Contribution of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad to Economic thought
Abstract
Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa’s Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is a remarkable treatise contributing profound, everlasting lessons in philosophical thought as well as economic thought. The philosophical postulate of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is a contribution to economic thought --. sophia perennis et universalis, thought perennial, and eternal. Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is a treatise on पूर्णम् pūrṇam -- sustained abundance and plenty.
Background
Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad constitutes the final, fortieth chapter (adhyāya) of the Śukla Yajurveda. This is the only instance of an upaniṣad included in a Saṁhitā (Vājasneyi Samhitā.4.1). The sage, ‘, observing that his son leads a non-monastic, materialistic life, but has complete control over all the desires, that he is following all the duties and dharmas cast on him by tradition and also that he is a true aspirant of liberation and that he is dedicated to the cause by complete surrender, teaches his son about the knowledge of ātman.
The text of 20 verses, translation, notes and contextual elucidation of contribution to Economic Thought:
pūrṇam -- sustained abundance and plenty
ॐ पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदम पूर्णात पूर्णमुदच्यते
पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पुर्नामेवावशिष्यते ॐ शांतिः शांतिः शांतिः
Om pūrṇasya pūrṇamidam pūrṇāt pūrṇamudacyate
pūrṇasya pūrṇamādāya pūrṇamevāvaśiṣyate
om śāntih śāntih śāntih
Meanings पूर्ण pūrṇa पूर्णम् Ved. 1 Abundance, plenty: Brahman, whole, absolute, reality, perfect पूर्ण अभिलाष a. satisfied, contented.
उपनिषद् upaniṣad Vedanta or philosophical thought or thought about ātman [said to be from उपनि-सद् 'knowledge derived from sitting at the feet of the preceptor'; but, according to Indian authorities, it means 'to destroy ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the Supreme ātman and cutting off the bonds of worldly existence']. Upaniṣads are mentioned, but some more have been added to this number. They are said to have been the source of the six Darśanas or systems of philosophy, particularly of the Vedānta Philosophy.
Om, That is Full, This also is Full, From Fullness comes that Fullness. Taking Fullness from Fullness, Fullness Indeed Remains. Om Peace, Peace, Peace.
Elucidation in Economic thought: The Vedanta treatise in 20 verses of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad can be viewed as a treatise in economic thought, पूर्ण pūrṇa पूर्णम् is the subject matter of this treatise. In terms of materialism in economic thought, this relates to the processes and requisites for wealth of nations, in the dominion for sustained abundance, plenty.
ॐ इशावास्यमिदम सर्वं यत्किञ्च जगत्यां जगत्
तेन त्यक्तेन भुंजीथा मा गृधः कस्यविद्धनम
Om Iśāvāsyam idam sarvam yatkiñca jagatyām jagat
Tena tyaktena bhuñjīthā mā gṛdhah kasyaviddhanam || 1 ||
ईशा Supremacy, power, dominion, greatness. ईश a. [ईश्-क] Owning, possessing, sharing.
वास्य vāsya a. ‘1 To be covered. -2 To be caused to dwell.’ ईशावास्य ‘to be caused to dwell in the Supreme Divinity or dominion’.
All this—whatever exists in this changing universe—should be covered by the Supreme Divinity. Protect the ātman by renunciation. Lust not after any man's wealth.
Meaning: sarvamidam signifies all the visible objects of the universe or all that is a movement of Prakriti present as a living being or as matter.
anejad ‘unmoving’.
manaso javīyaḥ... tad ejati tannaijati ‘swifter than Mind, That the Gods reach not, for It progresses ever in front.’
“īśa vāsyamidam sarvam yat kiñca jagatyām jagat”, “All this is for habitation by the Supreme Divinity, whatsoever is jagat within jagati or individual universe in movement.”
mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasviddhanam ‘lust not after the wealth of others.’
The verb भुज् bhuj “-Pass. 1 To be enjoyed or eaten. -2 To be possessed. -3 To be brought under the influence of.”
Elucidation in Economic thought: All this, whatever exists and moves in the primordial world, is permeated, enveloped, spread by the Supreme Divinity. It is dependent on that Divinity alone. So accept whatever is ordained by the Divinity and enjoy in renunciation. Do not seek the wealth which is ordained for (belongs to) others and do not seek wealth from any other source.
धनम् dhanam 1 Property, wealth, riches, treasure, money (gold, chattels &c.); 2 Any valued possession, an object of affection or endearment, dear- est treasure; a valu- able article; Surplus, residue. The affirmative quantity or plus (opp. ऋण). ऋणम् ṛṇam Debt, an obligation in general. (In alg.) The negative sign or quantity, minus (opp. धन). In dharma-dhamma tradition, everyone that is born has three debts to to pay off :-- to Sages, Divinities, and the Ancestors (Manes). The state of अनृण anṛṇa ‘free from debt’ is attained when these debts or obligations of life are fully discharged. This is dharma-dhamma, ethical conduct.
कुर्वन्नेवेह कर्माणि जिजीविषेच्छतं समाः
एवं त्वयि नान्यथेतोस्ति न कर्म लिप्यते नरे
kurvanneveha karmāṇi jijīviṣecchatam samāh |
evam tvayi nānyathetosti na karma lipyate nare || 2 ||
Doing verily actions in this world one should wish to live a hundred years. Thus it is in thee and not otherwise than this; action cleaves not to a man.
Elucidation in Economic thought: Work clings to you. Labor is embodied in the goods produced from action. Value of a commodity comes from the labor embodied in the commodity. Fetish is an artifact; a man-made commodity which has power over others. Fetishism is the emic attribution of inherent value to a commodity.
असुर्या नाम ते लोका अन्धेन तमसावृताः
ताम्स्ते प्रेत्याभिगच्छन्ति ये के चात्म्हनोजनाः
asuryā nāma te lokā andhena tamasāvṛtāh
tāmste preyābhigacchanti ye ke cātmahanojanāh || 3 ||
Sunless are those worlds and enveloped in blind gloom whereto all they in their passing hence resort who are slayers of their Atman.
अनेजदेकं मनसो जवीयो नैनद्देवा आप्नुवनपूर्वमर्शत्
तद्धावतो न्यानत्येत तिष्ठत्तस्मिन्नपो मातरिश्वा दधाति
anejadekam manaso javīyo nainaddevā āpnuvan pūrvamarśat
taddhāvato nyānatyeta tiṣṭhattasminnapo mātariśvā dadhāti || 4 ||
One unmoving that is swifter than Mind, That the Divinities reach not, for It progresses ever in front. That, standing, passes beyond others as they run. In That the Master of Life ]establishes the Waters.
तदेजति तन्नैजति तद्दूरे तद्वंतिके
तदन्तरस्य सर्वस्य तद सर्वस्यास्य बाह्यतः
tadejati tannaijati taddūre tadvantike
tadantarasya sarvasya tad sarvasyāsya bāhyatah || 5 ||
It moves and moves not; It is far and likewise near. It is inside all this and It is outside all this.
यस्तु सर्वाणि भूतान्यात्मन्येवानुपश्यति
सर्वभूतेषु चात्मानं ततो न विजुगुप्सते
yastu sarvāṇi bhūtānyātmanyevānupaśyati
sarvabhūteṣu cātmānam tato na vijugupsate || 6 ||
Meaning: जुगुप्सा jugupsā 1 Censure, reproach. -2 Dislike, aversion, disgust, abhorrence.
The wise man beholds all beings in the Self and the Self in all beings; for that reason he does not hate anyone.
Elucidation in Economic thought: (Consumer) satisfaction is defined as the measure of all economic activity. Such satisfaction does not have to be personal, nor should it emanate from denying satisfaction of another entity caused by dislike or aversion. Social cohesion enhances resulting in enhancement of social capital if every entity is seen to be endowed with a spark from the Divine. Such a trait among all economic actors leads to social responsibility and an equitable economic order. Economic thought has to be elaborated further to arrive at some measure of ‘satisfaction’ of a collective, say, community (or, a groups of households as an institutions), rather than restricting principles of economic value based only on ‘individual’ satisfaction.
Corporate form was in vogue in India a thousand years before Roman corporation was conceived. Such a corporate form is called śreṇi which is an extended family. These are guilds of artisans, cultivators, traders, skilled professionals. The guild or śreṇi had its writte rules of incorporation and enjoined responsibilities on the members. Social responsibility was built into the corporate form by stipulating the social responsibility śreṇi by contributing a specific percentage of income to civic projects such as maintenance of roads, village tanks, contributions to temple festivals and temple maintenance. The śreṇi as an extended family system provided for social security cover for the members and their families. This obviated the need for the state to establish a social security system out of tax revenues. The fiscal regulations of the state were to be in consonance with the regulations of the śreṇi, or śreṇi dharma, thus providing for a decentralized system of fiscal and financial responsibility to local, social institutions.
Social responsibility is built into the culture (as a spontaneous, ethical behavior) of a people, a community by tradition of charity and giving. This is elaborated in Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad 5: datta, dayadhvam, damyata ‘give, sympathise, control’ – a triad of socio-economic principles to regulate response to every economic activity.
यस्तु सर्वाणि भूतान्यात्मैवाभूत् विजानतः
तत्र मोहः कः शोक एकत्वं अनुपश्यति
yastu sarvāṇi bhūtānyātmaivābhūd vijānatah
tatra mohah kah śoka ekatvamanupaśyati || 7 ||
Meaning: मोहः mōha Perplexity, delusion, embarrassment, confusion; (In phil.) Delusion of mind which prevents one from discerning the truth (makes one believe in the reality of worldly objects and to be addicted to the gratification of sensual pleasures); Illusion of attachment or love.
To the seer, all things have verily become the Self: what delusion, what sorrow, can there be for him who beholds that oneness?
Elucidation in Economic thought: Desire is seen as the engine of economic activity. Such desire should not be restricted to personal sensual pleasure or for avoidance of sorrow or unhappiness. The philosophical foundation for an ethical world-view is to build up a state of equanimity, unaffected by illusory desires or worldly sorrows but to look upon all phenomena as sparks from the Divine, with the ātman endowed in all phenomena in creation. आत्मन् ātman is not merely soul, but the principle of life and sensation which is manifested in all phenomena, all emanating from Brahman, the Supreme Divinity, paramātman.
स पर्यगाच्छु क्रमकायम् अव्रुणमस्नाविरं शुद्धमपापविद्धम
कविर्मनीषी परि भूः स्वयंभूर्याथातथ्यतोर्थान्
व्यदधाच्छाश्वतीभ्यः समाभ्यः
sa paryagācchukramakāyamavṛṇamasnāviram śuddhamapāpaviddham
kavirmaṇīṣi paribhūh svayambhūryāthātathyatorthān
vyadadhācchāśvatībhyah samābhyah || 8 ||
It is He that has gone abroad—That which is bright, bodi-less, without scar of imperfection, without sinews, pure, unpierced by evil. The Seer, the Thinker,[8] the One who becomes everywhere, the Self-existent has ordered objects perfectly according to their nature from everlasting years.
अन्धं तमः प्रविशन्ति ये अविद्यामुपासते
ततो भूय इव ते तमो य यु विद्यायां रतः
andham tamah praviśanti ye avidyāmupāsate
tato bhūya iv ate tamo ya u vidyāyām ratah || 9 ||
Into a blind darkness they enter who are devoted to ignorance; but into a greater darkness they enter who engage in knowledge of a divinity alone.
अन्यदेवाहुर्विद्यायान्यदाहुराविद्यया
इति शुश्रुम धीराणां ये नस्तद्विचचक्षिरे
anyadevāhur vidyāyānyadhāhuravidyayā
iti śuśruma dhīrāṇām ye nastadvicacakṣire || 10 ||
One thing, they say, is obtained from knowledge; another, they say, from ignorance. Thus we have heard from the wise who have taught us this.
विद्यां चाविद्यां च यस्तद्वेदोभयं सह
अविद्यया मृत्युं तीर्त्वा विद्यायाम्रुतं अश्नुते
vidyām cāvidyām ca yastadvedobhayam saha |
avidyayā mṛutyum tīrtvā vidyāyāmṛutamaśnute || 11 ||
Meaning: Mainfestation of might, superhuman power
He who knows That as both in one, the Knowledge and the Ignorance, by the Ignorance crosses beyond death and by the Knowledge enjoys Immortality.
अन्धं तमः प्रविशन्ति ये असम्भूतिं उपासते
ततो भूय इव ते तमो या उ संभूतं रतः
andham tamah praviśanti ye asambhūtimupāsate
tato bhūya iva te tamo ya u sambhūtyam ratah || 12 ||
Meaning: संभूतिः sambhūtiḥ संभूतिः f. 1 Birth, origin, production; 2. Combination, union
Into a blind darkness they enter who worship only the unmanifested production; but into a greater darkness they enter who worship the manifested production.
अन्यदेवाहुः सम्भवादन्यदाहुरसम्भवात्
इति शुश्रुम धीराणां ये नस्तद्विचचक्षिरे
anyadevāhur vidyāyānyadhāhuravidyayā
iti śuśruma dhīrāṇām ye nastadvicacakṣire || 13 ||
Meaning: संभव 'equivalence'; being or coming together , meeting; "arisen or produced from , made of , grown in."
One thing, they say, is obtained from the worship of the manifested; another, they say, from the worship of the unmanifested. Thus we have heard from the wise who taught us this.
संभूतं च विनाशं च यस्ताद्वेदोभयं सह
विनाशेन मृत्युं तीर्त्वा संभूत्यमृतमश्नुते
sambhūtam ca vināśam ca yastadvedobhayam saha
vināśena mrutyum tīrtvā sambhūtyāmrutamaśnute || 14 ||
Meaning: संभूतिः sambhūtiḥ संभूतिः f. 1 Birth, origin, production; 2. Combination, union; 3. Power, knowledge. विनाशः vināśah decay, destruction; ‘perishable world’ (is called कार्यब्रह्म).
Manifestation of might, superhuman power (विभूति).
He who knows that both the unmanifested production and the manifested production should be worshipped together, overcomes death by the worship of manifested production and obtains immortality through devotion to prakriti (unmanifested production).
Elucidation in Economic thought: This elucidates the quintessence of economic activity by using the word संभूतिः sambhūtiḥ. In economic activity, this connotes the act of production or product work by everyone engaged in labor. In a fetishism, the product of labor gets imbued in the ‘value’ attributed to a commodity produced. Some commodities are naturally occurring or endowed by nature (asambhūtiḥ), such as fruits from the trees or sand from river beds used in construction activities. Many commodities are the result of manifested productive activity (sambhūtiḥ). Economic activity should not become an end in itself but only a means to social welfare and hence the explanation of ‘blind darkness’. As a philosophical proposition, this is a reference to the transient nature of worldly phenomena and phenomena related to action which are impediments to realization of the paramātman, pure bliss. Attachment to products, manifest or unmanifest is a myth and fulfillment. Real fulfillment comes by recognizing the essential unity of the ātman and paramātman, attainment of which is the goal of human existence. Hence, dharma-dhamma in tradition is explained as that which leads to abhyudayam ‘social welfare’ and nihśreya ‘personal emancipation’.
हिरण्मयेन पात्रेण सत्यस्यापिहितं मुखं
तत्त्वं पूषन्नपाव्रुणु सत्यधर्माय दृष्ट्ये
hiraṇmayena pātreṇna satyasyāpihitam mukham
tattvam pūṣannapāvṛṇu satyadharmāya druṣṭye || 15 ||
Meaning: पूषन् pūṣan : The protector of the universe; (originally connected with the sun , and therefore the surveyor of all things, and the conductor on journeys and on the way to the next world).
सत्य satya 1 True, real, genuine; 2 Honest, sincere, truthful, faithful; Virtuous, upright.सत्यम् n. true , real , actual , genuine , sincere , honest , truthful , faithful , pure , virtuous , good. successful , effectual , valid. सत्य—धर्म m. the law of truth , eternal truth.
The face of Truth is covered with a brilliant golden lid. Open it, O Nourisher! Remove it so that I who have been worshipping the Truth may behold It.
पूषन्नेकर्षे यम सूर्य प्राजापत्य व्यूह रश्मीन्
समूह तेजः यत्ते रूपं कल्याणतमं तत्ते पश्यामि
pūṣannekarṣe yama sūrya prājāpatya vyūha raśmīn
samūhatejah yatte rūpam kalyāṇatamam tatte paśyāmi || 16 ||
Meaning: प्राजापत्य prājāpatya ‘the heaven of the manes’ (पितृलोक)
प्राजात्यम् ‘Giving away the whole of one's property before entering upon the life of an ascetic’.
कल्याण kalyāṇa ‘ 1 Blessed, happy, lucky, fortunate; 2 Beautiful, agreeable, lovely.-3 Excellent, illustrious; -4 Auspi- cious, salutary, propitious, good; -5 True, authentic.’ कल्याणधर्मन् a. virtuous.
कल्याणम् 1 Good fortune, happiness, good, prosperity; -2 Virtue. -3 Festival. -4 Gold; -6 A class of five-storeyed buildings.
O Nourisher, lone Traveller of the sky! Controller! O Sun, Offspring of Prajapati! marshal thy rays, draw together thy light. I would see, through Your grace, that form of Yours which is the fairest. I am indeed He, that Purusha, who dwells there.
Elucidation in Economic thought: An extraordinary economic imperative is made and elucidated in these attributes of property or acquisition of wealth: samūhatejah yatte rūpam kalyāṇatamam. The acquired wealth is for the society, samūha. Its attribute is that which results in the maximum of social welfare, kalyāṇatamam. The purpose of all economic activity of productive enterprise should result in maximizing social welfare.
यो असावसौ पुरुषः सोहमस्मि || 17 ||
वायुरनिलमम्रुतमथेदं भस्मान्तं शरीरं || 18 ||
ॐ क्रतो स्मर कृतं स्मर ॐ क्रतो स्मर कृतं स्मर || 19 ||
Yo asāvasau puruṣah sohamasmi
Vāyuranilamamrutamathedam bhasmāntam śarīram
Om krato smara kṛtam smara Om krato smara kṛtam smara
Meaning: क्रतुः kratuḥ : Intelligence, talent; Power, ability; Plan, design, purpose; क्रतो स्मर कृतं स्मर Bṛi. Up.5.15.1.-7 Resolution, determination; यत्क्रतुर्भवति तत्कर्म कुरुते Bṛi. Up.4.4.5.-8 Desire, will. -9 Fitness, adequacy, efficiency.
कृतं krutam’made, committed (action)’.
I am indeed He, that Purusha, who dwells there. The Breath of things is an immortal Life, but of this body ashes are the end. Om. O mind or Will, remember, remember all that I have done.
अग्ने नय सुपथा राये अस्मान विश्वानि देव वयुनानि विद्वान्
युयोध्यस्मज्जुहुराणमेनो भूयिष्ठां ते नम उक्तिम् विधेम
agne naya supathā rāye asmān viśvāni vayunāni vidvān
yuyodhyasmajjuhurāṇameno bhūyiṣṭhām te nama uktim vidhema ||20||
Meaning: वयुनम् A rule, precept, order. Manner, custom. Action, act (कर्म). Thus वयुनानि are a set of actions which are the foundational principle of all economic activities.
सुपथ a good road, virtuous course , good conduct सुपथा having beautiful paths
जुहूरा juhūrā ‘A tongue, especially of Agni i. e. a flame.’
भूयिष्ठ bhūyiṣṭha 1 Most, most numerous or abundant. -2 Most important, principal, chief. -3 Very great or large, very much, much, many, numerous.-4 Chiefly or for the most part composed of, mostly composed or consisting of, chiefly filled with or characterized by भूयिष्ठम् ind. 1 For the most part, mostly; भूयिष्ठमन्यविषया न तु दृष्टिरस्याः Ś.1.3. -2 Exceedingly, very much, in the highest degree.
एना ēnāएना ind. Ved. Thus, then, at that time परो दिवा पर एना पृथिव्या RV.10.125.8. “I breathe forth like the wind giving form to all created worlds; beyond the heaven, beyond this earth (am I), so vast am I in greatness.”
ऋच् ‘to praise’. ऋक् is ‘prayer’.
O Divine Fire, lead us by the good path for the enjoyment of the fruit of our action. You know, O god, all our deeds. Destroy our sin of deceit. We offer, by words, our salutations to you.
Elucidation in Economic thought: The Rigveda ऋक् 10.125.8 is a remarkable rendering by vāk, the feminine divinity of speech and knowledge. Exhorting that she is aham rāṣṭrī samgamanī (I am the union of nations taking people on the path of prosperity and wealth, collecting all wealth), she says: paro divā para enā pṛthivyaitāvatῑ mahinā saṃ babhūva ‘Beyond this earth and sky – so great in glory am I’. Acquisition of wealth, artha, is a goal of human life together with the other goals of dharma (ethics) and kāma (desire). Thus economic activity, resulting in the acquisition of wealth, is explained as सुपथा having beautiful paths. A theory for wealth of nations, or a group of communities of nations is a provision for beautiful paths which lead to social welfare and personal emancipation, beyond mere satisfaction of desires, obtained by त्यक्त tyakta ‘giving up, renunciation’ of desire.
The quintessence of economic thought in Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad
The quintessence of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is explained by the phrase तेन त्यक्तेन भुंजीथा. This is a re-statement of the foundational principle of economics is governed by ‘consumer satisfaction’. For the seeker in Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad the satisfaction is derived by giving up desire, by renunciation. This leads to a further elaboration of a sustenance principle of avoiding excessive consumption and to maintain an ecological balance which is sustainable across generations. Economic activity thus gets informed by social responsibility to limit the process of acquisition in such a way as to leave the wealth of nations in a sustainable and enduring state. This principle does not vitiate the imperative of economic action and productive activity resulting in acquisition of wealth. Acquire wealth and deploy it with social responsibility for the welfare of nations; this is the framework for a theory for wealth of nations achieved and sustained in co-operative endeavor and along beautiful paths of social harmony and peace. That wealth of nations, abundance, is explained by the word, पूर्ण pūrṇa पूर्णम् Ved. 1 Abundance, plenty: Brahman, whole, absolute, reality, perfect. The word पूर्ण pūrṇa is explained in both economic and spiritual semantics as realization of the Brahman, the Supreme Divinity or uity of ātman with paramātman and also diligence performance of life activities, economic activities for abundance and plenty as a theory for the wealth of nations, to reach out welfare to all people on the globe. Such a पूर्ण pūrṇa state stays in fullness, sophia perennis et universalis, thought perennial, and eternal.
The Upaniṣad enunciates many economic principles including the principle of social capital formed by setting apart a portion of the acquired wealth to fulfil social responsibility of an economic enterprise or corporation. It is heartening to see some corporate leaders following the trusteeship principle by creating foundations for charitable purposes. This tradition of charity is as old as civilization. Non-repayment of debt is considered an unethical act and in the present context of Market economics, a default in debt leads to economic crises and bankruptcy of a defaulting corporation.
Debt crisis is recorded in the days of Solon of Greek history from 599 BCE. Facing a severe debt crisis of small farmers caused by the charging of interest on coinage by a wealthy oligarchy, Solon introduced successful reforms for a ‘financial good society’. Debts were cancelled, lands seized by creditors were restituted, agricultural commodities were monetized by setting floor prices. Solon issued debt-free coinage issued by government, thus reducing the need for private debts. Indian history also records the problems of usury right from the days of Rigveda and how the merchants and guilds were financed by debts issued by wealthy financiers. Thus, the Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad together with other ancient texts like Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra (4th cent. BCE). recognize the role of dhanam (coinage and debts) in economic activities.
These traditional economic concepts and lessons drawn from economic history, are relevant today in the context of financial crises faced by the developed world which has led International Monetary Fund monetary economists Jaromir Benes and Michael Kumhof of the Chicago School of Economics to suggest that the nation-state should regain full control over money supply and prevent financial institutions from issuing money and indulging in hedging or speculative market operations which further destabilize the monetary economic situation in many states.
The message of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is relevant today -- in the context of financial crises faced by many states -- to promote social capital, enhance social responsibility of corporations engaged in market economics.sustain and promote equitable distribution of wealth of nations, with the state acting as guardian of interests of guilds of artisans, farmers, skilled workers and merchants and social welfare of communities. Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad calls for "samūhatejah yatte rūpam kalyāṇatamam" deployment of acquired wealth for the society, samūha, resulting in the maximum of social welfare, kalyāṇatamam. This philosophical postulate is a contribution to economic thought --. sophia perennis et universalis, thought perennial, and eternal. Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is a treatise on पूर्णम् pūrṇam -- sustained abundance and plenty.
Processing of soma in fire as economic activity
According to Louis Renou, the immense Rigvedic collection is present in nuce (in a nut) in the themes related to Soma. The pravargya yajña itself is focused on the production of a commodity called soma. The process includes a Gharma offering to the Aśvins. This is followed by the ceremonial preparation, use and disposal, at Uttaravedi, of a special vessel which is called Head of Makha or Mahavīra. Vessels and implements are laid down in the form of a man or shaped like the orb of the sun. Mahavīra is a clay vessel. The pot made of clay could be heated red hot.
Legends related to Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa, the author of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad associate him with knowledge about the secret of Pravargya yajña and related Mahavīra pot which is the ‘Head of the yajña’. Pravargya and Mahavīra are integral components of the Atirātra Agnicayana , a yajña detailed in chapters 11 to 18 of the Śukla Yajurveda. As noted, Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa’s Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is the fortieth, the last chapter (adhyāya) of of the Śukla Yajurveda. (Frits Staal, with C. V. Somayajipad and Itti Ravi Nambudiri, AGNI - The Vedic Ritual of the Fire Altar, Vols. I-II, Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1983. Hyla Stuntz Converse, 1974, The Agnicayana Rite: Indigenous Origin? History of Religions, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Nov. 1974), pp. 81-95)
The purpose of the Agnicayana in tradition is to build up for the yajamāna an immortal body which is permanently beyond the reach of transitoriness, suffering, and death which characterize man’s mortal being. The yajña takes a year to prepare, uses over 10,800 kiln-fired bricks placed in prescribed sequence and position, in five layers, and the fire altar, vedi is placed on top. Inverted firing technique used for the Mahavīra pot used in Pravargya or Gharma may link with Black-and-Red ware pots found in archaeological digs in the eastern Gangetic plain. (J. Eggeling, trans. The Śathapathabrāhmaṇa (ŚBr), pt. 4, in Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1882 ff., 43:22, n.1.)(ŚBr xiv, 1,2,21 ŚBr vi,6,2,7addresses gharma as follows: ‘An asura contrivance thou art, made in the wonted manner’. This points to the use of an indigenous tradition. See the discussion by B.B. Lal, ‘Excavations at Rangpur and other explorations’, Ancient India, nos. 18-19, New Delhi, Director General of Archaeology, 1963, pp. 17, 193-99.)
'The Pravargya sacrifice is centered in the making and the worship of a non-iconic earthen pot, the Mahavīra vessel. The ritual enacts an initiation through a craft, the craft of the potter. The vessel, made to glow in the sacrificial fire is the "all encompassing hero," Mahavīra, the Sun. The vessel is the head of the sacrifice, the Head of Makha. Makha however is the cosmic giant. The myth of the decapitation of Makha and the restoration of its head to the sacrifice rest on a secret magic knowledge, the mystery of Soma.” (Stella Kramrisch, 1975, The Mahavira vessel and the plant putika, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 2 (Apr-Jun 1975), pp. 222-235.)
In Taittiriya Āraṇyaka (Anuvāka 1), the yajña is personified as Makha Vaiṣṇava, is beheaded. This head is the Pravargya ceremony which makes the regular Soma sacrifice complete. The Pravargya Brāhmaṇa of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka can be traced to the Rigveda which refers to Pravargya as Gharma. (Jan E.M. Houben, ed., 1991, Pravargya Brāhmaṇa of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka – an ancient commentary on the Pravargya ritual, delhi, Motilal Banarsidass)
"In the Soma sacrifice, the Soma is object and instrument of the sacrifice (respectively the Soma as god and the Soma beverage as oblation to the gods); Soma is moreover a 'secondary instrument' in the form of the Soma-stalks, which contain the basis of the Soma beverage. Likewise, in the Pravargya ritual, the Gharma is object and instrument of the sacrifice (respectively the Gharma as god and the Gharma beverage as oblation to the gods); Gharma is moreover a 'secondary instrument', in as much as the vessel in which the Gharma will be heated is also called Gharma. Both the Gharma and Pravargya vessels and the Soma stalks receive a wooden throne." (ibid., p.17)
ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचम् अक्रत ब्रह्मा क्रुण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम्
अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित्
brāhmaṇasya somino vācam akrata brahmā kṛṇvantah parivatsarīṇam
adhvaryavo gharmiṇah siṣvidānā āvira bhavanti guhyā na ke cit RV 7.103.8
Trans. They utter a loud cry, like brāhmaṇa when bearing the Soma libation, and reciting the perennial prayer; like ministrant priests with the gharma offering, they hid (in the hot weather) perspiring (in their holes), but now some of them appear. [The perennial prayer: or, the year-long prayer, a reference to gavām ayanam, sacrificial session, which commences and ends with the atirātra and lasts a whole year; perspiring: adhvaryavo gharmiṇah siṣvidānāh. gharmiṇah = having or bearing the vessel, or performing the rite so termed; or, suffering from gharma, heat or the hot season; the epithet is applied to the adhvaryus and also to the frogs].
Given the context of Pravargya and the elaborate preparations related to Pravargya, the secret known to Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa about the Makha’s head is clearly relatable to an intense productive activity involving soma. Hence, it is logical to elaborate the economic principles which can be gleaned in Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad which is often interpreted in terms of Vedanta as related to the nature of the Brahman, the Supreme Divinity, the paramātmn.
Piling of the fire altar. Ātharvaṇa is Prajāpati; Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa is the fire, his bones are the bricks; as to that the seer says, Indra with the bones of Dadhyañc. In that he piles the fire with the bricks, he piles up the fire with itself; he has his own self in yonder world who knows thus. (Yajurveda 6.6c)
"18. Now Dadhyank Atharvana knew this pure essence, this Sacrifice -- how this head of the Sacrifice is put on again, how this Sacrifice becomes complete.
19. He then was spoken to by Indra saying, 'If thou teachest this (sacrificial mystery) to any one else, I shall cut off thy head.'
20. Now this was heard by the Asvins, --'Verily, Dadhyank Atharvana knows this pure essence, this Sacrifice, -- how this head of the Sacrifice is put on again, how this Sacrifice becomes complete.'
21. They went up to him and said, 'We two will become thy pupils.' --'What are ye wishing to learn?' he asked.--'This pure essence, this Sacrifice,--how this head of the Sacrifice is put on again, how this Sacrifice becomes complete.' they replied.
22. He said, 'I was spoken to by Indra saying, 'If thou teachest this to any one else, I shall cut off thy head;' therefore I am afraid lest he should indeed cut off my head: I cannot take you as my pupils.'
23. They said, 'We two shall protect thee from him,' -- 'How will ye protect me?' he replied. -- They said, 'When thou wilt have received us as thy pupils, we shall cut off thy head and put it aside elsewhere; then we shall fetch the head of a horse, and put it on thee: therewith thou wilt teach us; and when thou wilt have taught us, then Indra will cut off that head of thine; and we shall fetch thine own head, and put it on thee again." (Śathapathabrāhmaṇa XIV 1.1.28, from Max Muller's translation.)
मखः ‘Worship’. मखस्यु a. Wishing for wealth or sacrifice. Makha’s head is Viṣṇu, m. (prob. fr. √ विष् , "All-pervader" or "Worker, Performer"). विष् viṣ (वेवष्टि, वेविष्टे, विष्ट) 1 To surround.-2 To spread through, extend, pervade.-3 To embrace. -4 To accomplish, effect, perform. As distinguished from the other Vedic deities , Viṣṇu is a personification of the light and of the sun , esp. in his striding over the heavens , which he is said to do in three paces.
Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad Verse 15 notes: “The face of Truth is covered with a brilliant golden lid.” The ‘golden lid’ may hold the key to unraveling the metaphor of soma as a commodity with exchange value. And, this exchange value could be the earliest contribution to economic thought.
“Purchase of Soma. Vii.10. The Asuras in this quarter obstructed the gods. Being in the north-east quarter they anointed Soma in the kingship, they with Soma as king pushed away the Asuras from these worlds. Vrily thus also the sacrifice with Soma the king pushes away his rivals who hate him from these worlds. Him he buys with four things, a cow, gold, a garment, a female goat…The moon yonder is Soma the king, the discerning; it enters into him when bought; in that he buys Soma the king, (it is because he thinks) ‘The moon yonder as Soma, the king, the discerning, be it pressed out.’ Nine verses he recites for him when bought; these vital airs are nine; verily thus he confers vital airs on the sacrifice, for completeness of life in this world and for immortality in yonder world.” (Arthur Berriedale Keith ed., 1920, Rigveda Brahmanas: The Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas of the Rigveda, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass.)
With the purchase of Soma using the economic principle of exchange value with other commodities, a very ancient economic activity related to the processing of Soma begins. Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa is a skilled and knows the secrets of the techniques of processing.
S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D.,
Former Asian Development Bank executive,
Sarasvati Research Center
December 30, 2012
Abstract
Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa’s Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is a remarkable treatise contributing profound, everlasting lessons in philosophical thought as well as economic thought. The philosophical postulate of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is a contribution to economic thought --. sophia perennis et universalis, thought perennial, and eternal. Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is a treatise on पूर्णम् pūrṇam -- sustained abundance and plenty.
Background
Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad constitutes the final, fortieth chapter (adhyāya) of the Śukla Yajurveda. This is the only instance of an upaniṣad included in a Saṁhitā (Vājasneyi Samhitā.4.1). The sage, ‘, observing that his son leads a non-monastic, materialistic life, but has complete control over all the desires, that he is following all the duties and dharmas cast on him by tradition and also that he is a true aspirant of liberation and that he is dedicated to the cause by complete surrender, teaches his son about the knowledge of ātman.
The text of 20 verses, translation, notes and contextual elucidation of contribution to Economic Thought:
pūrṇam -- sustained abundance and plenty
ॐ पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदम पूर्णात पूर्णमुदच्यते
पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पुर्नामेवावशिष्यते ॐ शांतिः शांतिः शांतिः
Om pūrṇasya pūrṇamidam pūrṇāt pūrṇamudacyate
pūrṇasya pūrṇamādāya pūrṇamevāvaśiṣyate
om śāntih śāntih śāntih
Meanings पूर्ण pūrṇa पूर्णम् Ved. 1 Abundance, plenty: Brahman, whole, absolute, reality, perfect पूर्ण अभिलाष a. satisfied, contented.
उपनिषद् upaniṣad Vedanta or philosophical thought or thought about ātman [said to be from उपनि-सद् 'knowledge derived from sitting at the feet of the preceptor'; but, according to Indian authorities, it means 'to destroy ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the Supreme ātman and cutting off the bonds of worldly existence']. Upaniṣads are mentioned, but some more have been added to this number. They are said to have been the source of the six Darśanas or systems of philosophy, particularly of the Vedānta Philosophy.
Om, That is Full, This also is Full, From Fullness comes that Fullness. Taking Fullness from Fullness, Fullness Indeed Remains. Om Peace, Peace, Peace.
Elucidation in Economic thought: The Vedanta treatise in 20 verses of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad can be viewed as a treatise in economic thought, पूर्ण pūrṇa पूर्णम् is the subject matter of this treatise. In terms of materialism in economic thought, this relates to the processes and requisites for wealth of nations, in the dominion for sustained abundance, plenty.
ॐ इशावास्यमिदम सर्वं यत्किञ्च जगत्यां जगत्
तेन त्यक्तेन भुंजीथा मा गृधः कस्यविद्धनम
Om Iśāvāsyam idam sarvam yatkiñca jagatyām jagat
Tena tyaktena bhuñjīthā mā gṛdhah kasyaviddhanam || 1 ||
ईशा Supremacy, power, dominion, greatness. ईश a. [ईश्-क] Owning, possessing, sharing.
वास्य vāsya a. ‘1 To be covered. -2 To be caused to dwell.’ ईशावास्य ‘to be caused to dwell in the Supreme Divinity or dominion’.
All this—whatever exists in this changing universe—should be covered by the Supreme Divinity. Protect the ātman by renunciation. Lust not after any man's wealth.
Meaning: sarvamidam signifies all the visible objects of the universe or all that is a movement of Prakriti present as a living being or as matter.
anejad ‘unmoving’.
manaso javīyaḥ... tad ejati tannaijati ‘swifter than Mind, That the Gods reach not, for It progresses ever in front.’
“īśa vāsyamidam sarvam yat kiñca jagatyām jagat”, “All this is for habitation by the Supreme Divinity, whatsoever is jagat within jagati or individual universe in movement.”
mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasviddhanam ‘lust not after the wealth of others.’
The verb भुज् bhuj “-Pass. 1 To be enjoyed or eaten. -2 To be possessed. -3 To be brought under the influence of.”
Elucidation in Economic thought: All this, whatever exists and moves in the primordial world, is permeated, enveloped, spread by the Supreme Divinity. It is dependent on that Divinity alone. So accept whatever is ordained by the Divinity and enjoy in renunciation. Do not seek the wealth which is ordained for (belongs to) others and do not seek wealth from any other source.
धनम् dhanam 1 Property, wealth, riches, treasure, money (gold, chattels &c.); 2 Any valued possession, an object of affection or endearment, dear- est treasure; a valu- able article; Surplus, residue. The affirmative quantity or plus (opp. ऋण). ऋणम् ṛṇam Debt, an obligation in general. (In alg.) The negative sign or quantity, minus (opp. धन). In dharma-dhamma tradition, everyone that is born has three debts to to pay off :-- to Sages, Divinities, and the Ancestors (Manes). The state of अनृण anṛṇa ‘free from debt’ is attained when these debts or obligations of life are fully discharged. This is dharma-dhamma, ethical conduct.
कुर्वन्नेवेह कर्माणि जिजीविषेच्छतं समाः
एवं त्वयि नान्यथेतोस्ति न कर्म लिप्यते नरे
kurvanneveha karmāṇi jijīviṣecchatam samāh |
evam tvayi nānyathetosti na karma lipyate nare || 2 ||
Doing verily actions in this world one should wish to live a hundred years. Thus it is in thee and not otherwise than this; action cleaves not to a man.
Elucidation in Economic thought: Work clings to you. Labor is embodied in the goods produced from action. Value of a commodity comes from the labor embodied in the commodity. Fetish is an artifact; a man-made commodity which has power over others. Fetishism is the emic attribution of inherent value to a commodity.
असुर्या नाम ते लोका अन्धेन तमसावृताः
ताम्स्ते प्रेत्याभिगच्छन्ति ये के चात्म्हनोजनाः
asuryā nāma te lokā andhena tamasāvṛtāh
tāmste preyābhigacchanti ye ke cātmahanojanāh || 3 ||
Sunless are those worlds and enveloped in blind gloom whereto all they in their passing hence resort who are slayers of their Atman.
अनेजदेकं मनसो जवीयो नैनद्देवा आप्नुवनपूर्वमर्शत्
तद्धावतो न्यानत्येत तिष्ठत्तस्मिन्नपो मातरिश्वा दधाति
anejadekam manaso javīyo nainaddevā āpnuvan pūrvamarśat
taddhāvato nyānatyeta tiṣṭhattasminnapo mātariśvā dadhāti || 4 ||
One unmoving that is swifter than Mind, That the Divinities reach not, for It progresses ever in front. That, standing, passes beyond others as they run. In That the Master of Life ]establishes the Waters.
तदेजति तन्नैजति तद्दूरे तद्वंतिके
तदन्तरस्य सर्वस्य तद सर्वस्यास्य बाह्यतः
tadejati tannaijati taddūre tadvantike
tadantarasya sarvasya tad sarvasyāsya bāhyatah || 5 ||
It moves and moves not; It is far and likewise near. It is inside all this and It is outside all this.
यस्तु सर्वाणि भूतान्यात्मन्येवानुपश्यति
सर्वभूतेषु चात्मानं ततो न विजुगुप्सते
yastu sarvāṇi bhūtānyātmanyevānupaśyati
sarvabhūteṣu cātmānam tato na vijugupsate || 6 ||
Meaning: जुगुप्सा jugupsā 1 Censure, reproach. -2 Dislike, aversion, disgust, abhorrence.
The wise man beholds all beings in the Self and the Self in all beings; for that reason he does not hate anyone.
Elucidation in Economic thought: (Consumer) satisfaction is defined as the measure of all economic activity. Such satisfaction does not have to be personal, nor should it emanate from denying satisfaction of another entity caused by dislike or aversion. Social cohesion enhances resulting in enhancement of social capital if every entity is seen to be endowed with a spark from the Divine. Such a trait among all economic actors leads to social responsibility and an equitable economic order. Economic thought has to be elaborated further to arrive at some measure of ‘satisfaction’ of a collective, say, community (or, a groups of households as an institutions), rather than restricting principles of economic value based only on ‘individual’ satisfaction.
Corporate form was in vogue in India a thousand years before Roman corporation was conceived. Such a corporate form is called śreṇi which is an extended family. These are guilds of artisans, cultivators, traders, skilled professionals. The guild or śreṇi had its writte rules of incorporation and enjoined responsibilities on the members. Social responsibility was built into the corporate form by stipulating the social responsibility śreṇi by contributing a specific percentage of income to civic projects such as maintenance of roads, village tanks, contributions to temple festivals and temple maintenance. The śreṇi as an extended family system provided for social security cover for the members and their families. This obviated the need for the state to establish a social security system out of tax revenues. The fiscal regulations of the state were to be in consonance with the regulations of the śreṇi, or śreṇi dharma, thus providing for a decentralized system of fiscal and financial responsibility to local, social institutions.
Social responsibility is built into the culture (as a spontaneous, ethical behavior) of a people, a community by tradition of charity and giving. This is elaborated in Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad 5: datta, dayadhvam, damyata ‘give, sympathise, control’ – a triad of socio-economic principles to regulate response to every economic activity.
यस्तु सर्वाणि भूतान्यात्मैवाभूत् विजानतः
तत्र मोहः कः शोक एकत्वं अनुपश्यति
yastu sarvāṇi bhūtānyātmaivābhūd vijānatah
tatra mohah kah śoka ekatvamanupaśyati || 7 ||
Meaning: मोहः mōha Perplexity, delusion, embarrassment, confusion; (In phil.) Delusion of mind which prevents one from discerning the truth (makes one believe in the reality of worldly objects and to be addicted to the gratification of sensual pleasures); Illusion of attachment or love.
To the seer, all things have verily become the Self: what delusion, what sorrow, can there be for him who beholds that oneness?
Elucidation in Economic thought: Desire is seen as the engine of economic activity. Such desire should not be restricted to personal sensual pleasure or for avoidance of sorrow or unhappiness. The philosophical foundation for an ethical world-view is to build up a state of equanimity, unaffected by illusory desires or worldly sorrows but to look upon all phenomena as sparks from the Divine, with the ātman endowed in all phenomena in creation. आत्मन् ātman is not merely soul, but the principle of life and sensation which is manifested in all phenomena, all emanating from Brahman, the Supreme Divinity, paramātman.
स पर्यगाच्छु क्रमकायम् अव्रुणमस्नाविरं शुद्धमपापविद्धम
कविर्मनीषी परि भूः स्वयंभूर्याथातथ्यतोर्थान्
व्यदधाच्छाश्वतीभ्यः समाभ्यः
sa paryagācchukramakāyamavṛṇamasnāviram śuddhamapāpaviddham
kavirmaṇīṣi paribhūh svayambhūryāthātathyatorthān
vyadadhācchāśvatībhyah samābhyah || 8 ||
It is He that has gone abroad—That which is bright, bodi-less, without scar of imperfection, without sinews, pure, unpierced by evil. The Seer, the Thinker,[8] the One who becomes everywhere, the Self-existent has ordered objects perfectly according to their nature from everlasting years.
अन्धं तमः प्रविशन्ति ये अविद्यामुपासते
ततो भूय इव ते तमो य यु विद्यायां रतः
andham tamah praviśanti ye avidyāmupāsate
tato bhūya iv ate tamo ya u vidyāyām ratah || 9 ||
Into a blind darkness they enter who are devoted to ignorance; but into a greater darkness they enter who engage in knowledge of a divinity alone.
अन्यदेवाहुर्विद्यायान्यदाहुराविद्यया
इति शुश्रुम धीराणां ये नस्तद्विचचक्षिरे
anyadevāhur vidyāyānyadhāhuravidyayā
iti śuśruma dhīrāṇām ye nastadvicacakṣire || 10 ||
One thing, they say, is obtained from knowledge; another, they say, from ignorance. Thus we have heard from the wise who have taught us this.
विद्यां चाविद्यां च यस्तद्वेदोभयं सह
अविद्यया मृत्युं तीर्त्वा विद्यायाम्रुतं अश्नुते
vidyām cāvidyām ca yastadvedobhayam saha |
avidyayā mṛutyum tīrtvā vidyāyāmṛutamaśnute || 11 ||
Meaning: Mainfestation of might, superhuman power
He who knows That as both in one, the Knowledge and the Ignorance, by the Ignorance crosses beyond death and by the Knowledge enjoys Immortality.
अन्धं तमः प्रविशन्ति ये असम्भूतिं उपासते
ततो भूय इव ते तमो या उ संभूतं रतः
andham tamah praviśanti ye asambhūtimupāsate
tato bhūya iva te tamo ya u sambhūtyam ratah || 12 ||
Meaning: संभूतिः sambhūtiḥ संभूतिः f. 1 Birth, origin, production; 2. Combination, union
Into a blind darkness they enter who worship only the unmanifested production; but into a greater darkness they enter who worship the manifested production.
अन्यदेवाहुः सम्भवादन्यदाहुरसम्भवात्
इति शुश्रुम धीराणां ये नस्तद्विचचक्षिरे
anyadevāhur vidyāyānyadhāhuravidyayā
iti śuśruma dhīrāṇām ye nastadvicacakṣire || 13 ||
Meaning: संभव 'equivalence'; being or coming together , meeting; "arisen or produced from , made of , grown in."
One thing, they say, is obtained from the worship of the manifested; another, they say, from the worship of the unmanifested. Thus we have heard from the wise who taught us this.
संभूतं च विनाशं च यस्ताद्वेदोभयं सह
विनाशेन मृत्युं तीर्त्वा संभूत्यमृतमश्नुते
sambhūtam ca vināśam ca yastadvedobhayam saha
vināśena mrutyum tīrtvā sambhūtyāmrutamaśnute || 14 ||
Meaning: संभूतिः sambhūtiḥ संभूतिः f. 1 Birth, origin, production; 2. Combination, union; 3. Power, knowledge. विनाशः vināśah decay, destruction; ‘perishable world’ (is called कार्यब्रह्म).
Manifestation of might, superhuman power (विभूति).
He who knows that both the unmanifested production and the manifested production should be worshipped together, overcomes death by the worship of manifested production and obtains immortality through devotion to prakriti (unmanifested production).
Elucidation in Economic thought: This elucidates the quintessence of economic activity by using the word संभूतिः sambhūtiḥ. In economic activity, this connotes the act of production or product work by everyone engaged in labor. In a fetishism, the product of labor gets imbued in the ‘value’ attributed to a commodity produced. Some commodities are naturally occurring or endowed by nature (asambhūtiḥ), such as fruits from the trees or sand from river beds used in construction activities. Many commodities are the result of manifested productive activity (sambhūtiḥ). Economic activity should not become an end in itself but only a means to social welfare and hence the explanation of ‘blind darkness’. As a philosophical proposition, this is a reference to the transient nature of worldly phenomena and phenomena related to action which are impediments to realization of the paramātman, pure bliss. Attachment to products, manifest or unmanifest is a myth and fulfillment. Real fulfillment comes by recognizing the essential unity of the ātman and paramātman, attainment of which is the goal of human existence. Hence, dharma-dhamma in tradition is explained as that which leads to abhyudayam ‘social welfare’ and nihśreya ‘personal emancipation’.
हिरण्मयेन पात्रेण सत्यस्यापिहितं मुखं
तत्त्वं पूषन्नपाव्रुणु सत्यधर्माय दृष्ट्ये
hiraṇmayena pātreṇna satyasyāpihitam mukham
tattvam pūṣannapāvṛṇu satyadharmāya druṣṭye || 15 ||
Meaning: पूषन् pūṣan : The protector of the universe; (originally connected with the sun , and therefore the surveyor of all things, and the conductor on journeys and on the way to the next world).
सत्य satya 1 True, real, genuine; 2 Honest, sincere, truthful, faithful; Virtuous, upright.सत्यम् n. true , real , actual , genuine , sincere , honest , truthful , faithful , pure , virtuous , good. successful , effectual , valid. सत्य—धर्म m. the law of truth , eternal truth.
The face of Truth is covered with a brilliant golden lid. Open it, O Nourisher! Remove it so that I who have been worshipping the Truth may behold It.
पूषन्नेकर्षे यम सूर्य प्राजापत्य व्यूह रश्मीन्
समूह तेजः यत्ते रूपं कल्याणतमं तत्ते पश्यामि
pūṣannekarṣe yama sūrya prājāpatya vyūha raśmīn
samūhatejah yatte rūpam kalyāṇatamam tatte paśyāmi || 16 ||
Meaning: प्राजापत्य prājāpatya ‘the heaven of the manes’ (पितृलोक)
प्राजात्यम् ‘Giving away the whole of one's property before entering upon the life of an ascetic’.
कल्याण kalyāṇa ‘ 1 Blessed, happy, lucky, fortunate; 2 Beautiful, agreeable, lovely.-3 Excellent, illustrious; -4 Auspi- cious, salutary, propitious, good; -5 True, authentic.’ कल्याणधर्मन् a. virtuous.
कल्याणम् 1 Good fortune, happiness, good, prosperity; -2 Virtue. -3 Festival. -4 Gold; -6 A class of five-storeyed buildings.
O Nourisher, lone Traveller of the sky! Controller! O Sun, Offspring of Prajapati! marshal thy rays, draw together thy light. I would see, through Your grace, that form of Yours which is the fairest. I am indeed He, that Purusha, who dwells there.
Elucidation in Economic thought: An extraordinary economic imperative is made and elucidated in these attributes of property or acquisition of wealth: samūhatejah yatte rūpam kalyāṇatamam. The acquired wealth is for the society, samūha. Its attribute is that which results in the maximum of social welfare, kalyāṇatamam. The purpose of all economic activity of productive enterprise should result in maximizing social welfare.
यो असावसौ पुरुषः सोहमस्मि || 17 ||
वायुरनिलमम्रुतमथेदं भस्मान्तं शरीरं || 18 ||
ॐ क्रतो स्मर कृतं स्मर ॐ क्रतो स्मर कृतं स्मर || 19 ||
Yo asāvasau puruṣah sohamasmi
Vāyuranilamamrutamathedam bhasmāntam śarīram
Om krato smara kṛtam smara Om krato smara kṛtam smara
Meaning: क्रतुः kratuḥ : Intelligence, talent; Power, ability; Plan, design, purpose; क्रतो स्मर कृतं स्मर Bṛi. Up.5.15.1.-7 Resolution, determination; यत्क्रतुर्भवति तत्कर्म कुरुते Bṛi. Up.4.4.5.-8 Desire, will. -9 Fitness, adequacy, efficiency.
कृतं krutam’made, committed (action)’.
I am indeed He, that Purusha, who dwells there. The Breath of things is an immortal Life, but of this body ashes are the end. Om. O mind or Will, remember, remember all that I have done.
अग्ने नय सुपथा राये अस्मान विश्वानि देव वयुनानि विद्वान्
युयोध्यस्मज्जुहुराणमेनो भूयिष्ठां ते नम उक्तिम् विधेम
agne naya supathā rāye asmān viśvāni vayunāni vidvān
yuyodhyasmajjuhurāṇameno bhūyiṣṭhām te nama uktim vidhema ||20||
Meaning: वयुनम् A rule, precept, order. Manner, custom. Action, act (कर्म). Thus वयुनानि are a set of actions which are the foundational principle of all economic activities.
सुपथ a good road, virtuous course , good conduct सुपथा having beautiful paths
जुहूरा juhūrā ‘A tongue, especially of Agni i. e. a flame.’
भूयिष्ठ bhūyiṣṭha 1 Most, most numerous or abundant. -2 Most important, principal, chief. -3 Very great or large, very much, much, many, numerous.-4 Chiefly or for the most part composed of, mostly composed or consisting of, chiefly filled with or characterized by भूयिष्ठम् ind. 1 For the most part, mostly; भूयिष्ठमन्यविषया न तु दृष्टिरस्याः Ś.1.3. -2 Exceedingly, very much, in the highest degree.
एना ēnāएना ind. Ved. Thus, then, at that time परो दिवा पर एना पृथिव्या RV.10.125.8. “I breathe forth like the wind giving form to all created worlds; beyond the heaven, beyond this earth (am I), so vast am I in greatness.”
ऋच् ‘to praise’. ऋक् is ‘prayer’.
O Divine Fire, lead us by the good path for the enjoyment of the fruit of our action. You know, O god, all our deeds. Destroy our sin of deceit. We offer, by words, our salutations to you.
Elucidation in Economic thought: The Rigveda ऋक् 10.125.8 is a remarkable rendering by vāk, the feminine divinity of speech and knowledge. Exhorting that she is aham rāṣṭrī samgamanī (I am the union of nations taking people on the path of prosperity and wealth, collecting all wealth), she says: paro divā para enā pṛthivyaitāvatῑ mahinā saṃ babhūva ‘Beyond this earth and sky – so great in glory am I’. Acquisition of wealth, artha, is a goal of human life together with the other goals of dharma (ethics) and kāma (desire). Thus economic activity, resulting in the acquisition of wealth, is explained as सुपथा having beautiful paths. A theory for wealth of nations, or a group of communities of nations is a provision for beautiful paths which lead to social welfare and personal emancipation, beyond mere satisfaction of desires, obtained by त्यक्त tyakta ‘giving up, renunciation’ of desire.
The quintessence of economic thought in Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad
The quintessence of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is explained by the phrase तेन त्यक्तेन भुंजीथा. This is a re-statement of the foundational principle of economics is governed by ‘consumer satisfaction’. For the seeker in Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad the satisfaction is derived by giving up desire, by renunciation. This leads to a further elaboration of a sustenance principle of avoiding excessive consumption and to maintain an ecological balance which is sustainable across generations. Economic activity thus gets informed by social responsibility to limit the process of acquisition in such a way as to leave the wealth of nations in a sustainable and enduring state. This principle does not vitiate the imperative of economic action and productive activity resulting in acquisition of wealth. Acquire wealth and deploy it with social responsibility for the welfare of nations; this is the framework for a theory for wealth of nations achieved and sustained in co-operative endeavor and along beautiful paths of social harmony and peace. That wealth of nations, abundance, is explained by the word, पूर्ण pūrṇa पूर्णम् Ved. 1 Abundance, plenty: Brahman, whole, absolute, reality, perfect. The word पूर्ण pūrṇa is explained in both economic and spiritual semantics as realization of the Brahman, the Supreme Divinity or uity of ātman with paramātman and also diligence performance of life activities, economic activities for abundance and plenty as a theory for the wealth of nations, to reach out welfare to all people on the globe. Such a पूर्ण pūrṇa state stays in fullness, sophia perennis et universalis, thought perennial, and eternal.
The Upaniṣad enunciates many economic principles including the principle of social capital formed by setting apart a portion of the acquired wealth to fulfil social responsibility of an economic enterprise or corporation. It is heartening to see some corporate leaders following the trusteeship principle by creating foundations for charitable purposes. This tradition of charity is as old as civilization. Non-repayment of debt is considered an unethical act and in the present context of Market economics, a default in debt leads to economic crises and bankruptcy of a defaulting corporation.
Debt crisis is recorded in the days of Solon of Greek history from 599 BCE. Facing a severe debt crisis of small farmers caused by the charging of interest on coinage by a wealthy oligarchy, Solon introduced successful reforms for a ‘financial good society’. Debts were cancelled, lands seized by creditors were restituted, agricultural commodities were monetized by setting floor prices. Solon issued debt-free coinage issued by government, thus reducing the need for private debts. Indian history also records the problems of usury right from the days of Rigveda and how the merchants and guilds were financed by debts issued by wealthy financiers. Thus, the Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad together with other ancient texts like Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra (4th cent. BCE). recognize the role of dhanam (coinage and debts) in economic activities.
These traditional economic concepts and lessons drawn from economic history, are relevant today in the context of financial crises faced by the developed world which has led International Monetary Fund monetary economists Jaromir Benes and Michael Kumhof of the Chicago School of Economics to suggest that the nation-state should regain full control over money supply and prevent financial institutions from issuing money and indulging in hedging or speculative market operations which further destabilize the monetary economic situation in many states.
The message of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is relevant today -- in the context of financial crises faced by many states -- to promote social capital, enhance social responsibility of corporations engaged in market economics.sustain and promote equitable distribution of wealth of nations, with the state acting as guardian of interests of guilds of artisans, farmers, skilled workers and merchants and social welfare of communities. Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad calls for "samūhatejah yatte rūpam kalyāṇatamam" deployment of acquired wealth for the society, samūha, resulting in the maximum of social welfare, kalyāṇatamam. This philosophical postulate is a contribution to economic thought --. sophia perennis et universalis, thought perennial, and eternal. Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is a treatise on पूर्णम् pūrṇam -- sustained abundance and plenty.
Processing of soma in fire as economic activity
According to Louis Renou, the immense Rigvedic collection is present in nuce (in a nut) in the themes related to Soma. The pravargya yajña itself is focused on the production of a commodity called soma. The process includes a Gharma offering to the Aśvins. This is followed by the ceremonial preparation, use and disposal, at Uttaravedi, of a special vessel which is called Head of Makha or Mahavīra. Vessels and implements are laid down in the form of a man or shaped like the orb of the sun. Mahavīra is a clay vessel. The pot made of clay could be heated red hot.
Legends related to Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa, the author of Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad associate him with knowledge about the secret of Pravargya yajña and related Mahavīra pot which is the ‘Head of the yajña’. Pravargya and Mahavīra are integral components of the Atirātra Agnicayana , a yajña detailed in chapters 11 to 18 of the Śukla Yajurveda. As noted, Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa’s Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad is the fortieth, the last chapter (adhyāya) of of the Śukla Yajurveda. (Frits Staal, with C. V. Somayajipad and Itti Ravi Nambudiri, AGNI - The Vedic Ritual of the Fire Altar, Vols. I-II, Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1983. Hyla Stuntz Converse, 1974, The Agnicayana Rite: Indigenous Origin? History of Religions, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Nov. 1974), pp. 81-95)
The purpose of the Agnicayana in tradition is to build up for the yajamāna an immortal body which is permanently beyond the reach of transitoriness, suffering, and death which characterize man’s mortal being. The yajña takes a year to prepare, uses over 10,800 kiln-fired bricks placed in prescribed sequence and position, in five layers, and the fire altar, vedi is placed on top. Inverted firing technique used for the Mahavīra pot used in Pravargya or Gharma may link with Black-and-Red ware pots found in archaeological digs in the eastern Gangetic plain. (J. Eggeling, trans. The Śathapathabrāhmaṇa (ŚBr), pt. 4, in Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1882 ff., 43:22, n.1.)(ŚBr xiv, 1,2,21 ŚBr vi,6,2,7addresses gharma as follows: ‘An asura contrivance thou art, made in the wonted manner’. This points to the use of an indigenous tradition. See the discussion by B.B. Lal, ‘Excavations at Rangpur and other explorations’, Ancient India, nos. 18-19, New Delhi, Director General of Archaeology, 1963, pp. 17, 193-99.)
'The Pravargya sacrifice is centered in the making and the worship of a non-iconic earthen pot, the Mahavīra vessel. The ritual enacts an initiation through a craft, the craft of the potter. The vessel, made to glow in the sacrificial fire is the "all encompassing hero," Mahavīra, the Sun. The vessel is the head of the sacrifice, the Head of Makha. Makha however is the cosmic giant. The myth of the decapitation of Makha and the restoration of its head to the sacrifice rest on a secret magic knowledge, the mystery of Soma.” (Stella Kramrisch, 1975, The Mahavira vessel and the plant putika, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 2 (Apr-Jun 1975), pp. 222-235.)
In Taittiriya Āraṇyaka (Anuvāka 1), the yajña is personified as Makha Vaiṣṇava, is beheaded. This head is the Pravargya ceremony which makes the regular Soma sacrifice complete. The Pravargya Brāhmaṇa of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka can be traced to the Rigveda which refers to Pravargya as Gharma. (Jan E.M. Houben, ed., 1991, Pravargya Brāhmaṇa of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka – an ancient commentary on the Pravargya ritual, delhi, Motilal Banarsidass)
"In the Soma sacrifice, the Soma is object and instrument of the sacrifice (respectively the Soma as god and the Soma beverage as oblation to the gods); Soma is moreover a 'secondary instrument' in the form of the Soma-stalks, which contain the basis of the Soma beverage. Likewise, in the Pravargya ritual, the Gharma is object and instrument of the sacrifice (respectively the Gharma as god and the Gharma beverage as oblation to the gods); Gharma is moreover a 'secondary instrument', in as much as the vessel in which the Gharma will be heated is also called Gharma. Both the Gharma and Pravargya vessels and the Soma stalks receive a wooden throne." (ibid., p.17)
ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचम् अक्रत ब्रह्मा क्रुण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम्
अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित्
brāhmaṇasya somino vācam akrata brahmā kṛṇvantah parivatsarīṇam
adhvaryavo gharmiṇah siṣvidānā āvira bhavanti guhyā na ke cit RV 7.103.8
Trans. They utter a loud cry, like brāhmaṇa when bearing the Soma libation, and reciting the perennial prayer; like ministrant priests with the gharma offering, they hid (in the hot weather) perspiring (in their holes), but now some of them appear. [The perennial prayer: or, the year-long prayer, a reference to gavām ayanam, sacrificial session, which commences and ends with the atirātra and lasts a whole year; perspiring: adhvaryavo gharmiṇah siṣvidānāh. gharmiṇah = having or bearing the vessel, or performing the rite so termed; or, suffering from gharma, heat or the hot season; the epithet is applied to the adhvaryus and also to the frogs].
Given the context of Pravargya and the elaborate preparations related to Pravargya, the secret known to Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa about the Makha’s head is clearly relatable to an intense productive activity involving soma. Hence, it is logical to elaborate the economic principles which can be gleaned in Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad which is often interpreted in terms of Vedanta as related to the nature of the Brahman, the Supreme Divinity, the paramātmn.
Piling of the fire altar. Ātharvaṇa is Prajāpati; Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa is the fire, his bones are the bricks; as to that the seer says, Indra with the bones of Dadhyañc. In that he piles the fire with the bricks, he piles up the fire with itself; he has his own self in yonder world who knows thus. (Yajurveda 6.6c)
"18. Now Dadhyank Atharvana knew this pure essence, this Sacrifice -- how this head of the Sacrifice is put on again, how this Sacrifice becomes complete.
19. He then was spoken to by Indra saying, 'If thou teachest this (sacrificial mystery) to any one else, I shall cut off thy head.'
20. Now this was heard by the Asvins, --'Verily, Dadhyank Atharvana knows this pure essence, this Sacrifice, -- how this head of the Sacrifice is put on again, how this Sacrifice becomes complete.'
21. They went up to him and said, 'We two will become thy pupils.' --'What are ye wishing to learn?' he asked.--'This pure essence, this Sacrifice,--how this head of the Sacrifice is put on again, how this Sacrifice becomes complete.' they replied.
22. He said, 'I was spoken to by Indra saying, 'If thou teachest this to any one else, I shall cut off thy head;' therefore I am afraid lest he should indeed cut off my head: I cannot take you as my pupils.'
23. They said, 'We two shall protect thee from him,' -- 'How will ye protect me?' he replied. -- They said, 'When thou wilt have received us as thy pupils, we shall cut off thy head and put it aside elsewhere; then we shall fetch the head of a horse, and put it on thee: therewith thou wilt teach us; and when thou wilt have taught us, then Indra will cut off that head of thine; and we shall fetch thine own head, and put it on thee again." (Śathapathabrāhmaṇa XIV 1.1.28, from Max Muller's translation.)
मखः ‘Worship’. मखस्यु a. Wishing for wealth or sacrifice. Makha’s head is Viṣṇu, m. (prob. fr. √ विष् , "All-pervader" or "Worker, Performer"). विष् viṣ (वेवष्टि, वेविष्टे, विष्ट) 1 To surround.-2 To spread through, extend, pervade.-3 To embrace. -4 To accomplish, effect, perform. As distinguished from the other Vedic deities , Viṣṇu is a personification of the light and of the sun , esp. in his striding over the heavens , which he is said to do in three paces.
Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad Verse 15 notes: “The face of Truth is covered with a brilliant golden lid.” The ‘golden lid’ may hold the key to unraveling the metaphor of soma as a commodity with exchange value. And, this exchange value could be the earliest contribution to economic thought.
“Purchase of Soma. Vii.10. The Asuras in this quarter obstructed the gods. Being in the north-east quarter they anointed Soma in the kingship, they with Soma as king pushed away the Asuras from these worlds. Vrily thus also the sacrifice with Soma the king pushes away his rivals who hate him from these worlds. Him he buys with four things, a cow, gold, a garment, a female goat…The moon yonder is Soma the king, the discerning; it enters into him when bought; in that he buys Soma the king, (it is because he thinks) ‘The moon yonder as Soma, the king, the discerning, be it pressed out.’ Nine verses he recites for him when bought; these vital airs are nine; verily thus he confers vital airs on the sacrifice, for completeness of life in this world and for immortality in yonder world.” (Arthur Berriedale Keith ed., 1920, Rigveda Brahmanas: The Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas of the Rigveda, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass.)
With the purchase of Soma using the economic principle of exchange value with other commodities, a very ancient economic activity related to the processing of Soma begins. Dadhyañc Ātharvaṇa is a skilled and knows the secrets of the techniques of processing.
S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D.,
Former Asian Development Bank executive,
Sarasvati Research Center
December 30, 2012