Shahdad.Plates 5 & 6. Chlorite incised vessel Grave No. 001.

Mohenjo-daro Seals m1118 and Kalibangan 032, glyphs used are: Zebu (bos taurus indicus), fish, four-strokes (allograph: arrow).ayo ‘fish’ (Mu.) + kaṇḍa ‘arrow’ (Skt.) ayaskāṇḍa ‘a quantity of iron, excellent  iron’ (Pāṇ.gaṇ) aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) gaṆḌa, ‘four’ (Santali); Rebus: kaṇḍ ‘fire-altar’, ‘furnace’), arrow read rebus in mleccha (Meluhhan) as a reference to a guild of artisans working with ayaskāṇḍa ‘excellent quantity of iron’ (Pāṇini) is consistent with the primacy of economic activities which resulted in the invention of a writing system, now referred to as Indus Writing.

काण्डः kāṇḍḥ ण्डम् ṇḍam The portion of a plant from one knot to another. काण्डात्काण्ड- त्प्ररोहन्ती Mahānār.4.3. A stem, stock, branch; लीलोत्खातमृणाल काण्डकवलच्छेदे U.3.16; Amaru.95; Ms. 1.46,48, Māl.3.34. కాండము [ kāṇḍamu ] kānḍamu. [Skt.] n. Water. నీళ్లు (Telugu) kaṇṭhá -- : (b) ʻ water -- channel ʼ: Paš. kaṭāˊ ʻ irrigation channel ʼ, Shum. xãṭṭä. (CDIAL 14349).

A Munda gloss for fish is 'aya'. Read rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Vedic).  The script inscriptions indicate a set of modifiers or ligatures to the hieroglyph indicating that the metal, aya, was worked on during the early Bronze Age metallurgical processes -- to produce aya ingots, aya metalware,aya hard alloys. Fish hieroglyph in its vivid orthographic form is shown in a Susa pot which contained metalware -- weapons and vessels.  Context for use of ‘fish’ glyph. This photograph of a fish and the ‘fish’ glyph on Susa pot are comparable to the ‘fish’ glyph on Indus inscriptions. Read on the arguments at: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/11/decoding-fish-and-ligatured-fish-glyphs.html  The modifiers to the 'fish' hieroglyph which commonly occur together are: slanted stroke, notch, fins, lid-of-pot ligatured as superfix:For determining the semantics of the messages conveyed by the script. Positional analysis of ‘fish’ glyphs has also been presented in: The Indus Script: A Positional-statistical Approach By Michael Korvink, 2007, Gilund Press. Table from: The Indus Script: A Positional-statistical Approach By Michael Korvink, 2007, Gilund Press. Mahadevan notes (Para 6.5 opcit.) that ‘a unique feature of the FISH signs is their tendency to form clusters, often as pairs, and rarely as triplets also. This pattern has fascinated and baffled scholars from the days of Hunter posing problems in interpretation.’ One way to resolve the problem is to interpret the glyptic elements creating ligatured fish signs and read the glyptic elements rebus to define the semantics of the message of an inscription. karaṇḍa ‘duck’ (Sanskrit) karaṛa ‘a very large aquatic bird’ (Sindhi) Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) Rebus: fire-god: @B27990.  #16671. Remo <karandi>E155  {N} ``^fire-^god''.(Munda) Rebus:. kharādī ‘ turner’ (Gujarati) The 'parenthesis' modifier is a circumfix for both 'fish' and 'duck' hieroglyphs, the semantics of () two parenthetical modifiers are: kuṭilá— ‘bent, crooked’ KātyŚr., °aka— Pañcat., n. ‘a partic. plant’  [√kuṭ 1] Pa. kuṭila— ‘bent’, n. ‘bend’; Pk. kuḍila— ‘crooked’, °illa— ‘humpbacked’, °illaya— ‘bent’DEDR 2054 (a) Ta. koṭu curved, bent, crooked; koṭumai crookedness, obliquity; koṭukki hooked bar for fastening doors, clasp of an ornament. A pair of curved lines: dol ‘likeness, picture, form’ [e.g., two tigers, two bulls, sign-pair.] Kashmiri. dula दुल । युग्मम् m. a pair, a couple, esp. of two similar things (Rām. 966). Rebus: dul meṛeḍ  cast iron (Mundari. Santali) dul ‘to cast metal in a mould’ (Santali) pasra meṛed, pasāra meṛed = syn. of koṭe meṛed = forged iron, in contrast to dul meṛed, cast iron (Mundari.) Thus, dul kuṭila ‘cast bronze’. The parenthetically ligatured fish+duck hieroglyphs thus read rebus: dul kuṭila ayas karaḍā 'cast bronze ayasor cast alloy metal with ayas as component to create karaḍā ''hard alloy with ayas'. Ligatures to fish: parentheses + snout dul kuṭila ayas 'cast bronze ayas alloy with tuttha, copper sulphate'  Modifier hieroglyph: 'snout' Hieroglyph: WPah.kṭg. ṭōṭ ʻ mouth ʼ.WPah.kṭg. thótti f., thótthəṛ m. ʻ snout, mouth ʼ, A. ṭhõt(phonet. thõt) (CDIAL 5853). Semantics, Rebus:  tutthá n. (m. lex.), tutthaka -- n. ʻ blue vitriol (used as an eye ointment) ʼ Suśr., tūtaka -- lex. 2. *thōttha -- 4. 3. *tūtta -- . 4. *tōtta -- 2. [Prob. ← Drav. T. Burrow BSOAS xii 381; cf. dhūrta -- 2 n. ʻ iron filings ʼ lex.]1. N. tutho ʻ blue vitriol or sulphate of copper ʼ, B. tuth.2. K. thŏth, dat. °thas m., P. thothā m.3. S.tūtio m., A. tutiyā, B. tũte, Or. tutiā, H. tūtā, tūtiyā m., M. tutiyā m.4. M. totā m.(CDIAL 5855) Ka. tukku rust of iron; tutta, tuttu, tutte blue vitriol. Tu. tukků rust; mair(ů)suttu, (Eng.-Tu. Dict.) mairůtuttu blue vitriol. Te. t(r)uppu rust; (SAN) trukku id., verdigris. / Cf. Skt. tuttha- blue vitriol (DEDR 3343). Fish + corner, aya koṇḍa, ‘metal turned or forged’ Fish, aya ‘metal’ Fish + scales, aya ã̄s (amśu) ‘metallic stalks of stone ore’. Vikalpa: badhoṛ ‘a species of fish with many bones’ (Santali) Rebus: baḍhoe ‘a carpenter, worker in wood’; badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) Fish + splinter, aya aduru ‘smelted native metal’ Fish + sloping stroke, aya ḍhāḷ ‘metal ingot’ Fish + arrow or allograph, Fish + circumscribed four short strokes This indication of the occurrence, together, of two or more 'fish' hieroglyphs with modifiers is an assurance that the modifiers ar semantic indicators of how aya 'metal' is worked on by the artisans. ayakāṇḍa ‘’large quantity of stone (ore) metal’ or aya kaṇḍa,  ‘metal fire-altar’. ayo, hako 'fish'; ãs = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya ‘metal, iron’ (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) Santali lexeme, hako ‘fish’ is concordant with a proto-Indic form which can be identified as ayo in many glosses, Munda, Sora glosses in particular, of the Indian linguistic area. beḍa hako (ayo) ‘fish’ (Santali); beḍa ‘either of the sides of a hearth’ (G.) Munda: So. ayo `fish'. Go. ayu `fish'. Go <ayu> (Z), <ayu?u> (Z),, <ayu?> (A) {N} ``^fish''. Kh. kaDOG `fish'. Sa. Hako `fish'. Mu. hai (H) ~ haku(N) ~ haikO(M) `fish'. Ho haku `fish'. Bj. hai `fish'. Bh.haku `fish'. KW haiku ~ hakO |Analyzed hai-kO, ha-kO (RDM). Ku. Kaku`fish'.@(V064,M106) Mu. ha-i, haku `fish' (HJP). @(V341) ayu>(Z), <ayu?u> (Z)  <ayu?>(A) {N} ``^fish''. #1370. <yO>\\<AyO>(L) {N} ``^fish''. #3612. <kukkulEyO>,,<kukkuli-yO>(LMD) {N} ``prawn''. !Serango dialect. #32612. <sArjAjyO>,,<sArjAj>(D) {N} ``prawn''. #32622. <magur-yO>(ZL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. *Or.<>. #32632. <ur+GOl-Da-yO>(LL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. #32642.<bal.bal-yO>(DL) {N} ``smoked fish''. #15163. Vikalpa: Munda: <aDara>(L) {N} ``^scales of a fish, sharp bark of a tree''.#10171. So<aDara>(L) {N} ``^scales of a fish, sharp bark of a tree''. Indian mackerel Ta. ayirai, acarai, acalai loach, sandy colour, Cobitis thermalis; ayilai a kind of fish. Ma.ayala a fish, mackerel, scomber; aila, ayila a fish; ayira a kind of small fish, loach (DEDR 191) aduru native metal (Ka.); ayil iron (Ta.) ayir, ayiram any ore (Ma.); ajirda karba very hard iron (Tu.)(DEDR 192). Ta. ayil javelin, lance, surgical knife, lancet.Ma. ayil javelin, lance; ayiri surgical knife, lancet. (DEDR 193). aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddhānti Subrahmaṇya’ Śastri’s new interpretation of the AmarakoŚa, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p.330); adar = fine sand (Ta.); ayir – iron dust, any ore (Ma.) Kur. adar the waste of pounded rice, broken grains, etc. Malt. adru broken grain (DEDR 134).  Ma. aśu thin, slender;ayir, ayiram iron dust.Ta. ayir subtlety, fineness, fine sand, candied sugar; ? atar fine sand, dust. அய.ர³ ayir, n. 1. Subtlety, fineness; நணசம. (த_வ_.) 2. [M. ayir.] Fine sand; நணமணல. (மலசலப. 92.) ayiram, n.  Candied sugar; ayil, n. cf. ayas. 1. Iron; 2. Surgical knife, lancet; Javelin, lance; ayilavaṉ, Skanda, as bearing a javelin (DEDR 341).Tu. gadarů a lump (DEDR 1196)  kadara— m. ‘iron goad for guiding an elephant’ lex. (CDIAL 2711). अयोगूः A blacksmith; Vāj.3.5. अयस् a. [इ-गतौ-असुन्] Going, moving; nimble. n. (-यः) 1 Iron (एति चलति अयस्कान्तसंनिकर्षं इति तथात्वम्; नायसोल्लिख्यते रत्नम् Śukra 4.169. अभितप्तमयो$पि मार्दवं भजते कैव कथा शरीरिषु R.8.43. -2 Steel. -3 Gold. -4 A metal in general. ayaskāṇḍa 1 an iron-arrow. -2 excellent iron. -3 a large quantity of iron. -क_नत_(अयसक_नत_) 1 'beloved of iron', a magnet, load-stone; 2 a precious stone; ˚मजण_ a loadstone; ayaskāra 1 an iron-smith, blacksmith (Skt.Apte) ayas-kāntamu. [Skt.] n. The load-stone, a magnet. ayaskāruḍu. n. A black smith, one who works in iron. ayassu. n. ayō-mayamu. [Skt.] adj. made of iron (Te.) áyas— n. ‘metal, iron’ RV. Pa. ayō nom. sg. n. and m., aya— n. ‘iron’, Pk. aya— n., Si. ya. AYAŚCŪRṆA—, AYASKĀṆḌA—, *AYASKŪṬA—. Addenda: áyas—: Md. da ‘iron’, dafat ‘piece of iron’. ayaskāṇḍa— m.n. ‘a quantity of iron, excellent iron’ Pāṇ. gaṇ. viii.3.48 [ÁYAS—, KAA ́ṆḌA—]Si.yakaḍa ‘iron’.*ayaskūṭa— ‘iron hammer’. [ÁYAS—, KUU ́ṬA—1] Pa. ayōkūṭa—, ayak m.; Si. yakuḷa‘sledge —hammer’, yavuḷa (< ayōkūṭa) (CDIAL 590, 591, 592). cf. Lat. aes , aer-is for as-is ; Goth. ais , Thema aisa; Old Germ. e7r , iron ;Goth. eisarn ; Mod. Germ. Eisen. Note on (amśu) ‘metallic stalks of stone ore’. An uncertain meaning of soma in Rigveda though the entire samhita holds the processing of soma in a nutshell, can be resolved in the context of modifers to 'fish' hieroglyph to denote 'fins or scales'. The vedic texts provide an intimation treating amśu as a synonym of soma. George Pinault has found a cognate word in Tocharian, ancu which means 'iron'. I have argued in my book, Indian alchemy, soma in the Veda, that Soma was an allegory, 'electrum' (gold-silver compound). See:  http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2011/10/itihasa-and-eagle-narratives.html for Pinault's views on ancu, amśu concordance. The link with the Tocharian word is intriguing because Soma was supposed to come from Mt. Mujavant. A cognate of Mujavant is Mustagh Ata of the Himalayan ranges in Kyrgystan. Is it possible that the ancu of Tocharian from this mountain was indeed Soma? The referemces to Anzu in ancient Mesopotamian tradition parallels the legends of śyena 'falcon' which is used in Vedic tradition of Soma yajña attested archaeologically in Uttarakhand with a śyenaciti, 'falcon-shaped' fire-altar. http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2011/11/syena-orthography.html śyena, orthography, Sasanian iconography. Continued use of Indus Script hieroglyphs.  Comparing the allegory of soma and the legend of Anzu, the bird which stole the tablets of destiny, I posit a hypothesis that the tablets of destiny are paralleled by the Indus writing corpora which constitute a veritable catalog of stone-, mineral- and metal-ware in the bronze age evolving from the chalcolithic phase of what constituted an 'industrial' revolution of ancient times creating ingots of metal alloys and weapons and tools using metal alloys which transformed the relation of communities with nature and resulted in the life-activities of lapidaries transforming into miners, smiths and traders of metal artefacts.  I suggest that ayas of bronze age created a revolutionary transformation in the lives of people of these bronze age times.

Mohenjodaro seal (M-264) dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'cast metal' adar 'lid' rebus: aduru 'native metal' 

खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). (Marathi) Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’.karNIka 'rim of jar' Rebus: karNI 'supercargo' karNIka 'scribe'.

Mohenjodaro seal (M-262) poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite ore' meD 'body' rebus: meD 'iron' med 'copper' gaNDa 'four' rebus: khaNDa 'implements'. Thus iron implements.

Mohenjodaro seal (M-328) poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite ore' meD 'body' rebus: meD 'iron' med 'copper' koDa 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop' kuTi 'water-carrier' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' karNIka 'rim of jar' Rebus: karNI 'supercargo' karNIka 'scribe'.

http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/08/zebu-archaeometallurgy-legacy-of-india.html?view=timeslide

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/p3n28lf

That zebu, bos indicus, is an exclusive legacy of South Asia is proven by genetic studies. 

Nausharo: céramique de la période I (c. 2500 BCE) cf. Catherine Jarrige

http://www.waa.ox.ac.uk/XDB/tours/indus6.asp

After the domestication of the zebu, bos indicus, deployment of the hierolyph of zebu on Indus Script Corpora is a significant advance in archaeometallurgy documentation. 

The writing system depicting a hieroglyph multiplex of a zebu tied to a post with a bird perched on top is based on the rebus rendering of the Prakritam glosses: Hieroglyph: पोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu' Rebus: magnetite, citizen. baTa 'quail' Rebus: baTha 'furnace'. The messaging on Nausharo pots of a magnetite furnace for metalwork continues on seals and tablets including copper plates as metalwork catalogues.

The Prakritam gloss पोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu' as hieroglyph is read rebus: pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide'; poliya 'citizen, gatekeeper of town quarter'.

Zebu also signifies a native metal blacksmith: another gloss for zebu: ad.ar d.an:gra (Santali); rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) d.han:gar ‘blacksmith’ (WPah.) aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Kannada. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretation of theAmarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330). Ta. ayil iron. Ma. ayir, ayiramany ore. Ka. aduru native metal. Tu. ajirda karba very hard iron. (DEDR 192). ayas 'metal' (Rigveda); aya 'iron' (Gujarati) Note: karba 'iron' is signified by hieroglyphs: karibha 'trunk of elephant' (Pali); ibha'elephant' (Samsritam). Thus, ajirda karba (Tulu) = aduru (aya) karba 'native metal iron' in semantic expansion of Prakritam in tune with archaeometallurgy advances in smelting, alloying and cire perduemetalcastings.

On a hieroglyph multiplex (hypertext), both zebu and elephant are signified by hieroglyph component: horn of zebu, trunk of elephant (together with other hieroglyph components such as tiger, snake, bovine, scarf, pannier):

m0301 Mohenjo-daro

Hieroglyph: पोळ [pōḷa] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large. பொலியெருது poli-y-erutu , n. < பொலி- +. 1. Bull kept for covering; பசுக்களைச் சினையாக்குதற் பொருட்டு வளர்க்கப்படும் காளை. (பிங்.) கொடிய பொலியெருதை யிருமூக்கிலும் கயி றொன்று கோத்து (அறப். சத. 42). 2. The leading ox in treading out grain on a threshing-floor; களத்துப் பிணையல்மாடுகளில் முதற்செல்லுங் கடா. (W.) பொலி முறைநாகு poli-muṟai-nāku, n. < பொலி + முறை +. Heifer fit for covering; பொலியக்கூடிய பக்குவமுள்ள கிடாரி. (S. I. I. iv, 102.)

Rebus 1: pōḷa 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4'.

Rebus 2: pol m. ʻgate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate': Ka. por̤al town, city. Te. prōlu, (inscr.) pr̤ōl(u) city. ? (DEDR 4555) पोवळ or पोंवळ [ pōvaḷa or pōṃvaḷa ] f पोवळी or पोंवळी f The court-wall of a temple. (Marathi) *pratōlika ʻ gatekeeper ʼ. [pratōlī -- ] H. pauliyā, pol°, pauriyā m. ʻ gatekeeper ʼ, G. poḷiyɔ m.(CDIAL 8632) pratōlī f. ʻ gate of town or fort, main street ʼ MBh. [Cf. tōlikā -- . -- Perh. conn. with tōraṇa -- EWA ii 361, less likely with *ṭōla -- ] Pk. paōlī -- f. ʻ city gate, main street ʼ; WPah. (Joshi) prauḷ m., °ḷi f., pauḷ m., °ḷi f. ʻ gateway of a chief ʼ, proḷ ʻ village ward ʼ; H. paul, pol m. ʻ gate, courtyard, town quarter with its own gate ʼ, paulī f. ʻ gate ʼ; OG. poli f. ʻ door ʼ; G. poḷi f. ʻ street ʼ; M. pauḷ, poḷ f. ʻ wall of loose stones ʼ. -- Forms with -- r -- poss. < *pradura -- : OAw. paüri ʻ gatepost ʼ; H. paur, °rī, pãwar, °rī f. ʻ gate, door ʼ.WPah.poet. prɔ̈̄ḷ m., prɔḷo m., prɔḷe f. ʻ gate of palace or temple ʼ.(CDIAL 8633) Porin (adj.) [fr. pora=Epic Sk. paura citizen, see pura. Semantically cp. urbane>urbanus>urbs; polite= poli/ths>po/lis. For pop. etym. see DA i.73 & 282] belonging to a citizen, i. e. citizenlike, urbane, polite, usually in phrase porī vācā polite speech D i.4, 114; S i.189; ii.280=A ii.51; A iii.114; Pug 57; Dhs 1344; DA i.75, 282; DhsA 397. Cp. BSk. paurī vācā MVastu iii.322. Porisa2 (nt.) [abstr. fr. purisa, *pauruṣyaŋ, cp. porisiya and poroseyya] 1. business, doing of a man (or servant, cp. purisa 2), service, occupation; human doing, activity M i.85 (rāja˚); Vv 6311 (=purisa -- kicca VvA 263); Pv iv.324 (uṭṭhāna˚=purisa -- viriya, purisa -- kāra PvA 252). -- 2. height of a man M. i.74, 187, 365.(Pali) పౌరము [ pauramu ] pauramu. [Skt. from పుర.] adj. Belonging to a city or town (పురము.) పౌరసతులు the ladies of the place: citizens' wives. పౌరలోకము paura-lōkamu. n. The townsfolk, a body of citizens. పౌరుడు pauruḍu. n. A citizen. పౌరులు citizens, townsfolk.(Telugu)

वृषः 1 A bull; असंपदस्तस्य वृषेण गच्छतः Ku.5.8; Me.54; R.2.35; Ms.9.123. -2 The sign Taurus of the zodiac. -3 The chief or best of a class, the best of its kind; (often at the end of comp.); मुनिवृषः, कपिवृषः &c.  -उत्सर्गः setting free a bull on the occasion of a funeral rite, or as a religious act generally; एकादशाहे प्रेतस्य यस्य चोत्सृज्यते वृषः । प्रेतलोकं परित्यज्य स्वर्गलोकं च गच्छति (Samskritam. Apte)

 वृषोत्सर्ग [p=1012,2] m. letting loose a bull (or accord. to some , a bull and four heifers , as a work of merit esp. on the occasion of a श्राद्ध in honour of deceased ancestors) Gr2S. Pan5cat. RTL. 319 (Monier-Williams. Samskritam)

"The letting loose of a bull (vRshotsarga) stamped with Siva's trident -- in cities like Benares and Gaya is fraught with the highest merit. This setting free of a bull to roam about at will often takes place at zrAddhas." (Monier Monier-Williams, 1891, Brahmanism and Hinduism: or religious thought and life in Asia, Macmillan, p.319). In Hindu tradition, GRhyasUtra prescribe procedures for vRshotsarga.

"It is note-worthy that the details of the ceremony of setting a bull at liberty viz. the 'Vrshotsarga' in the Grhya-Sutras viz. S & P, in which it is described are almost identical (mutual borrowing or a common source are possibilities).   On the Karttika full-moon day or on the day of the Asvayuja month falling under the Nakshtra RevatI, the fire is made to blaze in the midst of cows and Ajya oblations are sacrificed with ap­ propriate Mantras. Then he sacrifices from the Sthalipaka be­ longing to Pushan with an invocation to Pushan.   Then he selects a bull of one, two or three colours or a red bull or one that leads the herd or is loved by the herd, perfect in all limbs and the finest in the herd, mumuring the Rudra-hymns. Then that bull is adorned, as also four of the finest young cows of the herd and then he says "This young bull, I give you as your husband; sporting with him, your lover, walk about etc." When  the  bull  is  in  the  midst of  the  cows,  he  recites over them the Rig-Verses X, 169.   With the milk of all those cows he should cook milk-rice and feed the Brahmins with it.   In the opinion of some (P) an animal is sacrificed in this rite, in which case the ritual is the same as that of the *sula-gava*." http://dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/0113/986/RTF/00000141.rtf 

Hieroglyph: eagle పోలడు [ pōlaḍu ] , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడు pōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)(Telugu)

Rebus: पोळ [ pōḷa ] 'magnetite', ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4 (Asuri)

Rebus: cattle festival: पोळा [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. "Pola is a bull-worshipping festival celebrated by farmers mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra (especially among the Kunbis). On the day of Pola, the farmers decorate and worship their bulls. Pola falls on the day of the Pithori Amavasya (the new moon day) in the month of Shravana (usually in August)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pola_(festival) Festival held on the day after Sankranti ( = kANum) is called pōlāla paNDaga (Telugu).

Toy animals made for the Pola festival especially celebrated by the Dhanoje Kunbis. (Bemrose, Colo. Derby - Russell, Robert Vane (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India: volume IV. Descriptive articles on the principal castes and tribes of the Central Provinces. London: Macmillan and Co., limited. p. 40).

Some artifacts of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization point to the possibility that the celebration of pola cattle festival may be traced to the cultural practices of 3rd millennium BCE.

Oxen pulled Bronze chariot found at Daimabad in Maharshtra

chandrashekharasandprints.wordpress.com

Daimabad bronze chariot. c. 1500 BCE. 22X52X17.5 cm.

Buffalo. Daimabad bronze. Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai.

Daimabad bronzes. Buffalo on four-legged platform attached to four solid wheels 31X25 cm.; elephanton four-legged platform with axles 25 cm.; rhinoceros on axles of four solid wheels 25X19 cm. (MK Dhavalikar, 'Daimabad bronzes' in: Harappan civilization, ed. by GL Possehl, New Delhi, 1982, pp. 361-6; SA Sali, Daimabad 1976-1979, New Delhi, 1986).

Hieroglyph: पोळ [ pōḷa ]n C (Or पोळें) A honeycomb. (Marathi)

पोळा [ pōḷā ]The cake-form portion of a honeycomb. A kindled portion flying up from a burning mass, a flake. पोळींव [ pōḷīṃva ] p of पोळणें Burned, scorched, singed, seared.पोळणें [ pōḷaṇēṃ ] v i To catch, burn, singe; to be seared or scorched. 

This note demonstrates that the hieroglyph read rebus in Meluhha signifies a unique archaeometallurgy legacy of ancient India and Ancient Near East including the Levant.

Zebu when deployed as a hieroglyph multiplex on Indus Script corpora signifies magnetite Fe3O4 metalwork catalogues.

"Magnetite is a mineral, ferrous-ferric oxide, one of the three common naturally occurring iron oxides (chemical formula Fe3O4) and a member of the spinel group. Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring minerals on Earth.[Harrison, R. J.; Dunin-Borkowski, RE; Putnis, A (2002). "Direct imaging of nanoscale magnetic interactions in minerals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (26): 16556–16561] Naturally magnetized pieces of magnetite, called lodestone, will attract small pieces of iron, and this was how ancient people first noticed the property of magnetism...Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite, and the mineral pair forms a buffer that can control oxygen fugacity." 

"Magnetite is a mineral, one of the three common naturally occurring iron oxides (chemical formula Fe3O4) and a member of the spinel group. Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring minerals on Earth.[ Harrison, R. J.; Dunin-Borkowski, RE; Putnis, A (2002). "Direct imaging of nanoscale magnetic interactions in minerals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (26): 16556–16561. ] Naturally magnetized pieces of magnetite, called lodestone, will attract small pieces of iron, and this was how ancient people first noticed the property of magnetism." 

http://www.pnas.org/content/99/26/16556.full.pdf loc.cit. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetite

Magnetite and pyrite from Piedmont, Italy 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetite

Magnetite is a common mineral, an important ore of iron, ferromagnetic, that is, it is a natural magnet strongly attracted to magnetic fields. Heavily striated crystals with growth layers come from Parachinar, Pakistan. http://www.minerals.net/mineral/magnetite.aspx

"The process by which lodestone is created has long been an open question in geology. Only a small amount of the magnetite on Earth is found magnetized as lodestone. Ordinary magnetite is attracted to a magnetic field like iron and steel is, but does not tend to become magnetized itself; it has too low a magnetic coercivity (resistance to demagnetization) to stay magnetized for long...The leading theory suggests that lodestones are magnetized by the strong magnetic fields surrounding lightning bolts."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodestone See: http://www.phy6.org/earthmag/lodeston.htm

[quote]   Magnetite, a ferrimagnetic mineral with chemical formula Fe3O4, one of several iron oxides, is one of the more common meteor-wrongs. Magnetite displays a black exterior and magnetic properties.

  magnetite

Magnetite can be a found in a meteorite's crust. When a meteor enters the earth's atmosphere the rock's surface is ablated by ultra high temperatures. Before it hits the ground, the molten surface solidifies into a thin glassy coating, called fusion crust. Crystals of magnetite color the thin fusion crust black. (Magnetite streaks black - see photo below)

  lodestone

A piece of intensely magnetic magnetite was used as an early form of magnetic compass. Iron, steel and ordinary magnetite are attracted to a magnetic field, including the Earth's magnetic field. Only magnetite with a particular crystalline structure, lodestone, can act as a natural magnet and attract and magnetize iron. The name "magnet" comes from lodestones found in a place called Magnesia. [unquote] http://meteorite-identification.com/Hot%20Rocks/magnetite.html

Ancient Blacksmiths: ukku pola (steel from magnetite)?

Magnetite var. lodestone 5.0x4.5x3.5cm With nails and metal dust attached to it.

Superb, mirror-like crystals of lustrous Magnetite covering one side of block of matrix. These Magnetite crystals are exceptionally sharp and well formed. 5 x 4 x 2 cm.A tool to use the magnetic qualities of iron is a lodestone (which is a natural magnetic iron oxide mineral). Such a tool could have enabled ancient blacksmiths to identify and distinguish a type if iron ore called ‘magnetite’ called in Meluhha: pola (which yields the Russian bulat steel) made from Latin wootz (Meluhha ukku).                                       "In the Muslim world of the 9th-12th centuries CE, the production of fuladh, a Persian word, has been described by Al-Kindi, Al-Biruni and Al-Tarsusi, from narm-ahanand shaburqan, two other Persian words representing iron products obtained by direct reduction of the ore. Ahan means iron. Narm-ahan is a soft iron and shaburqan a harder one or able to be quench-hardened. Old nails and horse-shoes were also used as base for fuladh preparation. It must be noticed that, according to Hammer- Purgstall, there was no Arab word for steel, which explain the use of Persian words. Fuladh prepared by melting in small crucibles can be considered as a steel in our modem classification, due to its properties (hardness, quench hardened ability, etc.). The word fuladh means "the purified" as explained by Al-Kindi. This word can be found as puladh, for instance in Chardin (1711 AD) who called this product; poulad jauherder, acier onde, which means "watering steel", a characteristic of what was called Damascene steel in Europe." http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/02/identity-of-ancient-meluhha-blacksmiths.html Known to ancient Greeks, magnetite was so-called because it was found in the lands of the Magnetes (Magnesia) in Thessaly. Ancient Indians (Bharatam Janam) called it पोळ  [pōḷa] which gave the root for the famed crucible wootz steel called पोलाद [pōlāda] n ( or P) पोलादी 'steel'.

पोलाद [ pōlāda ] n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel. (Marathi) bulad 'steel, flint and steel for making fire' (Amharic); fUlAd 'steel' (Arabic) 

The Marathi gloss pōlāda may be formed with pōḷa+hlād = magnetite ore + rejoice.

pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri)

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/02/ancient-blacksmiths.html  Three mineral ores: pola (magnetite), gota (laterite), bichi (hematite) -- all three Meluhha glosses -- are three varieties of minerals with sources for alloying metals. The importance of bichi (hematite) as a hieroglyph has been detailed. 

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/09/catalogs-of-pola-kuntha-gota-bichi.html   Catalogs of pola, kuṇṭha, goṭa, bichi native metalwork in Meluhha Indus script hieroglyphs 

Socio-cultural context in which pola and gota were recognized by early metalworkers (blacksmiths): 

 

 While we do not know where this piece was found, the zebu bull motif ("the essence of civilization" according to the Italian exhibitors) is similar to a pot found at Nausharo in Balochistan and dated to roughly 2600-2500 BCE. The archaeologist Ute-Franke-Vogt writes about the Kulli culture from which it may stem "This late Kulli occupation to which the largest number of sites in southern Balochistan belong, co-existed with the Indus Civilization (Kanri Buthi).  http://balochhistory11.blogspot.in/2014/12/brilliantly-painted-pottery-vessels.html

Nausharo, Mehrgarh: ceramique c. 2500 BCE, C. Jarrige. Nausharo was inhabited later than Mehrgarh, probably first from about 2800 BCE C. Jarrige 

http://www.guimet.fr/La-mission-archeologique-de-l,636 

loc. cit. http://www.waa.ox.ac.uk/XDB/tours/indus6.asp 

A zebu bull tied to a post; a bird above. 

Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, 
ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE. Cf. Fig. 2.18, J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Cat. No. 8.  
Bos indicus motif on a pot from the Mehrgarh period (ca. 7000-5500 BCE)  
Hieroglyph: baṭa 'quail'; bhaṭa 'furnace' (G.); baṭa 'a kind of iron' (Gujarati.) 
poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite'.

meḍ(h), meḍhī f.,  meḍhā m. ʻpost, forked stakeʼ 

rebus: meD 'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper'

https://www.academia.edu/14548989/Bhirrana_to_Mehrgarh_and_beyond_in_the_civilization_contact_areas_from_8th_millennium_BCE

Slippainted cylindrical jar. Kulli. 

Indus Valley Terracotta Vessel - LO.1329
Origin: Pakistan/Western India
Circa: 3500 BC to 2000 BC Dimensions: 11.1" (28.2cm) high x 12.9" (32.8cm) wide 
Collection: Asian Art
Medium: Terracotta 
http://barakatgallery.com/store/Index.cfm/FuseAction/ItemDetails/UserID/catalogue/ItemID/23292/CFID/9319250/CFTOKEN/12663335.htm

kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'.
Nausharo. Pot

"Slide 32. Three Early Harappan zebu figurines from Harappa. The earliest animal figurines from Harappa are Early Harappan (Ravi Phase, Period 1 and Kot Diji Phase, Period 2) zebu figurines. They are typically very small with joined legs and stylized humps. A few of these zebu figurines have holes through the humps that may have allowed them to be worn as amulets on a cord or a string. One Early Harappan zebu figurine was found with the remains of a copper alloy ring still in this hole. Approximate dimensions (W x H(L) x D) of the uppermost figurine: 1.2 x 3.3 x 2.8 cm. (Photograph by Richard H. Meadow)."http://www.harappa.com/figurines/32.html
"Slide 33. Early Harappan zebu figurine with incised spots from Harappa. Some of the Early Harappan zebu figurines were decorated. One example has incised oval spots. It is also stained a deep red, an extreme example of the types of stains often found on figurines that are usually found in trash and waste deposits. Approximate dimensions (W x H(L) x D): 1.8 x 4.6 x 3.5 cm. (Photograph by Richard H. Meadow)." http://www.harappa.com/figurines/33.html
"Slide 68. Wheeled zebu figurine from Harappa. A small subset of the figurines from Harappa originally had wheels. Of the many small terracotta wheels found at Harappa, at least some must have been intended for these wheeled objects. One style of wheeled figurine has lateral holes for the axles through the bottom of the torso. Approximate dimensions (W x H(L) x D): 5.9 x 6.2 x 8.7 cm. (Photograph by Richard H. Meadow)." http://www.harappa.com/figurines/68.html
 "Slide 34. Zebu figurine with painted designs from Harappa. Other animal and sometimes anthropomorphic figurines are decorated with black stripes and other patterns, and features such as eyes are also sometimes rendered in pigment. Figurines of cattle with and without humps are found at Indus sites, possibly indicating that multiple breeds of cattle were in use. Approximate dimensions (W x H(L) x D): 3.9 x 8.5 x 5.5 cm. (Photograph by Richard H. Meadow)." http://www.harappa.com/figurines/34.html

http://www.harappa.com/indus/27.html "Bull seal, Harappa. The majestic zebu bull, with its heavy dewlap and wide curving horns is perhaps the most impressive motif found on the Indus seals. Generally carved on large seals with relatively short inscriptions, the zebu motif is found almost exclusively at the largest cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The rarity of zebu seals is curious because the humped bull is a recurring theme in many of the ritual and decorative arts of the Indus region, appearing on painted pottery and as figurines long before the rise of cities and continuing on into later historical times. The zebu bull may symbolize the leader of the herd, whose strength and virility protects the herd and ensures the procreation of the species or it stands for a sacrificial animal. When carved in stone, the zebu bull probably represents the most powerful clan or top officials of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Harappa Archaeological Research Project."

After Figure 1. Major domestic cattle species: (a) Spanish Tudanca taurine and (b) Pullikulam zebu bull (photographs by Marleen Felius and Anno Fokkinga, 2008, 2005). After Fig. 7 Pictorial evidence of the origin and dispersal of zebu. (a) Harappa seal (National Museum, India, [70]), 5000–3500 BP; (b) detail of cylindrical chlorite vessel (Mesopotamia (mid-5th millennium BP, The British Museum, London); (c) detail of conic object from Tarut Island near the Eastern coast of the Arabian peninsula (Metropolitan Museum, NY) and (d) detail of a painting: inspection of cattle belonging to Nebamun, Thebes,ca. 3400 BP, The British Museum, London). http://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/6/4/705/htm Marleen Felius et al, 2014, On the history of cattle genetic resources, Diversity 2014, 6(4), 705-750 "Around 2000 years after the taurine domestication, zebu was domesticated in the Indus Valley at the edge of the Indian Desert. Fossil remains attributed to zebu have been found in Mehrgarh, a proto-Indus culture site in Baluchistan in southwest Pakistan and were dated at 8000 BP."

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/01/bronze-zebu-figurine-in-samaria-meluhha.html



After Figure 11: a. mountains landscape and waers; (upper part) a man under an arch with sun and crescent moon symbols; (lower part) man seated on his heels holding zebus; b. man holding a snake; c. two men (drinking) and zebus, on a small cylindrical vessel; d. Head of woman protruding from  jar, and snakes; 3. man falling from a tree to the trunk of which a zebu is tied; f. man with clas and bull-man playing with cheetahs, and a scorpion in the center (on a cylindrical vessel). http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/jiroft-iv-iconography-of-chlorite-artifacts.

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/jiroft-iv-iconography-of-chlorite-artifacts

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/01/meluhha-metallurgical-roots-and-spread.html

Lapis lazuli stamp seal. Behind the man, drummer, are a stream, a long-horned, bearded goat above a zebu. Mountain range with a line of over 15 notches and a circle on top register. Bronze Age, about 2400-2000 BCE From the ancient Near East  British Museum.Height: 3.100 cm Thickness: 2.500 cm Width: 4.000 cm ME 1992-10-7,1 mē d 'drummer' rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron (metal) poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite' Hieroglyph: miṇḍāˊl ʻ markhor ʼ Rebus: meD 'iron' (Ho.Munda) meTTu 'range' rebus: meD 'iron' khareḍo = a currycomb (Gujarati) खरारा [ kharārā ] m ( H) A currycomb. 2 Currying a horse. (Marathi) Rebus: 1. करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) 2. kharādī ‘ turner’ (Gujarati)

Wilhelm von Hevesy wrote about the Finno-Ugric-Munda kinship, like "Munda-Magyar-Maori, an Indian link between the antipodes new tracks of Hungarian origins" and "Finnisch-Ugrisches aus Indien". (DRIEM, George van: Languages of the Himalayas: an ethnolinguistic handbook. 1997. p.161-162.) Sumerian-Ural-Altaic language affinities have been noted. Given the presence of Meluhha settlements in Sumer, some Meluhha glosses might have been adapted in these languages. One etyma cluster refers to 'iron' exemplified by meD (Ho.). The alternative suggestion for the origin of the gloss med 'copper' in Uralic languages may be explained by the word meD (Ho.) of Munda family of Meluhha language stream:

Sa. <i>mE~R~hE~'d</i> `iron'.  ! <i>mE~RhE~d</i>(M).Ma. <i>mErhE'd</i> `iron'.Mu. <i>mERE'd</i> `iron'.  ~ <i>mE~R~E~'d</i> `iron'.  ! <i>mENhEd</i>(M).Ho <i>meD</i> `iron'.Bj. <i>merhd</i>(Hunter) `iron'.KW <i>mENhEd</i>@(V168,M080) http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/AA/Munda/ETYM/Pinnow&Munda

— Slavic glosses for 'copper' Мед [Med]Bulgarian Bakar Bosnian Медзь [medz']Belarusian Měď Czech Bakar  oatian KòperKashubian Бакар [Bakar]Macedonian Miedź Polish Медь [Med']Russian Meď Slovak BakerSlovenian Бакар [Bakar]Serbian Мідь [mid'] Ukrainian[unquote] http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/element.php?sym=Cu 

Miedź, med' (Northern Slavic, Altaic) 'copper'.  One suggestion is that corruptions from the German "Schmied", "Geschmeide" = jewelry. Schmied, a smith (of tin, gold, silver, or other metal)(German) result in med ‘copper’.
 In this hieroglyph multiplex on the lapis-lazuli stamp seal, there are three hieroglyph components: 1. roundish ball; 2. notches (over 15 short strokes down a line); 3. mountain range.Kur. goṭā any seed which forms inside a fruit or shell. Malt. goṭa a seed or berry(DEDR 069) N. goṭo ʻ piece ʼ, goṭi ʻ chess piece ʼ; A. goṭ ʻ a fruit, whole piece ʼ, °ṭā ʻ globular, solid ʼ, guṭi ʻ small ball, seed, kernel ʼ; B. goṭā ʻ seed, bean, whole ʼ; Or. goṭā ʻ whole, undivided ʼ, M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ (CDIAL 4271) <gOTa>(P)  {ADJ} ``^whole''.  {SX} ``^numeral ^intensive suffix''.  *Kh., Sa., Mu., Ho<goTA>,B.<goTa> `undivided'; Kh.<goThaG>(P), Sa.<goTAG>,~<gOTe'j>, Mu.<goTo>; Sad.<goT>, O., Bh.<goTa>; cf.Ju.<goTo> `piece', O.<goTa> `one'. %11811.  #11721. <goTa>(BD)  {NI} ``the ^whole''.  *@. #10971. (Munda etyma)Rebus: <gota>  {N} ``^stone''.  @3014. #10171. Note: The stone may be gota, laterite mineral ore stone. khoṭ m. ʻbase, alloyʼ (Punjabi) Rebus: koṭe ‘forging (metal)(Mu.) Rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (G.) goṭi = silver (G.) koḍ ‘workshop’ (Gujarati).bus: P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H. goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ(CDIAL 4271)

Rebus: goṭa 'laterite'. Laterites are rusty soil types with iron oxides rich in iron and aluminium. They are formed in hot and wet tropical areas.  Laterites can be easily cut with a spade into regular-sized blocks.

sattu (Tamil), satta, sattva (Kannada) jasth जसथ् ।रपु m. (sg. dat. jastas ज्तस), zinc, spelter; pewter; zasath ् ज़स््थ् ्or zasuth ज़सुथ ्। रप m. (sg. dat. zastas ु ज़्तस),् zinc, spelter, pewter (cf. Hindī jast). jastuvu; । रपू्भवः adj. (f. jastüvü), made of zinc or pewter.(Kashmiri). Hence the hieroglyph: svastika repeated five times. Five svastika are thus read: taṭṭal sattva Rebus: zinc (for) brass (or pewter). *ṭhaṭṭha1 ʻbrassʼ. [Onom. from noise of hammering brass?]N. ṭhaṭṭar ʻ an alloy of copper and bell metal ʼ. *ṭhaṭṭhakāra ʻ brass worker ʼ. 1.Pk. ṭhaṭṭhāra -- m., K. ṭhö̃ṭhur m., S. ṭhã̄ṭhāro m., P. ṭhaṭhiār, °rā m.2. P. ludh. ṭhaṭherā m., Ku. ṭhaṭhero m., N. ṭhaṭero, Bi. ṭhaṭherā, Mth. ṭhaṭheri, H.ṭhaṭherā m.(CDIAL 5491, 5493).

The drummer hieroglyph is associated with svastika glyph on this tablet (har609) and also on h182A tablet of Harappa with an identical text.

dhollu ‘drummer’ (Western Pahari) Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’. The 'drummer' hieroglyph thus announces a cast metal. The technical specifications of the cast metal are further described by other hieroglyphs on side B and on the text of inscription (the text is repeated on both sides of Harappa tablet 182).

kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'alloy of five metals, pancaloha' (Tamil). ḍhol ‘drum’ (Gujarati.Marathi)(CDIAL 5608) Rebus: large stone; dul ‘to cast in a mould’. Kanac ‘corner’ Rebus: kancu ‘bronze’. dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal'. kanka ‘Rim of jar’ (Santali); karṇaka  rim of jar’(Skt.) Rebus:karṇaka ‘scribe’ (Telugu); gaṇaka id. (Skt.) (Santali) Thus, the tablets denote blacksmith's alloy cast metal accounting including the use of alloying mineral zinc -- satthiya 'svastika' glyph.

See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/12/ancient-near-east-meluhha-metalwork.html

Roger Matthews, 2002, Zebu: harbingers of doom in Bronze Age western Asia? in: Antiquity 76 (2002) Number: 292: 438-446

https://www.scribd.com/doc/115702890/Ant-0760438 "The significance of zebu, or humped cattle as potential indicators of episodes of aridification in the Bronze Age of western Asia is explored through study of figurines and faunal remains from Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia."

Add caption

After Fig. 3 in Roger Matthew: Zebu figurines from selected Bronze Age sites of western Asia. 1. Tepe Gawra, Iraq, after Speiser (1935: plate 77.5). 2. Tell Brak. Syria. see also Figure 4.3 Tell Brak, Syria, after McDonald (1997: 279, 20). 4. Tell Brak, Syria, after McDonald (1997: 279:22). 5. Tell Munbaqa, Syria, after Czichon & Werner (1998: Tafel 82: 456). 6. Meskono Emar, Syria, after Beyer (1982: 104, figure 6). 7. Geven Gedigi, Turkey, after Miller (1989: Abb 27:1)

After Figs. 1 and 2 in Roger Matthew. Zebu at rest between jobs, rajasthan, India. Zebu hauling a plough, Rajasthan, India. (Photos Mike Wells, 1980, 1982).

""In the Ganges river area of north India large quantities of bones, putatively from Bos indicus, have been recovered from the Mesolithic site of Sarai-Nahar-Rai, dated to around 8000 BCE, and there is a suggestion that some of the bones are from domesticated zebu (Allchin & Allchin 1982: 77). More convincing evidednce comes from sites in Baluchistan, modern Pakistan, with morphologically attested domestication of zebu at the site of Mehrgarh by 6000 BCE, and at Rana Gundai in the 5th-4th millennia BCE." (Roger Matthew, opcit., pp.440-441)This remarkable study by Roger Matthews traces the migrations out of India into the Ancient Near East: “Uncertain early occurrences of zebu depictions in Mesopotamia include a highly dubious figurine from Arpachiyah near Mosul in north Iraq, of 5th-millennium date (Mallowan & Rose 1935: figure 48:14), depictions on seals from Nineveh of about 3000 BC (Zeuner 1963: 239), a clay tablet from Larsa with seal impression showing a zebu (Epstein 1971: 508), and a marble amulet from Ur in the form of a zebu (Hornblower 1927), both the Larsa and Ur items perhaps dating to around 3000 BC. At about the same time, late 4th millennium, representations of zebu are found as figurines and painted pottery motifs at Susa in southwest Iran (Epstein 1971: 508; Zeuner 1963: 239). These often questionable occurrences suggest that zebu may have been familiar beasts to some of the inhabitants of south Mesopotamia by 3000 BC, although their physical presence there has yet to be confirmed by the scant archaeozoological evidence. Significantly, zebu are not so far attested in any form, artistic rendering or faunal remains, in regions to the west or north of Mesopotamia before 2000 BCE. From 2500 BCE onwards there are increasing representations of zebu in the form of figurines and motifs on seals and painted pottery in the material culture of the Indus valley and beyond, at sites such as Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, as well as the Quetta-Pishin valley and the Makran coast of Baluchistan (Epstein & Mason 1984: 15; Zeuner 1963: 236). From here zebu probably reached Oman and the head of the Persian Gulf (Potts 1997: 257), and spread to the world-view of south Mesopotamia by the 3rd millennium BC. A stone bowl sherd, of mid 3rd-millennium date, from Tell Agrab in the Diyala region northeast of Baghdad, shows an impressive zebu bull (Zeuner 1963: 217), and a well-executed sketch of a zebu head and shoulder is preserved on a clay tablet of later 3rd-millennium date from Tell Asmar, also in the Diyala region (Frankfort 1934: figure 18). In Iranian Seistan zebu bones and figurines are attested in great quantities at the site of Shahr-i Sokhta in the period c. 2900-2500 BC (Ports 1997: 255), while later, questionable, examples occur at Anau in Turkmenistan (Pumpelly 1908: plate 47:4). As to north Mesopotamia, a well-shaped and painted example of a zebu bull from level IV at Tepe Gawra (FIGURE 3:1) dates probably to the mid 2nd millennium BC but may be earlier (Speiser 1935: plate 77:5). Also in north Mesopotamia, zebu are attested at Tell Brak in the form of figurines (FIGURES 3:2, 4) and bifurcate vertebrae (FIGURE 5) from levels dating to 1700-1600 BC (Matthews 1995: 98-9), as well as figurines from mid 2nd-millennium levels (McDonald 1997: 131) (FIGURES 3:3-4). Perhaps significantly, zebu are not depicted in the glyptic art of Brak in the 3rd millennium, a rich source of depictions of domesticated and wild animals (Matthews et al. 1994), nor are they depicted on the elaborately painted ceramics of highland Anatolia and the Caucasus of the early 2nd millennium which host depictions of many other animals (Ozfirat 2001). Approximately contemporary with the Brak zebu evidence, at around 1700 BC, is a fine example of a figurine from the nearby site of Chagar Bazar, sporting a painted representation of what may be a harness (Mallowan 1937: figure 10:30). From Beydar, to the northwest of Tell Brak, comes an ivory furniture inlay with zebu in relief, dated to 1400 BC (Bretschneider 2000: 65) and a plain zebu figurine comes from mid 2nd-millennium BC levels at Tall Hamad Aga in north Iraq (Spanos 1988: Abb 18:2). An early 2nd-millennium context at Ishchali in the Diyala region yielded a fine clay plaque depicting a bull zebu ridden by a man who grasps the animal's hump in one hand while inserting his knees under a simple belt around the its waist (Frankfort 1954: plate 59:c). [FIGURES 3-5 OMITTED] A fragmentary zebu figurine comes from late 2nd-millennium levels at Tell Sabi Abyad in northwest Mesopotamia (Akkermans 1993:31, figure 23:85). Large quantities of zebu figurines, varying in their degree of elaboration, have been found in Late Bronze Age deposits at Tell Munbaqa in north Syria (Machule et al. 1986; 1990; Czichon & Werner 1998: Taf 80-5) (FIGURE 3:5). There are also zebu figurines from the Late Bronze Age site of Meskene-Emar on the north Syrian Euphrates not far from Munbaqa (Beyer 1982: 104) (FIGURE 3:6), from mid 2nd-millennium BC period II at Umm el-Marra west of the Syrian Euphrates (Curvers & Schwartz 1997: figure 21) and from level VII of Alalakh in northwest Syria, dated to early/mid 2nd millennium (Woolley 1955: plate 57:a). Cylinder seals of 13th-century BC date from Upper Mesopotamia depict humped cattle pulling ploughs (Wiggermann 2000: figure 7) and there is a zebu pendant of 13th-century BC date from Assur on the Tigris in north-central Iraq (Boehmer 1972: 168, Abb 51). Zebu figurines appear in level 3A of Haradum on the Iraqi Euphrates, dated to the mid 17th century BC (Kepinski-Lecomte 1992: figure 159:6-7). On a Kassite seal from Mesopotamia, dated to c. 1500 BC, zebu are depicted drawing ploughs (Epstein 1971: 515). A study of cattle astragali from archaeological sites of western Asia has detected the gradual development of distinctive cattle breeds throughout the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, followed by an episode of rapid change at the end of the 2nd millennium, that is at the end of the Late Bronze Age (Buitenhuis 1984: 216). Buitenhuis connects this episode with the large-scale introduction of zebu into western Asia at this time, leading to cross-breeding of taurine and zebu stock (Buitenhuis 1984: 216). As we have seen above, it is possible that zebu had already been introduced to Mesopotamia by the mid 3rd millennium BC, but it seems that their spread into Syria and the Levant did not occur until the mid-later 2nd millennium.”

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Zebu%3a+harbingers+of+doom+in+Bronze+Age+western+Asia%3f-a089075892

Mohenjo-daro

Banawali Seal

Mohenjo-daro. Seal. steatite 2.8x2.8x1.3 cm

Mohenjo-daro Seals m1118 and Kalibangan 032, glyphs used are: Zebu (bos taurus indicus), fish, four-strokes (allograph: arrow).ayo ‘fish’ (Mu.) + kaṇḍa ‘arrow’ (Skt.) ayaskāṇḍa ‘a quantity of iron, excellent  iron’ (Pāṇ.gaṇ) aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) gaṆḌa, ‘four’ (Santali); Rebus: kaṇḍ ‘fire-altar’, ‘furnace’), arrow read rebus in mleccha (Meluhhan) as a reference to a guild of artisans working with ayaskāṇḍa ‘excellent quantity of iron’ (Pāṇini) is consistent with the primacy of economic activities which resulted in the invention of a writing system, now referred to as Indus Writing.

poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite'

Allographs काण्डः kāṇḍḥ ण्डम् ṇḍam The portion of a plant from one knot to another. काण्डात्काण्ड- त्प्ररोहन्ती Mahānār.4.3. A stem, stock, branch; लीलोत्खातमृणालकाण्डकवलच्छेदे U.3.16; Amaru.95; Ms. 1.46,48, Māl.3.34. 

కాండము [ kāṇḍamu ] kānḍamu. [Skt.] n. Water. నీళ్లు (Telugu) kaṇṭhá -- : (b) ʻ water -- channel ʼ: Paš. kaṭāˊ ʻ irrigation channel ʼ, Shum. xãṭṭä. (CDIAL 14349).

lokhãḍ ‘overflowing pot’ Rebus:  ʻtools, iron, ironwareʼ (Gujarati)

काण्ड an arrow MBh. xiii , 265 Hit. (Monier-Williams, p. 269) Rebus: काण्ड abundance; a multitude , heap , quantity (ifc.) Pa1n2. 4-2 , 51 Ka1s3.

h1953B and A. Two sides of a seal: One side showed a zebu with 'fish' and 'four strokes' glyphs. The other had a five-glyph inscription including the 'fish' and 'arrow' 

Indus Script decipherment of hieroglyph multiplex as hypertext:  pola 'magnetite' PLUS ayaskāṇḍa अयस्--काण्ड m. n. "a quantity of iron " or " excellent iron".

Hieroglyph: kōḍ, kōḍu horn: 

Ta. kōṭu (in cpds. kōṭṭu-) horn, tusk, branch of tree, cluster, bunch, coil of hair, line, diagram, bank of stream or pool; kuvaṭu branch of a tree; kōṭṭāṉ, kōṭṭuvāṉ rock horned-owl (cf. 1657 Ta. kuṭiñai). Ko. ko·ṛ (obl. ko·ṭ-) horns (one horn is kob), half of hair on each side of parting, side in game, log, section of bamboo used as fuel, line marked out. To.kw&idieresisside;ṛ (obl. kw&idieresisside;ṭ-) horn, branch, path across stream in thicket. Ka. kōḍu horn, tusk, branch of a tree; kōr̤ horn. Tu. kōḍů, kōḍu horn. Te. kōḍu rivulet, branch of a river. Pa. kōḍ (pl. kōḍul) horn. Ga. (Oll.) kōr (pl. kōrgul) id. Go. (Tr.) kōr (obl. kōt-, pl. kōhk) horn of cattle or wild animals, branch of a tree; (W. Ph. A. Ch.) kōr (pl.kōhk), (S.) kōr (pl. kōhku), (Ma.) kōr̥u (pl. kōẖku) horn; (M.) kohk branch (Voc. 980); (LuS.) kogoo a horn. Kui kōju (pl. kōska) horn, antler. (DEDR 2200). 

Rebus: 

 koḍ 'workshop' Ma. koṭṭil cowhouse, shed, workshop, house. (DEDR 2058)

Hieroglyphs: पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods पोळी [ pōḷī ] dewlap. 

Hieroglyph: aya 'fish' 

Rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'metal' (Rigveda)

Hieroglyph 1: काण्डः kāṇḍḥ ण्डम् ṇḍam An arrow. मनो दृष्टिगतं कृत्वा ततः काण्डं विसर्जयेत् Dhanur.3; Mb.5.155.7. -कारः (-रिन्) a maker of arrows कुसीदवृत्तयः काण्डकारिणश्चाहि- तुण्डिकाः Śiva. B.31.22. -स्पृष्टः one who lives by arms, a warrior, soldier. काण्डवत् m. An archer.(Samskritam. Apte)

Hieroglyph 2: गण्डकः gaṇḍakḥ [गण्ड स्वार्थे क] A coin of the value of four cowries.A mode of reckoning by fours. (Samskritam. Apte) gaṇḍa -- m. ʻ four' (Munda) गंडा[ gaṇḍā ] m An aggregate of four (cowries or pice). (Marathi) <ganDa>(P)  {NUM} ``^four''.  Syn. <cari>(LS4), <hunja-mi>(D).  *Sa., Mu.<ganDa> `id.', H.<gA~Da> `a group of four cowries'.  %10591.  #10511.<ganDa-mi>(KM)  {NUM} ``^four''.  |<-mi> `one'.  %10600.  #10520. Ju<ganDa>(P)  {NUM} ``^four''.  gaṇḍaka m. ʻ a coin worth four cowries ʼ lex., ʻ method of counting by fours ʼ W. [← Mu. Przyluski RoczOrj iv 234]S. g̠aṇḍho m. ʻ four in counting ʼ; P. gaṇḍā m. ʻ four cowries ʼ; B. Or. H. gaṇḍā m. ʻ a group of four, four cowries ʼ; M. gaṇḍā m. ʻ aggregate of four cowries or pice ʼ.(CDIAL 4001)

Rebus: गण्ड [p=344,1] " the chief " , best , excellent (only in comp. ; cf. -ग्राम , -मूर्ख , -शिला , &c ) L.a hero (cf. गण्डीर) L. (Monier-Williams. Samskritam) आखण्डिः ākhaṇḍiḥ आखण्डिः m. N. of an artisan.-Comp.-शाला The workshop of the artisan. (Samskritam. Apte)

Hierolypy multiplex read rebus together: अयस्--काण्ड [p= 85,1]  m. n. " a quantity of iron " or " excellent iron " , (g. कस्का*दि q.v.) (Monier-Williams) अयस् a. [इ-गतौ-असुन्] Going, moving; nimble. n. (-यः) 1 Iron (एति चलति अयस्कान्तसंनिकर्षं इति तथात्वम्; नायसोल्लिख्यते रत्नम् Śukra 4.169. अभितप्तमयो$पि मार्दवं भजते कैव कथा शरीरिषु R.8.43. -2 Steel. -3 Gold. -4 A metal in general. -5 An iron instrument; यदयोनिधनं याति सो$स्य धर्मः सनातनः Mb.6.17.11. -काण्डः 1 an iron-arrow. -2 excellent iron. -3 a large quantity of iron. (Samskritam. Apte)

1. pola 'magnetite'

पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large. पोळी [ pōḷī ] dewlap. Rebus: पोळें [ pōḷēṃ ], पोळी [ pōḷī ] The cake-form portion of a honeycomb.(Marathi)

पोळी [ pōḷī ] dewlap. Rebus: Russian gloss, bulat is cognate pola 'magnetite' iron in Asuri (Meluhha). Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring igneous and metamorphic rocks with black or brownish-black with a metallic luster. These magnetite ore stones could have been identified as pola iron by Meluhha speakers. Kannada gloss pola meaning 'point of the compass' may link with the characteristic of magnetite iron used to create a compass.pŏlāduwu made of steel; pŏlād प्वलाद् or phōlād फोलाद्  मृदुलोहविशेषः ] m. steel (Gr.M.; Rām. 431, 635, phōlād). pŏlödi  pōlödi  phōlödi लोहविशेषमयः adj. c.g. of steel, steel (Kashmiri) urukku what is melted, fused metal, steel.(Malayalam); ukk 'steel' (Telugu)(DEDR 661) This is cognate with famed 'wootz'steel. "Polad, Faulad" for steel in late Indian languages is traceable to Pokkhalavat, Polahvad. Pokkhalavat is the name of Pushkalavati, capital of Gandhara famed for iron and steel products.

Allograph: पोळें [ pōḷēṃ ] ‘honeycomb’ (shown as a pictorial motif on Lothal Seal 51).

Pictorial motif on Seal Lothal 51 is a honeycomb.

Lothal 51

pola, ‘magnetite’  is denoted by pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’ hieroglyphs. polo, pwālo ʻ beehive ʼ (Nepali); polo id. (Ku.)(CDIAL 8398)
M. poḷ m. ʻ bull dedicated to the gods ʼ; Si. pollā ʻ young of an animal ʼ.

4. Pk. pōāla -- m. ʻ child, bull ʼ; A. powāli ʻ young of animal or bird ʼ.(CDIAL 8399)

2. gota Laterite

Hieroglyph:gota 'numerative particle' Rebus gota 'laterite minerals'.

Laterites are rusty soil types with iron oxides rich in iron and aluminium. They are formed in hot and wet tropical areas.  Laterites can be easily cut with a spade into regular-sized blocks. Angadipuram Laterite is a National Geological Monument identified in Angadipuram town in Malappuram district in the southern Indian state of Kerala, India.  Laterite is linked to the Latin word "letritis" that means bricks. The economic importance of laterites is particularly related to nickel and aluminium metals. Thus, before iron smelting became the vogue, it is possible that the laterites were mined to create a varieties of alloys of like speiss or iron arsenides which could be alloyed with copper.

Hieroglyph: <gOTa>(P)  {ADJ} ``^whole''.  {SX} ``^numeral ^intensive suffix''.  *Kh., Sa., Mu., Ho<goTA>,B.<goTa> `undivided'; Kh.<goThaG>(P), Sa.<goTAG>,~<gOTe'j>, Mu.<goTo>; Sad.<goT>, O., Bh.<goTa>; cf.Ju.<goTo> `piece', O.<goTa> `one'. %11811.  #11721. <goTa>(BD)  {NI} ``the ^whole''.  *@. #10971. <aTe gOTa>(K),,<aThO-goTa>(P)  {NUM}``^eight''.  |<goTa> `whole,numeral intensive suffix. *$H.<aThA>, O.<aThO>. %2022.  #2002. <chO-gOTa>(KP)  {NUM} ``^six''.  |<goTa> `whole, numeral intensive suffix'.  %6840.  #6780.<dOsO-gOTa>(MK)  {NUM} ``^ten''.  |<gOTa> `whole, numeral intensive suffix'.  %9290.  #9210. <e-gOTa>(KMP),,<ei-gOTa>(K)  {NUM} ``^three''.  |<goTa> `whole, numeral intensive suffix'.  %9820.  #9740.),,<ei-gOTa>(K)  {NUM} ``^three''.  |<e> via *<he> from *<pe>`three'; <goTa> `whole, numeral intensive suffix'.  *Kh.<u'phe>(D), Sa.<pe>,Mu.<api>, Ho<api-a>, ~<ape>, So.<ya-gi>.  %9822. #9742.<nO-gOTa>(K),,<nOu-goTa>(P)  {NUM} ``^nine''.  |<gOTa> `whole, numeral intensive suffix'.  %23590.  #23420.<paJca-goTa>(P),,<paJcO-gOTa>(M)  {NUM} ``^five''.  |<goTa> `whole, numeral intensive suffix'.  %25382.  #25202. <satO-goTa>(P)  {NUM} ``^seven''.  |<goTa> `whole, numeral intensive suffix'.  *$H.<satA>,O.<satO>, Sk.<sAptAn>. %28772.  #28572.

Hieroglyph: Kur. goṭā any seed which forms inside a fruit or shell. Malt. goṭa a seed or berry.Ta. koṭṭai seed of any kind not enclosed in chaff or husk, nut, stone, kernel; testicles; (RS, p. 142, items 200, 201) koṭṭāṅkacci, koṭṭācci coconut shell. Ma. koṭṭa kernel of fruit, particularly of coconut, castor-oil seed; kuṟaṭṭa, kuraṭṭa kernel; kuraṇṭi stone of palmfruit. Ko. keṭ testes; scrotum. Ka.koṭṭe, goṟaṭe stone or kernel of fruit, esp. of mangoes;  goṭṭa mango stone. Koḍ. koraṇḍi id. Tu. koṭṭè kernel of a nut, testicles; koṭṭañji a fruit without flesh; koṭṭayi a dried areca-nut; koraṇtu kernel or stone of fruit, cashew-nut; goṭṭu kernel of a nut as coconut, almond, castor-oil seed. Te. kuriḍī dried whole kernel of coconut.  Kol. (Kin.) goṛva stone of fruit. Nk. goṛage stone of fruit coconut. Kol. (Kin.)  goṛva stone of fruit.  Nk. goṛage stone of fruit.  / Cf. words meaning 'fruit, kernel (DEDR 2069)  4271 *gōṭṭa ʻ something round ʼ. [Cf. guḍá -- 1. -- In sense ʻ fruit, kernel ʼ cert. ← Drav., cf. Tam. koṭṭai ʻ nut, kernel ʼ, Kan. goṟaṭe &c. listed DED 1722] K. goṭh f., dat. °ṭi f. ʻ chequer or chess or dice board ʼ; S. g̠oṭu m. ʻ large ball of tobacco ready for hookah ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; P. goṭ f. ʻ spool on which gold or silver wire is wound, piece on a chequer board ʼ; N. goṭo ʻ piece ʼ, goṭi ʻ chess piece ʼ; A. goṭ ʻ a fruit, whole piece ʼ, °ṭā ʻ globular, solid ʼ, guṭi ʻ small ball, seed, kernel ʼ; B. goṭā ʻ seed, bean, whole ʼ; Or. goṭā ʻ whole, undivided ʼ, goṭi ʻ small ball, cocoon ʼ, goṭāli ʻ small round piece of chalk ʼ; Bi. goṭā ʻ seed ʼ; Mth. goṭa ʻ numerative particle ʼ; H. goṭ f. ʻ piece (at chess &c.) ʼ; G. goṭ m. ʻ cloud of smoke ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ kernel of coconut, nosegay ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ lump of silver, clot of blood ʼ, °ṭilɔ m. ʻ hard ball of cloth ʼ; M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ a marble ʼ, goṭuḷā ʻ spherical ʼ; Si.guṭiya ʻ lump, ball ʼ; -- prob. also P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H. goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ.*gōḍḍ -- ʻ dig ʼ see *khōdd -- . Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271).

The same meaning is conveyed by linear strokes in writing to use a suffix: goṭa 'numerative particle'. Thus, when three linear strokes are deployed the rebus reading could be: kolmo goṭa 'count of three' Rebus: kolami got 'furnace for laterite stone ore'. Almost all hieroglyphs with use of numeral counts can be read with this suffix: goṭa  'numerative particle'.

The pine cone as a hieroglyph denotes kandə gota'pine cone whole' 

Rebus: kaṇḍa ‘fire-altar’. goṭa 'laterite ore'. khoṭ m. ʻbase, alloyʼ (Punjabi) Rebus: koṭe ‘forging (metal)(Mu.) Rebus: goṭī f. ʻlump of silver' (G.) goṭi = silver (G.) koḍ ‘workshop’ (Gujarati).

   


Rebus: kuṭhi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kuṭhieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kuṭhi, kuṭi (Or.; Sad. koṭhi) (1) the smelting furnace of the blacksmith; kuṭire bica duljad.ko talkena, they were feeding the furnace with ore; (2) the name of ēkuṭi has been given to the fire which, in lac factories, warms the water bath for softening the lac so that it can be spread into sheets; to make a smelting furnace; kuṭhi-o of a smelting furnace, to be made; the smelting furnace of the blacksmith is made of mud, cone-shaped, 2’ 6” dia. At the base and 1’ 6” at the top. The hole in the centre, into which the mixture of charcoal and iron ore is poured, is about 6” to 7” in dia. At the base it has two holes, a smaller one into which the nozzle of the bellow is inserted, as seen in fig. 1, and a larger one on the opposite side through which the molten iron flows out into a cavity (Mundari) kuṭhi = a factory; lil kuṭhi = an indigo factory (koṭhi - Hindi) (Santali.Bodding) 









A Meluhha gloss for hard stone ore or iron stone is mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) which is denoted by the hieroglyph, 'markhor'.  Meluhha glosses are annexed which indicate association with cire perdue (or lost wax) method of casting metals using beeswax, particularly in the glosses for miedź, med'  'copper' in Northern Slavic and Altaic languages and in Meluhha denoting both 'copper' and 'honey', beeswax'. Meluhha trade transactions along the Tin Road may explain the presence of Meluhha glosses in northern Europe.


Chanhudaro 23a miṇḍāl ‘markhor’ (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) 



Wilhelm von Hevesy wrote about the Finno-Ugric-Munda kinship, like "Munda-Magyar-Maori, an Indian link between the antipodes new tracks of Hungarian origins" and "Finnisch-Ugrisches aus Indien". (DRIEM, George van: Languages of the Himalayas: an ethnolinguistic handbook. 1997. p.161-162.) Sumerian-Ural-Altaic language affinities have been noted. Given the presence of Meluhha settlements in Sumer, some Meluhha glosses might have been adapted in these languages. One etyma cluster refers to 'iron' exemplified by meD (Ho.). The alternative suggestion for the origin of the gloss med 'copper' in Uralic languages may be explained by the word meD (Ho.) of Munda family of Meluhha language stream:


Sa. <i>mE~R~hE~'d</i> `iron'.  ! <i>mE~RhE~d</i>(M).


Ma. <i>mErhE'd</i> `iron'.


Mu. <i>mERE'd</i> `iron'.


  ~ <i>mE~R~E~'d</i> `iron'.  ! <i>mENhEd</i>(M).


Ho <i>meD</i> `iron'.


Bj. <i>merhd</i>(Hunter) `iron'.


KW <i>mENhEd</i>


@(V168,M080)


http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/AA/Munda/ETYM/Pinnow&Munda


— Slavic glosses for 'copper'


Мед [Med]Bulgarian


Bakar Bosnian


Медзь [medz']Belarusian


Měď Czech


Bakar Croatian


KòperKashubian


Бакар [Bakar]Macedonian


Miedź Polish


Медь [Med']Russian


Meď Slovak


BakerSlovenian


Бакар [Bakar]Serbian


Мідь [mid'] Ukrainian[unquote]


http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/element.php?sym=Cu 


Miedź, med' (Northern Slavic, Altaic) 'copper'.  


One suggestion is that corruptions from the German "Schmied", "Geschmeide" = jewelry. Schmied, a smith (of tin, gold, silver, or other metal)(German) result in med ‘copper’.

https://www.academia.edu/471320/Zebu_Cattle_Are_An_Exclusive_Legacy_of_the_South_Asia_Neolithic  

m0301 Mohenjo-daro seal.

Components of hieroglyph multiplex of m0301 inscription are:

--ram or sheep (forelegs denote a bovine)

--neck-band, ring

--bos indicus (zebu)(the high horns denote a bos indicus)

--elephant (the elephant's trunk ligatured to human face)

--tiger (hind legs denote a tiger)

--serpent (tail denotes a serpent)

--human face

All these glyphic elements are decoded rebus:

meḍho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120); 

kaḍum ‘neck-band, ring’ 

adar ḍangra ‘zebu’

ibha ‘elephant’ (Skt.); rebus: ib ‘iron’ (Ko.)

kolo ‘jackal’ (Kon.)

moṇḍ the tail of a serpent (Santali) Rebus: Md. moḍenī ʻ massages, mixes ʼ. Kal.rumb. moṇḍ -- ʻ to thresh ʼ, urt. maṇḍ -- ʻ to soften ʼ (CDIAL 9890) Thus, the ligature of the serpent as a tail of the composite animal glyph is decoded as: polished metal (artifact).

mũhe ‘face’ (Santali); mleccha-mukha (Skt.) = milakkhu ‘copper’ (Pali)

கோடு kōṭu : •நடுநிலை நீங்குகை. கோடிறீக் கூற் றம் (நாலடி, 5). 3. [K. kōḍu.] Tusk; யானை பன்றிகளின் தந்தம். மத்த யானையின் கோடும் (தேவா. 39, 1). 4. Horn; விலங்கின் கொம்பு. கோட்டிடை யாடினை கூத்து (திவ். இயற். திருவிருத். 21). 

Ta. kōṭu (in cpds. kōṭṭu-) horn, tusk, branch of tree, cluster, bunch, coil of hair, line, diagram, bank of stream or pool; kuvaṭu branch of a tree; kōṭṭāṉ, kōṭṭuvāṉ rock horned-owl (cf. 1657 Ta. kuṭiñai). Ko. kṛ (obl. kṭ-) horns (one horn is kob), half of hair on each side of parting, side in game, log, section of bamboo used as fuel, line marked out. To. kwṛ (obl. kwṭ-) horn, branch, path across stream in thicket. Ka. kōḍu horn, tusk, branch of a tree; kōr̤ horn. Tu. kōḍů, kōḍu horn. Te. kōḍu rivulet, branch of a river. Pa. kōḍ (pl. kōḍul) horn (DEDR 2200)

meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.)

khāḍ ‘trench, firepit’

aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) ḍhangar ‘blacksmith’ (H.)  poL 'zebu' Rebus: poLa 'magnetite'

kol ‘furnace, forge’ (Kuwi) kol ‘alloy of five metals, pancaloha’ (Ta.)

mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)

mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali)

koḍ = the place where artisans work (G.) 

Orthographically, the glytic compositions add on the characteristic short tail as a hieroglyph (on both ligatured signs and on pictorial motifs)

xolā = tail (Kur.); qoli id. (Malt.)(DEDr 2135). Rebus: kol ‘pañcalōha’ (Ta.)கொல் kol, n. 1. Iron; இரும்பு. மின் வெள்ளி பொன் கொல்லெனச் சொல்லும் (தக்கயாகப். 550). 2. Metal; உலோகம். (நாமதீப. 318.) கொல்லன் kollaṉ, n. < T. golla. Custodian of treasure; கஜானாக்காரன். (P. T. L.) கொல்லிச்சி kollicci, n. Fem. of கொல்லன். Woman of the blacksmith caste; கொல்லச் சாதிப் பெண். (யாழ். அக.) The gloss kollicci is notable. It clearly evidences that kol was a blacksmith. kola ‘blacksmith’ (Ka.); Koḍ. kollë blacksmith (DEDR 2133). Vikalpa: dumba दुम्ब or (El.) duma दुम । पशुपुच्छः m. the tail of an animal. (Kashmiri) Rebus: ḍōmba ?Gypsy (CDIAL 5570). 

sangaḍi = joined animals (Marathi) Rebus: sãgaṛh m. ʻ line of entrenchments, stone walls for defence ʼ (Lahnda)(CDIAL 12845) [Note: Within this fortification, zebu signifies a poliya 'citizen, gatekeeper of town quarter'.] This suggests that seal m0301 is an archaeometallurgist signifying the guild of artisans at work in the fortified settlement.

baraDo 'backbone' Rebus: bharat 'alloy of copper, pewter, tin'

karNIka 'rim of jar' Rebus: karNI 'supercargo' karNIka 'scribe'.

dhatu 'scarf' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral'

kola 'tiger' Rebus: kolhe 'smelter'

nAga 'serpent' Rebus: nAga 'lead'

खोंड khōṇḍa A variety of जोंधळा.कांबळा-cowl. खोंड [ khōṇḍa ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. Rebus: khond 'turner'

Hieroglyph: poLa 'zebu'

Rebus: poLa 'magnetite

Hieroglyph: खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). (Marathi) 

Rebus: khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’. (Marathi)

Polad, bulat crucible steel
'Schrader gives a list of names for 'steel' related to Pers. pulAd; Syr. pld; Kurd. pila, pola, pulad; Pehl. polAwat; Armen. polovat; Turk. pala; Russ. bulat; Mizdzhegan polad, bolat; Mongol. bolot, bulat, buriat. He is unable to suggest an origin for these words. Fr. Muller pointed out that the Pehlevi and Armenian should be polapat and suggested Greek 'much-beaten' as the original word...not all the countries of Asia had been exhausted in search for similar names...by adding Tibetan p'olad, Sulu bAlan, Tagalog patalim, Ilocano paslip, we at once see that the origin of the word may lie to the east. Naturally one thinks of China as the possible point of issue, for there steel was known in the third millenium before our era and we have the positive reference to steel in a Chinese writer of the fifth century BCE...Cantonese dialect fo-lim, literally 'fire-sickle'..."(Wiener, Leo, 2002, Contributions toward a history of Arabico-Gothc culture, vol.4, Gorgias Press LLC, pp. xli-xlii)

"...‘pulad’ of Central Asia. The oasis of Merv where crucible steel was also made by the medieval period lies in this region. The term ‘pulad’ appears in Avesta, the holy book of Zorastrianism and in a Manichéen text of Chinese Turkestan. There are many variations of this term ranging from the Persian
‘polad’, the Mongolian ‘bolat’ and ‘tchechene’, the Russian ‘bulat’, the Ukrainian and Armenian ‘potovat’, Turkish and Arab ‘fulad’, ‘farlad’ in Urdu and ‘phaulad’ in Hindi. It is this bewildering variety of descriptions that was used in the past that makes a study of this subject so challenging."
https://www.scribd.com/doc/268526061/Wootz-Steel-Indian-Institute-of-Science Wootz Steel, Indian Institute of Science

Kulli. Plate. Two tigers tied to a meshed axle. Stars. Fish.

Ficus religiosa, ibexes painted on bowl/plate. + hieroglyph. Kulli. 

Zebu tied to a tree trunk. Stars. Mesh, black ant on the body of Zebu.http://www.simbolivivi.beniculturali.it/english.html

Hieroglyphs on Balochistan (Kulli) finds are read rebus:

கோள் kōḷ 'planet, graha, brilliance, light' (Tamil) Rebus: kolhe 'smelter' (Santali)

मेढ [ mēḍha ] f A forked stake. Used as a post. Hence a short post generally whether forked or not. Pr. हातीं लागली चेड आणि धर मांडवाची मेढ. 2 The polar star. (Marathi) Rebus: 
meḍ 'iron' (Munda)

मेंढरूं [ mēṇḍharūṃ ] n (मेंढा) A sheep Pr. मेलें में0 आगीला भिईल काय? (Marathi) मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] m (मेष S through H) A male sheep, a ram or tup. 2 A crook or curved end (of a stick, horn &c.) and attrib. such a stick, horn, bullock. Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Munda)

Ash. mlaṅ f. ʻ mountain goat ʼ, Wg. mŕaṅ, mraṅ; Kt. mŕoṅ ʻ female ibex ʼ (→ Kal.urt. mroṅ); Pr. mā̆ṅgə, mā̆ṅg ʻ female markhor ʼ, maṅċū̃ ʻ markhor kid ʼ, Paš.kuṛ. loṅ f. ʻ markhor ʼ, Gaw. blaṅ; Dm. mraṅ m. ʻ markhor' 

 Dm. maži ʻ female markhor ʼ, Kal. muṣ, Kho. mažḗg.(CDIAL 9885) miṇḍāl ‘markhor’ (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Munda.Ho.)

+ shape, hieroglyph: kaṇḍa 'furnace, fire-altar' (Santali)

ayo 'fish' Rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati); ayas 'metal' (Vedic)

loa 'ficus religiosa' Rebus: lo, loh 'copper' (Assamese.Sanskrit)

Zebu is ligatured as distinctive high horns to create a composite hieroglyph ‘composite animal motif’ as in m0301: human face, body or forepart of a ram, body and forelegs of a unicorn, horns of a zebu, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail:

Mohenjo-daro Seal 1927 with epigraphs on two-side is a confirmation that the horns ligatured to the composite animal on m1927b are horns of zebu.

The pictorial motif hieroglyphs message on the seal:

khũṭ  ‘zebu’ Rebus: ‘(native metal) guild’ This refrain is detailed by the zebu horns affixed to the compositive animal hieroglyph. A synonym is aḍar ḍangra read rebus: aduru ḍhangar ‘blacksmith’(Santali)

The composite animal hieroglyph can thus be seen as an expansion of the message conveyed by the zebu hieroglyph expanding the blacksmith guild activities to other minerals and metals beyond aduru ‘native, unsmelted metal’. The text message seems to be identical on both sides of the seal m1927: bronze workshop; metal smithy castings; forge. The zebu side a of the seal seems to denote the work of a native-metal-smith; the composite animal side b of the seal seems to denote the expanded work of a blacksmith working with stones, minerals and metals. The composite hieroglyph on m1927b was perhaps called:व्याळ [ vyāḷa ] m (व्याल S) A serpent. Ex. जैसें पायास दंशिलें महा व्याळें ॥ तों मस्तकासीं वृश्चिकें दंशिलें ॥. 2 Applied popularly to the नाग or भुजंग.व्याल [ vyāla ] m S A serpent. (Marathi) யாளவரி yāḷa-vari n. < vyāḷayāḷi யாளி yāḷi, n. < vyāḷa. [K. yāḷi.]  A mythological lion-faced animal with elephantine proboscis and tusks; யானையின் தந்தமும் துதிக்கையுஞ் சிங்கத்தின் முகமுமுடையதாகக் கருதப் படும் மிருகம். உழுவையும் யாளியு முளியமும் (குறிஞ் சிப். 252). 1 A vicious elephant; व्यालं बाल- मृणालतन्तुभिरसौ रोद्धुं समुज्जृम्भते Bh.2.6. -2 A beast of prey; वसन्त्यस्मिन् महारण्ये व्यालाश्च रुधिराशनाः Rām.2.119. 19; वनं व्यालनिषेवितम् Rām. -3 A snake; H.3.29. -4 A tiger; Māl.3. -5 A leopard. व्यालकः A vicious or wicked elephant.

The text message on the seal:

kanac ‘corner’ Rebus:  kañcu ‘bronze’

sal ‘splinter’ Rebus: sal ‘workshop’

|| dula ‘pair or two’ Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’

||| kolom ‘three’ Rebus: kolami ‘smithy, forge’

kolmo ‘paddy plant’ Rebus: kolami ‘smithy, forge’

Bronze alloy workshop kañcu sal starting with bronze which is a tin + copper alloy or tin bronze (as distinguished from arsenical bronze, i.e. naturally occurring copper + arsenic).

dula ‘two’ Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’

dolom ‘three’ Rebus: kolami ‘smithy, forge’

kolmo ‘paddy plant’ Rebus: kolami ‘smithy, forge’. Vikalpa: mogge ‘sprout, bud’ Rebus: mū̃h ‘ingot’

m0300  Zebu horns on composite animal. Native metal smith guild. Text 2521

ingot (from) iron smelter, tin smelter merchant guild. 

Focus on ‘serpent’ tail: nāga ‘snake’ Rebus: nāga ‘lead’ (Sanskrit) anakku ‘tin’ (Akkadian)Kur. xolā tail. Malt. qoli id. (DEDR 2135). Focus on human face: mukha, mū̃h  ‘face’ Rebus: mū̃h ‘ingot’. Zebu horns: khũṭ ‘zebu’ (Gujarati) Rebus: khũṭ ‘(native metal) community, guild’ (Santali) kola ‘tiger’ Rebus: kolhe ‘smelters’ kol ‘working in iron’ ibha ‘elephant’ Rebus: ib ‘iron’ body of an ox: balad ‘bull’ Rebus: baran, bharat ‘mixed alloys’ (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi) dhatu ‘scarf’ Rebus: dhatu ‘mineral ore’.

āra 'spokes' Rebus: āra ‘brass’. cf. erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Kannada) Glyph: eraka’nave of wheel’ Rebus: eraka ‘copper’; cf. erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Kannada)

 Read in context, the composite hieroglyph is assumed to be a combination of a slanted stroke ligatured to a notch,which provide possible rebus readings of a smithy/forge: notch+slanted stroke reads rebus:ḍhālako kāṇḍa ‘ingot, tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’

dhāḷ ‘a slope’; ‘inclination of a plane’ (Gujarati); ḍhāḷiyum = adj. sloping, inclining (Gujarati) Rebus:ḍhālako = a large metal ingot (Gujarati) ḍhālakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (Gujarati)

PLUS

खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). Rebus: kāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’

Thus, the first pair of sign hieroglyphs from r. read rebus: copper, bronze ingots, metalware

| खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m  A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). Rebus: kāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’

ranku ‘liquid measure’ Rebus: ranku ‘tin’

kanka ‘rim of jar’ Rebus: karṇīka ‘account (scribe)’ karṇī ‘supercargo’

kolmo ‘paddy plant’ Rebus: kolami ‘smithy, forge’.

balad m. ʻ ox ʼ, gng. bald, (Ku.) barad, id. (N. Tarai) Rebus: bharat (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin)(Punjabi)pattar ‘trough’ Rebus: pattar ‘guild’. Thus, copper-zinc-tin alloy (worker) guild.

खोंड [khōṇḍa] m A young bull, a bullcalf. (Marathi) Rebus: kõdār ‘turner’ (Bengali); कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary  setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi) G. sãghāṛɔ m. ʻlathe’ ; संघाट joinery; M. sãgaḍ ‘double-canoe’ Rebus: sangataras ‘stone-cutter, mason’

kola 'tiger' Rebus: kolhe 'smelter'; kol 'working in iron'; kole.l 'smithy'; kole.l 'temple' dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal'

akho m. ʻmesh of a netʼ Rebus: L. P. akkhā m. ʻ one end of a bag or sack thrown over a beast of burden ʼ; Or. akhā ʻ gunny bag ʼ; Bi. ākhā, ã̄khā ʻ grain bag carried by pack animal ʼ; H. ākhā m. ʻ one of a pair of grain bags used as panniers ʼ; M. ã̄khā m. ʻ netting in which coco -- nuts, &c., are carried ʼ, ā̆khẽ n. ʻ half a bullock -- load ʼ (CDIAL 17)  అంకెము [ aṅkemu ] ankemu. [Telugu] n. One pack or pannier, being half a bullock load.

अक्षः [अश्-सः] 1 An axis, axle, pivot; अक्षभङ्गे च यानस्य....न दण्डं मनुरब्रवीत् Ms.8.291,292; दृढधूः अक्षः Kāś. V. 4.74; Śi.12.2, 18.7; ज्योतिश्चक्राक्षदण्डः Dk. 1Axle-pole. -2 The pole of a cart. Rebus: -पटलः[ष. त.] 1 a court of law. -2 depository of legal documents. -3 = अक्षि- पटलम्, q. v. -लः [अक्षाणां व्यवहाराणां पटलमस्त्यस्य अच्] a judge. -4 record-office (GI). -5 account-office (RT). -पटलाधिकृतः superintendent of records and accounts. Thus, the gloss 'akho' also connotes that the writing system was a method of accounting for materials produced from smelters/furnaces/smithy/forge. அக்கசாலை akka-cālai, n. < arkaW.)

*அக்கசாலையர் akka-cālaiyar

, n. < id. +. Goldsmiths, jewellers; தட்டார். (பிங்.) The cognate arka  relates to smithy work: eraka 'copper'

Abstract. "Animal domestication was a major step forward in human prehistory, contributing to the emergence of more complex societies. At the time of the Neolithic transition, zebu cattle (Bos indicus) were probably the most abundant and important domestic livestock species in Southern Asia. Although archaeological evidence points toward the domestication of zebucattle within the Indian subcontinent, the exact geographic origins and phylogenetic history of zebu cattle remains uncertain. Here, we report evidence from 844 zebu mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences surveyed from 19 Asiatic countries comprising 8 regional groups, which identify 2 distinct mitochondrial haplogroups, termed I1 and I2. The marked increase in nucleotide diversity (P,0.001) for both the I1 and I2 haplogroups within the northern part of the Indian subcontinent is consistent with an origin for all domestic zebu in this area. For haplogroup I1, genetic diversity was highestwithin the Indus Valley among the three hypothesized domestication centers (Indus Valley, Ganges, and South India).These data support the Indus Valley as the most likely center of origin for the I1 haplo group and a primary center of zebu domestication. However, for the I2 haplo group, a complex pattern of diversity is detected, preventing the unambiguous pinpointing of the exact place of origin for this zebu maternal lineage. Our findings are discussed with respect to the archaeological record for zebu domestication within the Indian subcontinent." Shanyuan Chen, 2010, Zebu cattle are an exclusive legacy of the South Asia Neolithic, Mol. Biol. Evol.27(1):1–6. 2010

FIG. 1.Geographic distribution compilation between mtDNA genetic patterns across Asia and the archaeological signs of spread of cattlepastoralism within the Indian subcontinent. (A) Median-reduced networks constructed for zebu haplotypes across Asia; (B) a map of the Indian subcontinent showing median reduced networks for each potential domestication center (Indus, Ganges, and South India); (C ) a map of the Indian subcontinent indicating the spread of cattle across time based on archaeological data. Circles represent sites containingdomesticated zebu cattle faunal remains, and squares represent reports of Holocene wild-type cattle bones. 

"In summary, our data are indicative of thedomesticationof zebu cattle exclusively within the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. Furthermore, although our genetic data corroborate archaeological inferences that the Indus Valley was most likely the primary center of zebu domes-tication, the frequency and distribution of the I2 hap-logroup within Uttar Pradesh and the Ganges region tentatively suggest, at least, a secondary recruitment centerof local wild female aurochs into proto-domestic zebu within Northern India. Under this scenario, members of the I1 haplogroup (perhaps occasionally the I2 haplogroup)were first adopted into the domestic pool during the earlyphases of zebu domestication in the Indus Valley;8,000YBP, which was undoubtedly pivotal to the emergence of pastoralism throughout India (5,500–4,000 YBP) and its diffusion eastward toward Southeast Asia and Southern China (4,000 YBP). Sometime after this initial spread, additional genetic diversity belonging to the I2 haplogroup was recruited from local wild South Asian populations, per-haps, as wild cattle populations were going extinct. This was, perhaps, the most intensive in the Ganges region, compatible with archaeological evidence for the presence of wild aurochs in the Ganges in Neolithic times...We have demonstrated, once more, that mtDNA sequencing analysis studies not only complement archaeological evidence but also add information by linking some divergent lineages/haplogroups to geographic origins and directions of spread. Identification of dispersal history and centers of origin may help reveal potential sources of genetic diversity to be conserved and used for future improvement of livestock and agricultural production. This is important as future productivity and adaptation to environmental changes might be overcome using zebu crosses, as pastoralists did in ancient times."

The following Harappa Excavation Reports of HARP (Harvard Archaeology Research Project) attest to the importance of zebu on Indus Script Corpora:

Harappa Excavation Reports 1986-1990 A Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millenium Urbanism
| Edited by Richard H. Meadow |
We are delighted to make available in its entirety and in downloadable and searchable PDF format an important set of reports about Harappa, one of the principal sites of the ancient Indus Civilization. The excavations at Harappa in Punjab (Pakistan) conducted by joint USA and Pakistani teams since 1986 have provided much detailed new information on the development, nature, and significance of this large urban center. The excavations at Harappa reported in this volume were directed by the late Professor George F. Dales, Jr. (University of California - Berkeley) between 1986 and 1990. Since Professor Dales' passing in 1992, excavations at Harappa have continued under the aegis of the Harappa Archaeological Research Project directed by Richard H. Meadow andJonathan Mark Kenoyer assisted by Rita P. Wright in continuing collaboration with the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan. Interim reports on archaeological research between 1992 and 2001 are expected to be provided on this website by early 2009. The first series of Harappa reports provided here includes contributions by a number of major scholars in addition to the principals of the Harappa Project. These include (in order of their contributions to the volume): Gregory L. Possehl, Ronald Amundson, Elise Pendall, William R. Belcher, Heather M.-L. Miller, Seetha N. Reddy, Brian E. Hemphill, John R. Lukacs, and Kenneth A.R. Kennedy.  Important copyright notice: Each chapter of the volume is copyright by the individual author(s) of that chapter. Permission to reproduce any text or illustration must be obtained from the individual author(s) concerned. Enquiries may be sent directly to the the author(s) concerned or to the editor Richard H. Meadow ( meadow @ harappa.com).
Harappa Excavation Reports 1986-1990 A Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millenium Urbanism Title Page, Table of Contents, List of Illustrations, Preface by Richard H. Meadow 1. Project Directors Introduction by George F. Dales 2. A Short History of Archaeology at Harappa by Gregory L. Possehl 3. Pedology and Late Quarternary Environments by Ronald Amundson and Elise Pendall 4. Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A Preliminary Model from Harappa by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer 5. Some Specialized Ceramic Studies at Harappa by George F. Dales 6. Patterns of Technology and the Organization of Production at Harappa  by Rita P. Wright 7. Faunal Remains and Urbanism at Harappa by Richard. H. Meadow 8. Fish Resources in an Early Urban Context at Harappa by William R. Belcher 9. Urban Palaeoethnobotany at Harappa by Heather Margaret-Louise Miller 10. Complementary Approaches to Late Harappan Subsistence: An Example from Oriyo Timbo by Seetha N. Reddy 11. Biological Adaptations and Affinities of Bronze Age Harappans by Brian E. Hemphill, John R. Lukacs, and K.A.R. Kennedy 12. Personnel of the Harappa Project 1986-1990 13. Summaries of Five Seasons of Research at Harappa (District Sahiwal, Punjab, Pakistan) 1986-1990 by George F. Dales, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, and the staff of the Harappa Project

http://www.harappa.com/harappa_1986_1990/harappa-excavation-reports.html

http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/085/0544/ant0850544.pdf Across the Indian Ocean: the prehistoric movement of plants and animals Dorian Q Fuller, Nicole Boivin, Tom Hoogervorst & Robin Allaby Antiquity 85 (2011): 544-588

“...in the first millennium BC, the Indian Ocean actually began to open up in the broad sense. By Iron Age times, systematic trade between urban systems was taking place across the Bay of Bengal and between India and the Red Sea. This period also potentially provides the first evidence for Asian species introduction into the moist tropics of Africa. While this claim still rests heavily on the banana phytoliths from Nkang in Cameroon, other lines of evidence, from plant and animal genetics, and linguistics, suggest that the later centuries BC were a period of increasing flows across the Indian Ocean, mainly it appears, at least from a species point of view, from east to west. The insular Southeast Asian involvement in this is certainly clear for the period of the Malagasy peopling of Madagascar sometime in the first millennium AD, but there is a likelihood that this was only the latest of a series of such movements.”

A schematic representation of some key Arabian Sea-Savannah zone biotic transfers of prehistory (the “Bronze Age horizon”). The question of how precisely African crops reached India beginning around 2000 BCE has now attracted the attention of archaeologists and botanists for decades...First, there was an earlier circum-Arabia or Arabian Sea phase of the Middle Bronze Age (from 2000 BCE), in which domesticates were transferred between the northern African savannahs and the savannah zones of India (Figure 1). Then there was a later mid-Indian Ocean phase that may be regarded as generally Iron Age (late centuries BCE to early centuries CE), which began to draw South India, South-east Asia and East Africa into the wider remit of trade/contact, setting the stage for a genuinely Indian Ocean world. In addition, we would like to draw attention to the significance of transfers of commensal animals and weeds, a largely unstudied but potentially revealing body of evidence for early human contacts across the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean."”We will suggest that there are two broad phases and sets of processes in intercontinental transfers. First, there was an earlier circum-Arabia or Arabian Sea phase of the Middle Bronze Age (from 2000 BCE), in which domesticates were transferred between the northern African savannahs and the savannah zones of India (Figure 1). Then there was a later mid-Indian Ocean phase that may be regarded as generally Iron Age (late centuries BCE to early centuries CE), which began to draw South India, South-east Asia and East Africa into the wider remit of trade/contact, setting the stage for a genuinely Indian Ocean world.” "About twenty years ago Cleuziou and Tosi (1989: 15) referred to the prehistoric Arabian peninsula as a “conveyor belt between the two continents, channelling an early dispersal of domestic plants and animals.”

(Dorian Q. Fuller et Nicole Boivin, 2009, Crops, cattle and commensals across the Indian Ocean http://oceanindien.revues.org/698)

"Zebus are a type of domestic cattle originating in South Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent... Zebu have humps on the shoulders, large dewlaps and droopy ears. (Definition: Zebu". Online Medical Dictionary.) ... They are classified within the species Bos primigenius, together with taurine cattle (Bos primigenius taurus) and the ancestor of both of them, the extinct aurochs (Bos primigenius). European cattle are descended from the Eurasian subspecies, while zebu are descended from the Indian subspecies. There are some 75 known breeds of zebu, split about evenly between African breeds and South Asian ones. The major zebu cattle breeds of the world include Gir, Guzerat, Kankrej, Indo-Brazilian, Brahman, Nelore, Ongole, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Butana, Kenana, Boran, Baggara, Tharparkar, Kangeyam, Chinese Southern Yellow, Philippine native, Kedah - Kelantan, and local Indian Dairy (LID). Other breeds of zebu are quite local, like the Hariana of Haryana and eastern Punjab or the Rath of Alwar in eastern Rajasthan.The Sanga cattle breeds originated from hybridization of zebu with indigenous humpless cattle in Africa; they include the Afrikaner, Red Fulani, Ankole-Watusi, and many other breeds of central and southern Africa. Sanga cattle can be distinguished from pure zebu by having smaller humps located farther forward on the animals. "(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebu )

Draft zebu in Mumbai, India

Farmer with Zebu cattle in Tamil Nadu 1993

Zebu migrations, DNA studies and Aryan Invasion as an indological propaganda.

The myth of Aryan Invasion (now Tourist or Influx) Theory is the propaganda of indologists believing in Biblical creationism, Tower of Babel and eurocentric racism. A remarkable study reported in the Economist explodes the myth and propaganda.

The reporters of Economist did not realise the importance of zebu as an abiding image of Sarasvati civilization and a cultural continuum in Bharatam. Even today, people can see the zebu roaming the streets of many towns and cities of Gujarat and other states. The zebu, bos indicus, was as Bharatiya in origin as the creators of the civilization and the textual traditions exemplified by a vast library of texts, well before the other parts of the world had any domesticated cultivation together with domestication of animals apart from the use of metallurgical advances to create new modes of social organization.

http://sarasvati95.googlepages.com/home update:

Zebu migrations

Mirrored at http://sarasvati95.googlepages.com/zebumigrations.doc

http://www.mindfully.org/GE/GE2/Domestication-Not-Simple.htm

1906 Wild Cattle, Yak, African Buffalo, Gayal, Zebu, Banteng, American Bison, European Bison Original Antique Engraving

Source: https://www.etsy.com/listing/168635357/1906-wild-cattle-yak-african-buffalo

3rd millennium BCE map of Ancient Near East beyond the Persian Gulf (beyond Meluhha).

Zebu, bos indicus with a pronounced hump, are the signature tunes on many inscribed objects of Sarasvati civilization on many epigraphs.

A zebu on a plaque from the Elamite Diyala Valley (Lamberg-Karlovsky and Potts 2001: 225).

Compartmented stamp seal with a zebu. Copper alloy. L 4.3 cm (1 3/4 in.); W. 3.8 cm (1 1/2 in.); Thickness 0.5 cm (3/16 in.). Baluchistan, Nausharo, Sector G, phase IB. Nausharo, ca. 2400 BCE. Exploration Branch, Karachi EXB 539. Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan.) "The glyptic evidence, though limited to a few examples, is varied in form and geographic distribution. Perhaps the most widespread type of Oxus seal is the copper-alloy compartmented version, which has been found at sites in Syria, Iran and Baluchistan, as well as Mohenjo-daro. The depiction of the typically Harappan zebu on such seals from both Mohenjo-daro and Nausharo, and their impressions on pottery from Shahr-i-Sokhta, in southeastern Iran, may indicate some special significance for this image in the context of interregional exchange. The Nausharo seal found in a phase at the site that appears to predate a mature Harappan presence, depicts the animal striding, with characteristic inward-curving horns, a circular eye, and geometric patterns to divide and define areas of the body, such as the forequarters, legs, belly, hindquarters, and tail. It recalls a compartmented seal from Altyn-depe, where the pattern is simpler. Both Nausharo and Mohenjo-daro have produced two Central Asian compartmented seals."(Joan Aruz, Ronald Wallenfels, 2003, Art of the first cities: the third millennium BCE from the Mediterranean to the Indus, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, pp.412-413).अग्नीषोम m. (मौ) [अग्निश्च सोमश्च द्वन्द्व ईत् षत्वम्] Agni and Soma; ˚प्रणयनम् bringing out Agni and Soma; a ceremony in the ज्योतिष्टोम sacrifice; (˚नी) the ṛk or vessel used in consecrating them.
अग्नीषोमीय agnīṣōmīya
अग्नीषोमीय a. [अग्नीषोमौ देवते यस्य छ] Relating or sacred to Agni and Soma; ˚निर्वापः making libations with the cake sacred to Agni and Soma; ˚पशुः a victim sacred to them; ˚पुरोडाशः an oblation sacred to them &c.
पौण्डरीक a. (-की f.) Relating to or made of lotus- flowers; अविरलमिव दाम्ना पौण्डरीकेण नद्धः Māl.3.16; वाताव- धूता वरपौण्डरीकी लम्बेव माला रुचिराम्बरस्य Rām.4.28.23. -कः A Somasacrifice of 11 days.
षो-डश mf(/ई)n. (ifc. f(आ).) the sixteenth , (with अंश or भाग m. a 16th part Mn.Ma1rkP. ; ऋषभ-षोडशाः [ Gaut. ] or वृषभ-ष्° [ Mn. ix , 124] , " 15 cows and one bull ") Br. Gr2S3rS. &c consisting of 16 VS. TS. Pan5cavBr. &c
 pravargyḥ
प्रवर्ग्यः A ceremony preliminary to the Soma sacrifice; प्रवर्ग्यं शास्त्रतः कृत्वा Rām.1.14.4; Bhāg.3.13.37.
 saṃsthā
संस्था 
A form of Soma sacrifice; सोमस्तु रेतः सवनान्यवस्थितिः संस्था- विभेदास्तव देव धातवः Bhāg.3.13.38. –
atirātra
अतिरात्र a. Ved. [अतिक्रान्तो रात्रिम्] Prepared over night. ब्राह्मणासो अतिरात्रे न सोमे सरो न पूर्णमभितो वदन्तः Rv. 7.13.7, -त्रः [अतिशयिता रात्रिः, ततः अस्त्यर्थे अच्] 1 An optional part of the Jyotiṣṭoma sacrifice (एकरात्रसाध्य- गवामयने प्रथमसंस्थः यागभेदः).

उक्थम् uktham  The उक्थ sacrifice; Bhāg.3.12.4
sōmḥ
सोमः [सू-मन् Uṇ.1.139]
संस्था a form of the Soma-sacrifice; (these are seven:- अग्निष्टोम, अत्यग्निष्टोम, उक्थ, षोढशी, अतिरात्र, आप्तोर्याम and वाजपेय).
 श्येन--चित् [p= 1095,2] mfn. piled in the shape of a hawk S3ulbas. चित् 1[p=394,2] ( Pa1n2. 3-2 , 92) forming a layer or stratum , piled up VS. i , xii TS. i (cf. कङ्क- , कर्म- , चक्षुश्- , द्रोण-, प्रा*ण- , मनश्- , रथचक्र- , वाक्- , श्येन- , and श्रोत्र-च्/इत्.)
अश्व--मेध a [p=115,2] m. the horse-sacrifice (a celebrated ceremony , the antiquity of which reaches back to the Vedic period ; the hymns RV. i , 162 and 163 [= VS. xxii seqq.] , referring to it , are however of comparatively late origin ; in later times its efficacy was so exaggerated , that a hundred such sacrifices entitled the sacrificer to displace इन्द्र from the dominion of स्वर्ग ; kings who engaged in it spent enormous sums in gifts to the Brahmans ; it is said that the horse was sometimes not immolated , but kept bound during the ceremony) VS. xviii , 22 TS. Ragh. &c , (cf. अर्का*श्वमेध्/अ)
वाज--पेय[p= 938,1] N. of one of the seven forms of the सोम-sacrifice (offered by kings or Brahmans aspiring to the highest position , and preceding the राज-su1ya and the बृहस्पति-sava) AV. Br. S3rS. MBh. R. Pur.

राज--सूय [p=874,2] m. a great sacrifice performed at the coronation of a king (by himself and his tributary princes e.g. the sacrifice at the inauguration of युधि-ष्ठिर , described in MBh. ii) AV. &c
बृहस्-पति--सव [p= 737,1] m. N. of a festival lasting one day (said to confer the rank , of a पुरोहित on those observing it) Br. Ka1t2h. S3rS. BhP.
आप्तोर्-याम [p= 1319,3] = अप्त्°, MBh. ; Pur. अप्तोर्-याम [p= 57,1] ([ S3Br. &c ]) ([PBr. La1t2y. ]) m. a particular way of offering the सोम sacrifice.
अति-रात्र [p= 15,1] mfn. prepared or performed over-night RV. vii , 103 , 7
अत्य्-ग्निष्टोम [p= 16,3] m. N. of the second of the seven modifications of the ज्योतिष्टोमsacrifice
 अग्नि--ष्टोम [p=5,3] m. " praise of अग्नि " , N. of a protracted ceremony or sacrifice (forming one of the chief modifications , [संस्थास्] of the ज्योतिष्टोम offered by one who is desirous of obtaining heaven ; the performer is a ब्रह्मन् who maintains the sacred fire , the offering is the सोम , the deities to whom , the offering is made are इन्द्र &c , the number of priests required is 16 , the ceremonies continue for five , days)
सुत suta The Soma sacrifice; दर्शश्च पूर्णमासश्च चातुर्मास्यं पशुः सुतः Bhāg. 7.15.48.-तः,-तम् A Soma libation.
सवः savḥ A sacrifice; राजसूयाश्वमेधाद्यैः सो$यजद्बहुभिः सवैः Mb.1.94.26.-4

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

January 3, 2016