) "pwlạd", meaning “steel”. Bolad († 1313), was a Mongol minister of the Yuan Dynasty, and later served in the Ilkhanate as the representative of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and cultural adviser to the Ilkhans. Geographical spread:
http://www.name-doctor.com/name-polad-meaning-of-polad-25852.html
See: http://tinyurl.com/zadb5cz
Rebus 1: pōḷa ‘magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4'.
पोळ [ pōḷa ]  ‘magnetite (ore)’ (Asuri) पोलाद (p. 533) [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel (Marathi)

Rebus 2: pol m. ʻgate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate': Ka. por̤al town, city. Te. prōlu, (inscr.) pr̤ōl(u) city. ? (DEDR 4555) पोवळ or पोंवळ [ pōvaḷa or pōṃvaḷa ] f पोवळी or पोंवळी f The court-wall of a temple. (Marathi) *pratōlika ʻ gatekeeper ʼ. [pratōlī -- ] H. pauliyā, pol°, pauriyā m. ʻ gatekeeper ʼ, G. poḷiyɔ m.(CDIAL 8632) pratōlī f. ʻ gate of town or fort, main street ʼ MBh. [Cf. tōlikā -- . -- Perh. conn. with tōraṇa -- EWA ii 361, less likely with *ṭōla -- ] Pk. paōlī -- f. ʻ city gate, main street ʼ; WPah. (Joshi) prauḷ m., °ḷi f., pauḷ m., °ḷi f. ʻ gateway of a chief ʼ, proḷ ʻ village ward ʼ; H. paul, pol m. ʻ gate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate ʼ, paulī f. ʻ gate ʼ; OG. poli f. ʻ door ʼ; G. poḷi f. ʻ street ʼ; M. pauḷ, poḷ f. ʻ wall of loose stones ʼ. -- Forms with -- r -- poss. < *pradura -- : OAw. paüri ʻ gatepost ʼ; H. paur, °rī, pãwar, °rī f. ʻ gate, door ʼ.WPah.poet. prɔ̈̄ḷ m., prɔḷo m., prɔḷe f. ʻ gate of palace or temple ʼ.(CDIAL 8633) Porin (adj.) [fr. pora=Epic Sk. paura citizen, see pura. Semantically cp. urbane>urbanus>urbs; polite= poli/ths>po/lis. For pop. etym. see DA i.73 & 282] belonging to a citizen, i. e. citizenlike, urbane, polite, usually in phrase porī vācā polite speech D i.4, 114; S i.189; ii.280=A ii.51; A iii.114; Pug 57; Dhs 1344; DA i.75, 282; DhsA 397. Cp. BSk. paurī vācā MVastu iii.322. Porisa2 (nt.) [abstr. fr. purisa, *pauruṣyaŋ, cp. porisiya and poroseyya] 1. business, doing of a man (or servant, cp. purisa 2), service, occupation; human doing, activity M i.85 (rāja˚); Vv 6311 (=purisa -- kicca VvA 263); Pv iv.324 (uṭṭhāna˚=purisa -- viriya, purisa -- kāra PvA 252). -- 2. height of a man M. i.74, 187, 365.(Pali) పౌరము [ pauramu ] pauramu. [Skt. from పుర.] adj. Belonging to a city or town (పురము.) పౌరసతులు the ladies of the place: citizens' wives. పౌరలోకము paura-lōkamu. n. The townsfolk, a body of citizens. పౌరుడు pauruḍu. n. A citizen. పౌరులు citizens, townsfolk.(Telugu)
Toy animals made for the Pola festival especially celebrated by the Dhanoje Kunbis. (Bemrose, Colo. Derby - Russell, Robert Vane (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India: volume IV. Descriptive articles on the principal castes and tribes of the Central Provinces. London: Macmillan and Co., limited. p. 40).

Rebus: cattle festival: पोळा [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. "Pola is a bull-worshipping festival celebrated by farmers mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra (especially among the Kunbis). On the day of Pola, the farmers decorate and worship their bulls. Pola falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya (the new moon day) in the month of Shravana (usually in August)."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_(festival)  Festival held on the day after Sankranti ( = kANum) is called pōlāla paNDaga (Telugu).
After Figure 1. Major domestic cattle species: (a) Spanish Tudanca taurine and (b) Pullikulam zebu bull (photographs by Marleen Felius and Anno Fokkinga, 2008, 2005). After Fig. 7 Pictorial evidence of the origin and dispersal of zebu. (a) Harappa seal (National Museum, India, [70]), 5000–3500 BP; (b) detail of cylindrical chlorite vessel (Mesopotamia (mid-5th millennium BP, The British Museum, London); (c) detail of conic object from Tarut Island near the Eastern coast of the Arabian peninsula (Metropolitan Museum, NY) and (d) detail of a painting: inspection of cattle belonging to Nebamun, Thebes,ca. 3400 BP, The British Museum, London). http://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/6/4/705/htm

Map of Iran, with Jiroft, Konār Ṣandal, and sites of the 3rd millenium BCE with chlorite vessels.

Zebu. a.details of decoration on a tronconical vessel, b. line of zebus led by a man c-d.lying zebus
a.       Mountains landscape and waters, (upper part) a man under an arch with sun and crescent moon symbols; (lower part) man seated on his heels holding zebus; b. man holding a snake; c. two men (drinking) and zebus, on a small cylindrical vessel; d. head of woman protruding from a jar, and snakes; 3. Man falling from a tree to the trunk, of which a zebu is tid; f. man with claws and bullman playing with cheetahs, and a scorpion in the center (on a cylindrical vessel).

kokkolha 'leopard' Rebus: kolhe 'smelter'. kul ‘tiger’ (Santali); kōlu id. (Te.) kōlupuli = Bengal tiger (Te.)Pk. kolhuya -- , kulha — m. ʻ jackal ʼ < *kōḍhu -- ; H.kolhā, °lā m. ʻ jackal ʼ, adj. ʻ crafty ʼ; G. kohlũ, °lũ n. ʻ jackal ʼ, M. kolhā, °lā m. krōṣṭŕ̊ ʻ crying ʼ BhP., m. ʻ jackal ʼ RV. = krṓṣṭu — m. Pāṇ. [√kruś] Pa. koṭṭhu -- , °uka — and kotthu -- , °uka — m. ʻ jackal ʼ, Pk. koṭṭhu — m.; Si. koṭa ʻ jackal ʼ, koṭiya ʻ leopard ʼ GS 42 (CDIAL 3615). कोल्हा [ kōlhā ] कोल्हें [ kōlhēṃ ] A jackal (Marathi) Rebus: kol ‘furnace, forge’ (Kuwi) kol ‘alloy of five metals, pañcaloha’ (Ta.) 

dāˊman1 ʻ rope ʼ RV. 2. *dāmana -- , dāmanī -- f. ʻ long rope to which calves are tethered ʼ Hariv. 3. *dāmara -- .[*dāmara -- is der. fr. n/r n. stem. -- √2] 1. Pa. dāma -- , inst. °mēna n. ʻ rope, fetter, garland ʼ, Pk. dāma -- n.; Wg. dām ʻ rope, thread, bandage ʼ; Tir. dām ʻ rope ʼ; Paš.lauṛ. dām ʻ thick thread ʼ, gul. dūm ʻ net snare ʼ (IIFL iii 3, 54 ← Ind. or Pers.); Shum. dām ʻ rope ʼ; Sh.gil. (Lor.) dōmo ʻ twine, short bit of goat's hair cord ʼ, gur. dōm m. ʻ thread ʼ (→ Ḍ. dōṅ ʻ thread ʼ); K. gu -- dômu m. ʻ cow's tethering rope ʼ; P. dã̄udāvã̄ m. ʻ hobble for a horse ʼ; WPah.bhad. daũ n. ʻ rope to tie cattle ʼ, bhal. daõ m., jaun. dã̄w; A. dāmā ʻ peg to tie a buffalo -- calf to ʼ; B. dāmdāmā ʻ cord ʼ; Or. duã̄ ʻ tether ʼ, dāĩ ʻ long tether to which many beasts are tied ʼ; H. dām m.f. ʻ rope, string, fetter ʼ, dāmā m. ʻ id., garland ʼ; G. dām n. ʻ tether ʼ, M. dāvẽ n.; Si. dama ʻ chain, rope ʼ, (SigGr) dam ʻ garland ʼ. -- Ext. in Paš.dar. damaṭāˊ°ṭīˊ, nir. weg. damaṭék ʻ rope ʼ, Shum. ḍamaṭik, Woṭ. damṓṛ m., Sv. dåmoṛīˊ; -- with -- ll -- : N. dāmlo ʻ tether for cow ʼ, dã̄walidāũlidāmli ʻ bird -- trap of string ʼ, dã̄waldāmal ʻ coeval ʼ (< ʻ tied together ʼ?); M. dã̄vlī f. ʻ small tie -- rope ʼ.2. Pk. dāvaṇa -- n., dāmaṇī -- f. ʻ tethering rope ʼ; S. ḍ̠āvaṇuḍ̠āṇu m. ʻ forefeet shackles ʼ, ḍ̠āviṇīḍ̠āṇī f. ʻ guard to support nose -- ring ʼ; L. ḍã̄vaṇ m., ḍã̄vaṇīḍāuṇī (Ju. ḍ̠ -- ) f. ʻ hobble ʼ, dāuṇī f. ʻ strip at foot of bed, triple cord of silk worn by women on head ʼ, awāṇ. dāvuṇ ʻ picket rope ʼ; P. dāuṇdauṇ, ludh. daun f. m. ʻ string for bedstead, hobble for horse ʼ, dāuṇī f. ʻ gold ornament worn on woman's forehead ʼ; Ku. dauṇo m., °ṇī f. ʻ peg for tying cattle to ʼ, gng. dɔ̃ṛ ʻ place for keeping cattle, bedding for cattle ʼ; A. dan ʻ long cord on which a net or screen is stretched, thong ʼ, danā ʻ bridle ʼ; B. dāmni ʻ rope ʼ; Or. daaṇa ʻ string at the fringe of a casting net on which pebbles are strung ʼ,dāuṇi ʻ rope for tying bullocks together when threshing ʼ; H. dāwan m. ʻ girdle ʼ, dāwanī f. ʻ rope ʼ, dã̄wanī f. ʻ a woman's orna<->ment ʼ; G. dāmaṇḍā° n. ʻ tether, hobble ʼ, dāmṇũ n. ʻ thin rope, string ʼ, dāmṇī f. ʻ rope, woman's head -- ornament ʼ; M. dāvaṇ f. ʻ picket -- rope ʼ. -- Words denoting the act of driving animals to tread out corn are poss. nomina actionis from *dāmayati2. 3. L. ḍãvarāvaṇ, (Ju.) ḍ̠ã̄v° ʻ to hobble ʼ; A. dāmri ʻ long rope for tying several buffalo -- calves together ʼ, Or. daũ̈rādaürā ʻ rope ʼ; Bi.daũrī ʻ rope to which threshing bullocks are tied, the act of treading out the grain ʼ, Mth. dã̄mardaũraṛ ʻ rope to which the bullocks are tied ʼ; H. dã̄wrī f. ʻ id., rope, string ʼ, dãwrī f. ʻ the act of driving bullocks round to tread out the corn ʼ. -- X *dhāgga<-> q.v. *dāmayati2; *dāmakara -- , *dāmadhāra -- ; uddāma -- , prōddāma -- ; *antadāmanī -- , *galadāman -- , *galadāmana -- , *gōḍḍadāman -- , *gōḍḍadāmana -- , *gōḍḍadāmara -- .
dāmán -- 2 m. (f.?) ʻ gift ʼ RV. [√1]. See dāˊtu -- . *dāmana -- ʻ rope ʼ see dāˊman -- 1.
Addenda: dāˊman -- 1. 1. Brj. dã̄u m. ʻ tying ʼ. 3. *dāmara -- : Brj. dã̄wrī f. ʻ rope ʼ.(CDIAL 6283)*dāmayati2 ʻ ties with a rope ʼ. [dāˊman -- 1] Bi. dã̄wab ʻ to drive bullocks trading out grain ʼ, H. dāwnādã̄nā; G. dāmvũ ʻ to tie with a cord ʼ. -- Nomina actionis from this verb rather than derived directly from dāˊman -- 1, dāmanī -- (but cf. Bi. daũrī < *dāmara<-> denoting both ʻ rope ʼ and nomen actionis): N. (Tarai)dāuni ʻ threshing ʼ, Bi. daunī ʻ treading out corn ʼ, Mth. dāuni; -- Ku. daĩ f. ʻ driving oxen or buffaloes to tread out grain ʼ, N. dāĩdã̄i, Bi.dawã̄hī, Mth. damāhī; H. dāẽ f. ʻ tying a number of bullocks together for treading corn, the treading out, the unthreshed corn. ʼ -- S. ḍ̠āiṇu ʻ to shackle the forelegs ʼ and P. dāuṇā ʻ to hobble horse oṛ ass ʼ rather < *dāyayati.(CDIAL 6285)


Rebus: 'smelter': M. dhāūdhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron-- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(CDIAL 6773) 

kulā ʻhood of a snakeʼ(Assamese) (CDIAL 3350) खोळ (p. 216) [ khōḷa ] A hooded cloak for children. (CDIAL 3942)Rebus: kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calōkam (five metals) (Tamil) kol ‘working in iron’, blacksmigth’; kolle ‘blacksmith’ kolhe ‘smelters’ kole.l ‘smithy, temple’ ; kollaṉ blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. kole·l smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwala·lKota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace; konimi blacksmith;(Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollëblacksmith. 
Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy (Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge.(DEDR 2133) 


S.Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center
February 25, 2017

    Uṣā,औषस with प्रभा as Utsava bera of the divinity of Dawn. A terracotta boat or chariot of Sarasvati Civilization presented by Massimo Vidale.

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    See: http://tinyurl.com/jqw4ltk  Itihāsa of Uā,औषस and links to artisanal work of त्वष्टृ’s ten daughters 

    Maybe, some of these daughters are venerated and signified as Utsava bera on this terracotta artifact of Sarasvati Civilization? Unfathomable are the metaphors in ādibhautika, ādidaivika and ādhyātmika/turiya levels of representation in the Ṛcas of Ṛgveda.


    The Ṛcas which adore Uṣā,औषस in Ṛgveda are embedded for ready reference.

    Lady of the spiked throne. If this not a spiked throne but rays of the Sun, the lady may be Uṣā,औषस of Ṛgveda. प्र- √ भा 1 a [p= 683,3] P. -भाति , to shine forth , begin to become light , shine , gleam RV. &c  ; to appear , seem , look like (nom. with or without इव) MBh. Ka1v. &c  ; to illuminate , enlighten TUp.; N. of a शक्ति Hcat.; of the city of कुबेर L.

    Detail of the bull's head.
    Bull is the boat. May signify Surya.
    A chariot for utsava bera, procession?




    The Power of a Lost Ritual

    An exceptional and controversial recent find in a private collection is analyzed by a leading Italian archaeologist in this fully illustrated complete volume. With many potential implications for understanding ancient Indus culture.

    From the Preface

    In Autumn 2009, I was invited by a private collector to see an artefact that was mentioned as unique and very complex, and reportedly belonged to the cultural sphere of the Indus civilization. I do not have professional links with the antique market and the world of private collectors, but the descrip- tions I had of the find were so puzzling that for once I accepted the invitation to examine the new find. I was generously hosted by the family of the collector and what I saw fully rewarded the trip and the time. There I spend two whole days, looking in detail to the most amazing and better preserved terracotta group sculpture of the 3rd millennium cal BC I had ever seen, while a professional photographer and her assistant took the pictures you see in this book.

    . . . in this case the find is so exceptional, and its archaeological and historical implica- tions so important, that to bury forever the information in the shelves of a private collector would only add damage to damage. After consulting with several colleagues, I decided to publish it. The only purpose of this book is to make the find available to the specialists and to open a discussion on its meaning.

    https://www.harappa.com/content/lady-spiked-throne

    https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Spiked-Throne.pdf (Full text of the book, 72 pages)

    See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2012/06/lady-of-spiked-throne-massimo-vidale.html

    See: http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-asia/lady-spiked-throne-and-her-mysterious-entourage-002216?nopaging=1
    enthroned lady.jpg
    Total Number of figurines -- riders -- on the boat or chariot: 15. Lady with rays emanting is seated in the middle. On either side of the cabin, 4 male and 4 female figures are seated on cube-like stools (like two rows of rowers or holding reins of the bull which draws the chariot).
    6 other male figurines are standing on the sides, 4 in a cabin and 2 in front, as a sort of entourage.
    See: https://cogniarchae.wordpress.com/2016/08/02/the-lady-of-the-spiked-throne-decoding-the-symbols/
    See: http://learning.brac.net/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=736:eshika-dutta&limitstart=10

    Uṣā Usually means physical dawn. Dawning of spiritual knowledge could be considered as Uṣā (spiritual)(Jñānodaya).

    Uṣā is devata in the following Ṛca-s:
    RV 1.30, 1.48, 1.49, 1.92, 1.95 (?), 1.113, 1.123, 1.124,
    RV 3.61, 4.30, 4.51, 4.52, 5.79, 5.80, 6.64, 6.65, 7.41, 7.75 to 7.81, 8.47, 10.172

    RV 1.95 adores auṣas 'relating to uṣas. This Rca holds the key linking her to artisanal work.

    Reference to त्वष्टृ’s ten daughters in RV 1.95.2
    The reference occurs in the context of devat ā औषस .
    त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृ) AV. xii , 3 , 33; " creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder , N. of a god (called सु-क्/ऋत् , -पाण्/ , -ग्/अभस्ति , -ज्/अनिमन् , स्व्-/अपस् , अप्/असाम् अप्/अस्तम , विश्व्/-रूप &c RV. ; maker of divine implements , esp. of इन्द्र's thunderbolt and teacher of the ऋभुs i , iv-vi , x Hariv. 12146 f. R. ii , 91 , 12 ; former of the bodies of men and animals , hence called " firstborn " and invoked for the sake of offspring , esp. in the आप्री hymns RV. AV. &c MBh. iv , 1178 Hariv. 587 ff. Ragh. vi , 32 ; associated with the similar deities धातृ , सवितृ , प्रजा-पति , पूषन् , and surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम् प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i Ka1tyS3r. iii ; supposed author of RV. x , 184 with the epithet गर्भ-पति RAnukr. ; father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv. ; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv. 545 ff. VP. ; also father of त्रि-शिरस् or विश्वरूप ib. ; overpowered by इन्द्र who recovers the सोम [ RV. iii f. ] concealed by him because इन्द्र had killed his son विश्व-रूप TS. ii S3Br. i , v , xii ; regent of the नक्षत्र चित्रा 
    TBr. S3a1n3khGr2. S3a1ntik. VarBr2S. iic , 4 ; of the 5th cycle of Jupiter viii , 23 ; of an eclipse iii , 6 ; त्वष्टुर् आतिथ्य N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. )

    RV 1.95.2 recites:
    Who are he ten daughters of त्वष्ट?  An asterism is called tvāṣṭ त्वाष्ट्र ष्ट्री 1 The asterism चित्रा;  rī त्वाष्ट्र a. [त्वष्टा देवताअस्य अण्] Belonging to Tvaṣṭṛi; U.6.3. (v. l.). 
    Derived fr. उषस्, ‘dawn’, औषसी, औषस refer to 1. several सामन्1s and 2. ten daughters of त्वष्टृ [p= 464,1] who is a form of the sun MBh. iii , 146 Hariv. 13143 BhP. iii , 6 , 15.
    त्वष्टृ is surrounded by divine females [ग्न्/आस् , जन्/अयस् , देव्/आनाम् प्/अत्नीस् ; cf. त्व्/अष्टा-व्/अरूत्री] recipients of his generative energy RV. S3Br. i Ka1tyS3r. iii
    Could the expression औषस refer to the generative energy of त्वष्ट and related to uṣas? If so, the reference औषस may explain the ‘dawn’ energy kindling agni to purify somabrought in the chariot by uas.
    त्वष्टृ is father of सरण्यू [सु-रेणु Hariv. ; स्व-रेणु L. ] whose double twin-children by विवस्वत् [or वायु ? RV. viii , 26 , 21 f.] are यमयमी and the अश्विन्s x , 17 , 1 f. Nir. xii , 10 Br2ih. Hariv. 545 ff. VP. ;
    औषस [p= 240,2] mf()n. (fr. उषस्) , relating to dawn , early , matutinal TBr. Ii; f. daybreak , morning S3Br. Vi; n. N. of several सामन्1s. (matutinal ‘of or occurring in the morning’).
    1.095.01 Two periods, of different complexions, revolve for their own purposes, and each in succession severally nourishes a son; in one, Hari is the receiver of oblations, in the other, the brilliant Agni is beheld. [viru_pe, of various nature; i.e. of various complexions: black and white, night and day. Day is the mother of fire, which is then, as it were, in an embryo state and is not fully manifested or born until it is dark; hence, the sun is in the womb of night, and is born, or shines, in the morning; Hari, or the sun, being manifested in the morning, is then to be worshipped; Agni, shining at night, is to be worshipped in the evening---tasma_ agnaye sa_yamhu_yate su_rya_ya pra_tar (Taittiri_ya Bra_hman.a 2.1.2.6); aus.asagun.avis'is.t.o agni, s'uddho agnir va_: Agni endowed with the properties of dawn or the simple, discrete Agni].
    1.095.02 The vigilant and youthful Ten beget, through the wind, this embryo Agni, inherent (in all beings), sharp-visaged, universally renowned, shining among men; him they conduct (to every dwelling). [Ten: the ten regions of space, which generate lightning, as an embryo in the clouds, using the winds: agner hi va_yuh ka_ran.am, va_yor agnih, wind is the cause of fire, fire of wind. Tvas.t.uh = wind or its agency: dipta_nmadhyama_d va_yoh sa_kas.a_t, the brilliant central proximity of wind. Ten: the ten fingers which generate Agni through the act of attrition as an embryo in the sticks. vibhr.tram = deposited in all creatures,i.e. inherent].
    1.095.03 They contemplate three places of his birth; one in the ocean, one in the heaven, one in the firmament; and, dividing the seasons of the year for the benefit of earthly creatures, he formed, in regular succession, the eastern quarter. 
    1.095.04 Which of you discerns the hidden Agni? a son, he begets his mothers by oblations; the germ of many (waters), he issues from the ocean, mighty and wise, the recipient of oblations. [hidden agni: latent heat in the waters, in the woods and in all fixed and moveable things; he begets his mothers: Agni, as lightning is the son of the waters collected in the clouds; he generates those waters by the oblations which he conveys; he issues from the ocean: upastha_t (smudra_t) nirgacchati, Agni is thought to rise in the morning in the shape of the sun from out of the ocean].
    1.095.05 Appearing amongst them (the waters), the bright-shining (Agni) increases, rising above the flanks of the waving waters, spreading his own renown; both (heaven and earth) are alarmed, as the radiant Agni is born, and, approaching the lion, they pay him honour. [above the flanks of the waving waters: jihma_na_m apa_m upasthe, above, on the side, or tip, of the crooked waters; reference to Agni as the lightning; approaching the lion: sim.ha applied to Agni, implying sahanas'i_lam, abhibha_vana s'i_lam, ability to suffer or be overcome].
    1.095.06 Both the auspicious ones (day and night or two pieces of wood rubbed together to produce flame) wait upon him like two female attendants, as lowing kine (follow their calves) by the paths (that they have gone); he has been the lord of might among the mighty, whom (the priests) on the right (of the altar) anoint.
    1.095.07 Like the sun, he stretches forth his arms, and the formidable Agni, decorating both heaven and earth (with brightness), labours (in his duties); he draws up from everything the essential (moisture), and clothes (the earth) with new vestments (derived) from his maternal (rains).
    1.095.08 Associated in the firmament with the moving waters, he assumes an excellent and lustrous form, and the wise sustainer (of all things) sweeps over the source (of the rains with his radiance), whence a concentration of light is spread abroad by the sportive deity. [budhna = antariks.a or firmament, as the source of the rains].
    1.095.09 The vast and victorious radiance of you, the mighty one, pervades the firmament; Agni, who have been kindled by us, preserve us with all your undiminished and protecting glories.
    1.095.10 He causes the waters to flow in a torrent through the sky, and with those pure waves he inundates the earth; he gathers all (articles of) food in the stomach, and for that purpose sojourns in the new-sprung parents (of the gain). [navasu prasus.u = in the new parents, or mothers; i.e. in the os.adhis, the annual crops which ripen after the rains and bear food, being impregnated by the terrestrial Agni].
    1.095.11 Agni, who are the purifier, growing with the fuel we have supplied, blaze for the sake of (securing) food to us, who are possessed of wealth; and may Mitra, Varun.a, Aditi--ocean, earth, and heaven, preserve it to us.
    Griffith: HYMN XCV. Agni 95
    1. To fair goals travel Two unlike in semblance: each in succession nourishes an infant.
    One bears a Godlike Babe of golden colour; bright and fairshining-, is he with the other.
    2 Tvastars' ten daughters, vigilant and youthful, produced this Infant borne to sundry quarters.
    They bear around him whose long flames are pointed, fulgent among mankind with native splendour.
    3. Three several places of his birth they honour, in midair-, in the heaven, and in the waters.
    Governing in the east of earthly regions, the seasons hath he stablished in their order.
    4 Who of you knows this secret One? The Infant by his own nature hath brought forth his Mothers.
    The germ of many, from the waters' bosom he goes forth, wise and great, of Godlike nature.
    5 Visible, fair, he grows in native brightness uplifted in the lap of waving waters.
    When he was born both Tvastars' worlds were frightened: they turn to him and reverence the Lion.
    6 The Two auspicious Ones, like women, tend him: like lowing cows they seek him in their manner.
    He is the Lord of Might among the mighty; him, on the right, they balm with their oblations.
    7 Like Savitar his arms with might he stretches; awful, he strives grasping the worlds' two
    borders.
    He forces out from all a brilliant vesture, yea, from his Mothers draws forth new raiment.
    8 He makes him a most noble form of splendour, decking him in his home with milk and waters.
    The Sage adorns the depths of air with wisdom: this is the meeting where the Gods are worshipped.
    9 Wide through the firmament spreads forth triumphant the far resplendent- strength of thee the
    Mighty.
    Kindled by us do thou preserve us, Agni, with all thy selfbright- undiminished succours.
    10 In dry spots he makes stream, and course, and torrent, and inundates the earth with floods that glisten.
    All ancient things within his maw he gathers, and moves among the new fresh sprouting- grasses.
    11 Fed with our fuel, purifying Agni, so blaze to us auspiciously for glory.
    This prayer of ours may Varuna grant, and Mitra, and Aditi and Sindhu, Earth and Heaven.



    Four Rcas of Āngīrasa are succinct and precise statements on Uṣas: RV 10.172

    RV 1.30:
    20 What mortal, O immortal Dawn, enjoyeth thee? Where lovest thou?
    To whom, O radiant, dost thou go?
    21 For we have had thee in our thoughts whether anear or far away,
    Redhued- and like a dappled mare.
    22 Hither, O 
    Daughter of the Sky, come thou with these thy strengthenings,
    And send thou riches down to us.
    RV 1.48
    HYMN XLVIII. Dawn. 48
    1 DAWN on us with prosperity, O Usas, Daughter of the Sky,
    Dawn with great glory, Goddess, Lady of the Light, dawn thou with riches, Bounteous One.
    2 They, bringing steeds and kine, boongivers- of all wealth, have oft sped forth to lighten us.
    O Usas, waken up for me the sounds of joy: send us the riches of the great.
    3 Usas hath dawned, and now shall dawn, the Goddess, driver forth of cars
    Which, as she cometh nigh, have fixed their thought on her, like gloryseekers- on the flood.
    4 Here Kanva, chief of Kanvas' race, sings forth aloud the glories of the heroes' names,
    The. princes who, O Usas, as thou comest near, direct their thoughts to liberal gifts.
    5 Like a good matron Usas comes carefully tending everything:
    Rousing all life she stirs all creatures that have feet, and makes the birds of air fly up.
    6 She sends the busy forth, each man to his pursuit: delay she knows not as she springs.
    O rich in opulence, after thy dawning birds that have flown forth no longer rest.
    7 This Dawn hath yoked her steeds afar, beyond the rising of the Sun:
    Borne on a hundred chariots she, auspicious Dawn, advances on her way to Men.
    8 To meet her glance all living creatures bend them down: Excellent One, she makes the light.
    Usas, the Daughter of the Sky, the opulent, shines foes and enmities away.
    9 Shine on us with thy radiant light, O Usas, Daughter of the Sky,
    Bringing to us great store of high felicity, and beaming on our solemn rites.
    10 For in thee is each living creatures' breath and life, when, Excellent! thou dawnest forth.
    Borne on thy lofty car, O Lady of the Light, hear, thou of wondrous wealth, our call.
    11 O Usas, win thyself the strength which among men is wonderful.
    Bring thou thereby the pious unto holy rites, those who as priests sing praise to thee.
    12 Bring from the firmament, O Usas, all the Gods, that they may drink our Soma juice,
    And, being what thou art, vouchsafe us kine and steeds, strength meet for praise and hero might.
    13 May Usas whose auspicious rays are seen resplendent round about,
    Grant us great riches, fair in form, of all good things, wealth which light labour may attain.
    14 Mighty One, whom the Rsis of old time invoked for their protection and their help,
    O Usas, graciously answer our songs of praise with bounty and with brilliant light.
    15 Usas, as thou with light to day hast opened the twin doors of heaven,
    So grant thou us a dwelling wide and free from foes. O Goddess, give us food with kine.
    16 Bring us to wealth abundant, sent in every shape, to plentiful refreshing food,
    To allsubduing- splendour, Usas, Mighty One, to strength, thou rich in spoil and wealth.

    RV 1.49
    HYMN XLIX. Dawn. 49
    1 EEN' from above the skys' bright realm come, Usas, by auspicious ways:
    Let red steeds bear thee to the house of him who pours the Soma, juice.
    2 The chariot which thou mountest, fair of shape, O Usas light to move,
    Therewith, O Daughter of the Sky, aid men of noble fame today.
    3 Bright Usas, when thy times return, all quadrupeds and bipeds stir,
    And round about flock winged birds from all the boundaries of heaven.
    4 Thou dawning with thy beams of light illumest all the radiant realm.
    Thee, as thou art, the Kanvas, fain for wealth, have called with sacred songs.

    RV 1.92
    HYMN XCII. Dawn. 92
    1.    THESE Dawns have raised their banner; in the eastern half of the midair- they spread abroad
    their shining light.
    Like heroes who prepare their weapons for the war, onward they come bright red in hue, the Mother
    Cows.
    2 Readily have the purple beams of light shot up; the Red Cows have they harnessed, easy to be
    yoked.
    The Dawns have brought distinct perception as before: redhued-, they have attained their fulgent
    brilliancy.
    3 They sing their song like women active in their tasks, along their common path hither from far
    away,
    Bringing refreshment to the liberal devotee, yea, all things to the worshipper who pours the juice.
    4 She, like a dancer, puts her broidered garments on: as a cow yields her udder so she bares her
    breast.
    Creating light for all the world of life, the Dawn hath laid the darkness open as the cows their
    stall.
    5 We have beheld the brightness of her shining; it spreads and drives away the darksome monster.
    Like tints that deck the Post at sacrifices, Heavens' Daughter hath attained her wondrous
    splendour.
    6 We have overpast the limit of this darkness; Dawn breaking forth again brings clear perception.
    She like a flatterer smiles in light for glory, and fair of face hath wakened to rejoice us.
    7 The Gotamas have praised Heavens' radiant Daughter, the leader of the charm of pleasant voices.
    Dawn, thou conferrest on us strength with offspring and men, conspicuous with kine and horses.
    8 O thou who shinest forth in wondrous glory, urged onward by thy strength, auspicious Lady,
    Dawn, may I gain that wealth, renowned and ample, in brave sons, troops of slaves, farfamed- for
    horses.
    9 Bending her looks on all the world, the Goddess shines, widely spreading with her bright eye
    westward.
    Waking to motion every living creature, she understands the voice of each adorer.
    10 Ancient of days, again again born newly, decking her beauty with the selfsame- raiment.
    The Goddess wastes away the life of mortals, like a skilled hunter cutting birds in pieces.
    11 She hath appeared discovering heavens' borders: to the far distance she drives off her Sister.
    Diminishing the days of human creatures, the Lady shines with all her lovers' splendour.
    12 The bright, the blessed One shines forth extending her rays like kine, as a flood rolls his
    waters.
    Never transgressing the divine commandments, she is beheld visible with the sunbeams.
    13 O Dawn enriched with ample wealth, bestow on us the wondrous gift
    Wherewith we may support children and childrens' sons.
    14 Thou radiant mover of sweet sounds, with wealth of horses and of kine
    Shine thou on us this day, O Dawn auspiciously.
    15 O Dawn enriched with holy rites, yoke to thy car thy purple steeds,
    And then bring thou unto us all felicities.
    16 O Asvins wonderful in act, do ye unanimous direct
    Your chariot to our home wealthy in kine and gold.
    17 Ye who brought down the hymn from heaven, a light that giveth light to man,
    Do ye, O Asvins, bring strength hither unto us.
    18 Hither may they who wake at dawn bring, to drink Soma both the Gods
    Healthgivers- WonderWorkers-, borne on paths of gold.
    RV 1.113
    HYMN CXIII. Dawn. 113
    1. This light is come, amid all lights the fairest; born is the brilliant, farextending-
    brightness.
    Night, sent away for Savitars' uprising, hath yielded up a birthplace- for the Morning.
    2 The Fair, the Bright is come with her white offspring; to her the Dark One hath resigned her
    dwelling.
    Akin, immortal, following each other, changing their colours both the heavens move onward.
    3 Common, unending is the Sisters' pathway; taught by the Gods, alternately they travel.
    Fairformed-, of different hues and yet oneminded-, Night and Dawn clash not, neither do they
    travel.
    4 Bright leader of glad sounds, our eyes behold her; splendid in hue she hath unclosed the portals.
    She, stirring up the world, hath shown us riches: Dawn hath awakened every living creature.
    5 Rich Dawn, she sets afoot the coiledup- sleeper, one for enjoyment, one for wealth or worship,
    Those who saw little for extended vision. All living creatures hath the Dawn awakened.
    6 One to high sway, one to exalted glory, one to pursue his gain, and one his labour:
    All to regard their different vocations, all moving creatures hath the Dawn awakened.
    7 We see her there, the Child of Heaven apparent, the young Maid, flushing in her shining raiment.
    Thou sovran Lady of all earthly treasure, flush on us here, auspicious Dawn, this morning.
    8 She first of endless morns to come hereafter, follows the path of morns that have departed.
    Dawn, at her rising, urges forth the living him who is dead she wakes not from his slumber.
    9 As thou, Dawn, hast caused Agni to be kindled, and with the Suns' eye hast revealed creation.
    And hast awakened men to offer worship, thou hast performed, for Gods, a noble service.
    10 How long a time, and they shall be together, Dawns that have shone and Dawns to shine hereafter?
    She yearns for former Dawns with eager longing, and goes forth gladly shining with the others.
    11 Gone are the men who in the days before us looked on the rising of the earlier Morning.
    We, we the living, now behold her brightness and they come nigh who shall hereafter see her.
    12 Foechaser-, born of Law, the Laws' protectress, joygiver-, waker of all pleasant voices,
    Auspicious, bringing food for Gods enjoyment, shine on us here, most bright, O Dawn, this morning.
    13 From days eternal hath Dawn shone, the Goddess, and shows this light today-, endowed with
    riches.
    So will she shine on days to come immortal she moves on in her own strength, undecaying.
    14 In the skys' borders hath she shone in splendour: the Goddess hath thrown off the veil of
    darkness.
    Awakening the world with purple horses, on her wellharnessed- chariot Dawn approaches.
    15 Bringing all lifesustaining- blessings with her, showing herself she sends forth brilliant
    lustre.
    Last of the countless mornings that have vanished, first of bright morns to come hath Dawn arisen.
    16 Arise! the breath, the life, again hath reached us: darkness hath passed away and light
    approacheth.
    She for the Sun hath left a path to travel we have arrived where men prolong existence.
    17 Singing the praises of refulgent Mornings with his hymns' web the priest, the poet rises.
    Shine then today-, rich Maid, on him who lauds thee, shine down on us the gift of life and
    offspring.
    18 Dawns giving sons all heroes, kine and horses, shining upon the man who brings oblations,
    These let the Somapresser- gain when ending his glad songs louder than the voice of Vayu.
    19 Mother of Gods, Aditis' form of glory, ensign of sacrifice, shine forth exalted.
    Rise up, bestowing praise on our devotion allbounteous-, make us chief among the people.
    20 Whatever splendid wealth the Dawns bring with them to bless the man who offers praise and
    worship,
    Even that may Mitra, Varuna vouchsafe us, and Aditi and Sindhu, Earth and Heaven.

    RV 1.123
    HYMN CXXIII. Dawn. 123
    1.    THE Daksinas' broad chariot hath been harnessed: this car the Gods Immortal have ascended.
    Fain to bring light to homes of men the noble and active Goddess hath emerged from darkness.
    2 She before all the living world hath wakened, the Lofty One who wins and gathers treasure.
    Revived and ever young on high she glances. Dawn hath come first unto our morning worship.
    3 If, Dawn, thou Goddess nobly born, thou dealest fortune this day to all the race of mortals,
    May Savitar the God, Friend of the homestead, declare before the Sun that we are sinless.
    4 Showing her wonted form each day that passeth, spreading the light she visiteth each dwelling.
    Eager for conquest, with bright sheen she cometh. Her portion is the best of goodly treasures.
    5 Sister of Varuna, sister of Bhaga, first among all sing forth, O joyous Morning.
    Weak be the strength of him who worketh evil: may we subdue him with our car the guerdon.
    6 Let our glad hymns and holy thoughts rise upward, for the flames brightly burning have ascended.
    The farrefulgent- Mornings make apparent the lovely treasures which the darkness covered.
    7 The one departeth and the other cometh: unlike in hue days', halves march on successive.
    One hides the gloom of the surrounding Parents. Dawn on her shining chariot is resplendent.
    8 The same in form today-, the same tomorrow, they still keep Varunas' eternal statute.
    Blameless, in turn they traverse thirty regions, and dart across the spirit in a moment.
    9 She who hath knowledge Of the first days' nature is born refulgent white from out the darkness.
    The Maiden breaketh not the law of Order, day by day coming to the place appointed.
    10 In pride of beauty like a maid thou goest, O Goddess, to the God who longs to win thee,
    And smiling youthful, as thou shinest brightly, before him thou discoverest thy bosom.
    11 Fair as a bride embellished by her mother thou showest forth thy form that all may see it.
    Blessed art thou O Dawn. Shine yet more widely. No other Dawns have reached what thou attainest.
    12 Rich in kine, horses, and all goodly treasures, in constant operation with the sunbeams,
    The Dawns depart and come again assuming their wonted forms that promise happy fortune.
    13 Obedient to the rein of Law Eternal give us each thought that more and more shall bless us.
    Shine thou on us today-, Dawn, swift to listen. With us be riches and with chiefs who worship.
    RV 1.124
    HYMN CXXIV. Dawn. 124
    1.    THE Dawn refulgent when the fire is kindled, and the Sun rising, far diffuse their brightness.
    Savitar, God, hath sent us forth to labour, each quadruped, each biped, to be active.
    2 Not interrupting heavenly ordinances, although she minisheth human generations.
    The last of endless morns that have departed, the first of those that come, Dawn brightly shineth.
    3 There in the eastern region she, Heavens' Daughter, arrayed in garments all of light, appeareth.
    Truly she followeth the path of Order, nor faileth, knowing well, the heavenly quarters.
    4 Near is she seen, as it were the Bright Ones' bosom: she showeth sweet things like a new
    songsinger-.
    She cometh like a fly awaking sleepers, of all returning dames most true and constant.
    5 There in the east half of the watery region the Mother of the Cows hath shown her ensign.
    Wider and wider still she spreadeth onward, and filleth full the laps of both heir Parents.
    6 She, verily, exceeding vast to look on debarreth from her light nor kin nor stranger.
    Proud of her spotless form she, brightly shining, turneth not from the high nor from the humble.
    7 She seeketh men, as she who hath no brother, mounting her car, as it were to gather riches.
    Dawn, like a loving matron for her husband, smiling and well attired, unmasks her beauty.
    8 The Sister quitteth, for the elder Sister, her place, and having looked on her departeth.
    She decks her beauty, shining forth with sunbeams, like women trooping to the festal meeting.
    9 To all these Sisters who ere now have vanished a later one each day in course succeedeth.
    So, like the past, with days of happy fortune, may the new Dawns shine forth on us with riches.
    10 Rouse up, O Wealthy One, the liberal givers; let niggard traffickers sleep on unwakened:
    Shine richly, Wealthy One, on those who worship, richly, glad.
    Dawn while wasting, on the singer.
    11 This young Maid from the east hath shone upon us; she harnesseth her team of bright red oxen.
    She will beam forth, the light will hasten hither, and Agni will be present in each dwelling.
    12 As the birds fly forth from their resting places, so men with store of food rise at thy dawning.
    Yea, to the liberal mortal who remaineth at home, O Goddess Dawn, much good thou bringest.
    13 Praised through my prayer be ye who should be lauded. Ye have increased our wealth, ye Dawns
    who love us.
    Goddesses, may we win by your good favour wealth to be told by hundreds and by thousands.
    RV 3.61
    HYMN LXI. Usas. 61
    1. O Usas, strong with strength, endowed witli knowledge, accept the singers' praise, O wealthy
    Lady.
    Thou, Goddess, ancient, young, and full of wisdom, movest, allbounteous-! as the Law ordaineth.
    2 Shine forth, O Morning, thou auspicious Goddess, on thy bright car awaking pleasant voices.
    Let docile horses of farreaching- splendour convey thee hitherward, the goldencoloured.
    3 Thou, Morning, turning thee to every creature, standest on high as ensign of the Immortal,
    To one same goal ever and ever wending now, like a wheel, O newlyborn-, roll hi ther.
    4 Letting her reins drop downward, Morning cometh, the wealthy Dame, the Lady of the dwelling;
    Bringing forth light, the Wonderful, the Blessed hath spread her from the bounds of earth and
    heaven.
    5 Hither invoke the radiant Goddess Morning, and bring with reverence your hymn to praise her.
    She, dropping sweets, hath set in heaven her brightness, and, fair to look on, hath beamed forth
    her splendour.
    6 From heaven, with hymns, the Holy One was wakened: brightly to both worlds came the wealthy Lady.
    To Morning, Agni, when she comes refulgent, thou goest forth soliciting fair riches.
    7 On Laws' firm base the speeder of the Mornings, the Bull, hath entered mighty earth and heaven.
    Great is the power of Varuna and Mitra, which, bright, hath spread in every place its splendour.

    RV 4.30
    8 And this heroic deed of might thou, Indra, also hast achieved,
    That thou didst smite to death the Dame, Heavens' Daughter, meditating ill.
    9 Thou, Indra, Mighty One, didst crush Usas, though Daughter of the Sky.
    When lifting up herself in pride.
    10 Then from her chariot Usas fled, affrighted, from her ruined car.
    When the strong God had shattered it.
    11 So there this car of Usas lay, broken to pieces, in Vipas,
    And she herself fled far away.

    RV 4.51, 4.52
    HYMN LI. Dawn. 51
    1. FORTH from the darkness in the region eastward this most abundant splendid light hatb mounted.
    Now verily the farrefulgent- Mornings, Daughters of Heaven, bring welfare to the people.
    2 The richlycoloured- Dawns have mounted eastward, like pillars planted at our sacrifices,
    And, flushing far, splendid and purifying, unbarred the portals of the fold of darkness.
    3 Dispelling gloom this day the wealthy Mornings urge liberal givers to present their treasures.
    In the unlightened depth of darkness round them let niggard traffickers sleep unawakened.
    4 O Goddesses, is this your car, I ask you, ancient this day, or is it new, ye Mornings,
    Wherewith, rich Dawns, ye seek with wealth Navagva, Dasagva Angira, the seventoned- singer?
    5 With horses harnessed by eternal Order, Goddesses, swiftly round the worlds ye travel,
    Arousing from their rest, O Dawns, the sleeping, and all that lives, man, bird, and beast, to
    motion.
    6 Which among these is eldest, and where is she through whom they fixed the Rbhus' regulations?
    What time the splendid Dawns go forth for splendour, they are not known apart, alike, unwasting.
    7 Blest were these Dawns of old, shining with succour, true with the truth that springs from holy
    Order;
    With whom the toiling worshipper, by praises, hymning and lauding, soon attained to riches.
    8 Hither from eastward all at once they travel, from one place spreading in the selfsame manner.
    Awaking, from the seat of holy Order the Godlike Dawns come nigh like troops of cattle.
    9 Thus they go forth with undiminished colours, these Mornings similar, in selfsame- fashion,
    Concealing the gigantic might of darkness with radiant bodies bright and pure and shining.
    10 O Goddesses, O Heavens' refulgent Daughters, bestow upon us wealth with store of children.
    As from our pleasant place of rest ye rouse us may we be masters of heroic vigour.
    11 Wellskilled- in lore of sacrifice, ye Daughters of Heaven, refulgent Dawns, I thus address you.
    May we be glorious among the people. May Heaven vouchsafe us this, and Earth the Goddess,

    HYMN LII. Dawn. 52
    1. THIS Lady, giver of delight, after her Sister shining forth, Daughter of Heaven, hath shown
    herself.-
    2 Unfailing, Mother of the Kine, in colour like a bright red mare,
    The Dawn became the Asvins' Friend.
    3 Yea, and thou art the Asvins' Friend, the Mother of the Kine art thou:
    O Dawn thou rulest over wealth.
    4 Thinking of thee, O joyous One, as her who driveth hate away,
    We woke to meet thee with our lauds.
    5 Our eyes behold thy blessed rays like troops of cattle loosed to feed.
    Dawn hath filled full the wide expanse.
    6 When thou hast filled it, Fulgent One! thou layest bare the gloom with light.
    After thy nature aid us, Dawn.
    7 Thou overspreadest heaven with rays, the dear wide region of midair-.
    With thy bright shining lustre, Dawn.

    RV 5.79
    HYMN LXXIX. Dawn. 79
    1. O HEAVENLY Dawn, awaken us to ample opulence today-
    Even as thou hast wakened us with Satyasravas, Vayyas' son, highborn-! delightful with thy steeds!
    2 Daughter of Heaven, thou dawnedst on Sunitha Sucadrathas' son,
    So dawn thou on one mightier still, on Satyasravas, Vayyas' son, highborn-! delightful with thy
    steeds!
    3 So, bringing treasure, dawn today- on us thou Daughter of the Sky,
    As thou, O mightier yet. didst shine for Satyatravas, Vayyas' son, highborn-! delightful with thy
    steeds!
    4 Here round about thee are the priests who laud thee, Bright One, with their hymns,
    And men with gifts, O Bounteous Dame, splendid with wealth and offering much, highborn-!
    delightful with thy steeds!
    5 Whatever these thy bands perform to please thee or to win them wealth,
    even fain they gird us round and give rich gifts which Never are reft away, highborn-! delightful
    with thy steeds!
    6 Give to these wealthy patrons fame, O affluent Dawn, with hero sons,
    To these our princes who have brought rich gifts Never to be reft away, highborn! delightful with
    thy steeds!
    7 Bring lofty and resplendent fame, O thou munificent Dawn, to these
    Our wealthy patrons who bestow rich gifts on us of steeds and kine, highborn-! delightful with thy
    steeds!
    8 Bring us, O Daughter of the Sky, subsistence in our herds of kine,
    Together with the sunbeams, with the shine of pure refulgent flames, highborn! delightful with thy
    steeds!
    9 O Daughter of the Sky, shine forth; delay not to perform thy task.
    Let not the Sun with fervent heat consume thee like a robber foe, highborn-! delightful with the
    steeds!
    10 So much, and more exceedingly, O Dawn, it suits thee to bestow,
    Thou Radiant One who ceasest not to shine for those who sing thy praise, highborn! delightful with
    thy steeds!

    RV 5.80
    HYMN LXXX. Dawn. 80
    1. THE singers welcome with their hymns and praises the Goddess Dawn who bringeth in the sunlight,
    Sublime, by Law true to eternal Order, bright on her path, redtinted-, farrefulgent-.
    2 She comes in front, fair, rousing up the people, making the pathways easy to be travelled.
    High, on her lofty chariot, allimpelling-, Dawn gives her splendour at the days' beginning.
    3 She, harnessing her car with purple oxen. injuring none, hath brought perpetual riches.
    Opening paths to happiness, the Goddess shines, praised by all, giver of every blessing.
    4 With changing tints she gleams in double splendour while from the eastward she displays her body.
    She travels perfectly the path of Order, nor fails to reach, as one who knows, the quarters.
    5 As conscious that her limbs are bright with bathing, she stands, as it were, erect that we may
    see her.
    Driving away malignity and darkness, Dawn, Child of Heaven, hath come to us with lustre.
    6 The Daughter of the Sky, like some chaste woman, bends, opposite to men, her forehead downward.
    The Maid, disclosing boons to him who worships, hath brought again the daylight as aforetime.

    RV 6.64, RV 6.65
    HYMN LXIV. Dawn. 64
    1. THE radiant Dawns have risen up for glory, in their white splendour like the waves of waters.
    She maketh paths all easy, fair to travel, and, rich, hath shown herself benign and friendly.
    2 We see that thou art good: far shines thy lustre; thy beams, thy splendours have flown up to
    heaven.
    Decking thyself, thou makest bare thy bosom, shining in majesty, thou Goddess Morning.
    3 Red are the kine and luminous that bear her the Blessed One who spreadeth through the distance.
    The foes she chaseth like a valiant archer, like a swift warrior she repelleth darkness.
    4 Thy ways are easy on the hills: thou passest Invincible! Se1fluminous-! through waters.
    So lofty Goddess with thine ample pathway, Daughter of Heaven, bring wealth to give us comfort.
    5 Dawn, bring me wealth: untroubled, with thine oxen thou bearest riches at thy will and pleasure;
    Thou who, a Goddess, Child of Heaven, hast shown thee lovely through bounty when we called thee
    early.
    6 As the birds fly forth from their restingplaces, so men with store of food rise at thy dawning.
    Yea, to the liberal mortal who rernaineth at home, O Goddess Dawn, much good thou bringest.

    HYMN LXV. Dawn. 65
    1.    SHEDDING her light on human habitations this Child of Heaven hath called us from our slumber;
    She who at nighttime- with her argent lustre hath shown herself even through the shades of
    darkness.
    2 All this with redrayed- steeds have they divided: the Dawns on bright cars shine in wondrous
    fashion.
    They, bringing near the stately rites' commencement, drive far away the nights' surrounding
    shadows.
    3 Dawns, bringing hither, to the man who worships, glory and power and might and food and vigour,
    Opulent, with imperial sway like heroes, favour your servant and this day enrich him.
    4 Now is there treasure for the man who serves you, now for the hero, Dawns! who brings oblation;
    Now for the singer when he sings the praisesong-. Even to one like me ye brought aforetime.
    5 O Dawn who standest on the mountain ridges, Angirases now praise thy stalls of cattle.
    With prayer and holy hymn they burst them open: the heroes' calling on the Gods was fruitful.
    6 Shine on us as of old, thou Child of Heaven on, him, rich Maid! who serves like Bharadvaja.
    Give to the singer wealth with noble heroes, and upon us bestow widespreading- glory.
    RV 7.41
    HYMN XLI. Bhaga. 41
    6 To this our worship may all Dawns incline them, and come to the pure place like Dadhikravan.
    As strong steeds draw a chariot may they bring us hitherward Bhaga who discovers treasure.
    7 May blessed Mornings dawn on us for ever, with wealth of kine, of horses, and of heroes,
    Streaming with all abundance, pouring fatness. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

    RV 7.75 to RV 7.81
    HYMN LXXV. Dawn. 75
    1. BORN in the heavens the Dawn hath flushed, and showing her majesty is come as Law ordaineth.
    She hath uncovered fiends and hateful darkness; best of Angirases, hath waked the pathways.
    2 Rouse us this day to high and happy fortune: to great felicity, O Dawn, promote us.
    Vouchsafe us manifold and splendid riches, famed among mortals, manbefriending- Goddess!
    3 See, lovely Mornings' everlasting splendours, bright with their varied colours, have approached
    us.
    Filling the region of midair-, producing the rites of holy worship, they have mounted.
    4 She yokes her chariot far away, and swiftly visits the lands where the Five Tribes are settled,
    Looking upon the works and ways of mortals, Daughter of Heaven, the worlds' Imperial Lady.
    5 She who is rich in spoil, the Spouse of Surya, wondrously opulent, rules all wealth and
    treasures.
    Consumer of our youth, the seers extol her: lauded by priests rich Dawn shines out refulgent.
    6 Apparent are the steeds of varied colour, the red steeds carrying resplendent Morning.
    On her alllovely- car she comes, the Fair One, and brings rich treasure for her faithful servant.
    7 True with the True and Mighty with the Mighty, with Gods a Goddess, Holy with the Holy,
    She brake strong fences down and gave the cattle: the kine were lowing as they greeted Morning.
    8 O Dawn, now give us wealth in kine and heroes, and horses, fraught with manifold enjoyment.
    Protect our sacred grass from mans' reproaches. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

    HYMN LXXVI. Dawn. 76
    1. SAVITAR God of all men hath sent upward his light, designed for all mankind, immortal.
    Through the Gods power that Eye was first created. Dawn hath made all the universe apparent.
    2 I see the paths which Gods are wont to travel, innocuous paths made ready by the Vasus.
    Eastward the flag of Dawn hath been uplifted; she hath come hither over the tops of houses.
    3 Great is, in truth, the number of the Mornings which were aforetime at the Suns' uprising.
    Since thou, O Dawn, hast been beheld repairing as to thy love, as one no more to leave him.
    4 They were the Gods companions at the banquet, the ancient sages true to Law Eternal.
    The Fathers found the light that lay in darkness, and with effectual words begat the Morning.
    5 Meeting together in the same enclosure, they strive not, ofone mind, one with another.
    They never break the Gods eternal statutes, and injure none, in rivalry with Vasus.
    6 Extolling thee, Blest Goddess, the Vasisthas, awake at early mom, with lauds implore thee.
    Leader of kine and Queen of all that strengthens, shine, come as first to us, O highborn- Morning.
    7 She bringeth bounty and sweet charm of voices. The flushing Dawn is sung by the Vasisthas,
    Giving us riches famed to distant places. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

    HYMN LXXVIT. Dawn. 77
    1. SHE hath shone brightly like a youthful woman, stirring to motion every living creature.
    Agni hath come to feed on mortal? fuel. She hath made light and chased away the darkness.
    2 Turned to this All, farspreading-, she hath risen and shone in brightness with white robes about
    her.
    She hath beamed forth lovely with golden colours, Mother of kine, Guide of the days she bringeth.
    3 Bearing the Gods own Eye, auspicious Lady, leading her Courser white and fair to look on,
    Distinguished by her beanis- Dawn shines apparent, come forth to all the world with wondrous
    treasure.
    4 Draw nigh with wealth and dawn away the foeman: prepare for us wide pasture free from danger.
    Drive away those who hate us, bring us riches: pour bounty, opulent Lady, on the singer.
    5 Send thy most excellent beams to shine and light us, giving us lengthened days, O Dawn, O
    Goddess,
    Granting us food, thou who hast all things precious, and bounty rich in chariots, kine, and horses.
    6 O Usas, noblyborn-, Daughter of Heaven, whom the Vasisthas with their hymns make mighty,
    Bestow thou on us vast and glorious riches. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

    HYMN LXXVIII. Dawn. 78
    1. WE have beheld her earliest lights approaching: her many glories part, on high, asunder.
    On car sublime, refulgent, wending hither, O Usas, bring the Wealth that makes us happy.
    2 The fire wellkindIed- sings aloud to greet her, and with their hymns the priests are chaming
    welcome.
    Usas approaches in her splendour, driving all evil darkness far away, the Goddess.
    3 Apparent eastward are those lights of Morning, sending out lustre, as they rise, around them.
    She hath brought forth Sun, sacrifice, and Agni, and far away hath fled detested darkness.
    4 Rich Daughter of the Sky, we all behold her, yea, all men look on Dawn as she is breaking.
    fler car that moves selfharnessed- hath she mounted, the car drawn onward by her wellyoked- horses.
    5 Inspired with loving thoughts this day to greet thee, we and our wealthy nobles have awakened.
    Show yourselves fruitful, Dawns, as ye are rising. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

    HYMN LXXIX. Dawn. 79
    1. ROUSING the lands where mens' Five Tribes are settled, Dawn hath disclosed the pathways of the
    people.
    She hath sent out her sheen with beauteous oxen. The Sun with light hath opened earth and heaven.
    2 They paint their bright rays on the skys' far limits. the Dawns come on like tribes arrayed for
    battle.
    Thy cattle, closely shutting up the darkness, as Savitar spreads his arms, give forth their lustre.
    3 Wealthy, most like to Indra, Dawn hath risen, and brought forth lauds that shall promote our
    welfare.
    Daughter of Heaven, a Goddess, she distributes, best of Angirases, treasures to the pious.
    4 Bestow on us, O Dawn, that ample bounty which thou didst send to those who sang thy praises;
    Thou whom with bellowings of a bull they quickened: thou didst unbar the firmset- mountains'
    portals.
    5 Impelling every God to grant his bounty sending to us the charm of pleasant voices,
    Vouchsafe us thoughts, for profit, as thou breakest. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

    HYMN LXXX. Dawn. 80
    1 THE priests, Vasisthas, are the first awakened to welcome Usas with their songs and praises,
    Who makes surrounding regions part asunder and, shows apparent all existing creatures.
    2 Giving fresh life when she hath hid the darkness, this Dawn hath wakened there with newborn-
    lustre.
    Youthful and unrestrained she cometh forward: she hath turned thoughts to Sun and fire and worship.
    3 May blessed Mornings shine on us for ever, with wealth of kine, of horses, and of heroes,
    Streaming with all abundance, pouring fatness. Preserve us evermore, ye Gods, with blessings.

    HYMN LXXXI. Dawn. 81
    1.    ADVANCING, sending forth her rays, the Daughter of the Sky is seen.
    Uncovering, that we may see, the mighty gloom, the friendly Lady makes the light.
    2 The Sun ascending, the refulgent Star, pours down his beams together with the Dawn.
    O Dawn, at thine arising, and the Suns', may we attain the share allotted us.
    3 Promptly we woke to welcome thee, O Usas, Daughter of the Sky,
    Thee, Bounteous One, who bringest all we long to have, and to the offerer health and wealth.
    4 Thou, dawning, workest fain to light the great world, yea, heaven, Goddess! that it may be seen.
    We yearn to be thine own, Dealer of Wealth: may we be to this Mother like her sons.
    5 Bring us that wondrous bounty, Dawn, that shall be famed most far away.
    What, Child of Heaven, thou hast of nourishment for man, bestow thou on us to enjoy.
    6 Give to our princes opulence and immortal fame, and strength in herds of kine to us.
    May she who prompts the wealthy, Lady of sweet strains, may Usas dawn our foes away.
    RV 8.47
    HYMN XLVII. Adityas. 47
    1. GREAT help ye give the worshipper, Varuna, Mitra, Mighty Ones! No sorrow ever reaches him whom
    ye, Adityas, keep from harm. Yours are incomparable aids, and good the succour they afford.
    2 O Gods, Adityas, well ye know the way to keep all woes afar.
    As the birds spread their sheltering wings, spread your protection over us.
    3 As the birds spread their sheltering wings let your protection cover us.
    We mean all shelter and defence, ye who have all things for your own.
    4 To whomsoever they, Most Wise, have given a home and means of life,
    Over the whole riches of this man they, the Adityas, have control.
    5 As drivers of the car avoid ill roads, let sorrows pass us by.
    May we be under Indras' guard, in the Adityas' favouring grace.
    6 For verily men sink and faint through loss of wealth which ye have given.
    Much hath he gained from you, O Gods, whom ye, Adityas, have approached.
    7 On him shall no fierce anger fall, no sore distress shall visit him,
    To whom, Adityas, ye have lent your shelter that extendeth far.
    8 Resting in you, O Gods, we are like men who fight in coats of mail.
    Ye guard us from each great offence, ye guard us from each lighter fault.
    9 May Aditi defend us, may Aditi guard and shelter us,
    Mother of wealthy Mitra and of Aryaman and Varuna.
    10 The shelter, Gods, that is secure, auspicious, free from malady,
    A sure protection, triply strong, even that do ye extend to us.
    11 Look down on us, Adityas, as a guide exploring from the bank.
    Lead us to pleasant ways as men lead horses to an easy ford.
    12 Ill be it for the demons' friend to find us or come near to us.
    But for the milchcow- be it well, and for the man who strives for fame.
    13 Each evil deed made manifest, and that which is concealed, O Gods,
    The whole thereof remove from us to Trita Aptya far away.
    14 Daughter of Heaven, the dream that bodes evil to us or to our kine,
    Remove, O Lady of the Light, to Trita Aptya far away.
    15 Even if, O Child of Heaven, it make a garland or a chain of gold,
    The whole bad dream, whatever it be, to Trita Aptya we consign.
    16 To him whose food and work is this, who comes to take his share therein,
    To Trita, and to Dvita, Dawn! bear thou the evil dream away.
    17 As we collect the utmost debt, even the eighth and sixteenth part,
    So unto Aptya we transfer together all the evil dream.
    18 Now have we conquered and obtained, and from our trespasses are free.
    Shine thou away the evil dream, O Dawn, whereof we are afraid. Yours are incomparable aids, and good the succour they afford.


    RV 10.172
    HYMN CLXXII. Dawn. 172
    1. WITH all thy beauty come: the kine approaching with full udders follow on thy path.
    2 Come with kind thoughts, most liberal, rousing the warriors' hymn of praise, with bounteous ones,
    3 As nourishers we tie the thread, and, liberal with our bounty, offer sacrifice.
    4 Dawn drives away her Sisters' gloom, and, through her excellence, makes her retrace her path.

    S. Kalyanaraman
    Sarasvati Research Center February 25, 2017

    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3JS_KRgl5tA (5:17) Published on Dec 23, 2016
    Questo video contiene mie personali opinioni che non rispecchiano quelle dell'archeologo Massimo Vidale.Per approfondimenti vi lascio linkhttp://www.academia.edu/3877543/M._Vi...

    Sarasvati civilization terracotta artifact पुष्य--रथ of इन्द्र--मह Indra festival

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    I suggest that the ratha reported by Massimo Vidale from Sarasvati Civilization ca. 2700 BCE is पुष्य--रथ of इन्द्र--मह Indra festival carrying गण--देवता, उषा and two Aśvinīkumāras.

     


    An expression used in 
    Ṛgveda Ṛca 1.122.2 is:.uṣāsānaktamउषासानक्तम् Ved. Dawn and night; उषासानक्ता पुरुधा विदाने (RV 1.122.2) 

    I suggest that the artifact signifies उस्र usra in Ṛgveda refers to uṣā, a bull, two Aśvinīkumāras. These divinities together गणदेवता constitute the eight rowers occupying the boat/chariot. पुष्य--रथ [p= 640,2] m. the asterism पुष्य as a car S3is3.a carriage for pleasure ib. (cf. पुष्प-र्°).

    The chariot could be used on festive occasions: puṣyaratha m. ʻ a carriage for pleasure ʼ Śiś. [Cf. puṣparatha -- m. R. -- púṣya -- 1, rátha -- ]Pa. pussaratha -- , phu° m.; Si. pusriya ʻ a kind of cart ʼ, puyariya ʻ chariot used on festive occasions ʼ.(CDIAL 8309) रथ 1 [p= 865,2]
    m. ( √4. ) " goer " , a chariot , car , esp. a two-wheeled war-chariot (lighter and swifter than the अनस्q.v.) , any vehicle or equipage or carriage (applied also to the vehicles of the gods) , waggon , cart RV. &c (ifc. f().प्रिय--रथ [p= 710,2] [L=140577] m. (prob.) (प्रिय्/अ-) , N. of a man RV. i , 122 , 7 (accord. to Sa1y. mfn. = प्रीयमाण-रथ-युक्त).

    Image result for lady spiked throneImage result for lady spiked throneImage result for lady spiked throneImage result for lady spiked throneImage result for lady spiked throne

    I submit that the figures taken on utsava bera, temple procession may relate to some of the metaphors used in this Ṛca 1.122.2. The entire scene may signify 

    वामन vāmana :Venerable; मध्ये वामनमासीनं विश्वेदेवा उपासते Kaṭh.5.3. The eight rowers seated on the boat/ratha could signify some of the divinities of  विश्वेदेवा  viśvedevā ceremony and constitute one of the 9 गणs enumerated under गणदेवता 

    उस्रा [p= 220,3] f. ( Un2. ii , 13) morning light , daybreak , brightness RV.(personified as a red cow); a cow RV. AV. xii , 3 , 73 MBh. xiii Nir. &cm. the sun;m. an ox , bull RV. vi , 12 , 4 VS. iv , 33; m. N. of the अश्विन्RV. ii , 39 , 3 ; iv , 62 , 1 ; vii , 74 , 1.  usrá m. ʻ ray, sun, day ʼ, usŕ̊ -- f. ʻ morning light ʼ, usrāˊ -- f. ʻ daybreak, cow ʼ RV. [√vas3Pk. usa -- m. ʻ ray ʼ, ussā -- f. ʻ cow ʼ; M. ustẽ n. ʻ first morning light ʼ ( - tẽ < tḗjas -- ).(CDIAL 2399)

    गण--देवता [p= 343,1] f. pl. troops of deities who generally appear in classes (आदित्यs , विश्वs , वसुs , तुषितs , आभास्वरs , अनिलs , महाराजिकs , साध्यs , and रुद्रs) L.

    The two guards of उषा seated on the throne may signify two Aśvin.

    उस्र usra a. 1 Relating to, or seen in, the morning. -2 Bright, shining. -स्रः 1 A ray (of light), beam; सर्वैरुस्रैः समग्रैस्त्वमिव नृपगुणैर्दीप्यते सप्तसप्तिः M.2.13; R.4.66; Ki.5.31,34. शीर्षपुष्पोच्छ्रितैरुस्रैरुत्तंसितशिरोरुहाम्; Parṇāl. 4.36. -2 A bull; Rv.6.12.4. -3 A god. -4 The sun. -5 A day. -6 The two Aśvinīkumāras; Rv.2.39.3. -स्रा 1 Morning, dawn. -2 Light; bright sky. -3 A cow; स्वयमुस्राश्च दुह्यन्ते Mb.12.263.31. -4 The earth. -Comp. -धन्वन् a. having a bright bow. -m. N. of Indra. -यामन् a. going out early in the morning (as the Aśvins); Rv.7.74.1.

    इन्द्रः उत्सवः a festival honouring Indra.-ऋषभ a. having Indra as a bull, or impregnated by Indra, an epithet of the earth. इन्द्रऋषभा द्रविणे नो दधातु Av.12.1.6. इन्द्र--मह [p= 166,3]m. a festival in honour of इन्द्र MBh. Hariv. &c; इन्द्र--मख [p= 166,3]m. a sacrifice to इन्द्र.
     
    उषा signified by the prabha (spiked rays of the sun) may be सूर्या f. the daughter of सूर्य or the Sun (» RV. i , 116 , 17 ; also described as daughter of प्रजापति or of सवितृ and wife of the अश्विन्s , and in other places as married to सोम ; in RV. i , 119 , 2 she is called ऊर्जानी , and in vi , 55 , 4 , vi , 58 , 4 the sister of पूषन् [q.v.] , who is described as loving her , and receiving her as a gift from the gods ; accord. to some she represents a weak manifestation of the Sun ; सूर्या सावित्री is regarded as the authoress of the सूर्या-सूक्त RV. x , 85RV. AV. AitBr. Kaus3.;f. = वाच् Naigh. i , 11; f. = सूर्या-सू*क्ता (q.v.S3a1n3khGr2.; f. a new bride.

    अ-घ्न्य  (2 , 3) or अ-घ्न्य्/अ (2 , 3), m. " not to be killed " , a bull; f. a cow RV. AV.

    The bull as the boat/chariot: वृषन् [p= 1012,3] mfn. (acc. व्/ऋषाणम् nom. pl. °षाणस् ; prob. originally " raining , sprinkling , impregnating ") manly , vigorous , powerful , strong , mighty , great (applied to animate and inanimate objects) RV. AV. VS. Br. (superl. -तम); m. a man , male , any male animal , a bull , stallion &c (also N. of various gods , as implying strength , esp. of इन्द्र and the मरुत्s) ib.

    विश्व [p= 992,2] m. pl. (व्/इश्वे , with or scil. देव्/आस् cf. विश्वे-देव , p.995) " all the gods collectively " or the " All-gods " (a partic. class of gods , forming one of the 9 गणs enumerated under गणदेवता q.v. ; accord. to the विष्णु and other पुराणs they were sons of विश्वा , daughter of दक्ष , and their names are as follow , 1. वसु , 2. सत्य , 3. क्रतु , 4. दक्ष , 5. काल , 6. काम , 7. धृति , 8. कुरु , 9. पुरू-रवस् , 10. माद्रवस् [?] ; two others are added by some , viz. 11. रोचक or लोचन , 12. ध्वनि [or धूरि ; or this may make 13]: they are particularly worshipped at श्राद्धs and at the वैश्वदेव ceremony [Religious Thought and Life in India, also called 'ब्राह्मन् ism and हिन्दू ism,' (RTL) by Sir M. Monier-Williams, page 416] ; moreover accord. to मनु [iii , 90 , 121] , offerings should be made to them daily - these privileges having been bestowed on them by ब्रह्मा and the पितृs , as a reward for severe austerities they had performed on the हिमा*लय: sometimes it is difficult to decide whether the expression विश्वे देवाः refers to all the gods or to the particular troop of deities described above ) RV. &c

    सूर्य a [p= 1243,2] m. the sun or its deity (in the वेद the name सूर्य is generally distinguished from सवितृ [q.v.] , and denotes the most concrete of the solar gods , whose connection with the luminary is always present to the poet's mind ; in Nir. vii , 5 he is regarded as one of the original Vedic triad , his place being in the sky , while that of अग्नि is on the earth , and that of इन्द्र is in the atmosphere ; ten hymns in the RV. are entirely in praise of सूर्य e.g. i , 50 , i , 115 &c , also AV. xiii , 2 ; he moves through the sky in a chariot drawn by seven ruddy horses or mares [see सप्ता*श्व , हरित् , हरिद्-श्व] ; in the later mythology सूर्य is identified with सवितृ as one of the 12 आदित्यs or emblems of the Sun in the 12 months of the year , and his seven-horsed chariot is said to be driven by अरुण or the Dawn as its charioteer , who is represented without legs ; the Sun , whether named सूर्य or विवस्वत् , has several wives » सूर्या below) RV. &c (cf. IW. 11 ; 16 &c RTL. 341)



    1.122.01 Present, mild-tempered (priests), the sacrificial viands which you have prepared, to there warm-showering Rudra. I praise him who, with his heroid (followers) as (with shafts) from a quiver, expelled (the asuras) from heaven; and (I praise) the Maruts, (who abide) between heaven and earth. [Mild-tempered: raghu-manyavah,of light or little anger; fr. raghu = laghu, light and manyu = anger. The second pa_da: lit. 'I have praised of the expeller from heaven with arrows as if from a quiver the Maruts of heaven and earth'].
    1.122.02 Animated by our diversified praise, hasten, Morning and Night, to attend to our first invocation, as a wife (to the first call of her husband); and may the--Dawn, beautiful with the lustre of the (rising) Sun, and robbing like the Sun (her) vast expanse with golden rays, (come to our early rite). [Stari_h = what covers or expands, smoke; the Sun invested or clothed with light, or destructive of foes: s'atru_n.a_m him.sakah tejasa_channo va_ A_dityah].
    1.122.03 May the circumambient divinity, the wearer of various forms, grant us delight; may the wind, the shedder of rain, grant us delight; do you, Indra and Parvata, sharpen our (intellects), and may all the gods show us favour. [Agni = vasarha_n, i.e. assuming various vestures (vasa) or forms (ga_rhapatya and other fires); or, as destroyingthe vesture of the earth--the trees; or, as causing the revolutions of day and night].
    1.122.04 Whenever I, the son of Us'ij, worship with my offerings (of food) those two (As'vins) who eat and drink (of oblations and libations) at (the season) of the world-whitening (dawn); do you, Priests, glorify the grandson of the waters (Agni), and render (the divinities of the day and night) the mothers (as it were) of the man who repeats their praise. [Trees and shrubs spring up from the moisture of the waters, and fire proceeds from timber;hence, Agni is the grandson of the waters; or son of the waters (Manu, IX. 321)].
    1.122.05 I, the son of Us'ij, address to you (As'vins) audible praises, in like manner as Ghos.a_ praised you for the removal of her white-tinted (skin); I glorify (gods) the bountiful Pu_s.an (associated) with you, and I proclaim the munificence of Agni.
    1.122.06 Mitra and Varun.a, hear these my invocations, and moreover listen to those (that are) everywhere (uttered) in the chamber of sacrifice; and may Sindhu, the renowned bestower of wealth, hear us, (fertilizing our) broad fields with water. [Sindhu: deity presiding over water, jala_bhima_ni devah].
    1.122.07 I praise you, Mitra and Varun.a, for your gift of numerous cattle to the Pajra, and (from those praises) may abundant food (proceed). May (the gods), bestowing nourishment on me, come quickly unimpeded, (each) in his famous and favourite car. [Kaks.i_vat, of the family of Pajra; s'rutarathe priyarathe (mayi): 'on me possessing a famous car'].
    1.122.08 I laud the treasures of that opulent (assemblyof the gods); may we, men who (are blessed) with excellent descendants, partake of them together; the assembly conferring upon the Pajras abundant food, has been my benefactor, and has made me the master of horses and chariots. [mahimaghasya ra_dhas = the riches of that, or of him, who or which ispossessed of great wealth; i.e., deva-san:gha, the assembly or company of the gods; the assembly: the text ahs: jano yah, the man who; yas'ca deva san:ghah, the assembly of the gods which].
    1.122.09 The man who does you wrong, Mitra and Varun.a, who injures you in any way, who does not present you with oblations, contracts for himself sickness in his heart; but he who, performing worship, (celebrates it) with praises. [aks.n.aya_ dhruk: cakren.a, ma_rgen.a druhyati, offends by a wheel, or a way; this is the equivalent of anyatha_ prakaren.a, in another manner; yaks.mam hr.daye nidhatte:he places or deposits consumption in the heart; but yaks.ma = vya_dhi, sickness in general; a reference, perhaps, to the sense of mortification experienced by those who neglect the gods on observing the blessings which recompense devotion.
    1.122.10 He, borne by well-trained horses, endowed with surpassing strength, renowned above men, munificent in gifts, moves a hero, ever undaunted in all combats, (even) against mightymen.
    1.122.11 Royal bestowers of delight, listen to the invocation of (your) undying worshipper, and then come hither, that you who traverse the sky may be propitiated by the greatness of the (sacrificial) wealth presented to you by the sacrificer, who acknowledges no other protector. [amr.tasya nahus.o havam sureh = a_hava_nam amarn.asya stotra_diprerakasya manus.yasya mama, the invocation of me, a mortal, instigating praises and the like, not dying. Alternative rendering: the invocation of the immortal (deity) by me, a mortal worshipper].
    1.122.12 The gods have declared: we confer present vigour upon the worshipper (who invokes us) to partake of the (ibation). May all (the gods) in whom splendour and riches abound, bestow (abundant) food at (solemn) sacrifices. [das'ataya = a decade: food, by which the vigour of the ten senses is augment; or Soma offered in ten ladles. Alternative rendering of the second pa_da:  May all the gods partake of the abundant food (or Soma) at those sacrifices in which the priests are the distributors of the riches of copious libations].
    1.122.13 We rejoice tha tfor the satisfaction of the ten (organs of sense), the (priests) bearing the twice five (ladles of) sacrificial food, proceed (to the altar). What can Is.t.as'va, (what can) Is.t.aras'mi, (what can) those who are now lords of the earth, achieve (with respect) to the leaders of men, the conquerors of their foes? [das'ataya = das'atayasya dha_se, i.e. the ten indriyas,or organs of sense; twice five: ten ladles by the Soma is thrown on the fire; or, the ten articles offered in sacrifices, such as honey,butter, curds, milk, water, grain, offered to fire at the as'vamedha; whaat can those: what can the princes who are named, or any other princes, do against those who enjoy the protection of Mitra and Varun.a].
    1.122.14 May all the gods favour us with a person decorated with golden earrings and jewel necklace; may the venerable (company of the deities) be propitiated by the praises issuing (from the mouth of the worshipper); may our offerings be acceptable to them, and (may they be pleased) with both (our praises and offerings). [arn.as = ru_pe, form; i.e., a son; may they be pleased with both = may they reward us in both worlds; the text has only ubhayes.u, in both].
    1.122.15 The four (silly) sons of Mas'ar's'a_ra, the three of the victorious monarch A_yavasa (annoy) me. Let your spacious and bright-rayed chariot, Mitra and Varun.a, blaze (before them) like the sun (filling them with fear). [s'is'vah = s'is'avah, infant, i.e. infantile, childish].
    Griffith: HYMN CXXII Visvedevas. 122
    1. SAY, bringing sacrifice to bounteous Rudra, This juice for drink to you whose wrath is fleeting!
    With Dyaus the Asuras' Heroes I have lauded the Maruts as with prayer to Earth and Heaven.
    2 Strong to exalt the early invocation are Night and Dawn who show with varied aspect.
    The Barren clothes her in widewoven- raiment, and fair Morn shines with Suryas' golden splendour.
    3 Cheer us the Roamer round, who strikes at morning, the Wind delight us, pourer forth of waters!
    Sharpen our wits, O Parvata and Indra. May all the Gods vouchsafe to us this favour.
    4 And Ausija shall call for me that famous Pair who enjoy and drink, who come to brighten.
    Set ye the Offspring of the Floods before you; both Mothers of the Living One who beameth.
    5 For you shall Ausija call him who thunders, as, to win Arjunas' assent, cried Ghosa.
    I will invoke, that Pusan may be bounteous to you, the rich munificence of Agni.
    6 Hear, MitraVaruna-, these mine invocations, hear them from all men in the hall of worship.
    Giver of famous gifts, kind hearer, Sindhu who gives fair fields, listen with all his waters!
    7 Praised, MitraVaruna! is your gift, a hundred cows to the Prksayamas and the Pajra.
    Presented by carfamous- Priyaratha, supplying nourishment, they came directly.
    8 Praised is the gift of him the very wealthy: may we enjoy it, men with hero children:
    His who hath many gifts to give the Pajras, a chief who makes me rich in cars and horses.
    9 The folk, O MitraVaruna-, who hate you, who sinfully hating pour you no libations,
    Lay in their hearts, themselves, a wasting sickness, whereas the righteous gaineth all by worship.
    10 That man, most puissant, wondrously urged onward, famed among heroes, liberal in giving,
    Moveth a warrior, evermore undaunted in all encounters even with the mighty.
    11 Come to the mans', the sacrificers' calling: hear, Kings of Immortality, joygivers-!
    While ye who speed through clouds decree your bounty largely, for fame, to him the chariot rider.
    12 Vigour will we bestow on that adorer whose tenfold draught we come to taste, so spake they.
    May all in whom rest splendour and great riches obtain refreshment in these sacrifices.
    13 We will rejoice to drink the tenfold present when the twicefive come bearing sacred viands.
    What can he do whose steeds and reins are choicest? These, the allpotent-, urge brave men to
    conquest.
    14 The sea and all the Deities shall give us him with the golden ear and neck bejewelled.
    Dawns, hasting to the praises of the pious, be pleased with us, both offerers and singers.
    15 Four youthful sons of Masarsara vex me, three, of the king, the conquering Ayavasa.
    Now like the Sun, O Varuna and Mitra, your car hath shone, longshaped- and reined with splendour.


    S. Kalyanaraman
    Sarasvati Research Center
    February 27, 2017


    Sarasvati Script hypertext signifiers of Indra dhvaja, sanghāḍo 'lathe, furnace', kuṭilikā कुटिलिका 'a tool used by a blacksmith'

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    I suggest that a hypertext of two joined hieroglyphs: 'lathe PLUS portable furnace' is signified (as sangaḍa 'joining of parts') on a frequently occurring pictorial motif in front of one-horned youngbull. The hypertext is  shown often on inscriptions of Sarasvati Script Corpora, and are read rebus in Meluhha to signify metalwork.. 
    As a corollary,the identification of 'standard device' as a 'filter' is rejected. To view/interpret the pictorial signifiers as a filtering process is an erroneous reconstruction.The pictorial signifiers point to a drilling, circular motion with smoke emanating from surface of a bowl.
     Two  Ṛcas are signifiers of Indra standards, perhaps Indra dhvaja held aloft: RV 1.10.1 and RV 4. 24.10.

    RV 1.010.01 The chanters (of the Soma) hymn you, S'atakratu; the reciters of the R.k praise you, who are worthy of praise; the Bra-hman.as raise you aloft, like a bamboo pole. [ga_yatrin.ah = lit. those who use ga_yatri_ metre: udga_ta_, chanter of Sa_ma hymns; arkin.ah = reciters of the r.ca_: hota_; bra_man.ah = brahma_ of a sacrifice, a priest so denominated and other bra_hman.as (or, utterers of prayer. tva_ va"m.s'am iva udyemire, they have raised you like a bamboo (vam.s'o vanas'ayo bhavati vanana_cchru_yata iti va_ (Nirukta. 5.5); they have elevated Indra, as tumblers raise a bamboo pole, on the summit of which they balance themselves; vam.s'a = family (i.e. as ambitious persons raise their family to consequence)].

    RV 1.10.1 THE chanters hymn thee, they who say the word of praise magnify thee.

    The priests have raised thee up on high, O Satakratu, like a pole.

    Griffith: 4.24.10 Who for ten milchkine- purchaseth from me this Indra who is mine?
    When he hath slain the Vrtras let the buyer give him back to me.



    Image result for ancient mace indusAncient Luristan Bronze Mace 1000 BCE.



    Vāmana Purāṇa compares Indra-dhavaja with a parigham, 'mace' tied around, 'paṭṭobaddham' with drapery. This suggests the possibility that the Indra-dhavaja was shaped with a curved-head at the top. This is consistent with the shape of sangaḍa, a standard device hypertext shown often in fron of a one-horned young bull on hundreds of Sarasvati Script inscriptions.
    Parts of the 'standard device' which is a hypertext composed of two main parts: top part is a gimlet; the bottom bowl is sã̄gāḍ, 'a portable furnace] sanghāḍo, śagaḍī = lathe (Gujaratisā̃gāḍo, sãgaḍa (lathe/portable furnaceసంగడి sangaḍi The numbered parts are interpreted NOT as a filter but a lathe ligatured to a portable furnace: Hence, the parts 1 to 12 are explained: 1. Top hook (handle); 2. gimlet; 3. wavy lines signify turning lathe; 4. slanted lines signify circular motion of the gimlet; 5. the sharp drill-point of the gimlet; 6. bead or other objects being drilled by lathe-action; 7. smoke emanating from the portable furnace bowl; 8. bottom bow of rhe furnace; 9. Perforations as dotted circles are two signifiers: a. perforated beads; b.strands of fiber or rope. dhāī 'strands or fibers (of rope)' rebus: dhāūdhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ*CDUA6773); 10.  Small circles signifying globules of burning charcoal; 11. stafff or flagpost; 12. base for the two hieroglyph-structure atop the flagpost. After Figure 38,3 in Mahadevan, The sacred filter standard facing the unicorn,in:Asko Parpola, ed., 1993, South Asian Archaeology, Vol. 2, Helsinki, pp. 435-445 http://45.113.136.87/wp-content/uploads/19-The-Sacred-filter-standard-facing-the-unicorn.-more-evidence.-In-South-Asian-Archaeology-1993..pdf
    Reconstruction of a drill based on analogical comparisons with the drills used nowadays at Nagara, Gujarat, India: Upper pivot in copper is centered with the drill-head and inserted into a coconut shell. Wooden haft is used with a bow-string to churn. The phtanite drill-head is secured in the haft-hole with a thin coiling thread. The tip of the drill's working end shows the characteristic feature of the shallow hemispherical depression: a 'dotted circle'. (After Vidale, M., 1987. Some aspects of lapidary craft at Moenjodaro in the light of the surface record of Moneer South east Area. In M. Jansen and G. Urban (eds.), Interim Reports, Vol. 2, 113-150. Aachen).
    Piperno, Marcello, Micro-drilling at Shahr-i Sokhta; the making and use of the lithic drill-heads, in: Hammond, Norman Ed., South Asian Archaeology, 1973, Pl. 9.2 and 9.3  "granite drill heads used to perforate beads, prepare stone seals... use of the "bow drill" or the "pump drill" which revolved the point of the drill in an alternating rotary motion...the level of technical performance reached in this micro-drilling work was peculiar to a class of highly-specialized craftsmen who must have enjoyed a considerable social and economic position in the life of Shahr-i Sokhta." (p.128) [ca. 2700-2300 BCE.]

    Hypertext pictorial motif on Sarasvati Script Corpora. After Figs. 39.1 and 39.2 in Mahadevan opcit.

    Image result for ancient lathe gimletComponents: top register: lathe with pointed gimlet in churning motion; bottom register: portable furnace/crucible with smoke emanating from the surface Carved ivory standard in the middle [From Richard H. Meadow and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Harappa Excavations 1993: the city wall and inscribed materials, in: South Asian Archaeology ; Fig. 40.11, p. 467. Harappa 1990 and 1993: representations of 'standard'; 40.11a: H90-1687/3103-1: faience token; 40.11bH93-2092/5029-1: carved ivory standard fragment (split in half, made on a lathe and was probably cylindrical in shape; note the incisions with a circle motif while a broken spot on the lower portion indicates where the stand shaft would have been (found in the area of the 'Mughal Sarai' located to the south of Mound E across the Old Lahore-Multan Road); 40.11c H93-2051/3808-2:faience token)


    Image result for indus harappa drillDetails of drilling apparatu presently used for Khambhat. A is a coconut shell used for holding and pressing the drill operated with a bow, B are the holes left by the upper pivot of the drill shaft, C; D is wooden stick bearing the traces E, left by the wear of the string of the bow. The extremity of the drill shaft is covered by string (F). The shape of the steel drill head G, bearing on the tip two minute diamonds (H) closely rsembles the shape of ernestite drills used by Indus bead makers (K). In the Moneer workshop(s), broken drill-heads were probably recycled as upper pivot for the shaft (I,J). The tip of the drill heds have  distinct circular depression L. (After Fig. 9 Bhan, 2014) 2: the manufacturing sequence of ernestite drill heads (After Kenoyer & Vidale, 1992).




    Phtanite drill-heads from the surface of MNSE area, Moenjodaro (Massimo Vidale, 1987, p. 147)

    A variant of this hypertext pictorial motif occurs on punch-marked coins:

    Shapes of bowl variants compare with the bottom bowl (portable furnace) of sã̄gāḍ, 'standard device' as variants of Indra-dhavaja on ancient coins, Karur seal and Ujjain glass sealings (After Figurres 39.6 to 39.9 in Mahadevan, opcit.)

    The variant structures are comparable to a forge/anvil. .
    Related image

    Image result for ancient forgeRelated imageImage result for ancient forge
    Like the flag that will be raised in honour of Indra during the month of ashvin on a full-moon day, but thrown onto earth along with its flagstaff after the festival, Vali with depleted energy and dissipated vitality slowly fell onto ground, and with tears blocking throat he moaned piteously. [Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa 4-16-37]
    This indra dhvaja ustava , festival of Indra's flagstaff will be undertaken after the sixth lunar month of year, usually after summer in order to appease Indra to cause rains. On full-moon day in Ashvayuja month [October-November] this will be performed and after the ritual the flag / flagstaff will be thrown to ground.
    ध्वज [p= 522,1]  ध्वज्) a banner , flag , standard (ifc. f().RV. &c. Brhat Samhitā calls the dvhaja  Indra-dhvaja sampad,'glory of Indra's flag'(BS 43). MBh 1.57 calls thedhvaja as yaṣṭi (iṣṭapradānam), refers to Indra’s festival as maha (v.23), utsava śakrasya (v.26).

    Nāṭyaśāstra 1.54 to 1.59:

    http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/natya01.pdf
    Trans.

    The Banner festival of Indra and the first production of a play
    1.53-55. On these words, Brahman said, ‘A vey suitble time for the production of a play has come: the Banner Festival of Indra has just begun; make use of the Nāṭyaveda now on this occasion.”

    1.55-58. I then went to that festival in honour of Indra’s victory which took place after the Dānavas and the Asuras (enemies of the gods) were killed. In this festival where jubilant gods assembled in great numbers I performed for their satisfaction the holy Benediction (nāndi) consisting blessings with words in their eightfold aspects (aṣṭānga, lit. of eight limbs). Afterwards I devised an initiation of the situation in which the Daityas were defeated by gods (and), which represented (sometimes) an altercation and tumult and (sometimes) mutual cutting off and piercing (of limbs or bodies).
    1.58-61. Then Brahman as well as other gods were pleased with the performance and gave us all sorts of gifts as a token of joy that filled their mind. First of all the pleased Indra (Sakra) gave his auspicious banner, then Brahman a blacksmith's forge (Kuṭilaka) and Varuṇa a golden pitcher (bhṛngāra), Surya (the sun-god) gave an umbrella, Siva success (siddhi), and Vāyu (the wind-god) a fan. Viṣṇu gave us a lion-seat (simhāsana), Kuvera a crown, and the goddess Sarasvati gave visibility as well as audibility. (NOTE: Does Indra-dhvaja signify  कुटिलिका f. a tool used by a blacksmith Pa1n2. 4-4 , 18 Ka1s3.? Or is it a signifier of a forge?) कुटिल kuṭila, katthīl'curve'kuṭila'bent' (CDIAL 3230) Rebus:kuṭila  'bronze' (8 parts copper, 2 parts tin).

    This Indra makha festival occurred on the twelfth day of the bright half of the moon in the month of Bhādra. Dhvaja-maha is a Prakrt form of makha ‘yajña’. मख 1 [p= 772,1] m. a feast , festival , any occasion of joy or festivity RV. S3a1n3khGr2.; m. a sacrifice , sacrificial oblation S3Br. &c ( Naigh. iii , 17); m. (prob.) N. of a mythical being (esp. in मखस्यशिरः , " मख's head ") RV. VS. S3Br. (cf. also comp.)l mfn. (prob. connected with √1. मह् or √ मंह्) jocund , cheerful , sprightly , vigorous , active , restless (said of the मरुत्s and other gods) RV. Br.

    (The Nāṭyaśāstra, a treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy and Histrionics ascribed to Bharata Muni,tr. By Manomohan Ghosh, 1950, Royal Asiatic Society, Kolkata.)


    Eran-Vidisha: 300 BC, Copper, 6-arm;ujjaini;indra-dhwaja symbols

    S. Kalyanaraman
    Sarasvati Research Center
    February 27, 2017



    Kaalaadhan saga: PC lies to CBI on billion dollar Aircel-Maxis deal and his illegal approvals in the ghotala

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    PC lies to CBI in exposed

    ALL KNEW, CHIDAMBARAM DIDN’T

    Monday, 27 February 2017 | J Gopikrishnan

    Rate : 4/5                Like : 5
    The Aircel-Maxis scam took a different turn, when BJP leader Subramanian Swamy came out with money trail to companies linked to Chidambaram's son Karti, and blatant FIPB violations. P Chidambaram’s defence is hollow and unbelievable

    Former Finance Minister P Chidambaram was economical with the truth when he told the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) that he was not aware that Malaysian company Maxis’ investment in Aircel was above Rs 600 crore, when he approved the Foreign Investment Promotion Board’s (FIPB) recommendation on March 7, 2006. 

    Chidambaram stated to this to the CBI when he was questioned on December 6, 2014. Certain senior Finance Ministry officials made similar statements to the probe agency.

    This writer recently paid a visit to the Parliament library to check newspaper archives in a bid to understand what had been reported in the media during those days about Maxis’ takeover of Aircel. Every major newspaper in India had, on December 31, 2005, reported in a big way that Maxis was going to invest one billion dollars in Aircel. Some newspapers reported the exact value at $I.08 billion in headlines; some even converted the value in rupees (those days, a dollar was equivalent to Rs 45), saying that the foreign investment was Rs 4,700 crore. Business dailies splashed it on the front page and other newspapers reported prominently in their business section. They appeared on the same day after Maxis and Aircel conducted a joint Press conference in Mumbai on December 30, 2005, about the billion-dollar acquisition plan.

    The photo montage of the main newspapers reports on December 31, 2005 is placed along with this article. Apart from Indian and Malaysian newspapers, international newspapers such as the Financial Times and the Wall Street Journal reported this deal in detail. An Internet search shows that television channels too widely reported the deal.

    In January and February 2006 too, most newspapers were reporting regularly on the acquisition details and on the file movements at the FIPB. What was the basic illegality in the Aircel-Maxis scam? Those days, the FIPB could approve foreign investments up to Rs 600 crore. As per Rule (Finance Ministry Order dated February 18, 2003), the Finance Minister had to send the proposals above Rs 600 crore to the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA). Then Finance Minister was the Chairman of CCEA too. The subsequent Maxis investment of Rs 675 crore in Maran family-run Sun TV group details had been sent by Chidambaram to the CCEA.
    Why did Chidambaram did not send the proposal of Maxis’ investment in Aircel to the CCEA? Those days, Saudi Telecom had more than 25 per cent shares in Maxis. Saudi Telecom also has major shareholding in Pakistan Tele Communication Limited (PTCL) and our security agencies would have definitely objected Maxis’ entry in India, if the file reached the CCEA.

    Newspapers had reported that Maxis was going to invest Rs 4,700 crore on December 31, 2005. But Maxis, in its application to the FIPB on January 25, 2006, stated only $800 million (Rs 3,600 crore) of investment in Aircel. Now, the  Comptroller and Auditor-General’s P&T Audit wing found that the actual money which had come to India was Rs 4,769 crore from Maxis. Where did the balance of Rs 1,200 crore disappear?

    What is the CBI doing with these open-and-shut findings? The CBI was trying limit the case to former Telecom Minister Dayanidhi Maran, based on a doubtful complaint by Aircel promoter C Sivasankaran, who alleged that Maran arm-twisted him into selling Aircel to Maxis. The December 31, 2005, news reports in the media exposes that both Sivasankaran and the Maxis owners conducted Press conferences in Mumbai to announce the billion-dollar acquisition deal. This shows that everyone in the Finance and the Telecom Ministries was aware of the deal’s amount. The question then is: Why had the CBI believed in Sivasankaran’s theory of arm-twisting in April 2011. The Congress was enjoying the diminishing profile of alliance partner DMK, when A Raja and Kanimozhi were allegedly involved  in the 2G scam.

    But the Aircel-Maxis scam took a different turn, when BJP leader Subramanian Swamy, in April 2012, came out with money trail of Rs 26 lakh to companies linked to Chidambaram’s son Karti, and blatant FIPB violations. Apart from the violation of not sending the file to CCEA, Maxis also lied to the Indian authorities. Those days, a maximum of 74 per cent was the limit of foreign investment in telecom companies. But after the illegal FIPB clearance, Maxis declared to the Malaysian Stock Exchange that it had acquired 99.3 per cent shares in Aircel by striking an alliance with a Chennai-based hospital group of companies. This shows that Sivasankaran was perhaps illegally offloading his entire shares to Maxis. It’s astonishing that the country’s premier probe agency believed his story of arm-twisting.

    Another big fraud was the stark variation in the valuation of shares. 74 per cent of Aircel was valued at around Rs 3,600 crore and the rest 26 per cent was valued at a pittance of around Rs 30 crore! The CAG’s finding in 2015 of the actual money flow of Maxis of Rs 4,769 crore shows that around Rs 1,200 crore came to India was nothing but black money or kickbacks as part of the deal.

     In a nutshell, all, including Chidambaram, Maran, Sivasankaran and Maxis owner T Ananda Krishnan, were allegedly part and parcel of a dubious deal to mislead Government of India, violating provisions of the Prevention of Corruption Act and the Prevention of Money Laundering Act.   

    After Chidambaram and son Karti’s names cropped up, the CBI went into silent mode, leading to Maran’s discharge from ‘arm-twisting’ charges, by the 2G court. While declaring Chidambaram’s ‘illegalities’ in the deal in the chargesheet in August 2014, the CBI never provided proof to the court.  The joint raid of the Enforcement Directorate (ED) and the Income Tax department unearthed two-lakh-dollar money flow from Maxis’ three subsidiary companies to Karti’s company, Chess Management Services Private Limited. The raid also exposed 21 secret foreign bank accounts of Karti Chidambaram and companies linked to him, and their huge assets, hotels, vineyards and farm houses in 14 countries. The question is: What has prevented our agencies to act on these stunning details of black money allegedly stashed by Chidambaram’s family? 
    The Central Bureau of Investigation is now acting as a mute spectator in Subramanian Swamy’s case in the Supreme Court. The apex court’s main question to Swamy is: Was Chidambaram aware that the deal was above secret 600 crore when he illegally approved it in March 2006? Newspaper reports detailed it on December 31, 2005, and subsequent reports in January and February 2006 wrote of it. The entire world was aware of this billion-dollar deal. It cannot be believed that Chidambaram was unaware of of the fact that the amount exceeded the limit for approval at his end.  





































































































    (The writer is Special Correspondent, The Pioneer) http://www.dailypioneer.com/columnists/oped/all-knew-chidambaram-didnt.html

    Itihāsa,etymology of names of ऋग्वेद ṛgveda Ṛṣi-s, 450 hours of chant, pāṭha, śikṣā of compiler, कृष्ण--द्वैपायन, black islander of Gangā river

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    A new book by Vedāyana Bhāradvāja is: Treatise on Ṛgveda which is path-breaking. I excerpt from Appendix I of this book and embed a list of names of ṣi-s of Ṛgveda and the meanings of these names.

    A Ṛṣikā named  वागांभृणी vāgāmbhṛṇī who saw RV 10.125 Sūkta with devatā ātmā is so called because vāk is yajñasya ātmā  

    The challenge is: how to fathom the meanings of vāk, 'speech' in the mantras of Ṛgveda Ṛca-s? This pilgrimage to unravel meaning is crucial because vāk is yajñasya ātmā.


    Ṛgveda is a sacred document which has to be read with śraddhā. The document has1,028 sūkta and 10,600 Ṛcas which are also called mantra, organized into ten books (Mandalas). Who compiled the text? Veda Vyāsa (वेदव्यास, veda-vyāsa, "the one who classified the Vedas"); he is also referred to as Krishna Dvaipāyana (referring to his complexion and birthplace). 

    श्रद्धा f. faith , trust , confidence , trustfulness , faithfulness , belief in (loc. or comp. ; श्रद्धया- √गम् , " to believe in " , with gen. DivyA7v. ), trust , confidence , loyalty (Faith or Faithfulnesses is often personified and in RV. x , 151 invoked as a deity ; in TBr. she is the daughter of प्रजा-पति , and in S3Br. of the Sun ; in MBh. she is the daughter of दक्ष and wife of धर्म ; in Ma1rkP. she is the mother of काम , and in BhP. the daughter of कर्दम and wife of अङ्गिरस् or मनुRV. &c

    ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, from ṛc "praise, shine" derived from the root ṛc "to praise", cf. Dhātupātha 28.19. Monier-Williams translates "a Veda of Praise or Hymn-Veda". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda

    Sūkta (RV 10.125 devatā ātmā) is by a Ṛṣikā named  वागांभृणी vāgāmbhṛṇī. The name suggests that she is vāk, daughter of Ṛṣi Ambhṛṇa. अम्भस् [p= 84,1]n. (cf. अभ्र्/अ , /अम्बु) , water RV. &c , the celestial waters AitUp.; power , fruit fulness VS. and AV.;pl. (आंसि) collective N. for gods , men , Manes , and असुरTBr. and VP. , (hence) (अस्sg. the number " four ". thus, vāgāmbhṛṇī means 'power of speech'. The sūkta (RV 10.125) of the  Ṛṣikā is addressed as a soliloquy to devatā ātmā,

    Thus the soliloquy of vāk is a devotional prayer to devatā ātmā, vāk isātmā, vāk is yajñasya ātmā.

    10.125.01 I proceed with the Rudras, with the Vasus, with the A_dityas, and with the Vis'vedeva_s; I support both Mitra and Varun.a, Agni and Indra, and the two As'vins.[Deity Prama_tma_: the word, or first of creatures].
    10.125.02 I support the foe-destroying Soma, Tvas.t.a_, Pu_s.an and Bhaga; I bestow wealth upon the institutor of the rite offering the oblation, deserving of careful protection, pouring forth the libation.
    10.125.03 I am the sovereign queen, the mover, collectress of treasures, cognizant (of the Supreme Being), the chief of objects of worship; as such the gods have put me in many places, abiding in manifold conditions, entering into numerous (forms. 
    10.125.04 He who eats food (eats) through me; he who sees, who breathes, who hears what is spoken, does so through me; those who are ignorant of me perish; hear you who have hearing, I tell that which is deserving of belief.
    10.125.05 I verily of myself declare this which is approved of by both gods and men; whomsoever I will, I render formidable, I make him a Brahma_, a r.s.i, or a sage. [A Brahman: Brahma_, the creator].
    10.125.06 I bend the bow of Rudra, to slay the destructive enemy of the Bra_hman.as, I wage war with (hostile) men. I pervade heaven and earth.
    10.125.07 I bring forth the paternal (heaven) upon the brow of this (Supreme Being), my birthplace is in the midst of the waters; from thence I spread through all beings, and touch this heaven with my body.
    10.125.08 I breathe forth like the wind giving form to all created worlds; beyond the heaven, beyond this earth (am I), so vast am I in greatness.


    Vyasa narrates the Mahābhārata to Ganeśa, his scribe, Angkor Wat
    वेद--व्यास [p= 1016,1] m. " arranger of the वेद " , N. of व्यास or बादरायण MBh. Hariv. &c
    द्वैपायन [p= 507,3]m. ( Pa1n2. 4-1 , 99) " island-born " , N. of व्यास (author or compiler of the वेदs and पुराणs , the place of his nativity being a small island in the Ganges) MBh. Hariv. &c; कृष्ण--द्वैपायन [p= 307,1]m. " black islander " , N. of व्यास (compiler of the MBh. and of the पुराणs ; so named because of his dark complexion and because he was brought forth by सत्यवती on a द्वीप or island in the Ganges) MBh. Hariv. Ba1dar. iii , 3 , 32 Sch. VP.

    The world heritage of enchanting divine reverberations are presently available in high-fidelity (HI-FI) voice recordings of high quality CDs(MP3). The ancestors who preserved the heritage ensured that the transmission was error-free

    Hi-Fi transmission
    [quote] 
    The fullest benefit from the Vedic mantras can result only if no word is changed; no unauthorised upward or downward drift in the note occurs in the recitation. Hence the numerous safeguards. How much time it should take to utter each word is indicated by resort to the notation by "maatras"-the time it takes to pronounce a short vowel. How to regulate breathing so that the vibrations can occur at what part of the body to give birth to the pure word sound is also laid down in the Vedānga śikā. The Taitreeya Upanishad, for e.g., begins with śikā thus:

    Seeksham Vyakyā syāmah - Vara Svarah - Mātrābalam - Sāma Santānah
    शिक्षा śikā deals with Vara, Swara, Mātra, Strength, Sāma and Santānah

    A fool-proof method is to chant each mantra in various patterns and combinations known as 
    Vākya, Pada, Krama, Jaṭa, Māla, Sikha, Rekha, Dhvaja, Daṇḍa, Ratha, Ghana, etc. 


    Some learned pandits are called "Ghanapāṭhis". This means that they are learned in the Vedas to the extent of chanting of the Vedas in the pattern called "Ghanam". When we listen to a Ghanapāṭhi reciting Vedas in Ghana form, we note that he repeats the in various ways back and forth and in different patterns. This would be pleasant to the ears and creates a sense of happiness within. It would seem that the natural grandeur of the Veda mantras is heightened, as it were. So would be the effect of recitation in the other prescribed patterns of Kramam, Jata, Sikha, Maala, etc. But the main object of reciting them is to make no mistake in the original meaning and sound pattern of the words.


    Vkya Pṭha or Samhita Pãtha is to recite the mantras in a sentence straight. When mantras come in sentences, some of the words therein have to be conjoined in chanting. To recite the Veda mantras, pada by pada or word by word, instead of joining the words and stringing them together is Pada Pṭha . Pada Pṭha occurs after Samhita pāṭha. In pada pāṭha  the sentence is broken down to "words" or pada. This gives the student of the Vedas the knowledge of each word in a sentence.


    In Krama 
    pāṭha, the first word of the mantra is added to the second, the second to the third, the third to the fourth and so on, until the whole sentence of the mantras is completed. This paatha or method of recitation helps the student understand not only the individual words but also how two words can be combined in recitation and what modification occurs in swara in such a combination.

    In certain ancient edicts, notably gift deeds, at the end of the name of some illustrious persons, there would be a suffix "Krama Vit". Like "Veda Vit", "Krama Vit" means that the person is well versed in reciting the Vedas by the Krama 
    pāṭha methods.There are many such edicts in South India.

    In Jata pāṭha, the first word and the second are first recited together and then the words are recited in a reverse order and then again in the original order. Whereas in the Krama type of recitation the order of words is 1-2 ; 2-3 ; 3-4 ; 4-5 and so on, in the Jaṭa pāṭha, the order will be 1-2-2-1-1-2, 2-3-3-2-2-3, 3-4-4-3-3-4, 4-5-5-4-4-5 and so on. Just as two words are repeated forwards and backwards in the Jaa pāṭha, the Śikha pāṭha three words to be so linked. 


    In Ghana 
    Pha the combination will be:

    1-2-2-1-1-2-3-3-2-1-1-2-3
    2-3-3-2-2-3-4-4-3-2-2-3-4
    3-4-4-3-3-4-5-5-4-3-3-4-5


    The chanting will go like this: 
    1-2-2-1-1-2-3-3-2-1-1-2-3 2-3-3-2-2-3-4-4-3-2-2-3-4 3-4-4-3-3-4-5-5-4-3-3-4-5 ........... and so on till the end of the Veda ......
    Chanted in Ghanam style as above, Rig Veda may take over 450 hours to chant and occupy nearly 300 cassettes!

    Just as in a laboratory, a life giving elixir is preserved with the utmost care, the Veda mantras, which are for universal benefit, have been preserved by the ancients, without resort to writing by such methods of recitation. It must be remembered that, while chanting words backwards and forwards, the swaras of each have to be properly preserved and the student learns how the combination of words affect the swaras. The Samhita 
    Pha and Pada pāṭha are called Prakti ( or natural ) pāṭhas, as the words of the mantras occur in normal sequence. The rest are called Vikti ( or artificial and not natural ) Phas. In Krama, although the words do not occur in the natural order of one, two and three, since they do not revert like one after two and two after three, it cannot be called fully Vikti or artificial. The Viktis are eight in number: 

    Jaā mālā śikha rekha dhvajo daṇḍo ratho Ghanah
    Ityaṣṭa viktayah proktah kramapūrva maharibhih

    The above system of complicated recitation was devised in very earl times in order to peserve the purity of the word, sound, intonation, pronunciation, accent and sound combination of the Vedas. By repeating the words in manifold ways, the correct tally of the words was also kept which naturally ensured the purity of the texts. To enable the scholars to take up the difficult methods of recitation, it was even laid down that the more difficult methods of chanting earned the chanter more punya or merit
    .[unquote]

    gveda (padapāṭha) manuscript in Devanāgari, early 19th century. After a scribal benediction ("śrīgaṇéśāyanamaḥ ;; Aum(3) ;;"), the first line has the opening words of RV.1.1.1 (agniṃ ; iḷe ; puraḥ-hitaṃ ; yajñasya ; devaṃ ; ṛtvijaṃ). The Vedic accent is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red. gveda MS in Sanskrit on paper, India, early 19th c., 4 vols., 795 ff. (complete), 10x20 cm, single column, (7x17 cm), 10 lines in Devanāgari script with deletions in yellow, Vedic accents, corrections etc in red. Binding: India, 19th c., blind-stamped brown leather, gilt spine, sewn on 5 cords, marbled endleaves Provenance: 1. Eames Collection, Chicago, no. 1956; 2. Newberry Library, Chicago, ORMS 960 (acq.no. 152851-152854) (ca. 1920-1994); 3. Sam Fogg cat. 17(1996):42.

    Excerpts of pages 102 to 116 of Vedāyana Bhāradvāja's: Treatise on Ṛgveda 















    S.Kalyanaraman
    Sarasvati Research Center
    February 28, 2017

    Tamil NOT isolated from Sanskrit or north Indian culture -- David Schulman

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    Tamil Identity - Why the ancient battle with Sanskrit is useless
     February 28, 2017 Times of India
    
    
    Even As The State Steps Into A Crucial, Probably Defining, Phase In Its History, Tamil Identity Remains The Core Principle Of Its Politics And Society. Through A Series Of Articles, We Present Varying Perspectives On This Idea In Today's World
    Without attempting to write a re view of David Shulman's new book `Tamil -A Biography', one may endeavour to see what the book by an internationally renowned biographer on the inner lives of the Tamils has to offer on the issue of Tamil identity politics.

    The reason is simple -any book that attempts to narrate the cultural history of Tamil language cannot overlook the important efforts taken by Tamils in history to carve a separate identity for themselves through the language. But, Shulman anticipates and preempts such an engagement with his book when he writes in the preface, “Almost everything about Tamil is contentious. Some of the most important questions cannot be answered. We have rather tentative notions about chronology and, in this generation, fierce disputes about identity (not my favourite word). I have had to leave vast swathes of Tamil out of these pages for want of knowledge and want of space. Almost every Tamil reader will see, perhaps before all else, what is missing?“ But, what if we are enticed by what is there in the book than being disappointed by what is missing?
    Shulman's explicit refusal to engage with Tamil identity politics in his cultural history of Ta mil is partly because the issue is about desire and aspiration for Tamil to be older and distinctive from Sanskrit, and its moorings are in ideology , emotions and perceptions whereas scholarship is about truth. Shulman acknowledges that “the long and complex relations between these two languages is a major theme throughout the book; this theme is still clearly alive and full of passion in current debates about language and culture in the Tamil world, and there is I think room for a historical-linguistic reading of what Tamil once was, what it is or should be today. In modern South India, Tamil has become a major criterion for collective identity often seen now as forged in opposition to Sanskrit and an invasive north Indian culture and ideology .I will touch on these issues in the final chapter; clearly, the historical record has powerful implications for present-day politics and selfdefinition.“

    What do these historical records tell us? Shulman concludes, “there is no evidence to support ancient Tamil ever existed in some pure state, isolated from Sanskrit or North Indian culture.“ He tries to adopt two narratives for his biography of Tamil. One narrative thread tells the evolution of Tamil's distinctive modes of speak ing, thinking and singing. The second narrative deals with Tamil being the shaping force within Hinduism in particular through the Bhakti movement. Shulman's forte is in the treatment of the narratives both from the inside and outside. From the insider's perspective, Shulman really scores while concluding that Tamil is more than a language, it is a body of knowledge -much of it intrinsic to an ancient culture and sensibility. It is a kind of grammar, not merely of the language in its spoken and written forms, but the creative potential of its speakers.
    Shulman's twin narratives are in a way congenial to Tamil identity politics, but they shift the focus to a more nuanced civilisational argument. First of all, by liberating Tamil identity claims from the useless discourses of Tamil versus Sanskrit, Shulman makes us see the exchanges between the two languages. By organising Tamil's biography in the form of a Carnatic kriti, however incongruous the Dravidian leaning scholars might feel, Shulman foregrounds Isai Tamil, one of the three salient constituents of Tamil. This is in agreement with the general argument of the book which makes a case for the distinctiveness of Tamil poetics, its modalities and the creative potentialities Tamil offers for its native speakers. Shulman's conception of Tamil is contemporary and inclusive, and it expands to include all spoken and caste dialects. By placing the future of Tamil in grammar, poetics, and poets, Shulman demands a civilisational responsibility from the politics of Tamil identity and its constituent republic of poets. By turning every speaker of Tamil into a poet, Shulman has proved that if at all there is something uncontentious about Tamil, it is its poetics, grammar, poetry and its attendant sensibilities. It is an inheritance Tamil identity politics should cherish.
    (The author is a folklorist and an art critic)


    
    


    The battle for Rama: Case of the temple at Ayodhya -- Meenakshi Jain's book reviewed by Koenraad Elst

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    Sri Rāma and Sri Krishna are the ātmā of Itihāsa of Bhāratam Janam.


    There can be no Itihāsa of Bhāratam Janam without the narratives of Sri Rama and Sri Krishna which are "still living and throbbing in the lives of the Indian people," to cite Sukthankar.


    Together with the book review of Meenakshi Jain's work on 'The Battle for Rama', I publish excerpts from Sukthankar's lectures posthumously published with the title: On the meaning of the Mahābhārata 

    The meaning of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata is the quintessemtial essemce of Itihāsa of Bhāratiya identity. A remarkable divinity links the two epics: Ānjaneya also called  Hanumān.

    Hanumān is an ardent devotee of Rama Arjuna displays 
    Hanumān. on his chariot flag. See other narratives in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanuman#Appearance_in_the_Mahabharata

    The Battle for Rama reviewed in this note is thus the battle for a statement of hāratiya identity.

    Sukthankar states about the two Epics, Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa: what is more remarkable still is that this epic - along with the ramAyaNa -- is still living and throbbing in the lives of the indian people -- not merely of the intelligentsia, but also of the illiterate and inarticulate masses, the "hewers of wood and the carriers of water."

    No power on earth can take Sri Rama and Sri Krishna from the collective memories of over 2 billion people of the Indian Ocean Community since their itihāsa defines dharma-dhamma which is the weltanschauung of these people.. Visvāmitra refers to Rāma as vigrahavān dharmah.'enbodiment of dharma'. Sri Krishna is revered as Gitāchārya of Bhagavadgīta which is the quintessential statement of dharma. 

    Bhāratiya Itihāsa has to be narrated with the narratives of Sri Rāma and Sri Krishna.

    S. Kalyanaraman
    Sarasvati Research Center February 28, 2017 


    The Battle for Rama: Case of the Temple at Ayodhya (Aryan Books International, Delhi 2017)


    Epitaph for the Ayodhya affair

    Professor Meenakshi Jain's new book, 'The Battle for Rama: Case of the Temple at Ayodhya', is a definitive and scholarly guide to the biggest controversy of the early nineties, which totally changed the dynamics of Indian politics. Review by Koenraad Elst Posted On: 28 Feb 2017
    Ayodhya, the city supposedly founded by the patriarch Manu, and at one time the seat of the kings belonging to the Solar Dynasty, including Rama, still decides who can rule India. It no longer arouses the passions it did ca. 1990, but we all have to live with the political consequences of the controversies of those days.
    Political fall-out
    In the 1980s the Congress Party aimed for a non-conflictual way to leave the contested site of Rama’s birth to Hindu society, where it belongs, all while compensating the Muslim leadership with some concessions. This would have been typical Congress culture: horse-trading may not be noble, but it has the merit of not needlessly exacerbating tensions, it is bloodless and keeps all parties satisfied. By 1990, the temple could have been built, just one more of the thousands that adorn India, and the whole matter would have been forgotten by now.
    But the secularist historians publicly intervened and put everyone on notice that the misplaced Babri Masjid which Muslims had imposed on the site centuries ago was the last bulwark of secularism. Just like Jawaharlal Nehru said about democracy in peril: “Defend it with all your might!” Though it was a Congress PM, PV Narasimha Rao, who presided over its demolition by Hindu militants on 6 December 1992 and refused to save the Masjid, the party did not stay the course. It had been intimidated into conformity with the secularist line and also underwent the natural effect of polarization: it adopted the line opposite to the one that had by then been chosen by its adversary, the BJP.
    Under the fateful leadership of Atal Behari Vajpayee, the BJP had been reduced to total marginality in the 1980s. After it committed itself to the Ayodhya cause championed by the Vishva Hindu Parishad, however, it made a spectacular leap in the 1989 elections and became the largest opposition party in the snap elections of 1991. After those profits had been politically encashed, it effectively abandoned the cause. This betrayal (together with the Supreme Court’s dithering in speaking out on the controversy) provoked the activists into wresting the initiative from BJP leader Lal Krishan Advani and physically removing the mosque. This only encouraged the BJP to disown the movement entirely.
    No matter, for by then, a decisive turn had been taken. For Rama and his devotees, the main hurdle in the way of building a proper temple at his birth site was now out of the way. Hindus could look forward to Ayodhya becoming an unfettered pilgrimage site. Most Muslims now gave up all hopes of having the site as their own. However, the Muslim hardliners could console themselves that, on present demographic trends, India will turn Islamic-majority anyway, at which time all open accounts can still be settled. The case which the secularist historians had tried to build, deploying rhetoric with which they managed to over-awe the politicians, still had to judicially confront the case built in favour of the temple by other scholars. Those in the know expected that the secularists would not be able to convince the judges.
    For the BJP, what counted was that it had by now become a non-ignorable political player. It was on the way to accession to the government. As Prime Ministers, both Vajpayee and Narendra Modi owe a debt to Rama and his dynamic devotees. Conversely, by leaving the issue to the BJP, Congress no longer had a monopoly on being the natural party of government.  
    Battle
    To sum up: the Ayodhya controversy was one of the main events in post-Independence India. It is inappropriate, though significant, that all the vocal Ayodhya-meddlers of yore have fallen silent. Conversely, it is everyone’s good fortune that a comprehensive account of the decisive factors in at least the scholarly debate has been presented, and further researched for angles hitherto unknown, by as competent a historian and as serene a writer as Meenakshi Jain.
    In her new book, 'The Battle for Rama: Case of the Temple at Ayodhya' (Aryan Books International, Delhi 2017), Prof. Jain gives a contents-wise overview of the controversy. It hardly touches upon the street riots and political campaigns but focuses on the documentary and archaeological evidence and the scholarly debate about these. The book carries plenty of photographs of the artefacts found at the site. With only 160 pages and a pleasant layout, it ought to reach the larger public and henceforth serve as the definitive guide to what the stake of the whole affair was.  
    She, first of all, lays bare what the controversy was about. First of all, not about Rama’s existence or the exact place where he was born. Religions never submit their basic convictions to a secular court (though these convictions are a fair object of free intellectual debate). Hindus need not lower themselves to that level, though some leaders actually felt pressured into the silly exercise of “proving” Rama’s existence. Conversely, nor should the secularists have demanded this of them: they already showed their malicious intent by even raising the question. And, of course, they never asked of the Muslim party by what right a mosque had been imposed on the temple site, even though it directly implicates their scriptures and the example set by their Prophet, who had personally destroyed the murtis in the main pilgrimage site of the Pagan Arabs, the Kaaba in Mecca.
    Rather, the focus rightfully was, and has effectively been, on the medieval history of the site, when a replay of the usual scenario of iconoclasm already enacted in numerous places to India’s west had been inflicted on the Rama Janmabhumi site. Until the early 1980s, no interested party had denied that a Rama birthplace temple had been demolished to make way for a mosque. In the atmosphere of ca. 1990, whipped up by the secularists, arguing for this scenario had seemed an uphill task, and the scholars who did the job were widely acclaimed in Hindu circles. Not just the medieval battles resulting in iconoclasm and the street riots then taking place, but even the historians’ debate turned out to be a battle requiring some courage.
    Brazen-faced deceit
    But in fact, they could capitalize on a number of documents written in tempore non suspecto, mostly by Muslims, that attested it. Their argument claimed nothing out of the ordinary, it was the secularist case that, with hindsight, stood out as far-fetched. The closer verification of the evidence undertaken by Prof. Jain shows that the secularist case proves to have been even poorer than we thought at the time.
    In her book 'Rama and Ayodhya' (2013), she had already shown that the Leftist academics who had fought for the Babri Masjid, had crumbled under judicial court-examination. This time, we are given to deal not just with their lack of genuine expertise, but with actual deceit and deliberate lies by some of them. Back in 1990, in his article “Hideaway communalism”, Arun Shourie had already brought to light four cases where Muslim authorities had tampered with old documents that showed how the Muslim community itself had always taken for granted the mosque’s location on land venerated as Rama’s birthplace. Now, Irfan Habib’s seemingly strongest piece of evidence (not for the temple’s non-existence, of course, but at least for the untrustworthiness of some pro-temple spokesmen) turned out to be false.
    During the demolition on 6 December 1992, many Hindu artefacts had turned up, albeit in less than desirable circumstances from an archaeological viewpoint. Proper excavations at the site in mid-1993 found some more, before the thorough Court-ordered excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India in 2003 uncovered the famous pillar-bases, long ridiculed as a “Hindutva concoction” by the secularists but henceforth undeniable. Among the first findings during the demolition was the Vishnu Hari inscription, dating from the mid-11th century Rajput temple, which the Babri Masjid masons had placed between the outer and inner wall. Several Babri historians dismissed the inscription as fake, as of much later date, or as actually brought by the Kar Sevaks during the demolition itself.
    Prof. Irfan Habib, in a combine with Dr. Jahnawi Roy and Dr. Pushpa Prasad, dismissed this inscription as stolen from the Lucknow Museum and to be nothing other than the Treta ka Thakur inscription. The curator kept this inscription under lock, but after some trying, Kishore Kunal, author of another Ayodhya book (Ayodhya Revisited, 2016), could finally gain access to it and publish a photograph. What had been suspected all along, turns out to be true: Prof. Habib, who must have known both inscriptions, has told a blatant lie. Both inscriptions exist and are different. Here they have been neatly juxtaposed on p.104-5. Yet, none of the three scholars has “responded to the publication of the photograph of the Treta ka Thakur inscription, which falsifies the arguments they have been persistently advocating for over two decades.” (p.112)
    It is no news if a secularist tells a lie: they have been doing it all along. Only, in the past they could get away with it, as the media and the publishers toed their line and withheld the publication of facts that pin-pricked their authority. Today, internet media have broken open the public sphere and some publishers have been emboldened to defy the secularists by exposing their misdeeds and defeats. The establishment media will not give any publicity to this book but defend the status-quo instead, yet the truth is irrevocably out. Since the suppression of the truth concerning Ayodhya was part of a power equation to the secularists’ advantage, the waning of that power equation means that future scholars will now become free to take the mendaciousness of the then secularists into account.
    Pro-temple case
    On the other hand, the pro-temple case turns out to have been even stronger than Hindus at the time realized. Thus, in much of the Moghul period, Muslims continuously acknowledged the site’s association with Rama. In the circumstances, Hindus could not replace mosque architecture with temple architecture, but they continued to assert their presence around the site and celebrate Rama’s birthday (Rama Navami). Since the crumbling of Moghul power,  they even seem to have had access to the disputed building itself:
     “No evidence whatsoever has been proffered of continued Muslim occupation Babri Masjid, while the uninterrupted presence of Hindu devotees has been attested by several sources. Babri Masjid finds no mention in the revenue records of the Nawabi and British periods, nor was any Waqf ever created for its upkeep. No Muslim filed an FIR when the image of Sri Rama was placed under the central dome on 23rd December 1949.” (p.144)
    It is only in the nick of time that the Sunni Central Waqf Board entered litigation, on 18 December 1961 (five days later, it would have become time-barred), thus juridically causing the controversy. From then on, it was up to the politicians to ensure a peaceful settlement to prevent the Court proceedings from provoking street riots. After the Court gave Hindu worshippers unlimited access in 1986, a definitive formal settlement became urgent. Congress PM Rajiv Gandhi thought he could handle this challenge, but the initiative was wrested from his hands by the secularist historians. With their shrill statements about “secularism in danger”, they raised the stakes enormously. The rest is history.
    Discrimination
    Even after the Allahabad High Court ruled in favour of the Hindu claim on 30 September 2010, a statement signed by a handful of secularist veterans of the anti-temple campaign considered it a scandal that the verdict had acknowledged the “faith and belief of the Hindus” (quoted p.140). Mind you, the judges had not interiorized that claim, they had kept a clear distance, but assumed that “secularism” presupposes a recognition of this fact. This is the attitude that any Indian law or verdict adopts concerning Islam as well. The very existence of a category “Muslim community” (entitled e.g. to the Hajj pilgrimage and even to taxpayer-funded subsidies for this Hajj) implies the acknowledgment of a specific set of beliefs that make up Islam, and nobody finds this a scandal.
    So, this statement bespeaks a discrimination between Hindus, who are first expected to give scientific proofs of their beliefs, and the minorities, whose irrational and unprovable beliefs should be accepted without any ado. It is but one of the many illustrations of how in India, “secularist” unambiguously means “anti-Hindu”. That is not paranoia but a hard fact, frequently illustrated by real-life events including unasked-for statements by the secularists themselves. India-watchers who assure their audiences that the Indian state is “religiously neutral”, or indeed “secular”, only prove their own incompetence.
    As Prof. Jain concludes:
     “So why has the matter dragged on for so long? Can a handful of historians be held accountable for stalling resolution of what is essentially a settled matter? Their voluble assertions on Babri Masjid have all been found to be erroneous, yet there has been no public retraction. Are they liable for vitiating social harmony over the issue? If the nation has to move on, honest answers must be found to these questions.” (p.145)
     Epilogue
    This book documents one rare Hindu victory. Having personally lived through some scenes of this long drama, and having seen many of the concerned actors evolve over the years, and seen one generation succeeded by another, I wonder if this victory doesn’t highlight a deeper evolution that can only be characterized as a defeat.
    Around 1990, enormous passions were unleashed by the masses’ attachment to the Rama Janmabhumi or the Babri Masjid. It led some activists to acts of resourcefulness and of heroism including giving their lives. It led some scholars to the abandonment of their professional objectivity, to acts of deceit and plain mendaciousness. But at any rate, it proved numerous people’s deep convictions. One can hardly imagine such passions today, and perhaps it is for the better, with cooler heads and calmer minds. Unfortunately, the real reason seems to lie elsewhere.
    In comparison, today’s Hindus, and especially the young generation, are more lukewarm about issues of Hindu history. Indeed, they are far more ignorant about them, and “unknown makes unloved”. Today they know all about computer games and silly American-inspired TV shows, but little about Hanuman. When I enquired about this among youngsters looking up from their smartphones, they claimed that they actually knew more about Hinduism than their parents’ generation. That might be true to an extent for the inquisitive ones who look things up on Google (not always a reliable source, moreover), but the vast majority does not compensate for its increasing ignorance this way. On the contrary, the illiterate and semi-literate ones are the demographic where this decline of Hinduism is most palpable (to the extent that an outsider can tell; but then, many insiders confirm this impression). They used to interiorize Hinduism not by reading or scanning, but by breathing in the culture that existed all around them. It is this that now disappears, making way for the hollowest contents of the modern media.
    In this respect, the secularists have won. It is their version of history that is percolating to the masses. Many of them know nothing about history except what they have learned at school in their history textbooks. And these are under secularist control. A BJP attempt to correct these ca. 2002 failed. The only new schoolbook that was fully up to standard, was precisely the contribution by Meenakshi Jain. In any case, all BJP textbooks were at once discarded as soon as the Congress-Communist alliance came to power in 2004. The present BJP government is hardly equipped to do a new overhaul, and even shows no interest in doing so.
    So, either Hindu society is continuing on the present path, and then Prof. Jain’s beautiful book will merely gather dust as a memory from a bygone age when Hindus had not given up yet. A museum piece. Only if it inspires more such thorough history, and only if the latter gets promoted by a powerful establishment among the masses, will it prove to be the light-bringer of a new dawn.
    ------------------------------------------------------------
      KoenraadKoenraad Elst (°Leuven 1959) distinguished himself early on as eager to learn and to dissent. After a few hippie years, he studied at the KU Leuven, obtaining MA degrees in Sinology, Indology and Philosophy. After a research stay at Benares Hindu University, he did original fieldwork for a doctorate on Hindu nationalism, which he obtained magna cum laude in 1998. As an independent researcher, he earned laurels and ostracism with his findings on hot items like Islam, multiculturalism and the secular state, the roots of Indo-European, the Ayodhya temple/mosque dispute and Mahatma Gandhi's legacy. He also published on the interface of religion and politics, correlative cosmologies, the dark side of Buddhism, the reinvention of Hinduism, technical points of Indian and Chinese philosophies, various language policy issues, Maoism, the renewed relevance of Confucius in conservatism, the increasing Asian stamp on integrating world civilization, direct democracy, the defence of threatened freedoms, and the Belgian question. Regarding religion, he combines human sympathy with substantive skepticism.

    - See more at: http://www.pragyata.com/mag/epitaph-for-the-ayodhya-affair-326#sthash.gm49tONa.dpuf
    On the meaning of the Mahabharata
    Vishnu Sitaram Sukthankar
    Sukthankar, Vishnu Sitaram;
    On the meaning of the Mahabharata
    Asiatic society of bombay, 1957, 146 pages
    ISBN 8120815033, 9788120815032
    topics: |  india | myth | religion | 
    v.s. sukthankar was a noted expert on sanskrit epics, the editor of the well-known bhandarkar "critical edition" of the mahAbhArata.

    in 1942 sukthankar was invited by the university of bombay to deliver four lectures on the "meaning of the mahabharata". however, in january 1943, on the day of the fourth and last lecture, well after a large number of people had reached the lecture-hall, they received the shocking news that prof. sukthanar had passed away that very morning. the audience then converted the meeting "into a condolence meeting and paid their respects to the memory of this distinguished devotee of the great epic."

    a dozen years later, the manuscript of these lectures were obtained from his son and they were published as this book.

    the first lecture traces the history of mahAbhArata scholarship in the west, and is quietly critical of many of western scholars. it would take several more decades before edward said opened our eyes to to some of these moves which are now well-understood as part of the orientalist stance.

    the essay is hardly known, and i am excerpting large chunks from it, since it makes for great history, and you get a glimpse into the mind of a very superb, contrarian scholar.

    lecture I: the mahAbhArata and its critics

    "the mahAbhArata," wrote hermann OLDENBERG [1854-1920], " began its existence as a simple epic narrative. it became, in course of centuries, the most monstrous chaos."
    a forceful and imaginative writer, oldenberg has drawn for us a vivid pen-picture of this chaotic epic or epic chaos, as it appeared to him, which is worth quoting in extenso as a piece of fine rhetoric :

                   Neben der Haupterzahlung gab es dort wahre Urwälder kleinerer Erzählungen, dazu zahllose und endlose Belehrungen über Theologisches, Philosophisches, Naturwissenschaftliches, Recht, Politik, Lebensweisheit und Lebensklugheit. Ein Gedicht voll tiefsinnigen Träumens und Ahnens, zarter Poesie, schulmeisterlicher Plattheit - voll von funkeln-dem Farbenspiel, erdrückenden, sich  zerdrückenden Massen von Bildern, vom Pfeilregen endloser Kampfe, Gewimmel über Gewimmel todesverachtender Heiden, übertugendlicher Mustermenschen, berückend schoner Frauen, Jähzorniger Asketen,  abenteuerlicher Fabelwesen, toller Mirakel -- von leerem Wortschwall und von weiten, freien Blicken in die Ordnungen des Weltlaufes.

    [a forest of smaller narratives were mixed into the main tale, along with ruminations on theology, philosophy, science, law, politics, life wisdom.profound poetry mixed with the tender, the pedantic and the platudinous.one is overwhelmed by the sparkle of colours - one picture after another like an endless stream of arrows.  swarms of death-defying tribes runthrough its pages, along with enchanting women, irascible ascetics, adventurous imaginary creatures, and great miracles.  empty verbiage runsside by side with perceptive passages on how the world works.]

    this quizzical verdict of the great german indologist - a veritable prodigy of industry and erudition - appears indeed to be justified.there are indeed noticeable, winding in and out of the capacious and
    multitudinous folds of this prodigious and remarkable tapestry, unmistakable traces of some great and complex action. but on account of the mass of legends and disquisitions in which the main theme lies embedded, it isdifficult to make out even the main outlines of the story underlying the
    action.

    "swollen by these inventions," as one sympathetic critic of the mahAbhArata touchingly protests, "the portentous volumes are enough to damp the spirit of the most ardent who, starting off gaily upon their journey, are soon faced by the deserts of levitical doctrine and the morasses of primitive speculation, interesting only to the antiquarian."  owing to these digressions, which seem to have grown like a  malignant parasite on the original heroic story and which do in a sense hamper the free movement of
    the great drama, the poem appears not only to lose in artistic value but to be even lacking in bare unity.

    even such an ardent and passionate admirer of the mahAbhArata as romesh chunder DUTT felt constrained to admit this defect in the poem, and bemoan most eloquently the loss of the original primitive epic.  he has told us how he pictured to himself the lamentable process of this progressive
    deterioration.  he wrote (1898):

                   the epic became so popular that it went on growing with the growth of centuries. every generation of poets had something to add; every distant nation in northern india was anxious to interpolate  some account of its deeds in the old record of the international  war; every preacher of a new creed desired to have in the old epic some sanction for the new truths he inculcated.  passages from legal  and moral codes were incorporated in the work which appealed to the nation much more effectively than dry codes; and rules about the  different castes and about the different stages of human life were included for the same purpose.  all the floating mass of tales,traditions, legends, and myths .... found a shelter under the expanding wings of this wonderful epic; and as krishna worship became the prevailing religion of india after the decay of buddhism,the old epic caught the complexion of the times, and krishna-cult is its dominating religious idea in its present shape. it is thus that the work went on growing for a thousand years after it was first compiled and put together in the form of an epic; until the crystal rill of the epic itself was all but lost in an unending morass of  religious and didactic episodes, legends, tales and traditions." p.2-3

    if romesh DUTT, a thoroughbred "native" of india with just a thin veneer of western culture, had after a life-long study of the epic failed to grasp the real significance of what he elsewhere describes as "the greatest work of imagination that asia has produced" [suthankar suggests that one may just as
    well say "that the world has produced"] -- there is nothing strange in the circumstance that most of the Western critics have like~ wise failed to do so.  They have uniformly felt and exhibited a characteristic uneasiness -- I may even say helplessness -- when faced with the -- to them, unnatural -- phenomenon of an avowedly narrative poem in which the "moral", so to say, is nearly four times as long as the story itself. Their researches have, consequently, revolved almost invariably 'round the idea of finding criteria for distinguishing between the "early" and the "late" portions of the epic, between the original and the interpolation, criteria for cutting away what they naturally regard as the asphyxiating parasite and exposing the old, primitive saga in its pristine purity and glory.

    this definitive direction seems to have been given to western studies in connection with the mahAbhArata almost from the beginning.  franz BOPP [1791-1867], the father of indo-germanic philology, (who was also the first in modern times to edit from manuscripts selected episodes from the mahabharata and make them available in a printed form, had expressed this opinion as early as more than a century ago -- in 1829 -- that all parts of the epic were not of the same age, -- which is in a way no doubt quite true.

    [BOPP was followed by LASSEN [1800–1876]- erudite analysis of
    mahAbhArata... ]
    in the MahAbhArata we have pieces belonging to very different periods and of very different colour and content. He tried therefore to separate the various strata and to date them -- a very hazardous venture at any time.

    to us these stratificatory adventures and chronological speculations of LASSEN appear crude and puerile in the extreme; they were taken very seriously by his contemporaries, and regarded as a stupendous advance in their knowledge of the great epic of india.

    owing to his very perfunctory study of this prodigious poem, the learned author of the indische alterthumskunde had failed to realize that eliminating the "krishnite " elements from our mahabharata was a not less serious operation than removing all the vital elements from the body of a living organism; and that consequently the residue would no more represent the "original" heroic poem than a mangled cadavre, lacking the vital elments, would represent the organim in its origin or infancy.

    another notable attempt at reconstructing the original epic was made between 1883 and 1894 by the scandinavian scholar soren SORENSEN, to whom we also owe the excellent index to the names in the mahAbhArata (london 1904-1925), a solid contribution to mahAbhArata studies, indispensable to every serious student of the great epic.  his attempts at reconstruction of the epic kernel have unfortunately not proved equally valuable. [...]  [ss attempts to construct an ur-text] the number of stanzas in sorensen's "ur-text" is strangely close to the so-called "kUTashlokas" mentioned in an oft-cited stanza which is a patent interpolation found in some very late Devanagari manuscripts and which has consequently been rejected in the critical edition of the mahAbhArata.

    Auguste BARTH [1834-1916], on Sorensen's ur-text: "le methode de I'auteur, malgre toutes le precautions possible, est arbitraire et ...... le probleme tel qu'il le pose, est en realite insoluble."  [the methods of the author, despite all precautions, remain arbitrary... and the problem he poses is in
    fact insoluble.]

    later european scholars [did not pursue the idea of the ur-text, but] contented themselves with theorizing about the nature and the character of the "nucleus" and perfecting their criteria for distinguishing between the "old" and the "new," the original and the spurious in the epic text.

    [LUDWIG ?[1904-1978]: focus on how the text was joined together - is it harmonious or
    clumsy?  [but clearly such a study cannot give dependable results, since it would be subjective.]

    this atomistic method reaches its culmination in tbe researches of the great american indologist e. washburn HOPKINS [1857-1932], who had specialized in the mahAbhArata and who, as a result of an intensive study of the epic extending over many years, made the interesting discovery that there was no text there at all.

    he could see only a nebulous mass of incongruities, absurdities, contradictions, anachronisms, accretions and interpolations ! " in what shape," asks hopkins, " has epic poetry (in india) come down to us?" and his own answer is: "a text that is no text, enlarged and altered in every recension, chapter after chapter recognized even by native commentaries as praksipta, in a land without historic sense or care for the preservation of popular monuments, where no check was put on any reciter or copyist who might add what beauties or polish what parts he would, where it was a merit to add a glory to the pet god, where every popular poem was handled freely and is so to this day."

    the learned labours of hopkins ultimately crystallized in the preparation of a complicated table of
    approximate dates of the work in its different stages, which he probably regarded as his greatest contribution to the study of the epic and the final solution of the mahAbhArata problem. here is the scheme of dates rigged up by hopkins:

    400 b.c. : bhArata (kuru) lays, perhaps combined into one, but with no evidence of an epic.

    400 to 200 b.c. : a mahAbhArata tale with pANDu heroes,  lays and legends combined by the puranic diaskeuasts ; kr^SNa as a demigod ; no evidence of didactic form or of kr^SNas divine supremacy.

    200 b.c. to 200 a.d. : remaking of the epic with kr^SNa as all-god, intrusion of masses of didactic matter, addition of  Puranic material old and new ; multiplication of exploits.

    200 to 400 a.d. : the last books added with the introduction to the first book, the swollen anushAsana separated from shAnti and recognized as a separate book ; and finally,

    400 A.D. :+ : occasional amplifications.

    without wishing to detract from the merits of the work done by hopkins in other fields, which may have its own value, i will say candidly that for all intents and purposes this pretentious table is as good as useless "all dates," says whitney, "given in indian literary history are pins set up to be bowled down again." this was never more true than in the case of the dates given by hopkins, which are in fact, one and all, quite hypothetical and perfectly arbitrary. indeed there is not one figure or one statement in the above table which can be verified or which can lay claims to objective validity.

    let me state here more fully, for the sake of clarity, the view-point of the modern analytical criticism of the mahAbhArata.  modern criticism begins with the assumption that the epic is definitely not the work of any one poet, like most works of antiquity.  no one can write unaided a poem of 100,000 stanzas. we cannot possibly conceive any one man being equal to the task attributed to the kr^SNadvaipAyana vyAsa.  the poem is therefore unquestionably a compilation, embodying the work of many writers of varying abilities -- some of them even real poets -- who have added to the original
    corpus from time to time as it pleased them. The result is naturally a confused assemblage of heterogeneous matter originating from different hands and belonging to different strata.

    a careful analysis of the poem from this view-point reveals the fact that in its present form at least, the work has a radical defect in so far as it consists fundamentally of two mutually incompatible elements, namely, a certain "epic nucleus" and an extensive and undigested mass of didactic-episodical matter, elements which are but loosely hinged together and which form moreover an unbalanced combination.

    the first element, the epic nucleus, is naturally the older component and is presumably based on an historical reality, which is preserved in a highly distorted and tendentious form but which retains nevertheless certain genuine archaic features in fossilized condition such as polyandry and levirate [a form of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his brother's widow, and the widow is obliged to marry him.] -- these latter are of immense interest and importance for the study of indian ethnology and prehistoric antiquity.

    the nucleus mentioned above was now unfortunately used - or rather misused-by wily priests, tedious moralists and dogmatizing lawyers as a convenient peg on which to hang their didactic discourses and sacerdotal legends, which have naturally no organic connection with the epic nucleus. this nucleus of the epic, a kSatriya tale of love and war, does possess a sort of unity, which is lacking entirely in the other element, the priestly episodes and the moralizing discourses, which latter by themselves, loosened from their moorings, would neatly and automatically fall apart. The epic story is in part at least a fairly well-constructed narrative, worthy of our attention, and produces the impression of having been yet more virile - a real "human document" - before it was distorted in the process of assimilation with the moralistic pabulum and legal claptrap of a grasping and degenerate
    priesthood.

    the mahAbhArata is in short a veritable chaos, containing some good and much useless matter. it is a great pity that a fine heroic poem, which may even be found to contain precious germs of ancient indian history, should have been thus ruined by its careless custodians.

    but it is not quite beyond redemption. a skilful surgical operation - technically called "higher criticism" - could still disentangle the submerged "epic core" from the adventitious matter - known to textual critics as "interpolation" - in which it lies embedded. the mahAbhArata problem thus reduces itself to the discovery of criteria which will enable us to analyse the poem and to dissect out the "epic nucleus" from the spurious additions with which it is deeply incrusted. this is the "analytical theory" of the origin and the character of the mahAbhArata, which was espoused by the majority of the western critics of the great epic of india, chief among them being LASSER, WEBBER, LUDWIG, SORENSEN, HOPKINS and WINTERNITZ.

    this theory is obviously the outcome of superficial study.  the epic at first sight does produce upon a casual observer the impression of being a bizarre and meaningless accumulation of heterogeneous elements.  this first impression, however -- as has been pointed out by HELD -- soon makes room for 
    a second, that of astonishment, as one realizes that this massive monument of indian antiquity may undoubtedly lay claim to being more or less flawless from the constructional view-point and withal perfectly balanced.  this fact appears to have been clearly realized also by LUDWIG, himself an ardent advocate of the atomistic theory, who was honest enough to admit the organic unity of this stupendous poem. notwithstanding his preconceptions, which led him to support the analytic theory, he confessed openly his inability to explain how, in spite of the extreme complicacies' of mechanism, it operated in a manner so precise that no crass contradictions were discernible in this prodigious work, there being at most only vague traces here and there of what might be regarded as such.

    kauravas more heroic than pANDavas? internal inconsistencies

    but that is not the end of the story. there is another little odd twist in the poem, we are told: a subtle sort of topsy-turvydom underlying the story and vitiating it from beginning to end.  the poem has obviously a didactic purpose. it sets out clearly to inculcate a moral.  its method is to contrast the life and fate of the righteous pANDavas and the unrighteous kauravas, and to induce peqple to lead a good and virtuous life by demonstrating that, in spite of appearances to the contrary, truth and
    virtue do triumph in the end (yato dharmas tato jayaH).

    This is undoubtedly a very laudable objective.  And yet even this simple and clear aim is scarcely achieved by the poem. The characters do not consistently act the parts which they are advertised to do.  The "heroes" of the poem are indeed constantly talking about Dharma, but their actions belie
    their hollow professions and do not conform even to the most elementary standards of common morality.  They are not real heroes, with pure white shining souls. They give one the impression rather of being "villains," who have been liberally whitewashed by interested poets.

    [e.g. yudhiSTira's lie to droNa about the death of ashvatthama, or bhIma's hitting duryodhana on his thighs. and even arjuna kills his grandfather bhISma while hiding behind an efffeminate warrior with whom the old knight would not fight, and he kills karNa while the latter is disadvantaged and pleading for time.]

    can we regard these pANDava brothers as models of heroism, chivalry, nobility or righteousness ?

    the kauravas on the other hand unquestionably behave more honourably and on the whole more magnanimously. they never stoop to employ such base and ignominious tricks on the battlefield against their enemies.  they are manly, courageous, chivalrous and noble.  these great scions of an old
    aristocratic family could play more worthily the distinguished role of the heroes of the indian epopee than the treacherous and sanctimonious pANDavas, who show themselves to have been in reality ignoble parvenus and usurpers, glorified by a later generation. the poem itself naively records that at the moment of duryodhana's death, though the ungenerous and brutal bhIma was mean enough to kick and trample on the annointed head of the fallen monarch, the gods themselves showered flowers on the defeated hero. and this duryodhana is now the villain of the piece! it is unnecessary to multiply
    examples.

    here is a paradox. the book gives itself out as a dharmagrantha.  with uplifted arms, we are told, vyAsa proclaims that dharma is supreme in this world. but that is a high ideal which even his characters -- his own creations -- do not fulfil!

    the poem does contain explanations condoning the "sins" of the pANDavas. but
    that is a special pleading, sheer casuistry, which fails to carry conviction
    to any but the most simple-minded of the readers.

    the talented discoverer of this set of facts was ADOLF HOLTZMANN. it was to
    explain this element of contradiction in the story that he thought out his
    ingenious theory, which HOPKINS later styled the " inversion theory " and
    which found many adherents. this

    inversion theory

    this criticism, which bases itself on the supposed want of unity in the characters, is an effort to prove not merely a change but a complete inversion (in our present story) of the original theme, which explains its name "inversion theory."  "starting with the two-fold nature of krishna-vishnu as man and god," as HOPKINS says in describing the theory, "and with the glossed-over sins of the pandus, the critic argues that the first poem was written for the glory of the kurus, and subsequenly tampered
    with to magnify the pandus; and that in this latter form we have our present epic, dating from before the fourth century b.c."  the first poem would thus be completely changed, or, as one writer has expressed it "set upon its head."

    the indefatigable author of this theory, who had taken immense pains to study the epic from various angles in search of arguments to support and fortify his pet thesis, ultimately arrived at the following recondite reconstruction of the epic, as summarized  by HELD :

                   right back in the most ancient times there was a guild of
                   court-singers who extolled in their professional poetry the mighty
                   deeds of their monarchs. then came a talented poet who made of the
                   original epic, composed in honour of the renowned race of the
                   kauravas, a poem in praise of a great buddhist ruler, perhaps
                   asoka. but now the new teaching, coming into conflict with the
                   growing pretensions of the brahmins, begins to decline, and the
                   priests convert the now popular poem to their own use, but reverse
                   the original purpose of the work as a whole. now it is no longer the
                   kauravas. who are lauded but their very adverseries, the pandavas,
                   to whom a decided predilection for the brahmanical doctrine is
                   ascribed.  the epic is subjected to further revision.  buddhism is
                   eliminated altogether, both vishnu and krishna are thrust into the
                   foreground, the epic is assimilated to the ancient and sacred
                   chronicles of the puratnas and portions of a didactic character are
                   interpolated. and in this revised and irrecognisably altered
                   recension the epic was non-existent until the twelfth century a.d."

    these wild aberrations of HOLTZMANN... hardly deserve the name of a theory.  15


    Buhler: epigraphic and other evidence for mahAbhArata dates

    they are, as was pointed out by BARTH, not only at variance with the probable course of the religious and literary history of India, but they also stand in crass contradiction with positive and dated facts. The latter relation was brought out especially by the quite independent investigations of BUHLER regarding the mahAbhArata, which were more of a factitive character...  as buhler showed, already in the eighth century the poem must have had a form not very different from the one in which we now possess it, namely, as a dharrnasastra or a smr^ti work, that is, a book of sacred lore. the epigraphic evidence, moreover, clearly proved that the epic was known as early as the fifth century a.d. as a work consisting of 100,000 stanzas and composed by the great r^si vyAsa.  from this clear and unequivocal evidence, buhler drew the important conclusion that the work must unquestionably have been extant in practically the same shape as at present, several centuries prior to 400 a.d. this finding of BUHLER demolished completely the rickety chronological framework of HOLTZMANN'S fantastic reconstruction and made it clear that the historical background of the thesis was, fundamentally, as unsound as it was absurd.

    HOLTZMANN's theory found, however, a doughty champion ih the Viennese Professor Leopold von SCHROEDER, who by pruning away the more patent absurdities set it once more on its legs, and even popularized it through the persuasive quality of his felicitous style and suave mannerism.
    ... the inversion theme was retained and strengthened.

    remodelled by the genial SCHROEDER, the inversion theory took the following shape, as described by hopkins.

                   the  original poet .... lived at a time when brahma was the highest god (700 to 500 or 400 b.c.) ; and this singer was a child of the kuru-land.  he heard reports of the celebrated kuru race that once reigned in his land, but had been destroyed by the dishonourable fighting of a strange race of invaders. this tragical overthrow he depicted in such a way as to make his native heroes models of knightly virtue, while he painted the victors (pandus, panchalas,matsyas), with krishna, hero of the yAdavas, at their head, as ignoble and shamefully victorious.  this is the old bharata song mentioned in AchvalAyana.

                   after a time krishna became a god, and his priests, supported by the pandus, sought to make krishna (vishnu) worthy to be set against buddha. their exertions were successful.

                   vishnu in the fourth century became the great god, and his grateful priests rewarded their helpers, the hindus, by taking the bhArata poem in hand  and making a complete change in the story, so as to relieve them of the reproaches of the old poet. finally they worked it into such shape that it praised the pandus and blamed their opponents. about this time they inserted all the episodes that glorify vishnu as the highest god.  the pandus then pretended that  they had originally belonged to the kuru stock, and the cousinship portrayed in the poem was invented ; whereas they were really an  alien, probably a southern race.".)

    this ill-conceived theory, though advocated by LASSEN, WiNTERNITZ and J. J. MEYER, has been discountenanced for different reasons, by even BARTH, sylvain LEVI, PISCHEL, JACOBI, 0LDENBERG, and. HOPKINS.

    dishonourable conduct by the pANDavas

    bhiSma, droNa, karNa and duryodhana were all killed in the war by subterfuges or tricks which violate the strict axle of chivalrous and knightly combats. but the kauravas are just as unscrupulous, if not indeed more so ; only they are discreet and diplomatic in the extreme. their "sins," as HOPKINS has pointed out, smack of cultivated wickedness. they secretly try to burn their enemies alive.  they seek to waylay and kill the ambassador of the pANDavas.  they form a conspiracy and send out ten men under oath (saMshaptakas) to attack arjuna.  they slay arjuna's son first in order to weaken arjuna's heart.  are these dark deeds worthy .  of models of royal and knightly honour?  the truth is that the kauravas are crafty and designing; they are shrewd enough not to break the smaller laws of
    propriety. they plot in secret, hiding their deceitfulness under an ostentatious cloak of justice and benevolence. they sin at heart, and present to the world a smiling and virtuous face.

    the pANDavas are on the other hand represented throughout as being truly ngenuous and guileless they do "sin" they are human for that ~ but their "sins" are palpably overt and markedly evident. .the   kauravas are sanctimonious hypocrites; the wrath and animosity of the grossly outraged
    pANDavas stare us in the  face.

    HOPKINS: "society had advanced from a period when rude manners were justifiable and tricks were considered worthy of a warrior to time when a finer morality had begun to temper the crude royal and military spirit. this is sufficient explanation of that historical anomaly found in the great epic, the endeavour on the part of the priestly redactors to palliate and excuse the sins of their heroes."

    HELD has rightly rejected this specious explanation  of HOPKINS, pointing out that there is no reason  to picture to ourselves those more primitive cultures as a barbarian state of society in which "brutal warrior kings" were rampant.

    the atomistic methods of the advanced critics of the mahAbhArata having proved barren of any useful or intelligent result, some attempt was ·made to understand the poem as a whole. the most notable of these legitimate endeavours was that of joseph DAHLMANN; and as such it deserves special reoognition. a certain underlying unity of aim and plan in this gigantic work was postulated and dogmatically emphasized by this great jesuit scholar, who of all the foreign critcs of the mahAbhArata may be said to approach nearest to any real understanding of the great epic of india.

    [this theory] categorically repudiates as utterly fantastic the notion that the great epic is but a haphazard compilation of disjointed and incoherent units. it insists on the other hand  that the MahAbhArata is primarily a synthesis, a synthesis of all the various aspects of Law, in the widest sense of the term, covered by the Indian conception of dharma, cast by a master intellect into the alluring shape of a story, of an epic. in other words, the mahAbhArata is an epic and a law-book (rechtsbuch) in one. the poem is, as indian tradition has  always implied, a conscious product of
    literary art (kAvya) of the highest order, with a pronounced unity of conception, aim, and treatment.

    Undismayed by the barrage of hostile and even mocking criticism which greeted his first work on the subject, "Das MahAbhArata als Epos una Rechtsbuch" (1895), he continued his labours, defending his favourite thesis again, with great eloquence and enthusiasm, in a second volume, "Geneszs des
    MahAbhArata" (1899), which met with no better reception at the hands of his intolerant and opinionated colleagues...

    in these earnest and thought-provoking bpoks, DAHLMANN has shown, on the basis of well selected and oonvincing examples, that the relation between the narrative and the didactic matter in our epic was definitely not of a casual character, but was intentional and purposive, concluding therefrom
    that it was impossible to separate the two elements without destroy1ng or mutilating the poem...

    the didactic matter of the epic, DAHLMANN insisted, was a necessary -- nay, an essential- element of the poem, of which the -- fable itself was in fact largely invented just for the purpose of illustrating certain well defined maxims of law, certain legal, moral and ethical principles underlying the fabric of indian society. thus, for example, there is, according to DAHLMANN, in the crucial instance no historical basis for the polyandric marriage of draupadi with the pANDava brothers, which is to be understood only symbolically. the pANDavs themselves symbolize the undivided or joint family; and draupadi, their common wife in the story, stands for the ideal embodiment and representation of the unconditional unity of the family.  tribal confederacy may perhaps have formed the historical basis of the unity of the pANDavas.

    DAHLMANN's conclusions:
      - the epic is a well defined unity
      - each part has a specific purpose
      - the unity of plan was conceived by a single person, who carried out the
                     work.
      - date of the poem is NOT later than 5th c. BC

    with DAHLMANN the pendulwn had clearly swung to theother extreme. We owe very impartial and searching criticisms of DAHLMANN'S views to JACOBI and BARTH, who have exposed certain weaknesses of the theory.

    we must also admit now that DAHLMANN's views regarding the unity and homogeneity of the text of the epic were much exaggerated.  It can now be demonstrated, with mathematical precision, that the text of the mahAbhArata used by DAHLMANN - the bombay or calcutta edition of the vulgate - is much inflated with late accretions and moot certainly does not, as a whole, go back to the fifth century b.c.  it may even contain some furtive additions which had been made as late as .  1000 ad. or even later. the critical edition of the mahAbhArata, which is being published by the bhandarkar
    oriental research institute, shows that large blocks of the text of the·vulgate must on incontrovertible evidence be excised as comparatively late interpolations.

    the brahmA-gaNesha complex and the kaNika nIti in the Adi and the hymns to durgA in the virATa and the bhISma parvans occur to our mind readily as examples of such casual interpolations.  but the southern recension offers us illustrations of regular long poems bejng bodily incorporated in the
    epic, like the detailed description of the avataras of viSNu put in the mouth of bhISma in the sabhA, and the full enunciation of the vaiSNavadharma in the Ashvamedhikaparvan, two passages comprising together about 2500· stanzas.  when we know that these additions have been made in comparatively recent times, even so late as the period to which our written tradition reaches back, can we legitimately assume that our text was free from such intrusions during that prolonged period in the history of our text which extends beyond the periphery of our manuscript tradition ?

    the riddle of kr^SNa

    it will be noticed that DAHLMANN had no explanation to offer of the paradox of kr^SNa, who looms so large in the world of the epio poets as to overshadow the entire poem, who is to be found in the beginning, in the middle, and in the end of the entire epopee.  with his eyes fixed on the dichotomy of dharma and adharma, the most characteristic creation of indian genius, who was above dharma and adharma, beyond good and evil.

    who is kr^SNa, indeed ? that paradox of paradoxes! a philosopher on the battlefield! an ally who gives away his powerful army to swell the ranks of his opponents; and himself, though the omnipotent lord of all weapons, takes a vow, before the commencement of the war, not to hold a weapon in his hands! a god who avows impartiality towards all living beings, and yet like a wily and unscrupulous politician secretly plots for the victory of the pANDavas and the annihilation of the kauravas!  standing on the field of battle, this self-styled avaiara preaches the lower morality and the mere man (arjuna) the higher!  a grotesque character who claims to be the highest god and behaves uncommonly like a "tricky mortal"!

    this bizarre figure can certainly not belong to the original heroic poem, which must have been a straightforward work free from all contradictions of this kind. european savants are -agreed that he must needs be an innovation, introduced secondarily into the original " epic nucleus." how could european savants, lacking as they do in their intellectual make-up the milleniums old back-ground of indian culture, ever hope to penetrate this inscrutable mask of the unknowable pulling faces at them, befooling them and enjoying their antics?  however we shall leave the matter there for the present.


    The question of the historicity

    Opinion is sharply divided on this point.

    The work claims itself to be an Itihasa, a history; but criticism, both ancient and modern, has been loth to take this statement at its face value. Opinion has thus vacillated from the standpoint of categorical acceptance of perfect historicity to complete scepticism.

    a very novel interpretation of the epic we owe to principal THADANI, professor of english in the hindu college of delhi, embodied in an ambitious work comprising five volumes entitled the mystery of the mahAbhArata : a difficult book which no layman can hope to understand.  professor thadani is
    a philosopher and a poet. accordingly his great work is both poetical and philosophical. it deepens and intensifies the "mystery" of the mahAbhArata rather than solves it.

    the whole story of the mahAbhArata is, according to this learned scholar, "but an account of the connection and conflict between the different systems of hindu philosophy and religion."  this is especially so in regard to the principal systems. thus there is a conflict between principal vedanta
    (vaiSNavism) and principal yoga (saivism); principal yoga and principal sAMkhya (buddhism and jainism); and sAMkhya and vedanta.

    professor THADANI is right in insisting that for debate or discussion there must be a common ground of agreement between opposing views, without which a discussion is impossible. i have none with the learned professor, nor have i had the good fortune of coming across anybody who had.  professor thadani stands unchallenged.

    let us now look at the matter from yet another angle.  is it not passing strange that, notwithstanding the repeated and dogged attempts of western savants to demonstrate that our mahAbhArata is but an unintelligible conglomerate of disjointed pieces, without any meaning as a whole, the epic should always have occupied in indian antiquity an eminent position and uniformly enjoyed the highest reputation? it was used, we are told, as a book of education for the young bANa's time, like the iliad in hellenic greece.  it has inspired the poets and dramatists of india as a quarry for their plots and ideas. it has attracted in the past celebrated indian philosophers like acarya saMkara and kumArila, famous indian saints like jnaneshwar and ramdas, and distinguished indian rulers like akbar and
    shivaji. this epic of the· bhAratas had moreover penetrated to the farthest extremities of greater india. it had conquered not only burma and siam, but even the distant islands of java and bali. the immortal stories of this epic have been carved on the walls of the temples of these people by their sculptors, painted on their canvasses by their artists, acted in their wayongs by their showmen.

    what is more remarkable still is that this epic - along with the ramAyaNa -- is still living and throbbing in the lives of the indian people -- not merely of the intelligentsia, but also of the illiterate and inarticulate masses, the "hewers of wood and the carriers of water."

    instead of searching for an elusive original nucleus, i believe we shall find in the poem itself something far greater and nobler than the lost paradise of the primitive kSatriya tale of love and war, for which the western savants have been vainly searching, and which the indian people had long outgrown and discarded. 31



    http://cse.iitk.ac.in/users/amit/books/sukthankar-1957-on-meaning-of.html

    FBI investigating trriple shooting & homicide in Olathe, Kansas as hate crime

    Ṛgveda metaphors of war-chariot,archer, bowman, सेना 'armed force' RV 1.103, 1.142

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    -प्रतिरथ m. N. of a ऋषि ; n. N. of the above-named hymn (composed by अप्रतिरथMaitrS. S3Br. &c.

     रथ 1 [p= 865,2] m. ( √4. ) " goer " , a chariot , car , esp. a two-wheeled war-chariot (lighter and swifter than the अनस्q.v.) , any vehicle or equipage or carriage (applied also to the vehicles of the gods) , waggon , cart RV. &c (ifc. f().); a warrior , hero , champion MBh. Katha1s. BhP.; a limb, member, part; रथी f. a small carriage or waggon , cart S3is3.

    Jaritā, Droṇah etc. = Decayed, Soma vessel, friend of bush, etc. related to a bow. जरित a [p= 414,1] mfn. (p.p. Caus.) old , decayed Hariv. 15988 R. ii f.; f. N. of a शार्ङ्गिका bird (mother of 4 sons at once by the ऋषि मन्द-पाल in the form of a शार्ङ्गक ; cf. जरित्/ at end) MBh. i , 8346 ff. and 8379 ff.जरितृ [p= 414,2] m. an invoker , praiser RV. AV. v , 11 , 8 ; xx , 135 , 1 f. A1s3vS3r. viii , 3; of the author of RV. x , 142 , 1 f. (with the patr. शार्ङ्ग ; cf. °).

     सेना [p= 1246,2] an army , armament , battle-array , armed force (also personified as wife of कार्त्तिकेय ; ifc. also n(सेन).RV. &c

    शार्ङ्ग śārṅga a. 1 Made of horn, horny. -2 Having a bow, armed with a bow; Bk.8.123. -र्ङ्गः, -र्ङ्गम् 1 A bow (in general); शार्ङ्गाकर्षावमुक्तप्रशिथिलकविका प्रग्रहेणात्र देशे Mu. 6.9; Bk.8.123. -2 The bow of Viṣṇu; शार्ङ्गं पुनर्धनुर्दिव्यं विष्णोः परममायुधम् Dhanur.44; शार्ङ्गं धनुर्मित्रमिव द्रढीयः Śi. 3.2. -शार्ङ्गः [शृणातेः गण् शकुनौ Uṇ.1.118] A bird; also शार्ङ्गकः; तस्मिन् वने दह्यमाने षडग्निर्न ददाह च । अश्वसेनं मयं चैव चतुरः शार्ङ्गकांस्तथा ॥ Mb.1.228.47. -र्ङ्गम् Wet ginger. -Comp. -धन्वन् m., -धरः, -पाणिः, -भृत् m.epithets of Viṣṇu.
    शार्ङ्गिन् śārṅgin m. 1 An archer, a bowman. -2 An epithet of Vishnu; धर्मसंरक्षणार्थैव प्रवृत्तिर्भुवि शार्ङ्गिणः R.15.4;12.7; Me.47. -3 Of Śiva.

    10.103.01 The fleet-going Indra, like a formidable bull sharpening (his horns), the slayer of foes, the exciter of men, loud-shouting, ever-vigilant, the chief of heroes overthrew at once a hundred hosts.
    10.103.02 With Indra the loud-shouting, the vigilant, the vigtorious, the warlike, the unconquerable, the daring, the hurler of arrows, the showerer, (as your ally) conquer you warriors, you leaders, that (hostile host) and overcome it.
    10.103.03 Indra, with the arrow-bearing (maruts), armed with swords, the subduer, the warrior, who encounters him, the drinker of the Soma, the strong-armed, having a powerful bow, who shoots with well-aimed arrows (conquer with his help).
    10.103.04 Come with your chariot, Br.haspati, who are the slayer of Ra_ks.asas, discomfiting your enemies, crushing (hostile) hosts and demolishing (them), victorious in battle, be the defender of our chariots.
    10.103.05 Known by his strength mighty, heroic, overpowering, vigorous, enduring, fierce, attended by heroes, attended by mighty men, the offspring of strength, the possessor of water, do you, Indra, ascend your triumphant chariot. [Water: govit, knowing or accepting the song of praise].
    10.103.06 Imitate in heroism, you kindred warriors, follow, friends, in prowess this Indra, who is the breaker of mountains, the acquirer of water, armed with the thunderbolt, conquering the swift (foe), destroying (the enemy) by his might. [Breaker of mountains: or of clouds; or of gotras (a race of asuras); gotrabhit = breaking into the cow-stall].
    10.103.07 May Indra, bursting open the clouds with force; pitiless, heroic, with hundredfold anger, invincible, the overthrower of armies, irresistible, protect our armies in battles.
    10.103.08 May Indra be the leader of these (hosts), may Br.haspati, Daks.in.a_, Yajn~a, and Soma go before, let the Maruts march in the van of the destroying and victorious armies of the gods. [Daks.in.a_: not a proper name; may the yajn~a-purus.a (i.e., Vis.n.u) go on the right and Soma go before].
    10.103.09 (May) the mighty force of the showerer Indra, of the royal Varun.a, of the A_dityas and Maruts (be ours). The shout of the magnanimous and victorious deities, the subverters of the worlds, has arisen.
    10.103.10 Excite, Maghavan, my weapons, (excite) the spirits of my heroes; slayer of Vr.tra, let the speed of the horses be accelerated, let the noises of the chariots be increased.
    10.103.11 When the banners are intermingled, may Indra be our (defender), may those arrows which are ours be victorious may our warriors be triumphant; gods, protect us in battles.
    10.103.12 Bewildering the mind of our foes, Apva, seize their limbs and depart, proceed against them, burn in their hearts with sorrow, let our enemies be covered with thick darkness. [Apva: a goddess, apve papa_bhima_nini devate; or, sickness or fear; or, apiva: from apavi = who deprives of enjoyment (Nirukta)]. 
    10.103.13 Advance, warriors, and conquer; may Indra grant you happiness, may your arms be strong, so that you may be invincible.

    Griffith: RV 10. 103 HYMN CIII. Indra. 103
    1. SWIFT, rapidly striking, like a bull who sharpens his horns, terrific, stirring up the people,
    With eyes that close not, bellowing, Sole HeroIndra. subdued at once a hundred armies.
    2 With him loudroaring-, ever watchful, Victor, bold, hard to overthrow, Rouser of battle,
    Indra. the Strong, whose hand bears arrows, conquer, ye warriors, now, now vanquish in the combat.
    3 He rules with those who carry shafts and quivers, Indra who with his band rings hosts together,
    Foeconquering-, strong of arm, the Somadrinker-, with mighty bow, shooting with welllaid- arrows.
    Brhaspati, fly with thy chariot hither, slayer of demons, driving off our foemen.
    Be thou protector of our cars, destroyer, victor in battle, breakerup- of armies.
    5 Conspicuous by thy strength, firm, foremost fighter, mighty and fierce, victorious, allsubduing-,
    The Son of Conquest, passing men and heroes, kinewinner-, mount thy conquering car, O Indra.
    6 Cleaver of stalls, kinewinner-, armed with thunder, who quells an army and with might destroys
    it.-
    Follow him, brothers! quit yourselves like heroes, and like this Indra show your zeal and courage.
    7 Piercing the cowstalls- with surpassing vigour, Indra, the pitiless Hero, wild with anger,
    Victor in fight, unshaken and resistlessmay, he protect our armies in our battles.
    Indra guide these: Brhaspati precede them, the guerdon, and the sacrifice, and Soma;
    And let the banded Maruts march in forefront of heavenly hosts that conquer and demolish.
    9 Ours be the potent host of mighty IndraKing Varuna, and Maruts, and Adityas.
    Uplifted is the shout of Gods who conquer highminded- Gods who cause the worlds to tremble.
    10 Bristle thou up, O Maghavan, our weapons: excite the spirits of my warring heroes.
    Urge on the strong steeds' might, O Vrtraslayer-, and let the din of conquering cars go upward.
    11 May Indra aid us when our flags are gathered: victorious be the arrows of our army.
    May our brave men of war prevail in battle. Ye Gods, protect us in the shout of onset.
    12 Bewildering the senses of our foemen, seize thou their bodies and depart, O Apva.
    Attack them, set their hearts on fire and burn them: so let our foes abide in utter darkness.
    13 Advance, O heroes, win the day. May Indra be your sure defence.
    Exceeding mighty be your arms, that none may wound or injure you.


    10.142.01 This person, Agni, was your praiser, for there is nothing else attainable, O son of strength; holy is the happiness derived from you, a triple defence; remove far from us, who are susceptible of harm, your scorching flame. [Triple defence: a defence against the three evils of existence]. 
    10.142.02 Exalted is the birth of you, Agni, who are desirous of (sacrificial) food; you preside like a councillor over all created beings; our praises flowing smoothly proceed to you, as herdsmen of their own will (go slowly) before (their flocks). 
    10.142.03 Blazing Agni, you destroy many a shrub, as you burn; and (the sites) of the tilled fields are laid waste, may we never rouse to anger your terrible flame. 
    10.142.04 When you move burning above and burning below, you scatter yourself like a devastating host; when the wind fans your flame, you shave the earth as a barber shaves a beard. 
    10.142.05 His lines (of flame) are visible, like one array of many chariots, when clearing away (the forests) with your arms (of flame) you march, Agni, over the prostrate earth. 
    10.142.06 May your withering flames, Agni, arise; may your light (arise), and the swift movements of you when you are praised; rise up, stoop down, increasing in might; may all the Vasus this day attend upon you. 
    10.142.07 This is the abode of the waters, the dwelling of the ocean; pursue, Agni, a different path from this; go by this (path) according to your pleasure. 
    10.142.08 Both at your arrival, Agni, and at your departure, may the flowering du_rva grasses spring up; may lakes (be formed) and lotuses (therein); may these be the dwellings of the ocean. 

    Griffith: RV 10.142
    HYMN CXLII. Agni. 142
    1. WITH thee, O Agni, was this singer of the laud: he hath no other kinship, O thou Son of
    Strength.
    Thou givest blessed shelter with a triple guard. Keep the destructive lightning far away from us.
    2 Thy birth who seekest food is in the falling flood, Agni: as Comrade thou winnest all living
    things.
    Our coursers and our songs shall be victorious: they of themselves advance like one who guards the herd.
    3 And thou, O Agni, thou of Godlike nature, sparest the stones, while caring up the brushwood.
    Then are thy tracks like deserts in the cornlands-. Let us not stir to wrath thy mighty arrow.
    4 Over hills through vales devouring as thou goest, thou partest like an army fain for booty
    As when a barber shaves a beard, thou shavest earth when the wind blows on thy flame and fans it.
    5 Apparent are his lines as he approaches the course is single, but the cars are many,
    When, Agni, thou, making thine arms resplendent, advancest over the land spread out beneath thee.
    6 Now let thy strength, thy burning flames fly upward, thine energies, O Agni, as thou toilest.
    Gape widely, bend thee, waxing in thy vigour: let all the Vasus sit this day beside thee.
    7 This is the waters' reservoir, the great abode of gathered streams.
    Take thou another path than this, and as thou listest walk thereon.
    8 On thy way hitherward and hence let flowery Durva grass spring up
    Let there be lakes with lotus blooms. These are the mansions of the flood.

    Is India Under Weaponized Biological Attack? -- Shelley Kasli

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    http://greatgameindia.com/india-weaponized-biological-attack/

    Is India Under Weaponized Biological Attack?
    Bill Gates, the man who tops the Forbes richest person in the world list has just issued a grave warning about a potential catastrophe that could kill 30 million people at the Munich Security Conference held in Germany:
    “Whether it occurs by a quirk of nature or at the hand of a terrorist, epidemiologists say a fast-moving airborne pathogen could kill more than 30 million people in less than a year. And they say there is a reasonable probability the world will experience such an outbreak in the next 10 to 15 years.”
    Although Bill Gates didn’t provide much contextual information, a month ago similar warning was voiced from London by the Thomson Reuters Foundation with specific details.
    The global spread of bird flu and the number of viral strains currently circulating and causing infections have reached unprecedented levels, raising the risk of a potential human outbreak, according to disease experts.
    The greatest fear is that a deadly strain of avian flu could then mutate into a pandemic form that can be passed easily between people – something that has not yet been seen.
    Avian influenza A(H7N9) is a subtype of influenza viruses that have been detected in birds in the past. This particular A(H7N9) virus had not previously been seen in either animals or people until it was found in March 2013 in China.
    In China, H7N9 strains of bird flu have been infecting both birds and people, with the number of human cases rising in recent weeks. According to the WHO, more than 900 people have been infected with H7N9 bird flu since it emerged in early 2013.
    However a year later in 2014 a new avian influenza virus (H5N6) was discovered in China and was believed to be a cross species infection. H5N6, though not deadly to avian population its clinical manifestation in human seems severe. According to a research paper published in the Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine:
    “the widespread epidemic of avian influenza in domestic birds increases the likelihood for mutational events and genetic reassortment and the threat of a future pandemic from avian influenza is real. It is apparently proposed that genetic alteration is the basic problem causing existence of the new influenza virus. Reid and Taubenberger concluded that “novel influenza virus strains emerge periodically to which humans have little immunity, resulting in devastating pandemics.”
    Nearly 40 countries have reported new outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza in poultry or wild birds since November, according to the WHO. Few weeks back animal quarantine authorities in Taiwan have slaughtered at least 150,000 poultry after an outbreak of the bird flu was found in many counties and cities across the island. In the UK, after the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) detected the H5N8 strain the authorities confirmed to have culled 23,000 chickens. The disease is reported to have reached Ireland. Spain’s Central Veterinarian Laboratory in Algete, in the outskirts of Madrid reported a case of the highly contagious H5N8 bird flu virus in a northeastern farm in Catalonia and said it would cull 17,000 ducks.
    In 2015 Russia had stopped the movement of US poultry through the country in an effort to halt re-importation. 157 cases of bird flu were found in 17 Russian states which resulted in the slaughtering of 33.3 million chickens. Russian Agricultural watchdog Rosselkhoznadzor found “harmful residues and illegal substances,” including antibiotics, in the products. “This decision was made due to the fact that the US is at the centre of a bird flu infection and we have seen facts of American transit products returning to our market,” the head of Rosselkhoznadzor Sergey Dankvert told Interfax. Now Rosselkhoznadzor is about to ban import of poultry from several EU countries as well where outbreaks were registered. The Saudi Food and Drug Authority (SFDA) recently banned poultry products from 6 countries. Dozens of countries have imposed total or partial bans on U.S. poultry and poultry imports since the outbreak of this highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) was discovered.
    The threat posed by this deadly avian flu and how a WTO ruling puts India at grave risk of a deadly pandemic was reported by GreatGameIndia six months back in August.
    Bill Gates Biological Warfare Weapon Ban US Poultry China Pandemic Bird Flu Infographics
    To prevent the disease from entering into the Indian market India had already banned the import of frozen chicken legs from the U.S. to stop the spread of this deadly avian influenza. However US raised a dispute with the WTO.
    “India’s ban on U.S. poultry is clearly a case of disguising trade restrictions by invoking unjustified animal health concerns,” US Trade Representative Ron Kirk said in a statement. “We are confident that the WTO will confirm that India’s ban is unjustified.”
    A separate statement from US Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack claimed that the United States had repeatedly sought scientific evidence for the import restrictions.
    “Countries have the right to impose certain restrictions,” said Alex Thiermann, President of the OIE Code Commission. However, he added that “the code very clearly says that low pathogenic influenza allows for trade.”
    A WTO panel confirmed in June 2015 an earlier ruling that India’s ban was not based on international scientific standards, was more trade restrictive than necessary, and unfairly discriminated against U.S. imports. India was given until June 2016 to lift the ban and follow international standards. Along with it India was to be slapped with a penalty of $450 million per year for failing to comply with a World Trade Organization ruling.
    The concerns of the Rs 50,000 crore Indian poultry industry regarding chicken raised on genetically modified (GM) corn and soya as feed being dumped on the Indian market have since fallen on deaf ears with no action from the Indian Government.
    While countries around the world are trying to prevent this now mutated deadly avian flu outbreak into their human population through ban on poultry imports from certain countries, the Indian Government seem to have negotiated an agreement with US officials during the Strategic and Commercial Dialogue in New Delhi last year. Even though reports of bird flu cases are pouring in from different parts of the country substantial steps are yet to be taken by the govt to contain the outbreak.
    Like India, China is facing the largest pandemic threat to hit the country in the last 100 years accounting for the deaths of 79 people in January from the 192 human cases reported so far. Until it was detected in China in March 2013, the virus hadn’t been seen in people or animals, apart from birds.
    At the time Sr. Col. Dai Xu a Chinese Air Force officer of the People’s Liberation Army accused the U.S. government of creating the new strain of bird flu afflicting China as a biological warfare attack. Dai alleged the new bird flu strain had been designed as a bioweapon, similar to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), that affected the country in 2003 which was also developed as a US bio-weapon.
    “At that time, America was fighting in Iraq and feared that China would take advantage of the opportunity to take other actions,” he said. “This is why they used bio-psychological weapons against China. All of China fell into turmoil and that was exactly what the United States wanted. Now, the United States is using the same old trick. China should have learned its lesson and should calmly deal with the problem.”
    In 2011 it was revealed that the U.S. government paid scientists to figure out how the deadly bird flu virus might mutate to become a bigger threat to people — and two labs succeeded in creating new strains that are easier to spread. The details of the study were not published until in 2014 when Ron Fouchier and his team at Erasmus Medical Center took the H5N1 flu virus and made it more contagious. Now the team has published another study with more details on the exact genetic changes needed to do the trick. Critics argued that the scientists had created a dangerous new superflu.
    The security versus scientific openness debate is a long drawn out battle. The question is where does India stand? Before addressing the issues of science and security first India need to settle the question of international trade arbitration and the political will to do it. India with the population of one billion has high chances of rapid transmission of such virus – Ebola or Swine Flu or any other deadly virus once it hits the crowded metropolitan cities of India. Is India prepared to tackle a weaponized attack of such viruses? How would we know if it could be classified as a naturally occurring phenomenon or a biological attack? What should be our counter response if it were found to be an attack? Does India have a National Security policy that deals with such a scenario?
    Shelley Kasli for GreatGameIndia – India’s only quarterly magazine on Geopolitics & International Relations
    http://greatgameindia.com/india-weaponized-biological-attack/

    Playing Niira Radia Tapes, Team PGurus exposes how Tata funds political parties

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    Unheard Niira Radia Tapes – Ratan Tata pays political parties in two instalments in covert ways

    A conversation between Tata employee and Niira on how Tata funds political parties covertly
     
    PGurus is starting a series on the (conveniently) not-debated portions of the controversial Niira Radia tapes. The first article is on the style of funding by Tata Group to political parties and the hypocrisy of Ratan Tata to hide it.
    Ratan Tata used all his money to stop the surge of his enemy Mamta Banerjee in Lok Sabha election in 2009, in which shebagged 19 seats out of 42 in West Bengal. Ratan Tata was a worried man after Lok Sabha elections in 2009. The Trinamool Congress (TMC) Supremo come out with clinching evidence on Tata Group’s electoral trust funding the Communist Party of India-Marxist (CPI(M)) and other Left parties in West Bengal. The conversation between Ratan Tata’s Private Secretary Venkat and Niira Radia on May 29, 2009 gives the picture of how Tata Group covertly funds all political parties and their method of funding.
    We start the series with this conversation, as the Country is witnessing elections in 5 states including the biggest, Uttar Pradesh. Ratan Tata used all his money to stop the surge of his enemy Mamta Banerjee in Lok Sabha election in 2009, in which she bagged 19 seats out of 42 in West Bengal. This was the beginning of the surge of TMC, which got people’s backing after its fight with the ruling CPI(M) over the Nandigram massacre. TMC then took on Tata’s Singur plant for Nano cars. After the election results Mamta Banerjee produced some payout data and receipts of Tata controlled Electoral Trusts’ funding to CPI(M).
    The Radia tapes tell us that Ratan Tata wanted to print reports that the Electoral Trust has no relation with Tata Group. This shows how disingenuous Tata was. In this conversation between Radia and Venkat , both say all Tata Group companies’ money goes to The Electoral Trust to fund the political parties.
    The payment will be in two instalments.
    As per the tapes, Tata, asked one Dinesh Vyas, a Supreme Court lawyer and Trustee of The Electoral Trust to issue a statement that they have no link with Tata Group!
    Another interesting thing is that Tata enters an agreement with political parties on the mode of payment. The payment will be in two instalments. First one will be before polling and the second payment will be given only after the results and it will vary according to performance by the political parties. As per the conversation between Radia and Venkat, all parties, including Sonia Gandhi agreed on this method of payments. Only CPI(M) and Mayawati’s Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) did not agree for this two instalment method by Tata. These parties demanded full payment before polling.
    The transcripts of the conversation are published below:
    Page 1 of audio conv. between Niira and Venkat
    Page 2 of audio conv. between Niira and VenkatPage 3 of audio conv. between Niira and Venkat 

    Ochre Coloured Pottery Ganga-Yamuna Culture of Sarasvati Civilization days, found in Sakatpur, UP

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    Copper axes point to an ancient culture story


    Ancient tools: The copper axes, thought to belong to 2000 BC, from Sakatpur.  

    Archaeologists excited, as discovery may shine light on a 4,000-year-old Ganga-Yamuna culture

    Six copper axes and some pieces of pottery discovered in Sakatpur of Saharanpur district in Uttar Pradesh could point to a separate culture that straddled the Ganga and Yamuna, coinciding with the Indus Valley Civilisation, say archaeologists.
    The Archaeological Survey of India is excavating the site at Rampur Maniharan, hoping to discover more artefacts.

    In fertile plains

    When the Indus Valley civilisation flourished in what is today Punjab, Haryana and parts of Pakistan, a parallel culture is thought to have co-existed in the fertile plains between the Ganga and the Yamuna in western Uttar Pradesh.
    The copper axes and pottery sherds found last week may be related to the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture in the doab (plains) of the two rivers in the late Harappan period, around 2000 BC.
    The Superintending Archaeologist, ASI (Agra circle) Bhuvan Vikrama, told The Hindu that going by what had been found, it could well be related to the OCP culture. OCP marked the last stage of the North Indian Copper Age.

    Found by chance

    Workers of a brick kiln in Sakatpur found the axes when they were digging to collect soil. The ASI then sent a team to excavate.
    The people who used ochre pottery and their culture are specific to the doab region.
    The first remnants of OCP culture were found in Hastinapur, in Meerut district, in 1951 and later in Atranjikhera in Eta district.

    Direct evidence

    “We are excited because this is the first time we have discovered remnants of the OCP culture directly,” Mr. Vikrama said.
    “We have done three days of excavation and found only pottery. Since excavation is a slow process we expect to find more remains like habitat dispositions in the depth of the soil. We are not yet calling it a proper civilisation and terming it only as a culture, because unlike the Harappan civilisation, we still do not know much about OCP culture. But this time we are hopeful that we will unearth interesting details,” he added.
    Scholars differ in their interpretation of the nature of OCP culture. Those like V.N. Misra see it as “only a final and impoverished stage of the late-Harappan,” while others view it as completely unrelated to Harappa.
    http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/copper-axes-point-to-an-ancient-culture-story/article17383808.ece?homepage=true

    This village may hold key to a bygone civilisation

    LUCKNOW Updated: Feb 26, 2017 15:10 IST
    S.Raju

    Archaeological Survey of India

    Excavation work underway in Sakatpur village ofSaharanpur district .(HT Photo)


    A chance discovery of six copper axes and some pieces of pottery has spurred the Archaeological Survey of India into excavating a site in Sakatpur village of Rampur Maniharan area in Saharanpur district, in the hope of recovering more remains of an old civilization that once flourished in the doab (plains) of Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
    A team of archaeologists began the excavation on Friday under the supervision of Dr Bhuvan Vikram, supervising archaeologist, ASI Agra Circle. Vikram, who believes that the excavation may unearth many interesting facts, said, “Excavation is a very slow process and we hope to find pottery and habitat deposition in the depths of the soil.”
    Dr Vikram said that a chance discovery of six copper axes attracted the attention of historians and archaeologists towards this tiny village. Some labourers of a nearby brick kiln were digging to collect soil to manufacture bricks and they found six copper axes. They reported the matter to their owner and it was eventually reported to the ASI while passing through different routes. “It sounded interesting and we decided to excavate the land to ascertain the historical and archaeological significance of the region’, said Dr Vikram, who has been camping here to supervise the excavation.
    He said the use of copper axes and the type of pottery found here was quite prevalent in the Ganga valley civilisation. Locals very often came across remains of pottery and other things in their fields.
    Earlier, the ASI had excavated a site at Sinauli village on Baraut-Chaprauli Road and discovered graveyards and other archaeological remains, including stone jewellery and axes. The site is still an attraction for students of history and archaeology. The then Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh’s daughter had also visited the site and collected inputs about it.
    http://www.hindustantimes.com/lucknow/this-village-may-hold-key-to-a-bygone-civilisation/story-nV4rctQfaHDcTgLLD2AZqN.html

    Sakatpur excavation may reveal startling facts

    • Swati Sharma | Meerut
      February 25, 2017 | 05:49 PM

    The excavation in village Sakatpur of Saharanpur might reveal many startling facts related to the history of this area. A grinding stone set has been recovered by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in the excavation besides pottery and copper axes which are related to the human existence.
    An ASI team has been put on the task for excavation from Friday at village Sakatpur of Rampur Maniharan in Saharanpur district. This excavation is being led by Bhuwan Vikram, Supervising archaeologist of Agra Circle of ASI. Three trenches of 2X2 meters have been made at the site where the excavation has started in which some pottery has also been recovered as well as a grinding stone set which has been sent to the lab for testing.
    In fact, the area caught attention of the ASI when six copper axes were found by labourers of brick kiln while digging the mud. They immediately brought this to the notice of the owners of the kiln who approached ASI through different channels. "The discovery of copper axes sounded interesting and we decided to excavate the land in order to study the historical and archaeological significance of the region," said Vikram, who is himself supervising the excavation work.
    Although the excavation is a very  slow process, there is a hope in the archaeologists  to encounter more of  pottery and habitat deposition deep in the  soil which might add to the history on the old civilization of this doab(Land between two rivers Ganga and Yamuna) area.
    "Use of copper axes and potteries found here were quite prevalent in the region of Ganga valley," Vikram said, adding that it, however, could be interlinked only after encountering  with the habitat deposition beneath the layers of the soil after few more days of excavation".
    Vikram  admitted that  old civilizations flourished in doab of Ganga and Yamuna. The existence of old civilizations in the area was also proved by excavations in some other parts of western UP, including Hastinapur of Meerut and Sinauli of Baghpat district. Earlier, the ASI had excavated at village Sinauli on Baraut-Chaprauli road where some graveyards, axes , and stone jewellery were discovered, giving clues of existence of ancient civilizations.
    A similar excavation was done by B Lal, a well-known archaeologist of the country in 1951 in Hastinapur where pottery, stones , beads and a structure like of a grand house was discovered . In his report, Lal had concluded that  ancient civilization flourished in Hastinapur.
    http://www.thestatesman.com/science/sakatpur-excavation-may-reveal-startling-facts-1488025107.html

    Haryana wants Indus Valley renamed as Sarasvati civilisation

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    Haryana wants Indus Valley renamed as Sarasvati civilisation

    This is one of several recommendations that the HSHDB will send to the government — the Board is chaired by Chief Minister Manohar Lal Khattar

    haryana, saraswati, sarasvati, indus valley, indus valley civilization, renaming indus valley, manohar lal khattar, haryana saraswati research, central governmentHaryana Chief Minister Manohar Lal Khattar (File Photo)
    Seven months after water was released into a largely dry channel that was dug up to revive the “lost” Saraswati, the Haryana Sarasvati Heritage Development Board (HSHDB) has decided to rename the Indus Valley civilisation as the Sarasvati river civilisation since the “river is no more a myth, its existence is a reality”. This is one of several recommendations that the HSHDB will send to the government — the Board is chaired by Chief Minister Manohar Lal Khattar — following the successful conclusion of the Saraswati Mahotsav in January. As part of the Mahotsav, a two-day international conference on the Saraswati river was held at the Kurukshetra University.
    The Board, which spells Saraswati as Sarasvati, has drawn up this recommendation: “Considering the state of knowledge regarding the Sarasvati river in presentations by international and national experts, it was felt by experts that the Sarasvati river is no more a myth, its existence is a reality. Further, the name of the Indus Valley civilisation in our country be rechristened as Sarasvati river civilisation.” Sumita Misra, Principal Secretary, Archives, Archaeology and Museums Department of Haryana, said: “A large number of Harappan sites have been found in Haryana over the years. The nomenclature of the Indus Valley civilisation should now be changed to the Saraswati-Indus civilisation.”
    The largest Harappan site Rakhigarhi and the oldest Bhirrana are both in Haryana. The state government is restarting excavation at Kunal in Fatehabad district. Officials maintained that the archaeological sites are along the banks of what used to be the river Saraswati. Prashant Bhardwaj, Deputy Chairman of the HSHDB, said, “We passed a resolution on the concluding day of the conference held during the Sarasvati Mahotsav to rename the Indus civilisation as the Sarasvati civilisation. There are 1097 sites in India associated with the Indus Valley civilisation, while in Pakistan there are only 70 to 80 sites.”
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    “No one should call Sarasvati a myth since it has already been proven that the river was present. No one should also use the word mythology in association with the river. By using this term, we are negating out own culture and heritage. We will raise objection if anyone uses this word,” he said. The experts have also recommended that archaeological survey of the area deemed to be the Saraswati basin from the Himalayas to Rann of Kutch should be carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India and related organisations. Fresh excavations should be done at locations related to “heritage and culture of the country”.
    The conference also recommended that “history, culture, language including script of the Sarasvati civilisation should be thoroughly evaluated to understand the geography, culture, language, livelihood and customs of the Vedic civilisation along the path of the Sarasvati river”.  A discussion on the Saraswati river was held Tuesday during the Budget session of the Haryana Assembly with Opposition parties questioning the government on its venture. Congress MLA Geeta Bhukkal questioned the source of the water in the river that is now called Saraswati, and asked if the government was filling it with water from tubewells.
    Leader of Opposition and INLD leader Abhay Singh Chautala said that as per an ISRO map on the path of the river, it enters Pakistan through Kutch. “Does the river reach Pakistan and then return to Allahabad where the confluence of the three rivers, Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati, is believed to take place,” he asked. Haryana Education Minister Ram Bilas Sharma, who is also Minister of Archaeology and Museums, said, “We have undertaken digging of the route of the river from Adi Badri to Mugalwali and Ambawali on a 32-km stretch. Even scientists have seen the water. Harappa was the most ancient civilisation in the world. The remains found at Rakhigarhi show that these are even older. Sarasvati has been mentioned 21 times in the Vedas.”
    Posted at: Jan 30, 2017, 12:29 AM; last updated: Jan 30, 2017, 12:29 AM (IST)

    Board to propose change in Saraswati river nomenclature

    Board to propose change in Saraswati river nomenclature
    Prof KC Sharma, Vice-Chancellor of Kurukshetra University, addresses the international conference on Saraswati river on Sunday. Tribune photo
    Vishal Joshi
    Tribune News Service
    Kurukshetra, January 29
    The Haryana Saraswati Heritage Development Board (HSHDB) may table a resolution before a panel of experts to discard pronouncing the Saraswati as a mythical river tomorrow.
    Sources said the proposed step was planned in view of multi-disciplinary scientific studies submitted before the Central government recently.
    Also, the HSHDB, which is headed by Chief Minister Manohar Lal Khattar, is expected to raise a demand to change the Indus Valley Civilisation as “Saraswati-Indus Valley Civilisation”.
    Experts from India and abroad from diverse research fields are attending a seminar on the Saraswati river at Kurukshetra University (KU).
    The two-day conference being organised by the university and the HSHDB will conclude tomorrow and the conference is tipped to pass a two-point resolution.
    Sources said a report submitted by Prof KS Valdiya of the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), which was commissioned by the Water Resources Ministry, was the key claim of the basis of the proposed move to change the nomenclatures in context with the Saraswati.
    The seven-member committee, headed by Valdiya had concluded that evidence from palaeochannels — remnants of defunct rivers — suggested that the Sarsuti or Saraswati-Markanda rivulets in Haryana were the water courses of the “eastern branch of a Himalayan river” and the Ghaggar-Patiali channels were the western branches.
    He said these branches met in Shatrana near Patiala and flowed as a large river emptying out into a sea that is now the Rann of Kutch.
    “Now, water traces at various places in Yamunanagar along the identified path of the ancient river buttress the claim of a river as mentioned in the Rigveda, considered to be the oldest scripture in the world. In-depth studies conclude that buried water sources along the marked Saraswati belts were up to 22,000 years old. Remains of an ancient civilisation in the Haryana-Rajasthan region also reaffirm that planned residential colonies were possible only due to fresh water in the vicinity,” said Valdiya, a noted geologist.
    Prof AR Chaudhri, a geologist from KU, said evidence of a river with an origin in glaciers in the upper Himalayas was first surfaced after sediment analysis near Kalayat in Kaithal district in 2006. Later, excavation at Bhor Saidan village near Kurukshetra by archeologists from Shri Krishna Museum in December 2006 also reaffirms the claims of a river flowing off the region centuries ago that was indicated by layers of sediment deposits at the site, he said.

    In memoriam: Prof. Maurizio Tosi

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    I recollect the memory of Prof. Tosi from an insight he provided in a conference in New Delhi, about the links between Meluhha and Susa based on the evidence of a pot with metal objects in the Louvre Museum. The 3rd millennium BCE pot contains implements imported into Susa from Meluhha (Sarasvati Civilization) with Sarasvati Script inscription hieroglyphs painted on the rim of the pot. 

    Our prayers for solace for his aatman and condolences to his family members and friends..

    Kalyanaraman


    Sunday, March 5, at 15, at the headquarters of the Department of History Culture Civilization 13/30 in Via San Vitale in Ravenna, there will be a commemoration of the late Prof.Maurizio Tosi

    Funerary services will be at the hospital funerary parlor of Ravenna on Monday 27th, 3:30 pm
    Foto del docente

    Maurizio Tosi

    Adjunct Professor
    Vicepresidenza della Scuola di Lettere e Beni culturali - Bologna
    Academic discipline: L-ANT/01 Pre- and Proto-History
    Curriculum M. Tosi
     Full Professor since 1981, Maurizio Tosi has occupied the chair of Prehistory and Protohistory of Asia at the Istituto Universitario Orientale of Naples till 1994 when he has been called to the chair of palaethnology at University of Bologna, Faculty of Conservation of Cultural Goods. His main field of study has been the formative processes of complex societies mainly across the Middle East and Central Asia together with the development of the methods for the definition of this process from the archaeological record. Beginning from 1967 he has directed field projects for the Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) in collaboration with different European and American agencies in Iran, Oman, Yemen, Pakistan, Turkmenistan and the Asian parts of the Russian Federation. From 1985 to the present, he is co-director of an International research program aimed to study the beginnings of navigation and long-distance trade in the Indian Ocean. Chiefly a student of palaeoeconomics and social structure of early societies, M.T. has directed since 1985 most of his efforts to the study of the relations between population resources in the systematic reconstruction of past landscapes.
    Read on...
    https://www.unibo.it/sitoweb/maurizio.tosi/cv-en


    Lutto in Ateneo. E' scomparso il prof. Maurizio Tosi

    Paletnologo di fama internazionale, è stato professore di Paletnologia dell'Università di Bologna dal 1994


    E' venuto a mancare, stamattina, Maurizio Tosi, docente di Paletnologia dell'Alma Mater. Professore ordinario dal 1981, ha coperto fino al 1994 la cattedra di Preistoria e Protostoria dell'Asia presso l'I.U.O. di Napoli e, dal 1994, la cattedra di Paletnologia presso la Scuola di Conservazione dei Beni Culturali dell'Università di Bologna.

    La sua principale specialità sono stati i processi formativi delle società complesse e lo sviluppo della ricerca archeologica per la definizione di tali processi. Dal 1967 ha diretto progetti di ricerca sul campo per l'IsIAO, spesso in collaborazione con numerosi Istituti Europei ed Americani in Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Yemen e nelle regioni asiatiche della Federazione Russa.

    E' stato co-direttore di un programma di ricerca internazionale mirato allo studio dell'origine della navigazione e del commercio di lunga distanza nell'Oceano Indiano. Studioso di paleoeconomia e dell'organizzazione sociale dei popoli asiatici nella preistoria, il prof. Tosi ha indirizzato dal 1985 gran parte delle sue attività allo studio del rapporto tra popolazione e risorse nella ricostruzione sistematica dei paesaggi antichi.

    Domenica 5 marzo, alle 15, presso la sede del Dipartimento di Storia Culture Civiltà in Via San Vitale 13/30, a Ravenna, si terrà una commemorazione del docente scomparso da parte di colleghi e amici.

    Personal Details of Maurizio Tosi


     

     Name and Surname
    Maurizio Tosi
     Place of Birth
     Zevio (VR)
     Date of Birth
     31-05-1944
     Nationality
    Italian 
    E-Mail

    Full Professor since 1981, Maurizio Tosi has occupied the chair of Prehistory and Protohistory of Asia at the Istituto Universitario Orientale of Naples till 1994 when he has been called to the chair of palaethnology at University of Bologna, Faculty of Conservation of Cultural Goods. His main field of study has been the formative processes of complex societies mainly across the Middle East and Central Asia together with the development of the methods for the definition of this process from the archaeological record. Beginning from 1967 he has directed field projects for the Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) in collaboration with different European and American agencies in Iran, Oman, Yemen, Pakistan, Turkmenistan and the Asian parts of the Russian Federation. From 1985 to the present, he is co-director of an International research program aimed to study the beginnings of navigation and long-distance trade in the Indian Ocean. Chiefly a student of palaeoeconomics and social structure of early societies, M.T. has directed since 1985 most of his efforts to the study of the relations between population resources in the systematic reconstruction of past landscapes.

     

    Monographs

    • Iran, l'alba della civilta', Milano, 1972
    • Prehistoric Sistan, (IsMEO Rep. Mem. XIX, 1), Rome, 1983
    • Oman Studies (Orientalia Romana 7), Rome (in collaboration with P.M. Costa)
    • The Prehistory of Asia and Oceania (Colloquia 16). UISPP Forlì 8-14/09/1996 Forlì 1996 (in collaboration with G.E. Afanas'ev, S. Cleuziou and J.R. Lukacs)
    • The Archaeological Map of Murghab Delta (IsIAO Serie Minor 3), Rome 1998 (in collaboration with A. Gubaev and G. Koshelenko)
    • Papers from the EAA Third Annual Meeting at Ravenna 1997. Vol. I, Pre- and Protohistory (BAR International Series 717), Oxford 1998 (in collaboration with M. Pierce)
    • Papers from the EAA Third Annual Meeting at Ravenna 1997. Vol. II, Classical and Medieval (BAR International Series 718), Oxford 1998 (in collaboration with M. Pierce)
    • Papers from the EAA Third Annual Meeting at Ravenna 1997. Vol. III, Sardinia (BAR International Series 719), Oxford 1998 (in collaboration with M. Pierce)
    • Bruce Chatwin: viaggio in Afghanistan , Torino 2000 (in collaboration with F. La Cecla)
    • Essays on the Late Prehistory of the Arabian Peninsula, (Serie Orientale Roma XCIII), Roma 2002 (in collaboration with S. Cleuziou and J. Zarins)
    • Le frontiere dell'Afghanistan , Bologna 2005 (in collaboration with F. La Cecla)
    • In the Shadow of the Ancestors. The Prehistoric Foundations of the Early Arabian Civilization in Oman. Muscat 2007 (in collaboration with S. Cleuziou)
    • The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in the Margiana Lowlands. Facts and Methodological Proposal for a Redifinition of the Research Strategies. The Archaeological Map of the Murghab Delta. Studies and Reports, III. Rome. British Archaeological Reports. International Series. Oxford 2008 (in collaborazione con S. Salvatori e B. Cerasetti).


    Papers

    • “La Carta Archeologica della Media Valle dello Zeravshan: strategie e metodi per la storia del popolamento nella regione di Samarcanda”. in The Role of Samarkand in the History of World Civilization. Material of the International Scientific Symposium devoted to the 2750th Anniversary of the City of Smarkand, Samarkand 5/24-26/2007. Tashkent 2007, pp. 68-732007 (in collaboration with A. Berdimuradov, F. Franceschini, D. Giorgetti, S. Mantellini and B. Rondelli)
    • “Samarkand and its Territory: from Archaeological Map to Cultural Landscape Management”. in Bulletin IICAS 3, 2007, pp. 1-13 (in collaboration with A. Berdimuradov, F. Franceschini, D. Giorgetti, S. Mantellini and B. Rondelli)
    • “Introduction”. in S. Messineo, Lessons of Italian Cultural Heritage Legislation. Tashkent 2007, pp 3-8, 9-15
    • “Ricerca archeologica a Cossyra – Pantelleria nel tempo ed attraverso il tempo”. In E. Acquaro e B. Cerasetti (eds). Pantelleria Punica. Saggi critici sui dati archeologici e riflessioni storiche per una nuova generazione di ricerca. (Studi e Scavi n.s. 15) Bologna 2006, pp. 13-18 (in collaboration with S. Tusa)
    • “GIS and Silk Road Studies monitoring Landscape and Population change at Samarkand and in the Middle Zeravshan Valley”. in Reading Historical Spatial Information from around the World: Studies of Culture and Civilization Based on Geographic Information Systems Data. 24th International Research Symposium, Kyoto 7-11/2/2005. Soubundo 2006, pp. 459-489 (in collaboration with B. Rondelli)
    • “The Lothal Sealings: records from an Indus Civilization town at the eastern end of the maritime trade limits across the Arabian Sea”. in M. Perna (ed), Studi in onore di Enrica Fiandra. Contributi di archeologia egea e vicinorienta le. Studi egei e vicinorientali 1. Napoli-Paris 2005, pp. 65-103 (in collaboration with D. Frenez).
    • “Investigations on ancient Beads from the Sultanate of Oman (Ra's al-Hadd – Southern Oman)”. Revue d'Archéométrie 29, 2005, pp. 151-155 (in collaboration with L. Panei and G. Rinaldi)
    • “Shahr-i Sokhta Revised Sequenc”e. in C. Jarrige (ed), South Asian Archaeology 2001, Paris 2005, pp. 281-292 (in collaboration with S. Salvatori)
    • "Settlement Structures and Cemetery at Wadi Shab-GAS1, Sultante of Oman: Report on the 2002 and 2003 Field Seasons", Arabian Archeology and Epigraphy 16: 1, 2005, pp. 1-20 (in collaboration with M. Gaultier, H. Guy. O. Munoz and D. Usai)
    • “La carta archeologica di Pantelleria. Sperimentazione di metodo e nuove prospettive sull'evoluzione della complessità sociale e politica nelle isole del Mediterraneo centrale”. in Atti del 1° Convegno sulla Preistoria e Protostoria Siciliana, Corleone, luglio 1997. Corleone 2004, pp. 121-133 (in collaboration with M. Cattani and S. Tusa)
    • “La Missione Archeologica Italiana in Oman”. in A. Coralini, E. Govi and M.T. Guaitoli (eds), Scoprire. Scavi del Dipartimento di Archeologia. Guida alla Mostra, Bologna, S. Giovanni in Monte 18/5-18/6/2004. (Percorsi di Archeologia 2) Bologna 2004, pp. 50-51
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    • "A Turquoise Neck-stone of King Ninurta-Apal-Ekur", Sumer XXXII, 1-2, 1976, pp. 105-111, (in collaboration with B.K. Ismail).
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    • "The Graveyard of Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran", Archaeology XXVIII, pp. 186-97, (in collaboration with M. Piperno). Ripubblicato in Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Symposium on Archaeological Research in Iran, Tehran, 1975, pp. 121- 141.
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