A rare photo of ruins of the Surya Temple at Martand was taken by John Burke in 1868. The Martand Sun Temple was a Kashmiri Hindu temple dedicated to Surya (the chief solar deity in Hinduism) and built during the 8th century CE. Martand is another Sanskrit name for the Hindu Sun-god. Now in ruins, the temple is located five miles from Anantnag in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Temple ruins as seen from the entrance to the main temple structure
Restored impression of temple fromLetters from India and Kashmir by J. Duguid, 1870-73
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OR0V34tIV0o
http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/sept-oct-2005/engpdf/Ancient%20Sundials%20of%20Orissa.pdf Ancient Sundials of Orissa by Nikunja Bihari Sahu
http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/Astronomy_in_stones.pdf Astronomy in stones 73 slides by M N Vahia, TIFR
http://www.iiap.res.in/kodsch/Lectures/vinod.pdf The hot and the cold of the sun by Vinod Krishan, Indian Institute of Astrophysics 47 slides
The word Konarak is made up of two root words: kona + arka: angle + sun'r ray. Arka is a Rigvedic word. rvs.6.49 rvs.10.107
Konark mandir was built by King Narasimhadeva I of Eastern Ganga Dynasty around 1250 CE.
The tradition has it that the sanctum sanctorum, the garbha grha of the temple of Konarak was so positioned as to receive a particular quantum of sun's energy by the direct sun's ray at sunrise on a particular day, at a precisely determined angle based on astronomical computations.The astronomical computation of the specific day is determined by three factors in planetary motion with sun in the centre: 1. angular position of the earth rotating around the sun is dependent upon the oval-shaped (not circular) orbit; 2. angular position of the earth's axis which oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees (a phenomenon called precession) measured by Milankovich cycles; 3. the quantum of radiation which enters dependent upon solar activity (flares) cycles emanating carbon in a 2000 year cycle.
This is a challenge for astronomers and students of Hindu civilization to resolve by studying the archiectural marvel called Konarak Arka Mandiram, Sun Temple.
kōṇa m. ʻ corner, angle ʼ MBh. [Cf. kuṇi -- , *khuṇṭa -- 2 : ← Drav. T. Burrow BSOAS xi 341] Pa. kōṇa -- m., Pk. kōṇa -- , °aga -- , m.n. ʻ corner, part of a house ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) kunīˊ ʻ corner ʼ, K. kūn m., P. koṇ, °ṇā, kūṇ, °ṇā m., WPah. bhal. kōṇi f., cam. kūṇā m., Ku. kuṇo, pl. kwāṇā, gng.kũ&rtodtilde;, N. kunu, A. koṇ, B. koṇ, °ṇā, Or. koṇa, kuṇa; Bi. kon, °nī, konā -- konī ʻ ploughing from corner to corner ʼ; Mth. koniyā ʻ low wall round three sides of winnowing basket ʼ; Bhoj. kōn ʻ corner ʼ, H. kon, °nā m., G. kɔṇ m. (X *khuṇṭa -- 2 in kāṭ -- khuṇ = -- koṇ m. ʻ right angle ʼ), M. koṇ m., Si. kona; -- Pk. koṇṇa -- m. ʻ corner of a house ʼ (< kōṇa -- as tella -- < tailá -- ?); M. kon m. ʻ corner ʼ, °nā,°nyā m. ʻ cornerstone ʼ (prob., despite LM 139, koṇ, not kon, is borrowed).S.kcch.
khūṇo m. ʻ corner ʼ, WPah.kṭg. kvṇɔ m., kc. kvṇe f., J. koṇā m., Garh. kōṇū.(CDIAL 3504)
arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc ] Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624)
The precise dates on which and intensity with which sun's rays at sunrise enter through the temple entrance at Konarak is determined by:
1. the orbital cycle of the movement of the earth around the sun;
2. Milankovich cycle of earth's precession which oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees on a periodicity of 41000 years; and
3. the intensity of solar activity measured by radiocarbon generated is measured in a 2000- year cycle.
22.1–24.5° range of Earth's obliquity.Read also on the 2400 year solar activity cycle caused by solar inertial motion:
Precessing Kepler orbitPlanets orbiting the Sun follow elliptical (oval) orbits that rotate gradually over time (apsidal precession). The eccentricity of this ellipse is exaggerated for visualization. Most orbits in the Solar System have a much smaller eccentricity, making them nearly circular.
Equinoxes and solstices
The ecliptic, celestial poles and celestial equator
During the course of a year the Earth completes one orbit around the Sun. To us on Earth we see this as the Sun moving against the background of stars through the year, along an imaginary line which we call the ecliptic. This defines the plane in which the Earth and most of the other planets orbit around the Sun. The directions to the north and south ecliptic poles are at right angles to this. The Zodiac is the band of constellations running along the ecliptic.
The Earth's orbit around the Sun takes 365.25 days. The Earth's axis of rotation, tilted at 23.5 degrees to the line of the poles of the ecliptic, gives us the directions to the north and south celestial poles. The bright star Polaris is currently showing us the direction of the north celestial pole. Like a spinning top this axis is precessing around the ecliptic pole with a period of 26,000 years.
The celestial equator is the projection of the Earth's equator onto the sky. As the Sun moves in its apparent track along the ecliptic it is for half the year seen to be above the equator (northern summer) and half the year below the equator (northern winter). The Sun will therefore appear to cross the equator twice in a year.
The equinoxes
At the times when the Sun is crossing the celestial equator day and night are of nearly equal length at all latitudes and so we call these dates the equinoxes (= 'equal night'). In March, as the Sun is moving northwards along the ecliptic, this is called the vernal equinox and in September as the Sun is moving southwards we refer to it as the autumnal equinox. The equinoxes are also the points on the celestial sphere where the ecliptic and equator cross and the vernal equinox is used as the zero point in measuring star co-ordinates.
Why do the equinoxes not always occur on the same days each year?
The Earth takes approximately 365.25 days to go around the Sun. This is the reason we have a leap year every 4 years, to add another day to our calendar so that there is not a gradual drift of date through the seasons. For the same reason the precise time of the equinoxes are not the same each year, and generally will occur about 6 hours later each year, with a jump of a day (backwards) on leap years. The table below shows the dates and times of both the vernal (spring) and autumnal equinoxes:
Year | Vernal equinox | Autumnal equinox | Leap year |
|---|---|---|---|
2005 | 20 March, 12.33 | 22 September, 22.23 | |
2006 | 20 March, 18.25 | 23 September, 04.03 | |
2007 | 21 March, 00.07 | 23 September, 09.51 | |
2008 | 20 March, 05.48 | 22 September, 15.44 | yes |
2009 | 20 March, 11.43 | 22 September, 21.18 | |
2010 | 20 March, 17.32 | 23 September, 03.09 | |
2011 | 20 March, 23.21 | 23 September, 09.04 | |
2012 | 20 March, 05.14 | 22 September, 14.49 | yes |
2013 | 20 March, 11.02 | 22 September, 20.44 | |
2014 | 20 March, 16.57 | 23 September, 02.29 | |
2015 | 20 March, 22.45 | 23 September, 08.20 | |
all times are UTC (GMT) | |||
In fact it is only after a complete leap-year cycle of four centuries that these dates will be repeated. In the present century the times of the equinoxes have ranged between the latest dates - March 21 at 19h and September 24 at 06h (in 1903) - to the earliest dates - March 20 at 08h and September 22 at 17h (in 2000).
Why do the dates of the vernal and autumnal equinox not occur on the days when day and night are equal?
A quick look at sunrise and sunset times on successive days in March and September will show that the above dates do not coincide precisely with the times of equal day and night length. There is another factor to be considered which is that the orbit of the Earth around the Sun is an ellipse and not a circle. By Kepler's Law the Earth moves fastest when it is closest to the Sun (approximately 3 January each year) and slowest when it is furthest away (approximately 4 July). This 'unequal motion' causes variations in the length of the solar day and in the times of sunrise and sunset.
The combined effects mean that the Sun does not cross the meridian (when it is highest in the sky) at precisely local noon each day. The difference between clock-defined noon and the time when the Sun is on the meridian is called the Equation of Time and represents the correction which must be applied to the time given by a sundial to make it agree with clock time. This correction can be as much as 16 minutes in either direction. For more information, see our fact file on the the equation of time.
The solstices
The times when the Sun is at its furthest from the celestial equator are called the summer and winter solstices and these occur in mid-summer and mid-winter. The world 'solstice' comes from the Latin solstitium meaning 'Sun stands still' because the apparent movement of the Sun's path north or south stops before changing direction.
Year | Summer | Winter | Leap year |
|---|---|---|---|
2005 | 21 June, 06.46 | 21 December, 18.35 | |
2006 | 21 June, 12.26 | 22 December, 00.22 | |
2007 | 21 June, 18.06 | 22 December, 06.08 | |
2008 | 20 June, 23.59 | 21 December, 12.04 | yes |
2009 | 21 June, 05.45 | 21 December, 17.47 | |
2010 | 21 June, 11.28 | 21 December, 23.38 | |
2011 | 21 June, 17.16 | 22 December, 05.30 | |
2012 | 20 June, 23.09 | 21 December, 11.11 | yes |
2013 | 21 June, 05.04 | 21 December, 17.11 | |
2014 | 21 June, 10.51 | 21 December, 23.03 | |
2015 | 21 June, 16.38 | 22 December, 04.48 | |
all times are UTC (GMT) | |||
Note: Don't be fooled by the fact that during this period the summer solstice (almost) always occurred on 21 June. This is just a feature of the slow drift through the dates on a 400 year cycle mentioned above. The last time the solstice was not on this date was 1975 when it occurred on 22 June at 00.27 and in 2012 it will occur on 20 June at 23.09. For the dates in between the summer solstice will fall on 21 June.
The apparently odd behaviour of sunrise/set times near the winter solstice
The winter solstice is the time when the Sun reaches its southmost distance from the celestial equator and hence, in northern latitudes is the day when the Sun is lowest in the sky at noon. This is, naturally, the shortest day of the year in northern latitudes. To many people it seems odd, therefore, that the time of sunrise continues to get later in the day after the solstice.
The reason for this is that the Sun does not cross the meridian (when it is highest in the sky) at precisely noon each day. The difference between clock-defined noon and the time when the Sun is on the meridian is called the Equation of Time and represents the correction which must be applied to the time given by a sundial to make it agree with clock time.
There are two reasons why the Sun is not on the meridian at noon each day. The first is that the path of the Earth around the Sun is an ellipse, and not a circle. The second is that the Earth's equatorial plane and its orbital plane are inclined to one another. The two effects add together to yield the equation of time which can amount to some 16 minutes difference between solar and mean time.
The period when the equation of time is changing fastest in the whole year is very close to the winter solstice. It changes by 10 minutes from December 16 to January 5. This means that the time at which the Sun crosses the meridian changes by 10 minutes in this interval and also that the times of sunrise and sunset will change by the same amount.
Near the solstice the Sun's height in the sky changes very slowly and the length of the day also changes slowly. The rapid change due to the equation of time dominates the very slow change in day length and leads to the observed sunrise times.
What is the difference between Midsummer Day and the summer solstice?
Midsummer Day is June 24 (each year) and is one of the four Quarter Days in the Legal Calendar. The other Quarter Days are Lady Day (March 25), Michaelmas (29 September) and Christmas Day (25 December). The Summer Solstice is explained above.
__
6.049.01 I commend with new hymns the man observant of his duty, and the beneficent Mitra and Varun.a; may they, the mighty ones, Varun.a, Mitra, and Agni, come to our rite, and listen (to our praises). [The man observant: stus.e janam suvratam = daivyam janam, the divine people, devasan:gham, the company of the gods].6.049.02 (I incite the worshipper) to offer worship to Agni, who is to be adored at the sacrifices of every ma; whose acts are free from arrogance; the lord of the two youthful (brides, heaven and earth); the child of heaven, the son of strength, the briliant symbol of sacrifice.
6.049.03 May the two daughters of the radiant (sun) of various form, of whom one glitters with stars, the other (is bright) with the sun, mutually opposed, proceeding diversely, purifying (all things), and entitled to our laudation, be pleased by the praise they hear (from us). [The two daughters: day and night, the daughters of the sun, directly or their cause, indirectly].
6.049.04 May our earnest praise proceed to the presence of Va_yu, the possessor of vast riches, the desired of all, the filler of his chariot (with wealth for his worshippers); most adorable (Va_yu), who are riding in a radiant car, and driving your Niyut (steeds), do you, who are far-seeing, show favour to the sage, (your adorer). [kavim iyaks.asi prayajyo: prayajyo is applied to the priest, the adhvaryu; worship, venerable priest, the wise Va_yu...]
6.049.05 May that splendid car of the As'vins, which is harnessed at a thought, clothe my form (with radiance); that (car) with which, Na_satya_s, leaders of (rites), you go to the dwelling (of the worshipper) to fulfil his desires for his posterity and himself.
6.049.06 Parjanya and Va_ta, showerers of rain, and from te firmament available waters; sage Maruts, hearers of the truth, establishers of the world, multiply the moveable (wealth of him) by whose praises (you are propitiated). [Multiply: jagad a_kr.n.udhvam = jagat: fixed as well as moveable, all living things, jagat stha_vara jan:gama_tmakam sarvam pra_n.ija_tam].
6.049.07 May the purifying, amiable, graceful Sarasvati_, the bride of the hero, favour our pious rite; may she, together with the wives of the gods, well pleased, bestow upon him who praises her a habitation free from defects and impenetrable (to wind and rain), and (grant him) felicity.[Amiable: kanya_ = a maiden (gna_h ga_yajya_di_ni chanda_m.si, chanda_m.si vai gna_h: Taitiri_ya Sam.hita_ 5.1.7.2); kamani_ya_, to be desired or loved; vi_rapatni_ = the wife of the hero (Praja_pati or Brahma_); or, simply, the protectress of heroes or of men].
6.049.08 May (the worshipper), influenced by the hope (of reward), approach with praise the adorable (Pu_s.an), protector of all path; may he bestow upon us cows with golden horns; may Pu_s.an bring to perfection our every rite. [Protector: pathaspathah paripatim: Pu_s.an is the lord of the paths].
6.049.09 May the illustrious Agni, the invoker of the gods, worship (with this oblation), Tvas.t.a_, the first divider (of forms), the renowned, the giver of food, the well-handed, the vast, the adored of householders, the readily invoked. [The adored: yajatam pastya_na_m: pastyam = house, and by metonymy used for householder, gr.hasthair yajani_yam].
6.049.10 Exalt Rudra, the parent of the world, with these hmns by day; (exalt) Rudra (with them) by night; animated by the far-seeing, we invoke him, mighty, of pleasing aspect, undecaying, endowed with felicity, (the source of) prosperity.
6.049.11 Ever youthful wise, and adorable Maruts, come to the praise of your adorer; thus augmenting, leaders (of rites), and spreading (through the firmament), like rays (of light), refresh the scanty woods (with rain).[Like rays of light: naks.anto an:girasvat = an:girasah gamanas'i_la_ras'mayah, rays endowed with motions; te yatha s'i_ghram nabhastalam vya_pnuvanti tad vat, as they spread quickly through the sky, so) do the winds; or, if an:girasa is a reference to a r.s.i, the property of rapid movement is assigned to the r.s.is: yad va r.s.ayastad vacchi_ghraga_minah].
6.049.12 Offer adoration to the valiant, powerful, swift-movig (company of the Maruts), as the herdsman (drives his) herd to their stall; may that (company) appropriate to its own body the praises of the pious worshipper, as the firmament (is studded) with stars.
6.049.13 May we be happy in a home, in riches, in personn, in children, bestowd upon us by you, Vis.n.u, who with three (steps) made the terrestrial reions for Manu when harassed (by the asuras).
6.049.14 May Ahirbudhnya (propitiated) by (our) hymns, and Parvata and Savita_ give us food with water; may the bountiful (gods supply us), addition, with vegetable (grains); and may the all-wise Bhaga be propitious (to us) for (the acquisition of) riches. [Ahirbudhnya: budhna = antariks.a, firmament; budhnya = what or who is there born; ahi = he who goes, i.e., in the sky; parvata: the filler, pu_rayitri_, or the wielder of the thunderbolt, parvavad-vajram tadva_n; or, enemy of the mountain, gireh s'atru; in either sense, the reference is to Indra; with vegetable grains: tad os.adhibhir abhi = os.adhayas tila ma_s.a_dayah, the vegetables are sesamum, pulse and the like].
6.049.15 Grant us, (universal gods), riches, comprehending chariots, numerous dependants, many male offspring, (wealth) the giver of efficiency to the solemn rite, and a dwelling free from decay, wherewith we may overcome malevolent men and unrighteous (spirits), and afford support to those people who are devoted to the gods.
10.147.01 I have faith, Indra, in your first wrath, whereby you did slay Vr.tra, and did undertake a work friendly to man; when both heaven and earth were inferior to you, the firmament trembled at your might, O wielder of the thunderbolt. [Friendly to man: naryam vr.tram: from ni, to lead; viver apas = did approach the waters, i.e., this world; naryam = friendly to man; or, heroic, manly].
10.147.02 Irreproachable Indra, with mind intent on glory you have your deceptions slain the deceptive Vr.tra. The worshipper chooses you when he seeks for his (stolen) cattle, and in all sacrifices accompanied with invocations.
10.147.03 Indra, the invoked of many, be gracious to these Suris, who thereby prospering attain, O Maghavan, to opulence; (who) adore the powerful one at the sacrifice for (the sake of obtaining) a son, a grandson, the fulfilment of their desires, and honourable wealth. [Honourable: ahraye = alajja_kare, of which there is no need to be ashamed].
10.147.04 He obtains well-procured riches, who studies to promote Indra's rapid exhilaration. Exalted by (your favour), O Maghavan, (the worshipper), celebrating the sacrifice, speedily obtains through the officiating priests food and wealth.
10.147.05 Glorified by great (praise), Maghavan, spread forth your might, bestow riches (upon us); beautiful Indra who are wise like Mitra and Varun.a the distributer (of riches), you give us food now.
Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9, 2063-2077.
JournalofCosmology.com, July, 2010
Visions of the Cosmos:
Archaeoastronomy in Ancient IndiaSubhash Kak, Ph.D.
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
Abstract
1. Introduction
Archaeoastronomy in India has the benefit of ancient texts that describe cosmological ideas, their basis in astronomy, and their representation in architecture. These texts provide us crucial understanding of the astronomy and cosmology of the historical period.
In the Indian view, the cosmos is seen as being tripartite and recursive (see Kak, 2000a and Kak, 2008 for review and additional references). The universe is viewed as three regions of earth, space, and sky (Dumézil, 1988) which in the human being are mirrored in the physical body, the breath (prāna), and mind. The processes in the sky, on earth, and within the mind are taken to be connected.
Indian narratives about the cosmos are characterized by the central role of the observer. The cosmos is seen both as real and arising out of the phenomenal contents of the mind. At a practical level, agreement on the phenomenal contents of many minds is taken to imply real existence, and the question of the nature of the qualities of the objects is raised. The question that is asked in the Indian narrative is: Do these attributes or concepts have a real existence or do they arise from the intuition of the observers?
The examination of this and related questions leads to theories of the cosmos, both at the universal and personal levels, that form part of the philosophical systems of Sānkhya and Vaiśeshika. The Vedic view of India (spanning a long period that goes back to at least 2000 BCE) classifies knowledge in two categories: the higher or unified and the lower or dual. Higher knowledge concerns the perceiving subject (consciousness), whereas the lower knowledge concerns objects. Higher knowledge can be arrived at indirectly through intuition and contemplation on the paradoxes of the outer world. Lower knowledge is analytical and it represents standard science with its many branches. There is a complementarity between the higher and the lower, each being necessary to define the other. This complementarity mirrors the one between mind and matter.
The Vedic thinkers were aware that formal descriptions of the universe lead to logical paradox. The one category transcending all oppositions is Brahman. Figure 1 represents this world-view schematically. In this figure, logic is shown as a subset of the capacities of the mind, and likewise models of reality (which are based on logic) do not capture all aspects of the material world. Machines have been grouped together with logic in the figure since they must be constructed according to a logical framework. This figure may be viewed as a representation of the incompleteness of formal systems of knowledge. Vedic ritual is a symbolic retelling of this conception. Notable features of this world view that are relevant here are (Basham, 2004):
An Extremely Old and Large Cyclic Universe: The Vedic texts speak of an infinite universe with ages of very large time periods, or yugas. The recursive Vedic worldview requires that the universe itself go through cycles of creation and destruction. The encyclopedic Purānas speak of the universe going through a current cycle of 8.64 billion years, and the period of the largest cycle is stated to be 311 trillion years.An Atomic World: According to the atomic doctrine of Kanāda, there are nine classes of substances: ether, space, and time that are continuous, four elementary substances (or particles) called earth, air, water, and fire that are atomic, and two kinds of mind, one omnipresent (the universal self) and another that is the individual mind.
Relativity of Time and Space: That space and time need not flow at the same rate for different observers is encountered in the late Vedic and Purānic stories, and in the Mahābhārata and the Yoga Vāsishtha (Dimmitt and van Buitenen, 1978, Kak, 2008).
Many Solar Systems: Indian mythology assumes an uncountable number of worlds (solar systems) (Dimmitt and van Buitenen, 1978). In Purānic texts, the diameter of our own solar system is taken to be about 500 million yojanas which is about 7.5 billion kilometers (Kak, 1999, Rao and Kak, 2000).
![]()
Figure 1. Universe as projection of a transcendent principle. With the above as background to the general ideas regarding the cosmos current in ancient India, we come to the discussion of archaeoastronomy in ancient India. A considerable part of the archaeoastronomy of this period is based on the author's research (see, e.g., Kak, 1992, 1993, 2000a, 2000b, 2005a, 2009). Due to the importance given in Indian culture to the abstract and the symbolic, many of the archaeoastronomical sites are temples. The king was consecrated at the temple. The consecration served to confirm the king as foremost devotee of the chosen deity, who was taken to be the embodiment of time and the universe (Kak, 2002).
The Indian sacred city has been viewed as a structured mesocosm, situated between the microcosm of the individual and the macrocosm of the culturally conceived larger universe (Levy, 1991). Such a city is constructed of spatially connected and recursively layered circles, each of which is sustained by its own culture and performance. Although Levy's city is not very ancient, it is built according to an old tradition (Volwahsen, 2001). The Harappan city of Dholavira (Bisht, 1997) is also recursively structured. Furthermore, temples were taken to be define the meeting ground between the macrocosm and the microcosm, and, therefore, they provide much information on the relationship between astronomy and cosmology.
India's archaeological record has unbroken continuity going back to about 7500 BCE at Mehrgarh (Kenoyer, 1998, Lal, 2002), and it has a rock art tradition, next only to that of Australia and Africa in abundance, that is much older (Pandey, 1993, Bednarik, 2000). Some rock art has been assigned to the Upper Paleolithic period. There is surprising uniformity, both in style and content, in the rock art paintings of the Mesolithic period (10,000 – 2500 BCE) (Wakankar, 1992).
The setting for the hymns of the Rigveda, which is India's most ancient literary text, is the area of Sapta Saindhava, the region of north India bounded by the Sindh and the Ganga rivers although regions around this heartland are also mentioned. The Rigveda describes the Sarasvati River to be the greatest of the rivers and going from the mountains to the sea. The archaeological record, suggesting that this river had turned dry by1900 BCE, indicates that the Rigveda is prior to this epoch.
The Rigveda and other early Vedic literature have astronomical references related to the shifting astronomical frame that indicate epochs of the fourth and third millennium BCE which is consistent with the hydrological evidence. The nakshatra lists are found in the Vedas, either directly or listed under their presiding deities, and it one may conclude that their names have not changed. Vedic astronomy used a luni-solar year in which an intercalary month was employed as adjustment with solar year.
The foundation of Vedic cosmology is the notion of bandhu (homology or binding between the outer and the inner). It was estimated correctly that the sun and the moon were approximately 108 times their respective diameters from the earth (perhaps from the discovery that the angular size of a pole removed 108 times its height is the same as that of the sun and the moon), and this number was used in sacred architecture. The distance to the sanctum sanctorum of the temple from the gate and the perimeter of the temple were taken to be 54 and 180 units, which are one-half each of 108 and 360 (e.g. Kak, 2005a). Homologies at many levels are at the basis of the idea of recursion, or repetition in scale and time. The astronomical basis of the Vedic ritual was the reconciliation of the lunar and solar years.
2. The Cosmological Plan of the City and the Temple
According to the Vāstu Śāstra, manual of sacred architecture, the structure of the building mirrors the emergence of cosmic order out of primordial chaos through the act of measurement. The universe is symbolically mapped into a square that emphasizes the four cardinal directions. It is represented by the square vāstupurushamandala, which in its various forms is the basic plan for the temple, the house, and the city. There exist further elaborations of this plan, some of which are rectangular.
Yantric buildings in the form of mandalas, dated to about 2000 BCE, have been discovered in North Afghanistan that belong to a period that corresponds to the late stage of the Harappan tradition (Kak, 2005b, 2010) providing architectural evidence in support of the idea of recursion at this time. Although these building are a part of the Bactria- Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), their affinity with ideas that are also present in the Harappan system shows that these ideas were widely spread..
Recent studies haves shown that the unit of dhanus has been used consistently in India in town planning and architecture for over 4,000 years, going back to the Harappan period. By considering the largest measure which leads to integer dimensions for the various parts of the Harappan age city of Dholavira, which was excavated in the 1990s (Bisht, 1997, Bisht, 1999), it was found that this measure is the same as the Arthaśāstra (300 BCE) measure of dhanus (bow) that equals 108 angulas (fingers) (see Kak, 2009, 2010, for details).
The measure of dhanus is seen to apply not only to the Mauryan and Gupta era structures, but even to more recent grid and modular measures in the town planning of Kathmandu Valley. The measures used in ancient India are summarized in the table below.
Table 1.
![]()
With the measure of dhanus (D) of 1.9404 m, the dimensions of Mohenjo-Daro's acropolis turn out to be 210 x 105 D, Kalibangan's acropolis turn out to be 126 x 63 D. The dimensions of the lower town of Dholavira are 405 x 324 D, the width of the middle town is 180 D, and the inner dimensions of the castle are 60 x 48 D (Danino, 2008). The sum of the width and length of the lower town comes to 729 which is astronomically significant since it is 27 x 27, and the width 324 equals the nakshatra year 27 x 12 (Kak, 2009).
The layout of Dholavira is unique in that it comprises of three "towns," which is in accord with Vedic ideas (Bisht, 1997, Bisht, 1999). The feature of recursion in the three towns, or repeating ratios at different scales, is significant. Specifically, the design is characterized by the nesting proportion of 9:4 across the lower and the middle towns and the castle. The proportions of 5/4, 7/6, and 5/4 for the lower town, the middle town, and the castle may reflect the measures related to the royal city, the commander's quarter, and the king's quarter, respectively, which was also true of Classical India (Bhat, 1995).
![]()
Figure 2. Map of Dholavira (Bisht, 1997). The Somapura Mahāvihāra of Pāhārpur has dimensions of 280x281 m, which when converted to dhanus become nearly 147x147 D, or 49x49 with the units of three times dhanus, which would be a natural plan for avāstupurushamandala. The base of the temple was generally in a square grid of 8 or 9 units (64 or 81 squares) in the Brihat Samhitā (Bhat, 1995), but according to other texts it could range from one to 1024 square divisions. Another text gives special importance to the 7x7 plan. The Brihadīśvara temple (which was completed in 1010 CE), has a sanctum tower of 30.2x30.2x66 and it is within an enclosure of 240x120 m. In dhanus units, this amounts to 16x16 D plan in an enclosure of 126x63 D, where the error is less than one percent in the sanctum and almost zero for the enclosure. This indicates that the sanctum used a vāstupurushamandala of 64 squares where each square had a length of one-fourth dhanus. The dhanus unit also explains the chosen dimensions of Angkor Wat and Prambanan temples in Southeast Asia.
3. More on Harappan and Vedic Records
In this section we consider additional evidence from Harappan and Vedic periods. The absence of monumental buildings such as palaces and temples makes the Harappan city strikingly different from its counterparts of Mesopotamia and Egypt, suggesting that the polity of the Harappan state was de-centralized and based on a balance between the political, the mercantile, and the religious elites. The presence of civic amenities such as wells and drains attests to considerable social equality. The power of the mercantile guilds is clear in the standardization of weights of carefully cut and polished chert cubes that form a combined binary and decimal system.
Mohenjo-Daro and other sites show slight divergence of 1° to 2° clockwise of the axes from the cardinal directions (Wanzke, 1984). It is thought that this might have been due to the orientation of Aldebaran (Rohinī in Sanskrit) and the Pleiades (Kritikkā in Sanskrit) that rose in the east during 3000 BCE to 2000 BCE at the spring equinox, the word "rohinī" literally means rising. Furthermore, the slight difference in the orientations amongst the buildings in Mohenjo-Daro indicates different construction periods using the same traditional sighting points that had shifted in this interval due to precession of the equinoxes (Kenoyer, 1998).
Mohenjo-Daro's astronomy used both the motions of the moon and the sun (Maula, 1984). This is attested by the use of great calendar stones, in the shape of ring, which served to mark the beginning and end of the solar year.
![]()
Figure 3. Astronomical seal from the Harappan era (left: picture, right: sketch of same). The seal of Figure 3 has been viewed by many as representing the Pleiades. The conjunction of this constellation with the sun at the vernal equinox marked the New Year around 2400 BCE. The Pleiades, the wives of the seven sages, are important in Vedic mythology as representing the seven mothers who nurse the war-god Skanda.
![]()
Figure 4. A 3rd millennium seal from Rehman Dheri. The seal of Figure 4 is taken to represent the opposition of the Orion (Mrigashiras, or antelope head) and the Scorpio (Rohini of the southern hemisphere which is 14 nakshatras from the Rohini of the northern hemisphere) nakshatras. The arrow near the head of one of the antelopes could represent the decapitation of Orion. It is generally accepted that the myth of Prajapati being killed by Rudra represents the shifting of the beginning of the year away from Orion and it places the astronomical event in the fourth millennium BCE (Kak, 1996, 2000a).
![]()
Figure 5. Mapping of the nakshatras to the solar months. Figure 5 presents the 27 nakshatras of the Indian astronomy together with the 12 solar segments (rāshis). It is significant that the 27 nakshatras contain 24 names together with three which are further subdivided. This indicates that the 24 divisions may have preceded the 27 divisions of the Vedic astronomy.
Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India. Vedic texts describe the design and ritual of the fire altars which were oriented towards the east and whose design, using bricks laid in five layers, coded astronomical knowledge of its times (Kak, 2000a). The best known of the fire altars is the falcon altar of Figure 6. Texts that describe fire altar designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BCE, but their contents appear to be much older.
![]()
Figure 6. Fire altar designed as a falcon. Vedic ritual was based on the times for the full and the new moons, the solstices and the equinoxes. There were two years: the ritual year started with the winter solstice (mahāvrata), and the civil one started with the spring equinox (vishuva). The passage of the rising of the sun in its northward course from the winter solstice to the summer solstice (vishuvant) was called gavām ayana, or the sun's walk. The solar year was divided into two ayanas: in the uttarāyana the sun travels north, in the dakshināyana it travels south. The movement of the moon was marked by its nightly conjunction with one of the 27 or 28 nakshatras. The Rigveda 1.164 also speaks of another tradition of dividing the zodiac into twelve equal parts. It appears that these divisions were called the Ādityas. The incommensurability between the lunar and the solar reckonings led to the search for ever-increasing cycles to synchronize the motions of the sun and the moon. This is how the yuga astronomical model was born. In the lunar month, there were separate traditions of counting the beginning of the month by the full-moon day and the new-moon day.
4. Neolithic and Megalithic Sites
Sites of archaeoastronomical interest include the Neolithic site of Burzahom from Kashmir in North India, and megalithic sites from Brahmagiri and Hanamsagar from Karnataka in South India. The dates for these specific sites are provided in the text. The importance of these sites arises from the fact that they present astronomical knowledge that was most likely outside the literary tradition.
Burzahom, Kashmir
The Burzahom site is located about 10 km northeast of Srinagar in the Kashmir Valley on a terrace of Late Pleistocene-Holocene deposits. Dated to around 3000 - 1500 BCE, its deep pit dwellings are associated with ground stone axes, bone tools, and gray burnished pottery. A stone slab of 48 cm x 27 cm, obtained from a phase dated to 2125 BCE shows two bright objects in the sky with a hunting scene in the foreground. These have been assumed to be a depiction of a double star system (Rao, 2005).
![]()
Figure 7. Burzahom sky scene. Brahmagiri, Karnataka. The megalithic stone circles of Brahmagiri (latitude 14o 73', longitude 76o 77'), Chitradurga district of Karnataka in South India, that have been dated to 900 BCE, show astronomical orientations. Rao (1993) has argued that site lines from the centre of a circle to an outer tangent of another circle point to the directions of the sunrise and full moon rise at the time of the solar and lunar solstices and equinox.
![]()
Figure 8. Megalithic stone circles of Brahmagiri Hanamsagar, Karnataka. Hanamsagar is a megalithic site with stone alignments pointing to cardinal directions. Since the megalithic period of Karnataka is believed to belong to the first millennium BCE, it may be assumed that this is the period of the site. The site is located on a flat area between hills about 6 km north of the Krishna river at latitude 16o 19' 18" and longitude 76o 27' 10". The stones, which are smooth granite, are arranged in a square of side that is about 600 meters with 50 rows and 50 column (for a total of 2,500 stones), with a separation between stones of about 12 m. The stones are between 1 to 2.5 m in height with a maximum diameter of 2 to 3 m. The lines are oriented in cardinal directions. There is a squarish central structure known as chakri katti.
![]()
Figure 9. Alignments at Hanamsagar (Rao, 2005). It has been argued that the directions of summer and winter solstice can be fixed in relation to the outer and the inner squares. Rao (2005) suggests that it could have been used for several other kind of astronomical observations such as use of shadows to tell the time of the day, the prediction of months, seasons and passage of the year.
5. The Sanchi Stupas
The Sanchi Stupa, a hemispherical domed structure with a flattened top meant to contain the relics of the Buddha, is believed to have been built by King Aśoka in around 250 BCE, an enlargement to double the size was done by the Śungas (this dynasty ruled between 185 and 73 BCE). It is surrounded by a balustrade that represents the sun's circuit. The Buddha did on full moon day of the lunar month Vaiśākha, and this day is observed as the Buddha pūrnimā day. At full moon the moonrise and sunset are observed in the eastern and western horizons.
It is likely that the astronomical basis of the Stupa was inspired by the Vedic altar that represented the circuit of the sun. It has been shown elsewhere (Millar and Kak, 1999) how this representation of the sun's motion remained common knowledge and it was used in Angkor Wat.
![]()
Figure 10. A Vedic fire altar representing the circuit of the sun. Two further Stupas were built by the Śunga kings and it is believed that they fixed the orientation of the Stupa. G.M. Ballabh and K.D. Abhyankar found that the Buddha pūrnimā occurred at Sanchi on April 28, 109 BCE with the sunset and moonrise of the full moon to the east-west orientation of the Stupa (azimuth of the Sun and Moon equal to 285.2 and 105 degrees, respectively, with an altitude of about 1 degree). This also corresponds to the setting and rising of the Pleiades (Krittikā) and δ Scorpii (Anurādhā) (Rao, 1992).
![]()
Figure 11. The Sanchi Great Stupa (Rao, 1992).
![]()
Figure 12. The Sanchi Great Stupa from Eastern Gate (picture Raveesh Vyas). There is further astronomical significance to the design of the outer balustrade in the Stupas.
Great Stupa. The outer balustrade has 120 posts arranged in 4 quadrants and they are joined by three rows of 29 horizontal crossbars. Starting with the 30 posts in the first quadrant, 29 crossbars of the second quadrant, 30 posts of the third quadrant, and 29 crossbars of the fourth quadrant, we have a count of 118. Three such rounds correspond to the number of days in the lunar year. Rao (1992) adds that to arrive at an undistorted full circle it would require 108 (i.e. 120-16+4) posts, where the 16 entrance posts have been subtracted and 4 missing posts at each entrance required have been added for reasons of symmetry. We have already mentioned the significance of the count of 108 in Indian astronomy. Rao (1992) speculates that the total number of outer balustrade posts (120) and slabs (115) gives a count of 235 corresponds to the lunations of the Metonic cycle. The harmika balustrade at the top has 28 posts, which equals the number of nakshatras.
Stupa 2. The count according to Rao (1992) for the posts and the crossbars is also 354, the number of days in the lunar year. Rao further speculates that the location of Sanchi may have astronomical significance since its latitude is close to the declination of the sun on the summer solstice day.
6. Concluding Remarks
This paper presents a broad overview to the archaeoastronomy of ancient India. Indian archaeoastronomy provides unique insights into the nature of ancient science and society in India for this region has vast number of texts belonging to different ages. The assumed homologies between the outer and the inner cosmoses meant that the same vocabulary was used to speak of their respective structures. While this becomes an obstacle for those who do not understand the system, it has within it the potential to explain many attitudes in Indian mythology, religious practice, science, and art.
In concluding, there was continuity between the archaeoastronomy of the early period covered in this essay and that of the medieval period where pilgrimage and temple centers mirrored conceptions of the cosmos. Medieval sites of archaeoastronomical significance include Sisupalgarh, Chitrakut, Vijayanagara, Gaya, Konarak, Khajuraho, and the Suryapuja temples in Tamil Nadu (e.g. Malville, 1989, Malville and Gujral, 2000, Malville and Swaminathan, 2005, Singh, 2009). For example, the temple complex of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, built in 9th -12th century CE by the Chandela kings, form three overlapping circles, with centers at the Lakshmana (Vishnu), the Javeri (Śiva), and the Duladeva (Śiva) temples. Their deviation from true cardinality is believed to be due to the direction of sunrise on the day of consecration (Singh, 2009). The Lakshmana temple, one of the oldest of the complex, is considered the axis mundi of the site and it is oriented to the sunrise on Holi.
The sun temples of Varanasi (Malville, 1985, Singh, 2009) are interesting in that six of these lie along one side of an isosceles triangle with a base of 2.5km. The triangle surrounds the former temple of Madhyameshavara, which was the original center of the city. Pilgrims walking along the triangle are symbolically circumambulating the cosmos. The subject of the medieval temples forms an important and fascinating chapter in India's archaeoastronomy that is beyond the scope of this paper.
References Balasubramaniam, R. (2008). On the mathematical significance of the dimensions of the Delhi Iron Pillar. Current Science 95, 766-770.
Basham, A.L. (2004). The Wonder That Was India. Picador, London.
Bednarik, R. G. (2000). Early Indian petroglyphs and their global context. Purakala 11, 37–47.
Bhat, M.R. (1995). Varāhamihira's Brihat Samhitā. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
Bisht, R.S. (1997). Dholavira Excavations: 1990-94. In Facets of Indian Civilization Essays in Honour of Prof. B. B. Lal, ed. J. P. Joshi. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, vol. I, 107-120.
Bisht, R.S. (1999). Harappans and the Rigveda: Points of convergence. In The Dawn of Indian Civilization, edited by G.C. Pande. Centre for Studies in Civilizations, Delhi, 393-442.
Danino, M. (2008). New insights into Harappan town‐planning, proportions, and units, with special reference to Dholavia, Man and Environment, 33, 66‐79.
Dimmitt, C. and Van Buitenen, J.A.V. (1978). Classical Hindu Mythology. Temple University Press, Phildelphia.
Dumézil, G. (1988). Mitra-Varuna. Zone Books, New York.
Kak, S. (1992). Astronomy of the Vedic Altars. Vistas in Astronomy 36, 117-140.
Kak, S. (1993). The structure of the Rgveda, Indian Journal of History of Science 28, 71-79.
Kak, S. (1996). Knowledge of planets in the third millennium BC. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 37,709-715.
Kak, S. (1999). The speed of light and Puranic cosmology. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 80, 113-123, arXiv: physics/9804020
Kak, S. (2000a). The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. Kak, S. (2000b). Birth and early development of Indian astronomy. In Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy, Helaine Selin (ed). Kluwer, 303-340.
Kak, S. (2002). The Aśvamedha: The Rite and Its Logic. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
Kak, S. (2005a). The axis and the perimeter of the temple. Presented at the Kannada Vrinda Seminar Sangama 2005 held at Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles.
Kak, S. (2005b). Early Indian architecture and art. Migration and Diffusion – An International Journal 6, 6-27.
Kak, S. (2006). Cosmology and sacred architecture in India. In Sangama: A Confluence of Art and Culture During the Vijayanagara Period, Nalini Rao (ed.). Delhi: Originals.
Kak, S. (2008). The Wishing Tree. iUniverse, New York.
Kak, S. (2009). Time, space and structure in ancient India. Presented at the Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization: A reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, February 21 & 22.
Kak, S. (2010). Archaeoastronomy in India. arXiv:1002.4513
Kenoyer, J.M. (1998). Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press.
Lal, B.B. (1997). The Earliest Civilization of South Asia. Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Lal, B.B. (2002). The Saraswati Flows on: the Continuity of Indian Culture. Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Levy, R. I. (1991). Mesocosm. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Malville, J. M. (1985). Sun worship in contemporary India. Man in India: A Quarterly Journal of Anthropology 65, 207-233.
Malville, J. M. (1989). The rise and fall of the sun temple in Konarak. In World Archaeoastronomy, edited by A. L. Aveni. Cambridge University Press, 377-388.
Malville, J. M. (2001). Cosmic Landscape and Urban Layout. In New Light on Hampi, edited by G. Michell and J. Fritz. Marg Publications, Mumbai.
Malville, J.M. and Gujral, L.M., eds. (2000). Ancient Cities, Sacred Skies: Cosmic Geometries and City Planning in Ancient India.. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Malville, J.M. and Swaminathan, R.N. (2005). Surya puja in South India. In Songs from the Sky: Indigenous Astronomical and Cosmological Traditions of the World, edited by Von Del Chamberlain, John Carlson, and M. Jane Young, Ocarina Books, West Sussex, UK.
Maula, F. (1984). The calendar stones from Moenjo-Daro. In Interim Reports on Fieldwork Carried out at Mohenjo-Daro 1982-83, vol. 1, eds. M. Jansen and G. Urban. Aachen and Roma, 159-170.
Millar, G. and Kak, S. (1999). A Brahmanic fire altar explains a solar equation in Angkor Wat. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 93, 216-220.
Pandey, S. (1993). Indian Rock Art. Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Rao, N.K. (1992). Astronomy with Buddhist stupas of Sanchi. Bulletin, Astr. Soc. India. 20, 87- 98.
Rao, N.K. (1993). Astronomical orientations of the megalithic stone circles of Brahmagiri. Bulletin, Astr. Soc. India. 21, 67-77.
Rao, N.K. (2005). Aspects of prehistoric astronomy in India. Bulletin, Astr. Soc. India 33, 499- 511.
Rao, T.R.N. and Kak, S. (2000). Computing Science in Ancient India. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi.
Singh, Rana P.B. (2009). Cosmic Order and Cultural Astronomy: Sacred Cities of India. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, No. 4. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne.
Volwahsen, A. (2001). Cosmic Architecture in India. Prestel, New York, and Mapin Publishing, Ahmedabad.
Wakankar, V.S. (1992). Rock painting in India. In M. Lorblanchet (ed.), Rock Art in the Old World. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi.
Wanzke, H. (1984). Axis systems and orientation at Mohenjo-Daro. In Interim Reports on Fieldwork Carried out at Mohenjo-Daro 1982-83, vol. 2, eds. M. Jansen and G. Urban. Aachen and Roma, 33-44.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientAstronomy103.html
10.147.02 Irreproachable Indra, with mind intent on glory you have your deceptions slain the deceptive Vr.tra. The worshipper chooses you when he seeks for his (stolen) cattle, and in all sacrifices accompanied with invocations.
10.147.03 Indra, the invoked of many, be gracious to these Suris, who thereby prospering attain, O Maghavan, to opulence; (who) adore the powerful one at the sacrifice for (the sake of obtaining) a son, a grandson, the fulfilment of their desires, and honourable wealth. [Honourable: ahraye = alajja_kare, of which there is no need to be ashamed].
10.147.04 He obtains well-procured riches, who studies to promote Indra's rapid exhilaration. Exalted by (your favour), O Maghavan, (the worshipper), celebrating the sacrifice, speedily obtains through the officiating priests food and wealth.
10.147.05 Glorified by great (praise), Maghavan, spread forth your might, bestow riches (upon us); beautiful Indra who are wise like Mitra and Varun.a the distributer (of riches), you give us food now.
Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 9, 2063-2077.
JournalofCosmology.com, July, 2010
Archaeoastronomy in Ancient IndiaSubhash Kak, Ph.D.
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
This paper is an overview of archaeoastronomy in ancient India. It describes the Vedic conception of the cosmos and the representation of the knowledge of the motions of the sun and the moon in the design of fire altars. Sites of archaeoastronomical interest described include Neolithic and Megalithic sites and the Sanchi Stupa.
Keywords: archaeoastronomy, alignments, cosmos, India, Vedic, Cyclic Universe, ancient skies, calendars, metaphysics.
1. Introduction
Archaeoastronomy in India has the benefit of ancient texts that describe cosmological ideas, their basis in astronomy, and their representation in architecture. These texts provide us crucial understanding of the astronomy and cosmology of the historical period.
In the Indian view, the cosmos is seen as being tripartite and recursive (see Kak, 2000a and Kak, 2008 for review and additional references). The universe is viewed as three regions of earth, space, and sky (Dumézil, 1988) which in the human being are mirrored in the physical body, the breath (prāna), and mind. The processes in the sky, on earth, and within the mind are taken to be connected.
Indian narratives about the cosmos are characterized by the central role of the observer. The cosmos is seen both as real and arising out of the phenomenal contents of the mind. At a practical level, agreement on the phenomenal contents of many minds is taken to imply real existence, and the question of the nature of the qualities of the objects is raised. The question that is asked in the Indian narrative is: Do these attributes or concepts have a real existence or do they arise from the intuition of the observers?
The examination of this and related questions leads to theories of the cosmos, both at the universal and personal levels, that form part of the philosophical systems of Sānkhya and Vaiśeshika. The Vedic view of India (spanning a long period that goes back to at least 2000 BCE) classifies knowledge in two categories: the higher or unified and the lower or dual. Higher knowledge concerns the perceiving subject (consciousness), whereas the lower knowledge concerns objects. Higher knowledge can be arrived at indirectly through intuition and contemplation on the paradoxes of the outer world. Lower knowledge is analytical and it represents standard science with its many branches. There is a complementarity between the higher and the lower, each being necessary to define the other. This complementarity mirrors the one between mind and matter.
The Vedic thinkers were aware that formal descriptions of the universe lead to logical paradox. The one category transcending all oppositions is Brahman. Figure 1 represents this world-view schematically. In this figure, logic is shown as a subset of the capacities of the mind, and likewise models of reality (which are based on logic) do not capture all aspects of the material world. Machines have been grouped together with logic in the figure since they must be constructed according to a logical framework. This figure may be viewed as a representation of the incompleteness of formal systems of knowledge. Vedic ritual is a symbolic retelling of this conception. Notable features of this world view that are relevant here are (Basham, 2004):
Relativity of Time and Space: That space and time need not flow at the same rate for different observers is encountered in the late Vedic and Purānic stories, and in the Mahābhārata and the Yoga Vāsishtha (Dimmitt and van Buitenen, 1978, Kak, 2008).
Many Solar Systems: Indian mythology assumes an uncountable number of worlds (solar systems) (Dimmitt and van Buitenen, 1978). In Purānic texts, the diameter of our own solar system is taken to be about 500 million yojanas which is about 7.5 billion kilometers (Kak, 1999, Rao and Kak, 2000).
The Indian sacred city has been viewed as a structured mesocosm, situated between the microcosm of the individual and the macrocosm of the culturally conceived larger universe (Levy, 1991). Such a city is constructed of spatially connected and recursively layered circles, each of which is sustained by its own culture and performance. Although Levy's city is not very ancient, it is built according to an old tradition (Volwahsen, 2001). The Harappan city of Dholavira (Bisht, 1997) is also recursively structured. Furthermore, temples were taken to be define the meeting ground between the macrocosm and the microcosm, and, therefore, they provide much information on the relationship between astronomy and cosmology.
India's archaeological record has unbroken continuity going back to about 7500 BCE at Mehrgarh (Kenoyer, 1998, Lal, 2002), and it has a rock art tradition, next only to that of Australia and Africa in abundance, that is much older (Pandey, 1993, Bednarik, 2000). Some rock art has been assigned to the Upper Paleolithic period. There is surprising uniformity, both in style and content, in the rock art paintings of the Mesolithic period (10,000 – 2500 BCE) (Wakankar, 1992).
The setting for the hymns of the Rigveda, which is India's most ancient literary text, is the area of Sapta Saindhava, the region of north India bounded by the Sindh and the Ganga rivers although regions around this heartland are also mentioned. The Rigveda describes the Sarasvati River to be the greatest of the rivers and going from the mountains to the sea. The archaeological record, suggesting that this river had turned dry by1900 BCE, indicates that the Rigveda is prior to this epoch.
The Rigveda and other early Vedic literature have astronomical references related to the shifting astronomical frame that indicate epochs of the fourth and third millennium BCE which is consistent with the hydrological evidence. The nakshatra lists are found in the Vedas, either directly or listed under their presiding deities, and it one may conclude that their names have not changed. Vedic astronomy used a luni-solar year in which an intercalary month was employed as adjustment with solar year.
The foundation of Vedic cosmology is the notion of bandhu (homology or binding between the outer and the inner). It was estimated correctly that the sun and the moon were approximately 108 times their respective diameters from the earth (perhaps from the discovery that the angular size of a pole removed 108 times its height is the same as that of the sun and the moon), and this number was used in sacred architecture. The distance to the sanctum sanctorum of the temple from the gate and the perimeter of the temple were taken to be 54 and 180 units, which are one-half each of 108 and 360 (e.g. Kak, 2005a). Homologies at many levels are at the basis of the idea of recursion, or repetition in scale and time. The astronomical basis of the Vedic ritual was the reconciliation of the lunar and solar years.
2. The Cosmological Plan of the City and the Temple
According to the Vāstu Śāstra, manual of sacred architecture, the structure of the building mirrors the emergence of cosmic order out of primordial chaos through the act of measurement. The universe is symbolically mapped into a square that emphasizes the four cardinal directions. It is represented by the square vāstupurushamandala, which in its various forms is the basic plan for the temple, the house, and the city. There exist further elaborations of this plan, some of which are rectangular.
Yantric buildings in the form of mandalas, dated to about 2000 BCE, have been discovered in North Afghanistan that belong to a period that corresponds to the late stage of the Harappan tradition (Kak, 2005b, 2010) providing architectural evidence in support of the idea of recursion at this time. Although these building are a part of the Bactria- Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), their affinity with ideas that are also present in the Harappan system shows that these ideas were widely spread..
Recent studies haves shown that the unit of dhanus has been used consistently in India in town planning and architecture for over 4,000 years, going back to the Harappan period. By considering the largest measure which leads to integer dimensions for the various parts of the Harappan age city of Dholavira, which was excavated in the 1990s (Bisht, 1997, Bisht, 1999), it was found that this measure is the same as the Arthaśāstra (300 BCE) measure of dhanus (bow) that equals 108 angulas (fingers) (see Kak, 2009, 2010, for details).
The measure of dhanus is seen to apply not only to the Mauryan and Gupta era structures, but even to more recent grid and modular measures in the town planning of Kathmandu Valley. The measures used in ancient India are summarized in the table below.
With the measure of dhanus (D) of 1.9404 m, the dimensions of Mohenjo-Daro's acropolis turn out to be 210 x 105 D, Kalibangan's acropolis turn out to be 126 x 63 D. The dimensions of the lower town of Dholavira are 405 x 324 D, the width of the middle town is 180 D, and the inner dimensions of the castle are 60 x 48 D (Danino, 2008). The sum of the width and length of the lower town comes to 729 which is astronomically significant since it is 27 x 27, and the width 324 equals the nakshatra year 27 x 12 (Kak, 2009).
The layout of Dholavira is unique in that it comprises of three "towns," which is in accord with Vedic ideas (Bisht, 1997, Bisht, 1999). The feature of recursion in the three towns, or repeating ratios at different scales, is significant. Specifically, the design is characterized by the nesting proportion of 9:4 across the lower and the middle towns and the castle. The proportions of 5/4, 7/6, and 5/4 for the lower town, the middle town, and the castle may reflect the measures related to the royal city, the commander's quarter, and the king's quarter, respectively, which was also true of Classical India (Bhat, 1995).
3. More on Harappan and Vedic Records
In this section we consider additional evidence from Harappan and Vedic periods. The absence of monumental buildings such as palaces and temples makes the Harappan city strikingly different from its counterparts of Mesopotamia and Egypt, suggesting that the polity of the Harappan state was de-centralized and based on a balance between the political, the mercantile, and the religious elites. The presence of civic amenities such as wells and drains attests to considerable social equality. The power of the mercantile guilds is clear in the standardization of weights of carefully cut and polished chert cubes that form a combined binary and decimal system.
Mohenjo-Daro and other sites show slight divergence of 1° to 2° clockwise of the axes from the cardinal directions (Wanzke, 1984). It is thought that this might have been due to the orientation of Aldebaran (Rohinī in Sanskrit) and the Pleiades (Kritikkā in Sanskrit) that rose in the east during 3000 BCE to 2000 BCE at the spring equinox, the word "rohinī" literally means rising. Furthermore, the slight difference in the orientations amongst the buildings in Mohenjo-Daro indicates different construction periods using the same traditional sighting points that had shifted in this interval due to precession of the equinoxes (Kenoyer, 1998).
Mohenjo-Daro's astronomy used both the motions of the moon and the sun (Maula, 1984). This is attested by the use of great calendar stones, in the shape of ring, which served to mark the beginning and end of the solar year.
Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India. Vedic texts describe the design and ritual of the fire altars which were oriented towards the east and whose design, using bricks laid in five layers, coded astronomical knowledge of its times (Kak, 2000a). The best known of the fire altars is the falcon altar of Figure 6. Texts that describe fire altar designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BCE, but their contents appear to be much older.
4. Neolithic and Megalithic Sites
Sites of archaeoastronomical interest include the Neolithic site of Burzahom from Kashmir in North India, and megalithic sites from Brahmagiri and Hanamsagar from Karnataka in South India. The dates for these specific sites are provided in the text. The importance of these sites arises from the fact that they present astronomical knowledge that was most likely outside the literary tradition.
Burzahom, Kashmir
The Burzahom site is located about 10 km northeast of Srinagar in the Kashmir Valley on a terrace of Late Pleistocene-Holocene deposits. Dated to around 3000 - 1500 BCE, its deep pit dwellings are associated with ground stone axes, bone tools, and gray burnished pottery. A stone slab of 48 cm x 27 cm, obtained from a phase dated to 2125 BCE shows two bright objects in the sky with a hunting scene in the foreground. These have been assumed to be a depiction of a double star system (Rao, 2005).
5. The Sanchi Stupas
The Sanchi Stupa, a hemispherical domed structure with a flattened top meant to contain the relics of the Buddha, is believed to have been built by King Aśoka in around 250 BCE, an enlargement to double the size was done by the Śungas (this dynasty ruled between 185 and 73 BCE). It is surrounded by a balustrade that represents the sun's circuit. The Buddha did on full moon day of the lunar month Vaiśākha, and this day is observed as the Buddha pūrnimā day. At full moon the moonrise and sunset are observed in the eastern and western horizons.
It is likely that the astronomical basis of the Stupa was inspired by the Vedic altar that represented the circuit of the sun. It has been shown elsewhere (Millar and Kak, 1999) how this representation of the sun's motion remained common knowledge and it was used in Angkor Wat.
Great Stupa. The outer balustrade has 120 posts arranged in 4 quadrants and they are joined by three rows of 29 horizontal crossbars. Starting with the 30 posts in the first quadrant, 29 crossbars of the second quadrant, 30 posts of the third quadrant, and 29 crossbars of the fourth quadrant, we have a count of 118. Three such rounds correspond to the number of days in the lunar year. Rao (1992) adds that to arrive at an undistorted full circle it would require 108 (i.e. 120-16+4) posts, where the 16 entrance posts have been subtracted and 4 missing posts at each entrance required have been added for reasons of symmetry. We have already mentioned the significance of the count of 108 in Indian astronomy. Rao (1992) speculates that the total number of outer balustrade posts (120) and slabs (115) gives a count of 235 corresponds to the lunations of the Metonic cycle. The harmika balustrade at the top has 28 posts, which equals the number of nakshatras.
Stupa 2. The count according to Rao (1992) for the posts and the crossbars is also 354, the number of days in the lunar year. Rao further speculates that the location of Sanchi may have astronomical significance since its latitude is close to the declination of the sun on the summer solstice day.
6. Concluding Remarks
This paper presents a broad overview to the archaeoastronomy of ancient India. Indian archaeoastronomy provides unique insights into the nature of ancient science and society in India for this region has vast number of texts belonging to different ages. The assumed homologies between the outer and the inner cosmoses meant that the same vocabulary was used to speak of their respective structures. While this becomes an obstacle for those who do not understand the system, it has within it the potential to explain many attitudes in Indian mythology, religious practice, science, and art.
In concluding, there was continuity between the archaeoastronomy of the early period covered in this essay and that of the medieval period where pilgrimage and temple centers mirrored conceptions of the cosmos. Medieval sites of archaeoastronomical significance include Sisupalgarh, Chitrakut, Vijayanagara, Gaya, Konarak, Khajuraho, and the Suryapuja temples in Tamil Nadu (e.g. Malville, 1989, Malville and Gujral, 2000, Malville and Swaminathan, 2005, Singh, 2009). For example, the temple complex of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, built in 9th -12th century CE by the Chandela kings, form three overlapping circles, with centers at the Lakshmana (Vishnu), the Javeri (Śiva), and the Duladeva (Śiva) temples. Their deviation from true cardinality is believed to be due to the direction of sunrise on the day of consecration (Singh, 2009). The Lakshmana temple, one of the oldest of the complex, is considered the axis mundi of the site and it is oriented to the sunrise on Holi.
The sun temples of Varanasi (Malville, 1985, Singh, 2009) are interesting in that six of these lie along one side of an isosceles triangle with a base of 2.5km. The triangle surrounds the former temple of Madhyameshavara, which was the original center of the city. Pilgrims walking along the triangle are symbolically circumambulating the cosmos. The subject of the medieval temples forms an important and fascinating chapter in India's archaeoastronomy that is beyond the scope of this paper.
Basham, A.L. (2004). The Wonder That Was India. Picador, London.
Bednarik, R. G. (2000). Early Indian petroglyphs and their global context. Purakala 11, 37–47.
Bhat, M.R. (1995). Varāhamihira's Brihat Samhitā. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
Bisht, R.S. (1997). Dholavira Excavations: 1990-94. In Facets of Indian Civilization Essays in Honour of Prof. B. B. Lal, ed. J. P. Joshi. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, vol. I, 107-120.
Bisht, R.S. (1999). Harappans and the Rigveda: Points of convergence. In The Dawn of Indian Civilization, edited by G.C. Pande. Centre for Studies in Civilizations, Delhi, 393-442.
Danino, M. (2008). New insights into Harappan town‐planning, proportions, and units, with special reference to Dholavia, Man and Environment, 33, 66‐79.
Dimmitt, C. and Van Buitenen, J.A.V. (1978). Classical Hindu Mythology. Temple University Press, Phildelphia.
Dumézil, G. (1988). Mitra-Varuna. Zone Books, New York.
Kak, S. (1992). Astronomy of the Vedic Altars. Vistas in Astronomy 36, 117-140.
Kak, S. (1993). The structure of the Rgveda, Indian Journal of History of Science 28, 71-79.
Kak, S. (1996). Knowledge of planets in the third millennium BC. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 37,709-715.
Kak, S. (1999). The speed of light and Puranic cosmology. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 80, 113-123, arXiv: physics/9804020
Kak, S. (2000a). The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. Kak, S. (2000b). Birth and early development of Indian astronomy. In Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy, Helaine Selin (ed). Kluwer, 303-340.
Kak, S. (2002). The Aśvamedha: The Rite and Its Logic. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
Kak, S. (2005a). The axis and the perimeter of the temple. Presented at the Kannada Vrinda Seminar Sangama 2005 held at Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles.
Kak, S. (2005b). Early Indian architecture and art. Migration and Diffusion – An International Journal 6, 6-27.
Kak, S. (2006). Cosmology and sacred architecture in India. In Sangama: A Confluence of Art and Culture During the Vijayanagara Period, Nalini Rao (ed.). Delhi: Originals.
Kak, S. (2008). The Wishing Tree. iUniverse, New York.
Kak, S. (2009). Time, space and structure in ancient India. Presented at the Conference on Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization: A reappraisal, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, February 21 & 22.
Kak, S. (2010). Archaeoastronomy in India. arXiv:1002.4513
Kenoyer, J.M. (1998). Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press.
Lal, B.B. (1997). The Earliest Civilization of South Asia. Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Lal, B.B. (2002). The Saraswati Flows on: the Continuity of Indian Culture. Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Levy, R. I. (1991). Mesocosm. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Malville, J. M. (1985). Sun worship in contemporary India. Man in India: A Quarterly Journal of Anthropology 65, 207-233.
Malville, J. M. (1989). The rise and fall of the sun temple in Konarak. In World Archaeoastronomy, edited by A. L. Aveni. Cambridge University Press, 377-388.
Malville, J. M. (2001). Cosmic Landscape and Urban Layout. In New Light on Hampi, edited by G. Michell and J. Fritz. Marg Publications, Mumbai.
Malville, J.M. and Gujral, L.M., eds. (2000). Ancient Cities, Sacred Skies: Cosmic Geometries and City Planning in Ancient India.. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Malville, J.M. and Swaminathan, R.N. (2005). Surya puja in South India. In Songs from the Sky: Indigenous Astronomical and Cosmological Traditions of the World, edited by Von Del Chamberlain, John Carlson, and M. Jane Young, Ocarina Books, West Sussex, UK.
Maula, F. (1984). The calendar stones from Moenjo-Daro. In Interim Reports on Fieldwork Carried out at Mohenjo-Daro 1982-83, vol. 1, eds. M. Jansen and G. Urban. Aachen and Roma, 159-170.
Millar, G. and Kak, S. (1999). A Brahmanic fire altar explains a solar equation in Angkor Wat. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 93, 216-220.
Pandey, S. (1993). Indian Rock Art. Aryan Books International, New Delhi.
Rao, N.K. (1992). Astronomy with Buddhist stupas of Sanchi. Bulletin, Astr. Soc. India. 20, 87- 98.
Rao, N.K. (1993). Astronomical orientations of the megalithic stone circles of Brahmagiri. Bulletin, Astr. Soc. India. 21, 67-77.
Rao, N.K. (2005). Aspects of prehistoric astronomy in India. Bulletin, Astr. Soc. India 33, 499- 511.
Rao, T.R.N. and Kak, S. (2000). Computing Science in Ancient India. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi.
Singh, Rana P.B. (2009). Cosmic Order and Cultural Astronomy: Sacred Cities of India. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, No. 4. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne.
Volwahsen, A. (2001). Cosmic Architecture in India. Prestel, New York, and Mapin Publishing, Ahmedabad.
Wakankar, V.S. (1992). Rock painting in India. In M. Lorblanchet (ed.), Rock Art in the Old World. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi.
Wanzke, H. (1984). Axis systems and orientation at Mohenjo-Daro. In Interim Reports on Fieldwork Carried out at Mohenjo-Daro 1982-83, vol. 2, eds. M. Jansen and G. Urban. Aachen and Roma, 33-44.
http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientAstronomy103.html
Published: March 25, 2015 00:00 IST | Updated: March 25, 2015 05:42 IST CHITTOOR, March 25, 2015
Sun rays enter temple a day before Surya Puja festival
- STAFF REPORTER
Sun rays enter Vedanarayana Swamy temple at Nagulapuram on Tuesday.Photo: By Arrangement
On the eve of the five-day Surya Puja Mahotsavam at Lord Vedanarayanaswamy Temple at Nagalapuram in the district, the sun rays fell inside the temple on Tuesday evening and the phenomenon will assume several interesting phases with the rays shifting from the feet of the Lord’s idol at the sanctum sanctorum to the navel (nabhi) point with each day till March 29.
The rays are expected to fall at the feet of the idol on Wednesday evening. The presiding deity here is worshipped as the protector of sacred Vedas in the ‘Mastya avatar’ (fish).
The TTD is celebrating the five-day Surya Puja Mahotsavam. The officials have released the publicity posters for the auspicious event, which will draw huge crowds from all over Chittoor, Nellore districts and several parts bordering Tamil Nadu. The Surya Puja Mahotsavam will be conducted from March 25 to 29. The temple saw its golden time during the time of Emperor Sri Krishna Devaraya in the 16th century. The priests said that this astronomical wonder was witnessed at this west-phased temple in the evenings, while the same will happen at the Konark temple in Odisha during the morning session.
Surya Puja darshan will be from 5.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m. on everyday during the festival, followed by Thiruveedhi Utsavam (procession of deities through the temple streets) on all days of the puja. Similarly, the Theppotsavam (float festival) will be celebrated for three days from March 26 to 28. Over 50 police personnel were deployed for monitoring the crowd of devotees.
http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/sun-rays-enter-temple-a-day-before-surya-puja-festival/article7030615.ece
March 20, 2011
A Sun Salutation
SUN TEMPLES IN INDIA
From time immemorial the Sun has exercised a strange fascination over the
Indian mind. The radiant light and energy-packed brightness of the Sun fired the imagination of the Vedic Aryans to glorify the ‘orb of the day’ as Hiranyagarbha ---
A storehouse of inexhaustible power and radiance. The Vedic seers regarded the Sun as the embodiment of the divine triumvirate—Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara. The Vedas are aglow with scintillating hymns in adoration of the Sun - the source and sustainer of all forms in the universe. The Sun’s resplendent golden rays are considered to be the harbinger of joy, enlightenment and prosperity .In addition, the Sun is specially associated with the power to cure such dreaded ailments like leprosy and blindness
. During the ancient Vedic times, Surya was worshipped through chants and rituals but there were no idols to be found in India. Neither was there any temple dedicated to Surya. It is believed that the idols of the Sun were first brought into this country by foreign rulers –the Greeks, the Persians and Shakhas who traversed the land. A glance at the early idols installed in the country establishes this foreign influence –as they are clad in long coats, trousers and boots. This is evident from the fact that the idols of the Sun and his attendants found during the 2nd Century B.C.and 5th Century A.D wear these garments.. It is only when a cult of Sun worshippers sprang up in India that the idols assumed Indian dress. From the 5th Century A.D. onwards, temples to Sun God in India became popular.
Acharya Shankara, the celebrated champion of Advaita, has accorded a place of importance to Surya in the Shanmata School of idolatry worship instituted by him. Apart from the general worship of the Sun as has been in vogue from Vedic times, there were classes of people called “Sauras” who worshipped the Sun God exclusively. It is said that these solar votaries were so much devoted to the Sun God that they never used to eat until they had seen the Sun. Varahamihira, India’ s greatest astronomer of the 7th century A.D., makes repeated references to the intricacies of ceremonies connected with the installation of the Surya idol. According to the Vishnu Puranam [2-4-71], Eastern Iran, which in ancient times was known as Saakadwipa [Saakasthan], was a staunch seat of solar worship. An exclusive group of solar votaries in Iran called ‘Magas’ used to get royal patronage for propagating the cult of solar worship. According to history, some of these Maga priests came to India by about the 2nd Century A.D, and introduced certain of their own special features in the worship of the Sun God
History records that the tradition of building exclusive temples for the Sun God started in India by about the 5th Century A.D. during the Gupta period. The iconography of Surya bears a remarkable influence of the Persian style. Persia was then a flourishing centre of Surya worship. The direction of the solar votaries from Persia called the Magas, who came to India from Persia, was sought in many rituals related to the worship of the Sun. The early Sun temples belonging to the 5th and 6th Centuries A.D.were built by the kings belonging to the Gupta, Maurya, Bhoja and Kadamba dynasties. This activity continued till about the 12th Century A.D. and thereafter this form of Sun worship gradually waned.
The following are some of the important Sun Temples of India
The Marthanda Sun Temple at Kashmir: Kashmir was the first and foremost seat of the solar cult in India. According to the celebrated Kashmiri chronicle ‘Rajatarangini’ written by the Kashmiri poet Kalhana in Sanskrit, the emperor Lalitaditya who ruled Kashmir between 701-757 A.D., was mainly responsible for building the first magnificent Sun Temple at Marthanda, at a distance of about 40 miles from Srinagar The awe-inspiring remains of this temple provide ample testimony to the fact that Kashmir was once a powerful centre for Sun worship. The temple was erected either to commemorate the victory of Lalitaditya over his neighboring kingdom or to ensure victory on the eve of a new expedition.
A few years back, when the courtyard of the present temple was excavated, the removal of accumulated debris which had collected for centuries revealed a very important factor. According to the geologists who inspected the site, previous to the construction of the existing temple, there existed another temple of somewhat smaller dimensions at this very site. When the existing temple was built, the older temple base was not completely demolished since its foundations were used to found the existing temple.
The Sun Temple at Multan [now in Pakistan]: The site of the second oldest Sun Temple in India is at Multan, now in Pakistan. Believed to have been established by the Magas, the remnants of this temple, left after Mohamed of Ghazni’s desecration, were finally demolished by Aurangazeb. The renowned Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang who visited the shrine in 641 A.D. has recorded his impression thus: “Thousands of men from all countries came here to offer their prayers”
The Sun Temple at Modhera, Gujarat: The solar cult which had its origin in Kashmir appears to have spread through Punjab into Gujarat and from there to Orissa until it reached its most glorious achievement in the Konarak Sun Temple in Orissa.
Relics of a beautiful Sun Temple on the banks of the river Pushpavati in Modhera in Gujarat, about 100 kms from Ahmedabad bear strong imprints of the Maga influence. It is believed that the officiating priests at the Multan shrine came over to Gujarat consequent on the Islamic invasion of the region and strove to establish Sun cult in the Eastern coast of India. The crumbling walls of the temple which are situated in the midst of sand dunes have representation of the Sun God wearing a peculiar west Asian belt and boots. King Bhima of the Chalukyan dynasty who was ruling Gujarat the earlier part of the 11thCentury A.D.is believed to have patronized the construction of the temple
The temple is facing east. The temple has been so designed that the direct early morning Sun rays reach the idol of the sanctum sanctorum all the year round through the doors and specially designed screen windows.
The Sun Temple at Konarak, Orissa: The greatest and the grandest of Sun Temples in India is at Konarak in Orissa. This thirteenth century monument, which now wears a worn-out look with its crumbling side walls, is one of the brightest gems of Indian Temple Architecture. Situated at about 20 miles from the holy city of Puri, the place came to be called as ‘Konarak’ [which is a combination of the two words Kona plus Arka Kona means corner and Arka means Sun in Sanskrit], meaning ‘Corner Sun’,
owing to the fact that it is situated in the north-east of Puri. The term ‘kona’ is used in relation to its position to Puri.
There is an interesting mythological legend about the origin of the Konarak Sun Temple. It is said that once Samba, son of Lord Krishna, ridiculed Sage Narada and there was a fracas between them. The clever and tricky Narada wanted to teach a lesson to Samba. Once he led Samba to a place where the Gopis were having their bath in a river.
Samba, extremely handsome as he was, could easily excite the bathing ladies. When Krishna came to know about the misdemeanor of his son, he cursed him to become a leper. When Samba pleaded innocence and begged for redemption, Krishna directed him to go to a place near the present Konarak and worship the Sun for getting rid of his leprosy. Accordingly Samba meditated at Konarak by repeating the twelve names of the Sun [Dwadasha Adityas]. On doing so, he found a magnificent idol of Sun god seated on a lotus in the water of the Chandrabhaga River.. When he consecrated this image of divine splendor, he was cured of leprosy. It is said that the present temple is built on the same site
Konarak marks the great culmination of the artistic splendor and devotional fervor associated with Sun worship. The temple is in the form of the Sun’s chariot drawn by seven horses. Built by the Ganga ruler, Narasimhadeva Varma, in the thirteenth century, it is a glowing tribute to the daring artistic vision coupled with unique architectural skill.
The twelve superbly decorated wheels carved on either side of the edifice are breathtaking for their size as well as for the details of artistic carving. It is learnt that more than 1,200 sculptors worked for a period of sixteen years. It is unfortunate that the temple could not be fully completed as conceived earlier for some reason or the other. and hence the temple remained an incomplete monument of the Kalinga art.
The Indian idea of blending the architecture of the temple with its natural environment can be seen at its best in the choice of the surroundings at Konarak Temple. Not only does one get a beautiful view of the rising Sun, but it also makes the temple red, like a coy bride. The first rays of the Sun would touch the feet of the deity. Slowly as the Sun rises in the firmament, the whole edifice is lit up. It is said that the main idol was removed by some Portuguese navigators many years back and presently housed in a museum.
B.M.N.Murthy
SUN TEMPLES IN INDIA
Created: Friday, July 13, 2007
http://murtymandala.blogspot.in/2011/03/sun-salutation.html
ESSAYS FROM ARCHAEOASTRONOMY & ETHNOASTRONOMY NEWS, THE QUARTERLY BULLETIN OF THE CENTER FOR ARCHAEOASTRONOMY
Number 15 March Equinox 1995
![]()
Konark Sun Temple is a 13th-century Sun Temple (also known as the Black Pagoda), at Konark, in Orissa. It was constructed from oxidizing and weathered ferruginous sandstone by King Narasimhadeva I (1236-1264 CE) of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty. The temple is one of the most well renowned temples in India and is a World Heritage Site. It is one of the Seven Wonders of India (as per the poll collected by NDTV).
Konark Sun Temple Chariot Wheel.
The entrance is guarded by two giant lions, which are each shown crushing a war elephant. Each elephant in turn lies on top of a human body. The temple symbolizes the majestic stride of the Sun god. At the entrance of the temple is a Nata Mandir. This is where the temple dancers used to perform dances in homage to the Sun god. All around the temple, there are various floral and geometric patterns.The temple is now partly in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is housed in the Sun Temple Museum, which is run by the Archaeological Survey of India. The poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote of Konark: "Here the language of stone surpasses the language of man."
The Sun Temple, built in the thirteenth century, was conceived as a gigantic chariot of the Sun God, with twelve pairs of exquisitely ornamented wheels pulled by seven pairs of horses. Majestic in conception, this temple is one of the most sublime monuments of India, famous as much for its imposing dimensions and faultless proportions as for the harmonious integration of architectural grandeur with plastic allegiance. Every inch of the temple is covered with sculpture of an unsurpassed beauty and grace, in tableaux and freestanding pieces ranging from the monumental to the miniature. The subject matter is fascinating. Thousands of images include deities, celestial and human musicians, dancers, lovers, and myriad scenes of courtly life, ranging from hunts and military battles to the pleasures of courtly relaxation. These are interspersed with birds, animals (close to two thousand charming and lively elephants march around the base of the main temple alone), mythological creatures, and a wealth of intricate botanical and geometrical decorative designs. The famous jewel-like quality of Orissan art is evident throughout, as is a very human perspective which makes the sculpture extremely accessible.
The temple is famous for its erotic sculptures, which can be found primarily on the second level of the porch structure. It will become immediately apparent upon viewing them that the frank nature of their content is combined with an overwhelming tenderness and lyrical movement. This same kindly and indulgent view of life extends to almost all the other sculptures at Konark, where the thousands of human, animal, and divine personages are shown engaged in the full range of the 'carnival of life' with an overwhelming sense of appealing realism. It is admittedly the best in Orissa. Its fine traceries and scrollwork, as well as the beautiful and natural cut of animal and human figures, give it a superiority over other temples.
The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga school of Indian temples with characteristic curvilinear towers mounted by cupolas. In shape, the temple did not make any major departure from other sikhara temples of Orissa. The main sanctum which (229 ft. high) was constructed along with the audience hall (128 ft. high) having elaborate external projections. The main sanctum which enshrined the presiding deity has fallen off. The Audience Hall survives in its entirely, but only small portions of the Dancing Hall (nata Mandir) and the Dining Hall (Bhoga-Mandap) have survived the vagaries of time. The Temple compound measures 857 ft (261 m) by 540 ft (160 m). The alignment of the Sun Temple is on the east-west direction. The Temple is located in natural surroundings, abounding with casuarina plantations and other types of trees such as mahogany, rosewood, eel which grow on sandy soil.
The large structure seen today is actually the mantapa (mandap). Of the main tower, which once stood in the front, only the remains can be seen. This tower (deul) was perhaps 200 feet (60 metres) tall, higher than any other temple in India.
The most popular theory about the root of the fall of Konark temple rests with the Kalapahad, the general of Bengal Sultan Sulaiman Khan Karrani. According to some accounts Kalapahad was formerly a Hindu Kayastha officer, however he had converted to Islam. According to Afsanah-i-Shahan of Shaikh Kabir Batini, he was a Batini Afghan. According to the history of Orissa, Kalapahad invaded Orissa in 1508. He destroyed Konark temple, as well as a number of Hindu temples in Orissa. The Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple describes how Kalapahad attacked Orissa in 1568. Including Konark temple, he broke most of the images in most of the Hindu temples in Orissa. Though the stone walls are of 20 to 25 feet (7.6 m) thick, he somehow managed to displace the Dadhinauti (Arch stone) and thus caused the tower to collapse. He also damaged most of the images and other side temples of Konark. Due to displacement of the Dadhinauti, the tower gradually collapsed and the roof of the Mukasala was also damaged, due to the stones falling down from the temple top.
Orissa came under Muslim control in 1568. There were constant attempts to destroy the Hindu temples. The Pandas (priests) of Puri, to save the sanctity of the Puri temple, took away the Lord Jagannath from the Srimandir and kept the image in a secret place. Similarly, it is said that the Pandas of Konark took away the presiding deity of the Sun temple and buried it under the sand for years. Latter on the image was said to have been removed to Puri and kept in the temple of Indra, in the compound of the Puri Jagannath temple. According to others, the Puja image of the Konark temple is yet to be discovered. But others hold the view that the Sun image now kept in the National Museum of Delhi was the presiding deity of the Konark Sun temple.
The Sun worship in the Konark temple ended upon the removal of the sacred image from the temple. This resulted in the end of pilgrimages to Konark. The port at Konark was also closed, due to pirate attacks. Konark was as glorious a city for Sun worship as it was for commercial activities, but after the cessation of these activities, Konark became deserted and was left to develop as a dense forest for years.
In 1626 the then king of Khurda, Raja Narasimha Dev, son of Purusottam Dev, took away the Sun image to Puri along with two other moving deities - Sun and Moon. Now they are found in a temple in the compound of Puri Jagannath temple.
As described earlier there was a big block of stone called Navagraha Paata placed in front of the Mukhasala. The then king of Khurda removed the block. The king had taken away many sculptured stones from Konark and constructed some portions of Puri temple with them. During Marahatta's time the outer compound wall of the Puri temple was constructed of stones from Konark temple.
It is reported that among all the temples the Naata Mandir or the Dancing hall of Konark was in its original form for the longest period, and that it was broken intentionally since it was considered an unnecessary structure during the Maratha administration.
In the year 1779, a Marhatta Sadhu had taken away the Arun Pillar from Konark and put it in front of the Lion's Gate of Puri Jagannath temple. Thus by the end of 18th century Konark lost all its glories and had been turned to a dense forest. In course of time, the temple area thus became devoid of people, covered with dense forest, full of sand, filled with wild animals and became the abode of pirates. It is said that even the locals feared to go to Konark in broad daylight.
![]()
![]()
![]()
![]()
![]()
![]()
![]()
![]()
![]()
![]()
![]()
March 20, 2011
A Sun Salutation
SUN TEMPLES IN INDIA
From time immemorial the Sun has exercised a strange fascination over the
Indian mind. The radiant light and energy-packed brightness of the Sun fired the imagination of the Vedic Aryans to glorify the ‘orb of the day’ as Hiranyagarbha ---
A storehouse of inexhaustible power and radiance. The Vedic seers regarded the Sun as the embodiment of the divine triumvirate—Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara. The Vedas are aglow with scintillating hymns in adoration of the Sun - the source and sustainer of all forms in the universe. The Sun’s resplendent golden rays are considered to be the harbinger of joy, enlightenment and prosperity .In addition, the Sun is specially associated with the power to cure such dreaded ailments like leprosy and blindness
. During the ancient Vedic times, Surya was worshipped through chants and rituals but there were no idols to be found in India. Neither was there any temple dedicated to Surya. It is believed that the idols of the Sun were first brought into this country by foreign rulers –the Greeks, the Persians and Shakhas who traversed the land. A glance at the early idols installed in the country establishes this foreign influence –as they are clad in long coats, trousers and boots. This is evident from the fact that the idols of the Sun and his attendants found during the 2nd Century B.C.and 5th Century A.D wear these garments.. It is only when a cult of Sun worshippers sprang up in India that the idols assumed Indian dress. From the 5th Century A.D. onwards, temples to Sun God in India became popular.
Acharya Shankara, the celebrated champion of Advaita, has accorded a place of importance to Surya in the Shanmata School of idolatry worship instituted by him. Apart from the general worship of the Sun as has been in vogue from Vedic times, there were classes of people called “Sauras” who worshipped the Sun God exclusively. It is said that these solar votaries were so much devoted to the Sun God that they never used to eat until they had seen the Sun. Varahamihira, India’ s greatest astronomer of the 7th century A.D., makes repeated references to the intricacies of ceremonies connected with the installation of the Surya idol. According to the Vishnu Puranam [2-4-71], Eastern Iran, which in ancient times was known as Saakadwipa [Saakasthan], was a staunch seat of solar worship. An exclusive group of solar votaries in Iran called ‘Magas’ used to get royal patronage for propagating the cult of solar worship. According to history, some of these Maga priests came to India by about the 2nd Century A.D, and introduced certain of their own special features in the worship of the Sun God
History records that the tradition of building exclusive temples for the Sun God started in India by about the 5th Century A.D. during the Gupta period. The iconography of Surya bears a remarkable influence of the Persian style. Persia was then a flourishing centre of Surya worship. The direction of the solar votaries from Persia called the Magas, who came to India from Persia, was sought in many rituals related to the worship of the Sun. The early Sun temples belonging to the 5th and 6th Centuries A.D.were built by the kings belonging to the Gupta, Maurya, Bhoja and Kadamba dynasties. This activity continued till about the 12th Century A.D. and thereafter this form of Sun worship gradually waned.
The following are some of the important Sun Temples of India
The Marthanda Sun Temple at Kashmir: Kashmir was the first and foremost seat of the solar cult in India. According to the celebrated Kashmiri chronicle ‘Rajatarangini’ written by the Kashmiri poet Kalhana in Sanskrit, the emperor Lalitaditya who ruled Kashmir between 701-757 A.D., was mainly responsible for building the first magnificent Sun Temple at Marthanda, at a distance of about 40 miles from Srinagar The awe-inspiring remains of this temple provide ample testimony to the fact that Kashmir was once a powerful centre for Sun worship. The temple was erected either to commemorate the victory of Lalitaditya over his neighboring kingdom or to ensure victory on the eve of a new expedition.
A few years back, when the courtyard of the present temple was excavated, the removal of accumulated debris which had collected for centuries revealed a very important factor. According to the geologists who inspected the site, previous to the construction of the existing temple, there existed another temple of somewhat smaller dimensions at this very site. When the existing temple was built, the older temple base was not completely demolished since its foundations were used to found the existing temple.
The Sun Temple at Multan [now in Pakistan]: The site of the second oldest Sun Temple in India is at Multan, now in Pakistan. Believed to have been established by the Magas, the remnants of this temple, left after Mohamed of Ghazni’s desecration, were finally demolished by Aurangazeb. The renowned Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang who visited the shrine in 641 A.D. has recorded his impression thus: “Thousands of men from all countries came here to offer their prayers”
The Sun Temple at Modhera, Gujarat: The solar cult which had its origin in Kashmir appears to have spread through Punjab into Gujarat and from there to Orissa until it reached its most glorious achievement in the Konarak Sun Temple in Orissa.
Relics of a beautiful Sun Temple on the banks of the river Pushpavati in Modhera in Gujarat, about 100 kms from Ahmedabad bear strong imprints of the Maga influence. It is believed that the officiating priests at the Multan shrine came over to Gujarat consequent on the Islamic invasion of the region and strove to establish Sun cult in the Eastern coast of India. The crumbling walls of the temple which are situated in the midst of sand dunes have representation of the Sun God wearing a peculiar west Asian belt and boots. King Bhima of the Chalukyan dynasty who was ruling Gujarat the earlier part of the 11thCentury A.D.is believed to have patronized the construction of the temple
The temple is facing east. The temple has been so designed that the direct early morning Sun rays reach the idol of the sanctum sanctorum all the year round through the doors and specially designed screen windows.
The Sun Temple at Konarak, Orissa: The greatest and the grandest of Sun Temples in India is at Konarak in Orissa. This thirteenth century monument, which now wears a worn-out look with its crumbling side walls, is one of the brightest gems of Indian Temple Architecture. Situated at about 20 miles from the holy city of Puri, the place came to be called as ‘Konarak’ [which is a combination of the two words Kona plus Arka Kona means corner and Arka means Sun in Sanskrit], meaning ‘Corner Sun’,
owing to the fact that it is situated in the north-east of Puri. The term ‘kona’ is used in relation to its position to Puri.
There is an interesting mythological legend about the origin of the Konarak Sun Temple. It is said that once Samba, son of Lord Krishna, ridiculed Sage Narada and there was a fracas between them. The clever and tricky Narada wanted to teach a lesson to Samba. Once he led Samba to a place where the Gopis were having their bath in a river.
Samba, extremely handsome as he was, could easily excite the bathing ladies. When Krishna came to know about the misdemeanor of his son, he cursed him to become a leper. When Samba pleaded innocence and begged for redemption, Krishna directed him to go to a place near the present Konarak and worship the Sun for getting rid of his leprosy. Accordingly Samba meditated at Konarak by repeating the twelve names of the Sun [Dwadasha Adityas]. On doing so, he found a magnificent idol of Sun god seated on a lotus in the water of the Chandrabhaga River.. When he consecrated this image of divine splendor, he was cured of leprosy. It is said that the present temple is built on the same site
Konarak marks the great culmination of the artistic splendor and devotional fervor associated with Sun worship. The temple is in the form of the Sun’s chariot drawn by seven horses. Built by the Ganga ruler, Narasimhadeva Varma, in the thirteenth century, it is a glowing tribute to the daring artistic vision coupled with unique architectural skill.
The twelve superbly decorated wheels carved on either side of the edifice are breathtaking for their size as well as for the details of artistic carving. It is learnt that more than 1,200 sculptors worked for a period of sixteen years. It is unfortunate that the temple could not be fully completed as conceived earlier for some reason or the other. and hence the temple remained an incomplete monument of the Kalinga art.
The Indian idea of blending the architecture of the temple with its natural environment can be seen at its best in the choice of the surroundings at Konarak Temple. Not only does one get a beautiful view of the rising Sun, but it also makes the temple red, like a coy bride. The first rays of the Sun would touch the feet of the deity. Slowly as the Sun rises in the firmament, the whole edifice is lit up. It is said that the main idol was removed by some Portuguese navigators many years back and presently housed in a museum.
B.M.N.Murthy
SUN TEMPLES IN INDIA
Created: Friday, July 13, 2007
http://murtymandala.blogspot.in/2011/03/sun-salutation.html
ESSAYS FROM ARCHAEOASTRONOMY & ETHNOASTRONOMY NEWS, THE QUARTERLY BULLETIN OF THE CENTER FOR ARCHAEOASTRONOMY
Number 15 March Equinox 1995
Archaeoastronomy and Cultural Astronomy in India
by J McKim Malville
by J McKim Malville
A continuity of culture covering at least 2500 years, a culture that is "thick" with texts, an archaeological record including 1000 year old temples that are still in worship and the largest ruined city of the world, and extensive festival and pilgrimage traditions with astronomical overtones are some of the pleasures that India provides for the archaeoastronomer. One of the earliest archaeoastronomical investigations of South Asia to be reported in the western press was of Angkor Wat (1). The work had almost a "Stonehenge" quality to it, reminiscent of the early days of archaeoastronomy. Preforming no fieldwork at the site, working exclusively from the maps of others, the author concluded that there was a basic unit of measure, a Khmer cubit, the hat, and that the buildings contained mathematical ratios of the great yungas of Hindu time and solar and lundar periods as well as alignments to solstice, lunar standstill points, and stellar risings. None of their conclusions could be verified by concurrent texts or by ethnography. Neither have similar geometries been verified in other temple complexes in the Hindu world. The results results have not been accepted by Indian or Western art historians, and though fascinating issues were raised, the jury remains out.
In most cases, India does offer the opportunity of combining a hugh archaeological record, extraordinarily varied living traditions, and abundant texts. It also demonstrates the usefullness of considering the total context of a site, i.e. the combination phenomena of the celestial sphere, the local topography including "sacred" hills and rivers, and the human microcosm consisting of cities, temples, texts, and ritual. I summerize three case studies that illustrate the following points: (1) (as if we needed to be reminded) archaeoastronomers as well as archaeologists need to combine the archaeological record, texts, and ethnographic fieldwork to avoid some of the interpretive pitfalls of ethnocentrism; (2) the ancient city was not just the product of kings but was often the product of the combination of ceremonial traditions of both kings and commoners; (3) "ordinary" people, e.g. pilgrims, maintain complex ceremonial traditions that may become embedded in the archaeological record with a complexity that rivals the results of formal city planning.
Early in my studies of India I was intrigued by the tradition of suryapuja in the temples of Tamil Nadu. (Surya is the sun god and puja implies his worship.) We located over 70 temples that are constructed in such a manner that on days close to the equinox, the light of the rising or setting sun passes through long colonnades to tou`ch the image of the main diety of the temple, most often a Shivalinga (2). Most of these are "old" temples, probably constructed prior to the 11th century, and all are still in worship. The nature of the suryapuja festival varies greatly from one temple to another, depending mostly upon the energy, knowledge, and entrepreneurship ofthe hereditary priests in charge. In some cases, the festivals are elaborate and dramatic, as hundreds may line tha pathway of the sun to view the beam of light falling upon the brightly faces of the linga in the sanctum. The beam of light is outlined in clouds of incense and accomp[anied by the sounds of bells, drums, and Verdic chanting. In many temples, archetectural symmetry has been broken to allow passage of light into the sanctum; in one temple the priests described with great enthusiasm, a second "miraculous" illumination of the linga that occurs when sunlight is reflected off the waters of the eastern temple tank.
Some temples have manuals that describe the traditions of the temple and have priests who can provide their own interpretation. The suprise of this work was that thwe sun was not the object of worship at all; instead, people gathered to watch the sun prostrate himself in worship of Lord Shiva. The sun was actually asking forgiveness for his lack of compassion for human suffering for which he had been inflicted with leprosy. My colleague, Dr Swaminathan, at Annamali University in Chidambaram, has compiled a list of 170 Shaivite temples in Tamil Nadu, many of which are probably suryapuja temples; we have lots of opportunities for more field work!
While these suryapuja temples have turned the notion of sun worship on its ear, there are other occasions when the sun is clearly the object of worship and gratitude, such as every morning at Varanasi on the west bank of the Ganga, or once a year at the sun temple of Konarak when 50,000 people gather to watch sunrise over the Bay of Bengal.
The ruins of Vijayanagara have been the object of considerable fieldwork, much of it jointly with the archaeologist John Fritz. Once the capital of an empire that covered the lower third of India, the city was destroyed following a disasterous battle in 1565. Although the city reached a population of 500,000, it never recovered, and remains abandoned today. The city contains a mixture of symbolic and visual astronomy, associated with both kings and citizens. Although much was destroyed in the final holocaust including its libraries, textssurvived elsewhere in the empire. We find that Kings related themselves to Rama, the archetypal Indian monarch, and the citizens and soldiers became Hanuman, the monkey god who is the perfect devotee (3). A ceremonial gateway divides the Royal Center into two parts for the king and queen. (consistant with a major theme of Rameyana) and established an accurate north south axis that crosses the summet of Matanga hill, a placw that figures prominently in the creation myths of the city. On the summit of that mountain, is a temple to Virabhadra, a "fierce" form of Shiva, appropriate for a military empire. Descendants of the devotees of Virabhadra during the days of the empire, remained in the neighborhood and demonstrated their "fierceness" by an annual festival in which they pierced cheeks and toungs with large needles. Elsewhere in the city, we find evidence of Hanuman shrines and temples aligned to sunrise on the day of zenith crossing, ceremonial "car" streets aligned to the rising point of Sirius, and alignments involved in other major hills, including the birthplace of Hanuman. Local "folk" traditions influence city designs as much as the "high" mythology of the rulers.
Going to the Urban opposite of the imperial city of Vijayanagara, we have made GPS studies of the city of Varanasi, (Banaras), a dense and complex city of shrines built not by kings, but by the millions of pilgrims who, for millennia, have flocked to the city from all over the country. My colleague, Dr. Rana Singh of the Geography department of Banaras Hindu University, and I located the remains of fourteen major sun templesof the city that had been destroyed after the 1192 Muslim invasionof North India (4). These are represented by broken fragments of the original images of the sun set into the walls of homes, narrow alleys, and small shrines. It is a remarkable revelation of the power of the place, that pilgrims remember the sites of the original temples, and continue to visit their putative locations. In our mapping of these temples, we discovered that they are largely organized along the sides of a triangle that encircles the ancient, but now largely ignored and forgotten original center of the city and cosmos. Reading the Sanskrit texts that describing the city, we were able to verify the locations of the temples and piece together some of the histories of these temples, from which it appears that astronomical phenomena were recorded in the temple traditions. One temple was built to commemorate a total solar eclipse in 1054 and another marked the appearance of naked eye sunspots and a meteor shower on 1078-1080. Here is another example of the growth"organic" geometric order in a city, revealing the power of the ceremonialism of the people.
References
- Stencel, R. F. Gifford, and E Moron, "Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor Wat", Science, 193, 281-287, 1976.Malville, J. M., "Sun Worship in Contemporary India", Man in India: A Quarterly Journal of Anthropology, 65. 207-233, 1985.
Malville, J. M., "The Compleat Devotee and the Cosmic City: Hunaman at Hampi" in Art: the Integral VCision, edited by B. N. Saraswati, S. C. Malik, M. Khanna, D. K. Printworld, New Delhi, pp 147-164, 1994.
Singh, Rana and J. M. Malville, "Cosmic Order and Cityscape of Varanasi (Kashi): Sun Images and Cultural Astronomy, National Geographical Journal of India, 41, 69-88, March 1995.
Konark Sun Temple | Sun Temple | Konark Surya Mandir
Architecture of Konark Sun Temple:
The temple takes the form of the chariot of Surya (Arka), the sun god, and is heavily decorated with stone carving. The entire complex was designed in the form of a huge chariot drawn by seven spirited horses on twelve pairs of exquisitely decorated wheels.Konark Sun Temple Chariot Wheel.
The entrance is guarded by two giant lions, which are each shown crushing a war elephant. Each elephant in turn lies on top of a human body. The temple symbolizes the majestic stride of the Sun god. At the entrance of the temple is a Nata Mandir. This is where the temple dancers used to perform dances in homage to the Sun god. All around the temple, there are various floral and geometric patterns.The temple is now partly in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is housed in the Sun Temple Museum, which is run by the Archaeological Survey of India. The poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote of Konark: "Here the language of stone surpasses the language of man."
The Sun Temple, built in the thirteenth century, was conceived as a gigantic chariot of the Sun God, with twelve pairs of exquisitely ornamented wheels pulled by seven pairs of horses. Majestic in conception, this temple is one of the most sublime monuments of India, famous as much for its imposing dimensions and faultless proportions as for the harmonious integration of architectural grandeur with plastic allegiance. Every inch of the temple is covered with sculpture of an unsurpassed beauty and grace, in tableaux and freestanding pieces ranging from the monumental to the miniature. The subject matter is fascinating. Thousands of images include deities, celestial and human musicians, dancers, lovers, and myriad scenes of courtly life, ranging from hunts and military battles to the pleasures of courtly relaxation. These are interspersed with birds, animals (close to two thousand charming and lively elephants march around the base of the main temple alone), mythological creatures, and a wealth of intricate botanical and geometrical decorative designs. The famous jewel-like quality of Orissan art is evident throughout, as is a very human perspective which makes the sculpture extremely accessible.
The temple is famous for its erotic sculptures, which can be found primarily on the second level of the porch structure. It will become immediately apparent upon viewing them that the frank nature of their content is combined with an overwhelming tenderness and lyrical movement. This same kindly and indulgent view of life extends to almost all the other sculptures at Konark, where the thousands of human, animal, and divine personages are shown engaged in the full range of the 'carnival of life' with an overwhelming sense of appealing realism. It is admittedly the best in Orissa. Its fine traceries and scrollwork, as well as the beautiful and natural cut of animal and human figures, give it a superiority over other temples.
The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga school of Indian temples with characteristic curvilinear towers mounted by cupolas. In shape, the temple did not make any major departure from other sikhara temples of Orissa. The main sanctum which (229 ft. high) was constructed along with the audience hall (128 ft. high) having elaborate external projections. The main sanctum which enshrined the presiding deity has fallen off. The Audience Hall survives in its entirely, but only small portions of the Dancing Hall (nata Mandir) and the Dining Hall (Bhoga-Mandap) have survived the vagaries of time. The Temple compound measures 857 ft (261 m) by 540 ft (160 m). The alignment of the Sun Temple is on the east-west direction. The Temple is located in natural surroundings, abounding with casuarina plantations and other types of trees such as mahogany, rosewood, eel which grow on sandy soil.
History of Konark Sun Temple:
The large structure seen today is actually the mantapa (mandap). Of the main tower, which once stood in the front, only the remains can be seen. This tower (deul) was perhaps 200 feet (60 metres) tall, higher than any other temple in India.
Kalapahad of Konark Sun Temple:
The most popular theory about the root of the fall of Konark temple rests with the Kalapahad, the general of Bengal Sultan Sulaiman Khan Karrani. According to some accounts Kalapahad was formerly a Hindu Kayastha officer, however he had converted to Islam. According to Afsanah-i-Shahan of Shaikh Kabir Batini, he was a Batini Afghan. According to the history of Orissa, Kalapahad invaded Orissa in 1508. He destroyed Konark temple, as well as a number of Hindu temples in Orissa. The Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple describes how Kalapahad attacked Orissa in 1568. Including Konark temple, he broke most of the images in most of the Hindu temples in Orissa. Though the stone walls are of 20 to 25 feet (7.6 m) thick, he somehow managed to displace the Dadhinauti (Arch stone) and thus caused the tower to collapse. He also damaged most of the images and other side temples of Konark. Due to displacement of the Dadhinauti, the tower gradually collapsed and the roof of the Mukasala was also damaged, due to the stones falling down from the temple top.
Orissa came under Muslim control in 1568. There were constant attempts to destroy the Hindu temples. The Pandas (priests) of Puri, to save the sanctity of the Puri temple, took away the Lord Jagannath from the Srimandir and kept the image in a secret place. Similarly, it is said that the Pandas of Konark took away the presiding deity of the Sun temple and buried it under the sand for years. Latter on the image was said to have been removed to Puri and kept in the temple of Indra, in the compound of the Puri Jagannath temple. According to others, the Puja image of the Konark temple is yet to be discovered. But others hold the view that the Sun image now kept in the National Museum of Delhi was the presiding deity of the Konark Sun temple.
The Sun worship in the Konark temple ended upon the removal of the sacred image from the temple. This resulted in the end of pilgrimages to Konark. The port at Konark was also closed, due to pirate attacks. Konark was as glorious a city for Sun worship as it was for commercial activities, but after the cessation of these activities, Konark became deserted and was left to develop as a dense forest for years.
In 1626 the then king of Khurda, Raja Narasimha Dev, son of Purusottam Dev, took away the Sun image to Puri along with two other moving deities - Sun and Moon. Now they are found in a temple in the compound of Puri Jagannath temple.
As described earlier there was a big block of stone called Navagraha Paata placed in front of the Mukhasala. The then king of Khurda removed the block. The king had taken away many sculptured stones from Konark and constructed some portions of Puri temple with them. During Marahatta's time the outer compound wall of the Puri temple was constructed of stones from Konark temple.
It is reported that among all the temples the Naata Mandir or the Dancing hall of Konark was in its original form for the longest period, and that it was broken intentionally since it was considered an unnecessary structure during the Maratha administration.
In the year 1779, a Marhatta Sadhu had taken away the Arun Pillar from Konark and put it in front of the Lion's Gate of Puri Jagannath temple. Thus by the end of 18th century Konark lost all its glories and had been turned to a dense forest. In course of time, the temple area thus became devoid of people, covered with dense forest, full of sand, filled with wild animals and became the abode of pirates. It is said that even the locals feared to go to Konark in broad daylight.
Images of Konark Sun Temple:
Konark Sun Temple, Sun Temple in Konark, Sun temple in India, Images of Konark Sun Temple and much more
http://suntemples.blogspot.in/
![]()
Ø Konark Sun Temple is a 13th-century Sun Temple
Ø It was constructed from oxidizing and weathered ferruginous sandstone by King Narasimhadeva I (1236-1264 CE) of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
Ø The temple is one of the most well renowned temples in India
Ø It is one of the Seven Wonders of India as per the poll collected by NDTV.
Architecture
Ø The temple takes the form of the chariot of Surya, the sun god, and is heavily decorated with stone carving.
Ø The entire complex was designed in the form of a huge chariot drawn by seven spirited horses on twelve pairs of exquisitely decorated wheels.
Ø The entrance is guarded by two giant lions, which are each shown crushing a war elephant. Each elephant in turn lies on top of a human body.
Ø The temple symbolizes the majestic stride of the Sun god. At the entrance of the temple is a Nata Mandir. This is where the temple dancers used to perform dances in homage to the Sun god.
Ø All around the temple, there are various floral and geometric patterns.
Ø The temple is now partly in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is housed in the Sun Temple Museum
Ø The poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote of Konark: "Here the language of stone surpasses the language of man."
Ø The Sun Temple
Ø Majestic in conception, this temple is one of the most sublime monuments ofIndia
Ø Every inch of the temple is covered with sculpture of an unsurpassed beauty and grace, in tableaux and freestanding pieces ranging from the monumental to the miniature.
Ø The subject matter is fascinating. Thousands of images include deities, celestial and human musicians, dancers, lovers, and myriad scenes of courtly life, ranging from hunts and military battles to the pleasures of courtly relaxation.
Ø These are interspersed with birds, animals, close to two thousand charming and lively elephants march around the base of the main temple alone, mythological creatures, and a wealth of intricate botanical and geometrical decorative designs.
Ø The famous jewel-like quality of Orissan art is evident throughout, as is a very human perspective which makes the sculpture extremely accessible.
Ø The temple is famous for its erotic sculptures, which can be found primarily on the second level of the porch structure.
Ø It will become immediately apparent upon viewing them that the frank nature of their content is combined with an overwhelming tenderness and lyrical movement.
Ø This same kindly and indulgent view of life extends to almost all the other sculptures at Konark, where the thousands of human, animal, and divine personages are shown engaged in the full range of the 'carnival of life' with an overwhelming sense of appealing realism.
Ø It is admittedly the best in Orissa. Its fine traceries and scrollwork, as well as the beautiful and natural cut of animal and human figures, give it superiority over other temples.
Ø The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga school of Indian
Ø In shape, the temple did not make any major departure from other sikhara temples of Orissa.
Ø The main sanctum which is 229 ft. high was constructed along with the audience hall, 128 ft. high having elaborate external projections.
Ø The main sanctum which enshrined the presiding deity has fallen off. The Audience Hall survives in its entirely, but only small portions of the Dancing Hall also known as nata Mandir and the Dining Hall known as Bhoga-Mandap have survived the vagaries of time.
Ø The Temple Sun Temple Temple
History
Ø The large structure seen today is actually the mantapa also known as jagmohan.
Ø Of the main tower, which once stood in the front, only the remains can be seen.
Ø This tower was perhaps 200 feet tall, higher than any other temple in India
Kalapahad
Ø The most popular theory about the root of the fall of Konark temple rests with the Kalapahad, the general of Bengal Sultan Sulaiman Khan Karrani.
Ø According to some accounts Kalapahad was formerly a Hindu Kayastha officer, however he had converted to Islam.
Ø According to Afsanah-i-Shahan of Shaikh Kabir Batini he was a Batini Afghan.
Ø According to the history of Orissa, Kalapahad invaded Orissa in 1508. He destroyed Konark temple, as well as a number of Hindu temples in Orissa.
Ø The Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple describes how Kalapahad attacked Orissa in 1568. Including Konark temple, he broke most of the images in most of the Hindu temples in Orissa.
Ø Though the stone walls are of 20 to 25 feet that is 7.6 m thick, he somehow managed to displace the Dadhinauti that is the Arch stone and thus caused the tower to collapse.
Ø He also damaged most of the images and other side temples of Konark. Due to displacement of the Dadhinauti, the tower gradually collapsed and the roof of the Mukasala was also damaged, due to the stones falling down from the temple top.
Ø Orissa came under Muslim control in 1568. There were constant attempts to destroy the Hindu temples. The Pandas (priests) of Puri, to save the sanctity of the Puri temple, took away the Lord Jagannath from the Srimandir and kept the image in a secret place.
Ø Similarly, it is said that the Pandas of Konark took away the presiding deity of the Sun temple and buried it under the sand for years.
Ø Latter on the image was said to have been removed to Puri and kept in thetemple of Indra
Ø According to others, the Puja image of the Konark temple is yet to be discovered.
Ø But others hold the view that the Sun image now kept in the National Museum of Delhi was the presiding deity of the Konark Sun temple.
Ø The Sun worship in the Konark temple ended upon the removal of the sacred image from the temple. This resulted in the end of pilgrimages to Konark.
Ø The port at Konark was also closed, due to pirate attacks. Konark was as glorious a city for Sun worship as it was for commercial activities, but after the cessation of these activities, Konark became deserted and was left to develop as a dense forest for years.
Ø In 1626 the then king of Khurda, Raja Narasimha Dev, son of Purusottam Dev, took away the Sun image to Puri along with two other moving deities - Sun and Moon.
Ø Now they are found in a temple in the compound of Puri Jagannath temple.
Ø As described earlier there was a big block of stone called Navagraha Paata placed in front of the Mukhasala. The then king of Khurda removed the block.
Ø The king had taken away many sculptured stones from Konark and constructed some portions of Puri temple with them.
Ø During Marahatta's time the outer compound wall of the Puri temple was constructed of stones from Konark temple.
Ø It is reported that among all the temples the Naata Mandir or the Dancing hall of Konark was in its original form for the longest period, and that it was broken intentionally since it was considered an unnecessary structure during the Maratha administration.
Ø In the year 1779, a Marhatta Sadhu had taken away the Arun Pillar from Konark and put it in front of the Lion's Gate of Puri Jagannath temple.
Ø Thus by the end of 18th century Konark lost all its glories and had been turned to a dense forest.
Ø In course of time, the temple area thus became devoid of people, covered with dense forest, full of sand, filled with wild animals and became the abode of pirates.
Konark
Ø All around the temple, there are various floral and geometric patterns. There are also human, divine and semi-divine figures in sensuous poses.
Ø The poses contains couples in various amorous poses, and are derived from the Kama Sutra.
Ø The poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote of Konark: "here the language of stone surpasses the language of man."
Ø Konark is also home to an annual dance festival, held every December, devoted to classical Indian dance forms, including the traditional classical dance of Orissa, odissi.
Ø On 16 February 1980, Konark lay directly on the path of a total solar eclipse.
Ø Konark beach is a popular tourist destination, though the waters are deceptively calm. Its main attraction lies in its views of the temple.
Architectural glory of the Sun Temple
Ø The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga School of Indian Temples
Ø In shape, the temple did not make any major departure from other sikhara temples of Orissa.
Ø The main sanctum (229 ft. high) which was constructed along with the audience hall (128 ft. high) having elaborate external projections.
Ø The alignment of the Sun Temple
Ø The stones at Konark are not joined by any limestone or cement. Instead, they are joined in a unique manner by making the two stone plates so plane like glass plate that just one drop of gum can join the two stones.
Fall of Konark
Ø It is opined by some historians that, due to the early death of the king Langula Narasimha Dev, builder of the Konarak temple, the construction of the temple had been left in a haphazard state.
Ø As a result of this, the incomplete structure eventually collapsed.
Ø But this view is unsupported by historical data.
Ø The records of Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple, as well as from some copper plates dated 1278 A.D., state that the king Langula Narasimha Dev reigned till 1282.
Ø Many historians are of the opinion that the construction of the Konark temple was completed between 1253 and 1260 A.D. So the argument that the temple collapsed due to non-completion during construction is not tenable.
Lodestone
Ø Legends describe a lodestone on the top of the Sun temple.
Ø Due to its magnetic effects, vessels passing through the Konark sea were drawn to it, resulting in heavy damage.
Ø Other legends state that magnetic effects of the lodestone disturbed ships' compasses so that they did not function correctly.
Ø To save their shipping, the Portuguese voyagers took away the lodestone, which was acting as the central stone and keeping all the stones, and the iron columns used to hold them walls together, of the temple wall in balance.
Ø Due to its displacement, the temple walls lost their balance and eventually fell down. But there is no record of this occurrence in any historical records, nor is there any record of the existence of such a powerful lodestone at Konark.
Kalapahad
Ø The most popular theory about the root of the fall of Konark temple rests with the Kalapahad.
Ø According to the history of Orissa, Kalapahad invaded Orissa in 1508. He destroyed Konark temple, as well as a number of Hindu temples in Orissa.
Ø The Madala Panji of Puri Jagannath temple describes how Kalapahad attacked Orissa in 1568.Including Konark temple, he broke most of the images in most of the Hindu temples in Orissa.
Ø Though it was impossible to break the Sun temple of Konark
Ø He also broke most of the images and other side temples of Konark. Due to displacement of the Dadhinauti, the temple gradually collapsed and the roof of the Mukasala was also damaged, due to the stones falling down from the temple top.
Ø Consequently, Orissa came under Muslim control in 1568. There were attempts to destroy the Hindu temples.
Ø The Pandas of Puri, to save the sanctity of the Puri temple, took away the Jagannath from the temple and kept the image in a secret place.
Ø Similarly, it is said that the Pandas of Konark took away the presiding deity of the Sun temple and buried it under the sand for years.
Ø Latter on the image was said to have been removed to Puri and kept in thetemple of Indra
Ø According to others, the Puja image of the Konark temple is yet to be discovered. But others hold the view that the Sun image now kept in the National Museum of Delhi was the presiding deity of the Konark Sun temple.
Ø However, the Sun worship in the Konark temple was ended upon the removal of the image from the temple. This resulted in the end of pilgrimages to Konark.
Ø The port at Konark was also closed, due to pirate attacks. Konark was as glorious a city for Sun worship as it was for commercial activities, but after the cessation of these activities, Konark became deserted and was left to develop as a dense forest for years.
Ø In 1626 the then king of Khurda, Raja Narasimha Dev, son of Purusottam Dev, took away the Sun image to Puri along with two other moving deities - Sun and Moon. Now they are found in a temple in the compound of Puri Jagannath temple.
Ø It is recorded in the Madala Panji of Puri temple that in 1028, Raja Narasimha Dev ordered measurements to be taken of all the temples at Konark.
Ø At the time of measurement, the Sun temple was in existence up to its Amalak sila, i.e. about 200 feet in height.
Ø Kalapahad had only destroyed its Kalas, the crowning stone and the Padma-dhwaja, the lotus finial and the upper portions.
Ø The then king of Khurda had taken away many sculptured stones from Konark and constructed some portions of Puri temple with them. During Marahatta's time the outer compound wall of the Puri temple was constructed of stones from Konark temple.
Legends
Ø As the legend says that, King Narasimha Deva-I of the Ganga Dynasty had ordered this temple to be built as a royal proclamation of the political supremacy of his dynasty.
Ø A workforce of 12 hundred artisans and architects invested their creative talent, energy and artistic commitment for an exhausting period of 12 years.
Ø The king had already spent an amount equivalent to the state's revenue receipts of 12 years. However, the completion of the construction was nowhere near sight.
Ø Then the king issued a final command that the work be completed by a stipulated date.
Ø The team of architects headed by Bisu Maharana was at its wit's end. It was then that Dharmapada the 12 year old son of the chief architect Bisu Maharana arrived there as a visiting onlooker.
Ø He became aware of the anxiety looming large among the architects. Although he did not have any practical experience of temple construction, he was thorough in his study of the theories of temple architecture.
Ø He offered to solve the confounding problem of fixing the last copping stone at the top of the temple.
Ø He surprised everyone by doing that himself. But soon after this achievement the dead body of this adolescent prodigy was found on the sea beach at the foot of the temple.
Ø Legend says that Dharmapada laid down his life to save his community. The victorious King of Orissa, Narasimhadeva erected a victory pillar designed as a war chariot.
Ø This temple was dedicated to Surya the Sun god, at a location near the temple town of Puri
Ø While the structure commemorates the victory in the battle against the Muslims, the name Konark commemorates the science of astronomy of which the King was an avid student.
Midsummer Day is June 24 (each year) and is one of the four Quarter Days in the Legal Calendar. The other Quarter Days are Lady Day (March 25), Michaelmas (29 September) and Christmas Day (25 December). The Summer Solstice is explained above.._,_.___