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Professor Sebastiano Tusa, an archaeologist at the office of the Superintendent of the Sea in Sicily has suggested that the unusual ingots found in Gela shipwreck (News reports annexed) may relate to orichalcum alloy mentioned by Plato.
Ancient Indian tradition records the use of pañcaloha, 'five-metal alloy' for utsava-bera -- temple bronze images carried on rathas or on festival processions.
Homeric times refer to tin along with ivory coming from India (V. Ball, 1880, A geologist's contribution to the History of Ancient India, in: Journal of Royal Geological Society of Ireland, Vol. 5, Part 3, 1879-89, Edinburgh, pp. 215-63). Ball reiterates Lassen's comment that the Greek word kassiteros was derived from kastira whereas Bevan feels (E.J. Rapson ed., 1921, The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Delhi, Indian Edn., S. Chand and Co., p. 351) that kastira was derived from kassiteros. Such a controversy also existed about ārakūṭa in Sanskrit and oreichalkos in Greek ('mountain copper') which refer to brass. Pliny called this aurichalcum or golden copper (since brass is yellow) )(Pliny, Naturalis Historia, 34.2 and 37.44).
ārakūṭa as an alloy is comparable to Panchaloha, an alloy of five metals used for making cire perdue utsava-bera or vigraha in Hindu temples.
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Utsava-bera, pañcaloha murti in a Hindu temple. "Panchaloha (Sanskrit Devanagari: पञ्चलोह; Tamil: பஞ்சலோகம், ஐம்பொன்(aimpon); IAST: pañcaloha; Tibetan: ལྕགས་རིགས་སྣ་ལྔ, Wylie: lcags rigs sna lnga) (also called Panchaloham, Panchdhatu - literally, "five metals") is a term for traditional five-metal alloys of sacred significance used for making Hindu temple idols (Murti)...Practical compositions are Cu, Au, Ag, Pb and Zn; Cu, Ag, Pb, Fe and Sn; and Sn, Cu, Fe, Pb, and brass.The composition is laid down in the Shilpa shastras, an ancient Sanskrit text on idol making. It is traditionally described as an alloy of gold(Au), silver(Ag), copper(Cu), iron(Fe) and lead(Pb) as the major constituent. Instead of lead, some use tin (Sn) or zinc (Zn)." ). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/panchaloha
"Orichalcum or aurichalcum is a metal mentioned in several ancient writings, including a story of atlantis in the Critias dialogue, recorded by Plato. According to Critias (460 – 403 bc), orichalcum was considered second only to gold in value, and was found and mined in many parts of atlantis in ancient times. By the time of critias, however, orichalcum was known only by name.orichalcum may have been one type of bronze or brass, or possibly some other metal alloy.
In 2015, metal ingots were found in an ancient shipwreck in Gela (sicily), which were made of an alloy primarily consisting of copper and zinc, i.e. a form of brass...the name derives from the greek Ὀρείχαλκοσ, oreikhalkos (from Ὄροσ, oros, mountain and χαλκόσ, chalkos, copper or bronze), meaning literally "mountain copper" or "copper mountain". The romans transliterated "orichalcum" as "aurichalcum," which was thought to literally mean "gold copper"...however, in Virgil's Aeneid it was mentioned that the breastplate of turnus was "stiff with gold and white orachalc"...in later years, "orichalcum" was used to describe the sulfide mineral chalcopyrite, and to describe brass. However, these usages are difficult to reconcile with the text of Critias, because he states that the metal was "only a name" by his time, while brass and chalcopyrite continued to be very important through the time of plato until today...orichalcum is first mentioned in the 7th century BCE by Hesiod, and in the homeric hymn dedicated to aphrodite, dated to the 630s. According to the critias by plato, the three outer walls of the temple to poseidon and cleito on atlantis were clad respectively with brass, tin, and the third outer wall, which encompassed the whole citadel, "flashed with the red light of orichalcum". The interior walls, pillars and floors of the temple were completely covered in orichalcum, and the roof was variegated with gold, silver, and orichalcum. In the center of the temple stood a pillar of orichalcum, on which the laws of Poseidon and records of the first son princes of Poseidon were inscribed. (crit. 116–119) " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/orichalcumrichalcum
I suggest that the cognate of orichalcum or aurichalcum of Greek is Samskritam gloss: ārakūṭa which is explained as 'brass'. आरः ārḥ रम् ramआरः रम् [आ-ऋ-घञ्] 1 Brass; ताम्रारकोष्ठां परिखादुरा- सदाम् Bhāg.1.41.2.-2 Oxide of iron -कूटः, -टम् brass; उत्तप्तस्फुरदारकूट कपिलज्योतिर्ज्वलद्दीप्तिभिः U.5.14. किमारकूटाभरणेन श्रियः N. (Samskritam. Apte) आर--कूट [p= 149,2] m. n. a kind of brass (Monier-Williams).
The competence of Meluhha artisans in working with alloys and cire perdue metalcastings has been documented and affirmed by decipherment of Indus Script Corpora as catalogus catalogorum of metalwork.
The possibility of sourcing the 39 'orichalcum' ingots of Gela shipwreck from Meluhha (Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization) cannot be ruled out. This hypothesis is elaborated further in this note as a suggestion for detailed, multi-disciplinary archaeo-metallurgical investigations.
Ancient Near East artefacts and seals from Shahdad, Tepe Yahya and Sibri provide evidences -- from 3rd millennium BCED -- of metalwork involving alloys.
Copper-tin alloy is referred to as tin-bronze. Copper-zinc alloy is referred to as brass alloy.
kassiteros may relate to: कंस [p = 241 , 1] mn. (√ कम् Un2. iii, 62 ), a vessel made of metal, drinking vessel, cup, goblet AV. x, 10, 5 AitBr. S3Br. & c A metal, tutanag or white copper, brass, bell-metal (Monier-Williams)
Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO2. This may relate to the Greek word, kassiteros.
Bronze flag, Shahdad Kerman, Iran dated to 3rd millennium BCE. See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/07/ancient-near-east-shahdad-bronze-age.html “The shaft is set on a 135 mm high pyramidal base. The thin metal plate is a square with curved sides set in a 21 mm wide frame. On the plate there is a figure of a goddess sitting on a chair and facing forward. The goddess has a long face, long hair and round eyes. Her left hand is extended as if to take a gift…a square garden divided into ten squares. In the center of each square there is a small circle. Beside this garden there is a row of two date palm trees…Under this scene the figure of a bull flanked by two lions is shown…The sun appears between the heads of the goddess and, one of the women and it is surrounded by a row of chain decorative motives.” (Hakemi, Ali, 1997, Shahdad, archaeological excavations of a bronze age center in Iran, Reports and Memoirs, Vol. XXVII, IsMEO, Rome. 766 pp, p.271, p.649). The inscriptional evidence discovered at this site which is on the crossroads of ancient bronze age civilizations attests to the possibility of Meluhha settlements in Shahdad, Tepe Yahya and other Elam/Susa region sites. The evolution of bronze age necessitated a writing system -- the answer was provided by Indus writing using hieroglyphs and rebus method of rendering Meluhha (mleccha) words of Indian sprachbund.
Shown are the glyphs of 1. zebu and 2. tigers which are also glyphs on Indus writing which I decode as related respectively to 1. blacksmithy on unsmelted metal (Adar Dhangar 'native blacksmith', poLa 'zebu' Rebus: poLa 'magnetite') 2. working with alloys (kol, tiger) The tree is a smelter furnace (kuTi). The endless-knot motif is iron (meD, knot, iron).
Some Shahdad hieroglyphs and artefacts:
Steppe eagle Aquila nipalensis2. śyēná m. ʻhawk, falcon, eagleʼ RV.Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻhawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻkiteʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻfalcon, eagle, kiteʼ. (CDIAL 12674) Rebus: Senaka a carter ThA 271 (=sākaṭika of Th 2, 443) (Pali) sēnāpati m. ʻ leader of an army ʼ AitBr. [
Kur. kaṇḍō a stool. Malt. kanḍo stool, seat. (DEDR 1179) Rebus: kaṇḍ = a furnace, altar (Santali.lex.)
kola 'woman' (Nahali). Rebus: kol ‘working in iron’; pañcaloha, alloy of five metals (Tamil).
Shown are the glyphs of 1. zebu and 2. tigers which are also glyphs on Indus writing which I decode as related respectively to 1. blacksmithy on unsmelted metal (Adar Dhangar, zebu) 2. working with alloys (kol, tiger) !!! The tree is a smelter furnace (kuTi). The endless-knot motif is iron (meD, knot, iron).
The accounting system had advanced beyond bullae-tokens to a writing system to prepare stone-, metal-ware catalogs on thousands of inscriptions using mleccha language for Indus writing.
This is the Indian example. This is cited by Richard Meadow of the HARP (Harvard) Project which found it in Harappa. Meadow calls it the earliest writing system of the world.
This is the comparable image on Indus writing with five petals. This is dated to ca. 3500 BCE according to the HARP Harvard report.
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This is a glyph showing five petals. Characteristic of tabernae montana tulip flower which is a fragrant flower used as hair-dressing is that it has five petals. So, the word tagaraka has two meanings: 'hair fragrance'; 'tabernae montana tulip' (Sanskrit). This glyph is what is reflected on Shahdad cylinder seal. ![]()
My evidence is the glossary of words of Indian sprachbund (linguistic union) where the words are commonly used across the set of families of languages (Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, Dravidian, Munda). I have compiled an Indian Lexicon with about 8000 semantic clusters to prove the sprachbund. In my Indus Writing in Ancient Near East I have provided hundreds of examples of such semantic clusters in the context of bronze age metallurgy.
This is the comparable image on Indus writing with five petals. This is dated to ca. 3500 BCE according to the HARP Harvard report.
This is a frequently ocurring glyph.
Tabernae montana is called tagaraka in Sanskrit. Rebus reading (of a similar sounding word) is tagaram which means 'tin' (Tamil). Tin is a mineral alloyed with copper to create bronze alloy. Earlier bronzes were naturally occurring arsenic bronzes, that is, copper and arsenic ore together. The addition of tin to copper to create bronze meant a revolution in metallurgy and there was intense demand for 'tin' mineral in the entire civilization region of Metopotamia, Sumer, Elam and the Persian Gulf.
Connections between glyphs and intended meanings are provided by the rebus method. If two similar sounding words have different meanings -- one, pictorial meaning and the other metallurgical meaning -- and if this happens consistently for hundreds of word-pairs, the application of the rebus method for writing is a reasonable deduction. Similar was the method used on Narmer palette in Egypt. N'r meant 'cuttle fish'; M'r meant 'awl'. Together, they gave the Emperor's name and so, N'r + M'r pictorials are shown in front of this person.
Tabernae montana is called tagaraka in Sanskrit. Rebus reading (of a similar sounding word) is tagaram which means 'tin' (Tamil). Tin is a mineral alloyed with copper to create bronze alloy. Earlier bronzes were naturally occurring arsenic bronzes, that is, copper and arsenic ore together. The addition of tin to copper to create bronze meant a revolution in metallurgy and there was intense demand for 'tin' mineral in the entire civilization region of Metopotamia, Sumer, Elam and the Persian Gulf.
Connections between glyphs and intended meanings are provided by the rebus method. If two similar sounding words have different meanings -- one, pictorial meaning and the other metallurgical meaning -- and if this happens consistently for hundreds of word-pairs, the application of the rebus method for writing is a reasonable deduction. Similar was the method used on Narmer palette in Egypt. N'r meant 'cuttle fish'; M'r meant 'awl'. Together, they gave the Emperor's name and so, N'r + M'r pictorials are shown in front of this person.
Irrespective of the dates assigned to Rigveda and other Veda texts, the fact that the words get used over an extended period of time can be extrapolated to the bronze age, even upto 5th millennium BCE in some cases. One word, aya, is an instance in point. It means 'metal (alloy)', different languages including Pre-Indo-Iranian assigned the meanings of 'copper, bronze' to this word. A word with similar sound is aya 'fish' in Munda languages.
This is a glyph showing five petals. Characteristic of tabernae montana tulip flower which is a fragrant flower used as hair-dressing is that it has five petals. So, the word tagaraka has two meanings: 'hair fragrance'; 'tabernae montana tulip' (Sanskrit). This glyph is what is reflected on Shahdad cylinder seal. 
My evidence is the glossary of words of Indian sprachbund (linguistic union) where the words are commonly used across the set of families of languages (Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, Dravidian, Munda). I have compiled an Indian Lexicon with about 8000 semantic clusters to prove the sprachbund. In my Indus Writing in Ancient Near East I have provided hundreds of examples of such semantic clusters in the context of bronze age metallurgy.Inter-Iranian trade community from Harappa settled on the crossroads at Shahdad?
Object No. 0004 (p.26)
(p.577)
Copper plate in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Copper lid or plate from Tepe-Hissar, Univ. Museum of Pennsylvania (After Schmidt 193, fig. 120).
Copper plate in Louvre Museum (After Amiet 1976b:no. 21)
Copper/bronze dish from Shahdad, Iran Bastan Museum.
Copper/bronze dish from Shahdad. Iran Bastan Museum.
Copper/bronze dish from Shahdad. Iran Bastan Museum.
Rounded shape copper/bronze dish from Shahdad. Iran Bastan Museum.
(p.577)Tepe Yahya and Sibri artefacts:
The finds of Shahdad; three plates are taken from the 1972 Catalogue: Note the pictographic writing on red ceramics (Plates XXIIB and XXIIC). These includes possible bullae with ‘tokens’ representing some articles being counted.
Plate XXIIIB includes picture of two footprints. This glyph occurs on Indus writing.
Disk seal (glyptic catalogue no. 58; 15 mm in dia. X 8 mm) Excavations at Tepe Yahya, 3rd millennium, p. 154 Double-sided steatite stamp seal with opposing foot prints and six-legged creature on opposite sides. Tepe Yahya. Seal impressions of two sides of a seal. Six-legged lizard and opposing footprints shown on opposing sides of a double-sided steatite stamp seal perforated along the lateral axis.
Lamberg- Karlovsky 1971: fig. 2C Shahr-i-Soktha Stamp seal shaped like a foot.
Shahdad seal (Grave 78). It is significant that a footprint is used as a seal at Shahdad. The glyph is read rebus as rebus word for 'iron':Rebus readings:
Glyph: meṭṭu ‘foot’. Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.Mu.) dula ‘pair’ (Kashmiri); dul ‘cast (metal)(Santali). Six legs of a lizard is an enumeration of six ‘portable furnaces’ ; rebus: kakra. ‘lizard’; kan:gra ‘portable furnace’. bhaṭa ‘six’ (G.) rebus: baṭa = kiln (Santali); baṭa = a kind of iron (G.) bhaṭṭhī f. ‘kiln, distillery’, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭh m., °ṭhī f. ‘furnace’, bhaṭṭhā m. ‘kiln’; S. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ‘distil (spirits)’. Read rebus as : dul (pair) meḍ ‘cast iron’; kan:gra bhaṭa ‘portable furnace’.
Glyph: ‘foot, hoof’: Glyph: ‘hoof’: Ku. khuṭo ʻ leg, foot ʼ, °ṭī ʻ goat's leg ʼ; N. khuṭo ʻ leg, foot ʼ(CDIAL 3894). S. khuṛī f. ʻ heel ʼ; WPah. paṅ. khūṛ ʻ foot ʼ. khura m. ʻ hoof ʼ KātyŚr̥. 2. *khuḍa -- 1 (khuḍaka -- , khula° ʻ ankle -- bone ʼ Suśr.). [← Drav. T. Burrow BSOAS xii 376: it belongs to the word -- group ʻ heel <-> ankle -- knee -- wrist ʼ, see *kuṭṭha -- ](CDIAL 3906). Ta. kuracu, kuraccai horse's hoof. Ka. gorasu, gorase, gorise, gorusu hoof. Te. gorija, gorise, (B. also) gorije, korije id. / Cf. Skt.khura- id. (DEDR 1770). Allograph: (Kathiawar) khũṭ m. ʻ Brahmani or zebu bull ʼ (G.) Rebus: khũṭ ‘community, guild’ (Santali)
Alternative reading: meṭ sole of foot, footstep, footprint (Ko.); meṭṭu step, stair, treading, slipper (Te.)(DEDR 1557). Rebus: मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.); meḍ ‘iron’ (Munda).
Sibri:
Source: Jarrige, Catherine, Jean-François Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow, and Gonzague Quivron, editors (1995/1996) Mehrgarh: Field Reports 1974-1985 - From Neolithic Times to the Indus Civilization. The Reports of Eleven Seasons of Excavations in Kachi District, Balochistan, by the French Archaeological Mission to Pakistan. Sindh, Pakistan: The Department of Culture and Tourism, Government of Sindh, Pakistan, in Collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
The text on pg. 326 says:
6.6. Terracotta
Pawns, small wheels, spindle whorls, rattles (fig. 7.32C), sling-balls, and two crucibles, all in terracotta, were collected, together with a large number of discs formed from potsherds. One of the rattles with circular impressions on its surface is very similar to a specimen from a deposit of Period VIII at Mehrgarh, and another one, so far exceptional, bears incised signs and dots that could represent numbers (fig. 7.31C, 7.32C).
6.7. Seals
The seals are of two types. The most common type is the compartmented seal in bronze or in stone. Three specimens have a triangular shape while a terracotta cake bears several imprints of a square-shaped seal with a cruciform motif (fig. 7.31A). The second type is represented by a single piece, a black steatite cylinder seal with knob (fig. 7.31D). It was engraved with the representation of a zebu facing a lion and, on the base, a scorpion. This cylinder seal was found associated with two beads in black steatite and must have been part of a necklace as indicated by its suspension hole. This seal is very similar to a few cylinder seals found in Margiana, in particular at the site of Taip, where such objects are considered to reveal
Mesopotamian influence. One seal from Taip bears the representation of a zebu.
6.8. Copper/Bronze
In the same square (2K) where the cylinder seal was found, a bronze shaft-holed axe-adze of a type also often found in the Murghabo-Bactrian area was discovered (fig. 7.32B). A famous example of such an axe-adze comes from Mohenjo-daro. Other objects in bronze or copper include a few pins.
6.9. Figurines
Terracotta figurines, all made of sherd-tempered ware, were found in large numbers (fig. 7.32B). The main type is a "violin-shaped" female figurine. Eyes and breasts are "applique" as is the coiffure in some cases. Some of the figurines also bear necklaces or ornaments represented by small incised holes. Most of the time, however, only indications of sex are represented including applique breasts and small incised points marking the pubic area and the armpits. This violin-shaped type of figurine is quite original although it does have parallel among a few specimens from sites in the lower Murghab Delta and from later contexts at Pirak and in India (Navdatoli).
6.6. Terracotta
Pawns, small wheels, spindle whorls, rattles (fig. 7.32C), sling-balls, and two crucibles, all in terracotta, were collected, together with a large number of discs formed from potsherds. One of the rattles with circular impressions on its surface is very similar to a specimen from a deposit of Period VIII at Mehrgarh, and another one, so far exceptional, bears incised signs and dots that could represent numbers (fig. 7.31C, 7.32C).
6.7. Seals
The seals are of two types. The most common type is the compartmented seal in bronze or in stone. Three specimens have a triangular shape while a terracotta cake bears several imprints of a square-shaped seal with a cruciform motif (fig. 7.31A). The second type is represented by a single piece, a black steatite cylinder seal with knob (fig. 7.31D). It was engraved with the representation of a zebu facing a lion and, on the base, a scorpion. This cylinder seal was found associated with two beads in black steatite and must have been part of a necklace as indicated by its suspension hole. This seal is very similar to a few cylinder seals found in Margiana, in particular at the site of Taip, where such objects are considered to reveal
Mesopotamian influence. One seal from Taip bears the representation of a zebu.
6.8. Copper/Bronze
In the same square (2K) where the cylinder seal was found, a bronze shaft-holed axe-adze of a type also often found in the Murghabo-Bactrian area was discovered (fig. 7.32B). A famous example of such an axe-adze comes from Mohenjo-daro. Other objects in bronze or copper include a few pins.
6.9. Figurines
Terracotta figurines, all made of sherd-tempered ware, were found in large numbers (fig. 7.32B). The main type is a "violin-shaped" female figurine. Eyes and breasts are "applique" as is the coiffure in some cases. Some of the figurines also bear necklaces or ornaments represented by small incised holes. Most of the time, however, only indications of sex are represented including applique breasts and small incised points marking the pubic area and the armpits. This violin-shaped type of figurine is quite original although it does have parallel among a few specimens from sites in the lower Murghab Delta and from later contexts at Pirak and in India (Navdatoli).
A second type of figurine is represented by a seated callipyge individual while a third type is a standing, flat figurine with small applique breasts. In contrast to the large number of human figurines, very few animal figurines (three humped bulls and some others more difficult to identify) were found.
In Jarrige, Jean-François (1994) The final phase of the Indus occupation a Nausharo and its connection with the following cultural complex of Mehrgarh VIII. In: Asko Parpola and Petteri Koskikallio, eds., South Asian Archaeology 1993, Volume 1, pp. 295-313. Hesinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Jarrige discusses relations between Central Asia, Balochistan, and the Indus Valley.
Scanned pages: pp. 360-361 (Sibri1996.pdf)
Rebus reading of + glyph with dots on four corners of the + glyph, on the bulla shown on 7.31a. The + glyph may denote a fire-altar (of temple). kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar’ (Santali) khondu id. (Kashmiri) kŏnḍ क्वंड् ‘a hole dug in the ground for receiving consecrated fire’ (Kashmiri) kunḍa ‘consecrated fire-pit’. ayaskāṇḍa is explained in Panini as ‘excellent quantity of iron’ or ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’. [It is possible that there were allographs to depict the word: kāṇḍa. The allographs are: arrow-glyph; large dot; notch as a short numeral stroke (for example, ligatured on a fish-glyph or a 'rim-of-jar' glyph; dotted circle.]
Sibri cylinder seal with Indus writing hieroglyphs: notches, zebu, tiger, scorpion?. Each dot on the corner of the + glyph and the short numeral strokes on a cylinder seal of Sibri, may denote a notch: खांडा [ khāṇḍā ] m A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). (Marathi) Rebus:khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’.
The + glyph of Sibri evidence is comparable to the large-sized 'dot', dotted circles and + glyph shown on this Mohenjo-daro seal m0352 with dotted circles repeated on 5 sides A to F. Rebus readings of m0352 glyphs:
1. Round dot like a blob -- . Glyph: raised large-sized dot -- (gōṭī ‘round pebble);
2. Dotted circle khaṇḍa ‘A piece, bit, fragment, portion’; kandi ‘bead’;
3. A + shaped structure where the glyphs 1 and 2 are infixed. The + shaped structure is kaṇḍ ‘a fire-altar’ (which is associated with glyphs 1 and 2)..
Rebus readings are: 1. khoṭ m. ʻalloyʼ; 2. khaṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’; 3. kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar, consecrated fire’.
Four ‘round spot’; glyphs around the ‘dotted circle’ in the center of the composition: gōṭī ‘round pebble; Rebus 1:L. khoṭf ʻalloy, impurityʼ, °ṭā ʻalloyedʼ, awāṇ. khoṭā ʻforgedʼ; P. khoṭ m. ʻbase, alloyʼ M.khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ (CDIAL 3931)Rebus 2: kōṭhī ] f (कोष्ट S) A granary, garner, storehouse, warehouse, treasury, factory, bank. khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ metal is produced from kaṇḍ ‘furnace, fire-altar’ yielding khaṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’. This word khaṇḍā is denoted by the dotted circles.
Rebus readings of zebu and ‘tiger’? on the cylinder seal shown on 7.31d: khũṭ m. ʻ Brahmani or zebu bull ʼ (G.) Rebus:khũṭ ‘community, guild’ (Santali) kola ‘tiger’ Rebus: kol ‘working in iron’; pañcaloha, alloy of five metals (Tamil).
aṭar ‘a splinter’ (Ma.) aṭaruka ‘to burst, crack, sli off,fly open; aṭarcca ’ splitting, a crack’; aṭarttuka ‘to split, tear off, open (an oyster) (Ma.); aḍaruni ‘to crack’ (Tu.) (DEDR 66) Rebus: aduru ‘native, unsmelted metal’ (Kannada) aduru‘gaṇiyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru’, that is, ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Kannada)
The numerical strokes on the seal may denote the number of ‘ingots?’ of iron made for the guild by the artisan who owned the cylinder seal. It may also denote that he was a worker in ‘iron’ for the smithy guild. An allograph to denote a guild is: footprint shown on some seals discussed in previous section.
Other glyphs used at Shahdad as evidenced by the drawings and artefacts unearthed by Ali Hakemi:
aya 'fish' (Munda) Rebus: aya 'metal (alloy)' (Sanskrit) (cf. Motif shown on copper/bronze plates).
On Shahdad standard there is an endless knot motif like a chain. This motif also appears on Indus writing.
Other glyphs used at Shahdad as evidenced by the drawings and artefacts unearthed by Ali Hakemi:
aya 'fish' (Munda) Rebus: aya 'metal (alloy)' (Sanskrit) (cf. Motif shown on copper/bronze plates).
On Shahdad standard there is an endless knot motif like a chain. This motif also appears on Indus writing.
If the date palm denotes tamar (Hebrew language), ‘palm tree, date palm’ the rebus reading would be: tam(b)ra, ‘copper’ (Pkt.)
But in one Indian language -- Kannada --, tamara means: tagarm tin (Ko.); tagara, tamara, tavara id. (Kannada.)
The endless knot motif on Indus writing is as shown on the copper plate of Mohenjo-daro. This is a lot different from the continuous endless chain shown on Shahdad standard.
Another comparable motif on Indus writing is a 'chain' like a beaded chain as shown on some seals.
If there is a word to describe the Shahdad glyph of endless knot motif, there are two possibilities: meDhA 'tangle in cord' rebus: meD 'iron'.
S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center August 13, 2015
Mysterious Ancient Metal Found In Ancient Shipwreck. Link To Atlantis?
According to the legend, there was an 8th continent known as Atlantis. This mysterious continent was said to have sunk a long time ago and when it did it took all of its orichalcum with it. Orichalcum is a metal that is mentioned in several ancient writings including the story of Atlantis in the Critias dialogue, which was recorded by Plato around 360 BC. According to the dialogue, orichalcum was very valuable and was second only to gold in value.
Now a team of divers say they have recovered no less than 39 blocks of this precious metal from a shipwreck that is believed to have happened 2600 years ago. This ship was likely from somewhere in Greece or somewhere in Asia Minor and was carrying this metal to Gela in Southern Sicily, when it was then caught in a storm and sank to the bottom of the ocean about 300 meters from the port.
According to Sebastiano Tusa, of Sicily’s Sea Office, “Nothing similar has ever been found, we knew of orichalum from ancient texts and a few ornamental objects.” In the aforementioned Critias this metal was mined only on Atlantis and was used to completely cover the inside of Poseidon’s temple.
Many scholars today, agree orichalcum is a brass-like alloy, made in antiquity by cementation. This process was reportedly achieved with a reaction to zinc ore, copper metal and charcoal in a crucible. The 39 ingots, which were found, were analyzed with X-Ray fluorescence by Dario Panetta, of Technologies For Quality and, sure enough, the metal turned out to be made with 75-80% copper, 15-20% zinc, and a small percentage of nickel, iron and lead.
Tusa also stated “The finding confirms that about a century after its foundation in 689 B.C., Gela grew to become a wealthy city with artisan workshops specialized in the production of prized artifacts.” He says this because the 39 ingots were destined to workshops in Gela and were used in very high quality decorations.
Tusa’s team of divers plans to excavate the entire shipwreck to shed some more light on the history of Sicily, and possibly, Atlantis.
Does metal found in a 2,600-year-old shipwreck prove that Atlantis DID exist?
Mythical red alloy said to be from the lost island is discovered off coast of Sicily
- Marine archaeologists found 39 ingots of 'orichalcum' off the town of Gela
- They were discovered on the sandy sea floor in a wreck under 10ft of water
- Experts say they are the mythical metal Plato claimed was from Atlantis
- Analysis has shown they are an alloy of copper, zinc, lead, iron and nickel
- Shipwreck is a 2,600 year old cargo vessel thought to be from Greece
- Researchers believe it was sunk in a storm just 1,000 feet from shore
SEA-GOING SUPERPOWER, OR WAS PLATO PLAYING POLITICS?
Atlantis was first described by the Greek philosopher Plato more than 2,000 years ago.
While many believe the story is a myth created by Plato to illustrate his theories about politics, others insist it is based on a real historical disaster.
According to Plato's account, written around 360BC, Atlantis was a major sea power located in the Atlantic.
It was larger than ancient Libya and Asia Minor (modern Turkey) put together, and was 'the way to the other islands, and from these you might pass to the whole of the opposite continent'.
His account included detailed descriptions of the island - with mountains in the north and along the coast, and a plain in the south.
Its kings were descended from Poseidon - the god of sea - but their divine lineage became diluted as they mixed with mortals.
By around 9600 BC the island had conquered much of Western Europe and Africa and enslaved its enemies.
This date would make the city nearly as old as the end of the last ice age and pre-dates the earliest recorded city states, found in what is now Iraq, so seems rather unlikely.
After a failed attempt to invade Athens, the entire island sank into the sea 'in a single day and night of misfortune'.
Over the centuries, scholars have attempted to locate the real Atlantis - believing the account was based on a real ancient superpower.
One of the most plausible theories is that Plato was describing the Minoan civilisation on Crete and the neighbouring island of Santorini which was devastated by a massive volcanic eruption around 1600BC.
Some believe the Atlantis myth was inspired by the Black Sea floods of around 5000BC - an event that may have also generated the flood stories which appeared in the Old Testament.
A mythical metal said by ancient Greeks to be found in the lost city of Atlantis has been recovered from a ship that sunk 2,600 years ago off the coast of Sicily.
Marine archaeologists found 39 ingots of what they believe is 'orichalcum' on the sandy seabed among the wreck of a trading vessel that sank 1,000 feet off the coast of the town of Gela, in southern Sicily.
The wreck is the fifth ancient ship to be recovered off the coast of the town.
It is thought that it had been carrying cargo from either Greece or Asia Minor when it was caught in a storm and sunk.
Professor Sebastiano Tusa, an archaeologist at the office of the Superintendent of the Sea in Sicily, claimed the metal they had discovered in the remains of the ship was probably the mythical and highly prized red metal orichalcum.
Analysis of the metal ingots revealed they were made from an alloy of copper and zinc with traces of nickel, lead and iron.
Professor Tusa told the Mail Online that the X-ray fluorescent analysis of the metal had confirmed that it was orichalcum.
He said: 'The discovery is unique and exceptional because it is the fist time that we find oricalcum ingots.'
Speaking to Discovery News, he added: 'Nothing similar has ever been found.
'We knew orichalcum from ancient texts and a few ornamental objects.
'The wreck dates to the first half of the sixth century.
'It was found about 1,000 feet from Gela's coast at a depth of 10 feet.'
If the metal discovered by Professor Tusa and his team is really the mythical orichalcum, then it lends support to the idea of Atlantis as being a real place.
The existence of the island is greatly debated among historians and archaeologists.
Some believe it is entirely fictional while others claim stories of the 'Island of Atlas' may have been based on a real historical location that was drowned by rising sea levels or a tsunami.
The Egyptian city of Heracleion, for example, was lost 1,200 years ago when it was engulfed by the sea.
Most of the legend of Atlantis comes from the work of the Greek philosopher Plato, who describes how the great nation was submerged beneath the Atlantic Ocean after falling out of favour with the Gods.
Plato mentions orichalcum in the Critias dialogue and describes Atlantis as flashing with the 'red light' of the metal.
He wrote that orichalcum was highly prized and second only in value to gold. It was mined in the mythical island and covered the surfaces of Poseidon's temple.
The existence of this metal and its composition has since been widely debated, but it is commonly thought to be a brass-like alloy. Brass is made from copper and zinc.
It is thought to have been made through a process called cementation, which reacts zinc ore with charcoal and copper in a crucible.
This map of Atlantis - oriented with south at the top - was drawn by 17th century scholar Athanasius Kircher, who pinpointed the mythical continent as being in the mid-Atlantic before it was lost to the sea
Professor Sebastiano Tusa, centre, and his team of divers discovered the metal ignots of what they believe to be the mythical metal of orichalcum on a 2,600-year-old shipwreck found off the coast of Gela in Sicily
X-ray fluorescence of the ingots found off the coast of Gela show they were made from 75-80 per cent copper, 15-20 per cent zinc and small amounts of nickel, lead and iron.
Professor Tusa told the Mail Online: 'The shipwreck is dated to the beginning of 6th century BC.
'We cannot say how big is the vessel because we have to dig into the sand to recover what it is left of the wooden hull. But I presume that she was about 15 metres (49 feet) long.
'It is a new shipwreck unknown before this discovery.'
'She was sailing to Gela and was entering the harbor situated at the mouth of river Gela.
'Probably during the entrance there was some mistake in the maneuvering because of heavy sea and the ship went into the sandy beach'
Professor Tusa said that they also found some Greek vases, a terracotta figure of the Goddess Demeter and some wood in the wreck.
He added: 'The finding confirms that about a century after its foundation in 689BC, Gela grew to become a wealthy city with artisan workshops specialised in the production of prized artifacts.'
The metal found on the sea floor off Sicily (above) was found to be an alloy of copper, zinc, lead, nickle and iron
However, some experts disagree about the composition of orichalcum. Enrico Mattievich, a former physics professor at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, believes the metal has its origins in the Chavin civilisation that developed in the Peruvian Andes in around 1,200 BC.
He claims the metal alloy is made from copper, gold and silver.
He claims that the discovery off the coast of Gela is not true orichalcum.
Indeed in Ancient Rome, coins made from brass were also said to be made from orichalcum.
Professor Tusa said that while he did not believe Atlantis existed, he found the idea of it appealing.
He said: 'I think it was a Plato metaphore. But I am happy if this story will continue to raise and feed our fantasy.'
The lost civilisation of Atlantis was reputed to have many treasures including buildings clad in the metal orichalcum that were lost to the sea after the people there apparently fell out of favour with the gods
There have been many locations around the world suggested as potential sites for the lost island of Atlantis
Atlantis' Legendary Metal Found in Shipwreck
JAN 6, 2015 06:00 PM ET //
Gleaming cast metal called orichalcum, which was said by Ancient Greeks to be found in Atlantis, has been recovered from a ship that sunk 2,600 years ago off the coast of Sicily.
The lumps of metal were arriving to Gela in southern Sicily, possibly coming from Greece or Asia Minor. The ship that was carrying them was likely caught in a storm and sunk just when it was about to enter the port.
"The wreck dates to the first half of the sixth century," Sebastiano Tusa, Sicily's superintendent of the Sea Office, told Discovery News. "It was found about 1,000 feet from Gela's coast at a depth of 10 feet."
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He noted that the 39 ingots found on the sandy sea floor represent a unique finding.
"Nothing similar has ever been found," Tusa said. "We knew orichalcum from ancient texts and a few ornamental objects."
Indeed orichalcum has long been considered a mysterious metal, its composition and origin widely debated.
According to the ancient Greeks, it was invented by Cadmus, a Greek-Phoenician mythological character. The fourth century B.C. Greek philosopher Plato made orichalcum a legendary metal when he mentioned it in the Critias dialogue.
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Describing Atlantis as flashing "with the red light of orichalcum," he wrote that the metal, second only in value to gold, was mined in the mythical island and was used to cover Poseidon's temple interior walls, columns and floors.
Today most scholars agree orichalcum is a brass-like alloy, which was made in antiquity by cementation. This process was achieved with the reaction of zinc ore, charcoal and copper metal in a crucible.
Analyzed with X-ray fluorescence by Dario Panetta, of TQ - Tecnologies for Quality, the 39 ingots turned to be an alloy made with 75-80 percent copper, 15-20 percent zinc and small percentages of nickel, lead and iron.
"The finding confirms that about a century after its foundation in 689 B.C., Gela grew to become a wealthy city with artisan workshops specialized in the production of prized artifacts," Tusa said.
The 39 ingots recovered from the wreck were indeed destined to these workshops and were used in high quality decorations.
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According to Enrico Mattievich, a retired professor of physics who taught at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), the ingots are not properly made from orichalcum.
"It appears they are lumps of latone metal, an alloy of copper, zinc and lead," he told Discovery News.
Mattievich, who has led a number of studies in physics applied to mineralogy, paleontology and archaeology, is one of the scholars who disagree on the brass-like nature of orichalcum.
While other scholars equated the mysterious metal to amber and to other copper based alloys, Mattievich believes orichalcum has its roots in the Peruvian Andes and in the Chavín civilization that developed there from 1200 B.C. to 200 B.C.
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According to the scholar, who claimed in his book "Journey to the Mythological Inferno" that the ancient Greeks had discovered America, a metallic alloy "with fire-Iike reflections" similar to Plato's description was found in a set of metallic jaguars of Chavin style, which turned to be made of 9 percent copper, 76 percent gold and 15 percent silver.
Whatever the origins and nature of orichalcum, Tusa's team plans to excavate the shipwreck and bring to light the entire cargo.
"It will provide us with precious information on Sicily's most ancient economic history," Tusa said.
http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/atlantis-legendary-metal-found-in-shipwreck-150106.htm
Atlantis metal orichalcum ‘found’ in 2600-year-old Sicily shipwreck
February 09, 2015 12:02PM
Ancient adornment ... The lost metal orichalcum may have been a favoured metal among craftsmen fashioning objects of beauty for nobility — such as these Minoan priestesses.
A fresco found in an ancient Minoan house at Akrotiri, showing a procession of boats to the island with what appears to be a major palace complex built upon a central volcanic dome.
...
STUFF OF LEGENDS
Ancient Greek philosopher Plato made it — and its Atlantean homeland flashing “with the red light of orichalcum” — famous when it mentioned it in his Critias dialogue.
In particular, he said the ancient temple of Poseidon in Atlantis glinted “with the red light of orichalcum” covering it surfaces. At its heart was an orichalcum pillar onto which Poseidon’s laws were engraved.
Regarded as being second only in value to gold, orichalcum was said to be mined at the mythical island of Atlantis itself. The metal, like the civilisation, slipped beneath the waves — never to be seen again — in a cataclysmic event in antiquity.
While its invention is attributed to the first king of Thebes who also happened to be an alchemist, Cadmus, Plato’s writings have reinforced its association with Atlantis.
Atlantis, itself long considered mythical, has since been tied to ruins of an ancient outpost of the Minoan civilisation found on the volcanic island of Santorini.
It survives in modern times as a magical metal used in armour and swords — in the realms of fantasy computer games and novels...
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Legend has it the alloy was composed of copper, gold and silver. The metal found in the wreck, while matching the look, does not match this recipe.
Archaeologists now believe orichalcum is an alloy similar to brass.
X-ray fluorescence analysis conducted in Italys indicates it was made from a mixture of zinc (15-20 per cent), charcoal and copper (75-80 per cent). Traces of nickel, lead and iron were also reported.
Sea Office superintendent Sebastiano Tusa said the presence of the metal in the shipwreck confirmed the status of Gela as an ancient centre of craftsmanship.
“It will provide us with precious information on Sicily’s most ancient economic history,” Tusa said of the excavated cargo.
Mysterious Ancient Metal Found In Ancient Shipwreck. Link To Atlantis?
...
Many scholars today, agree orichalcum is a brass-like alloy, made in antiquity by cementation. This process was reportedly achieved with a reaction to zinc ore, copper metal and charcoal in a crucible. The 39 ingots, which were found, were analyzed with X-Ray fluorescence by Dario Panetta, of Technologies For Quality and, sure enough, the metal turned out to be made with 75-80% copper, 15-20% zinc, and a small percentage of nickel, iron and lead.
Tusa also stated “The finding confirms that about a century after its foundation in 689 B.C., Gela grew to become a wealthy city with artisan workshops specialized in the production of prized artifacts.” He says this because the 39 ingots were destined to workshops in Gela and were used in very high quality decorations.
Tusa’s team of divers plans to excavate the entire shipwreck to shed some more light on the history of Sicily, and possibly, Atlantis.
