m1162. Mohenjo-daro seal with the same hieroglyph which appears on Kanmer circular tablets. Glyph 33. Text 2068 kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (G.) Rebus:  kaṁsa  bronze';   kã̄sāri  ʻpewterer’ (Bengali) kāḍ  2 काड् a man's length, the stature of a man (as a measure of length) Rebus: kāḍ  ‘stone’. Ibha 'elephant' Rebus: ibbo 'merchant'.

dāṭu = cross (Te.); dhatu = mineral (Santali)

salstake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.) Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (H.)

kod. ‘one’ (Santali); rebus: kod. ‘workshop’ (G.)

Furnace workshop

aṭar ‘splinter’ (Ma.); aḍaruni ‘to crack’ (Tu.)  aduru ‘native metal (Ka.)

baṭa = a kind of iron (G .) baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada)

S. baṭhu m. ‘large pot in which grain is parched, large cooking fire’, baṭhī f. ‘distilling furnace’; L. bhaṭṭh m. ‘grain—parcher's oven’, bhaṭṭhī f. ‘kiln, distillery’, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭh m., °ṭhī f. ‘furnace’, bhaṭṭhā m. ‘kiln’; S. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ‘distil (spirits)’.  (CDIAL 9656)

Metal workshop

ayo, hako'fish'; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.)

salstake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.) Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (H.)

kod. ‘one’ (Santali); rebus: kod. ‘workshop’ (G.)

 

Elephant glyph: ibha 'elephant' (Skt.) Rebus: ib 'iron' (Santali) ibbo 'merchant' (Gujarati)

D.P. Agrawal, J.S. Kharakwal, Y.S. Rawat, T. Osada & Pankaj Goyal

The find and its context

The urban centres

Procurement

Manufacture

Peoples

References

• AGRAWAL, D.P. 1999. The role of Central Himalayas in Indian archaeo-metallurgy, in S.M.M. Young, P. Budd, A.M. Pollard & R. Ixer (ed.) Metals in antiquity (British Archaeological Reports International Series 792): 193-9. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  - 2007. The Indus civilisation. Delhi: Aryan Books International.
  - 2009. Harappan technology and its legacy. Delhi: Rupa & Infinity Foundation.
• BHAN, K.K. & D. GOWDA. 2003. Shell working at Nagwada (North Gujarat) with special reference to shell industries of the Harappan tradition in Gujarat. Man and Environment 28(2): 51-80.
• KENOYER, J.M. 1998. Ancient cities of the Indus Valley civilization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• KHARAKWAL, J.S., Y.S. RAWAT & T. OSADA. 2008. Preliminary observations on the excavation at Kanmer, Kachchh, India, in T. Osada & A. Uesugi (ed.) Linguistics, archaeology and the human past (Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Occasional Paper 5): 5-24. Kyoto: Research Institute for Humanity and Nature.
• LAHIRI, N. 1999. The archaeology of Indian trade routes up to c. 200 BC. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press.
• LAW, R.. 2008. Letter from Pakistan: no stone unturned. Archaeology 61(5). Available at:http://www.archaeology.org/0809/abstracts/letter.html, accessed 15 February 2010.
• MILLER, H.M-L. 2007. Archaeological approaches to technology. New York: Elsevier.
• MORRISON, K. 2006. Historicizing foraging in South Asia: power, history, ecology of Holocene hunting and gathering, in M.T. Stark (ed.) Archaeology of Asia: 279-302. Malden (MA): Blackwell.
• POSSEHL, G.L. 2002. The Indus civilization: a contemporary perspective. Walnut Creek (CA); Oxford: Altamira.

Postscript

'Besides the "grass skirt", this sign is distinguished from other human-looking Indus signs by feet that have a sharply upturned front, presumably representing shoes or boots of a special kind. This is the only anthropomorphic Indus sign that regularly has feet represented in this fashion... Besides Kanmer, the sign is attested only on ten objects from Mohenjo-daro' (Parpola pers. comm.).

'A sign on one of the red ware potsherd from Kanmer looks like the sign number 33 in Mahadevan's Concordance (M77, Mahadevan 1977). This sign appears only once at Harappa. Thus two rare signs in M77 (sign number 317 and 33) that appear only once at Harappa are seen at Kanmer. The occurrence of the sign number 38 on the three seal impressions from Kanmer is also very interesting as it appears six times at Mohenjodaro only in M77. In view of the large distance between Kanmer and the metropolitan towns of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, these signs seem to indicate a definite relationship between Kanmer and Mohenjodaro. As suggested in the article such small fortified sites like Kanmer indicate their role in resource procurement and supply of beads as normally seal impressions would indicate stamping of a cargo.'

Reference

• MAHADEVAN, I. 1977. The Indus script: texts, concordance and tables (Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India 77). Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.

Author

• D.P. Agrawal*
  Lok Vigyan Kendra, Almora 26360, India (Email: histcentre@gmail.com)
• J.S. Kharakwal
  Department of Archaeology, Institue of Rajasthan Studies, Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur 313001, India
• Y.S. Rawat
  State Department of Archaeology, 1st Floor, Archives Building, Near Fire Station, Sector 17, Gandhi Nagar, Gujarat, India
• T. Osada
  Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, 457-4 Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047, Japan
• Pankaj Goyal
  Department of Archaeology, Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Vishrantwadi Road, Pune 411006, India
• http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/agrawal323/

Distribution and concentration of the sites of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization

Excavation revealed that the Kanmer site had been surrounded by large walls of stone.

The Indus civilization (2600 BC - 1900 BC) is one of the four great ancient civilizations. It is known for its cultural and technological achievements—its characteristic seals and scripts, fortified settlements and sewage systems—and also for its brief tenure. Indus cities and culture spread over 680,000 km2 along the Indus and Ghaggar rivers and into Gujarat in Western India, yet its urban phase lasted for only 700 years, a much shorter period than any of its contemporaries. Drawing on archaeology, Indology, and paleo-environmental study, project members compose social and environmental histories of several Indus civilization cities in order to determine whether environmental factors were the cause of their short life and rapid decline...

See decoding of Seal impressions of Kanmer.

Major Achievements

Excavations at Kanmer and Farmana have been immensely successful. In addition to uncovering a number of structures, including a citadel with rock walls (photo 2) and diverse artefacts, excavation teams found three pendants with Indus script (photo 3) and other Indus seals with and without Indus script. These artifacts provide important data for continued efforts to decipher the Indus writing system. In Farmana, where buildings made of sun-dried bricks were found in previous excavations, a large-scale burial ground was discovered (photo 1) as were grains of rice, which have rarely been found in Indus sites. Each of these findings makes a significant contribution to our understanding of the society, culture and subsistence system of the eastern Indus...

The identical Indus seal is stamped on one side of each pendant and different lettered script is found on the reverse.

Simulation based on bathymetric data suggests that Indus period sea level was about two meters higher than in present day Gujarat. If correct, the cities which are currently found inland would have earlier been located along the coast.

Future Activities

Major excavations at the sites in Kanmer and Farmana were completed in 2008. The activities of MCRG members now shift to the analysis of obtained data. As of 2009, principal field activities will involve core sampling at Rara Lake and in the Maldives that may confirm our hypotheses of the Ghaggar and Gujarat sites. SSRG will carry out pollen and pitholith analysis on data already obtained from the excavations. Several human bones were discovered in the Farmana excavation, and a new research group specializing in DNA analysis will be formed for their analysis. In sum, our efforts are now directed towards synthesis of the findings of individual research groups in order to develop a robust description of the climate and subsistence systems of the Indus period. Source: http://www.chikyu.ac.jp/rihn_e/project/H-03.html

19th Congress of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association (IPPA), Hanoi, 29th November - 5th December 2009
Abstract
EXCAVATION AT KANMER, GUJARAT, INDIA

Kharakwal, J.S. Institute of Rajasthan Studies, JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur, India
Rawat, Y.S. State Department of Archaeology, Gujarat, India
Osada, Toshiki Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto. Japan

Kanmer (Bakarkot), a multicultural site, is located in Rapar tehsil of Kachchh district of Gujarat, India. Our controlled excavations have yielded five-stage cultural sequence at the site. Period I (i.e. Kanmer I) was marked by coarse and fine varieties of Red Ware, the latter often painted in bichrome. The charactristic Anarta material of course appears in the upper levels of this brown sandy clay deposit. Kanmer II (or Period II) is  characterised by residential structures and a strong fortification associated with the Harappan material similar to the urban phase of Dholavira. The bichrome and monochrome  pottery of Kanmer I, particularly one with a greyish or blackish surface,
gradually disappears in these levels whereas Anarta types continue. A large variety of Red Ware (e.g., Red Slipped, Black Slipped, Cream, Buff, Reserve Slipped, Coarse Red Ware and Local Ware) is predominant in this phase. Apart from these, Black-and-Red Ware and Reserve Slipped ware have also been found. This deposit is further divided into Kanmer II A and II B on the basis of appearance of new material, i.e.,Ahar type white painted Black-and-Red and Gritty Red Ware in Kanmer II B. Besides pottery, a variety of beads of semi precious stones, drill bits, rough outs and raw material, beads of faience, terracotta and paste, gold and shell and weights, seals, seal impressions, terracotta cakes and dices also mark the Harappan deposit. The remains of Kanmer III were identified as Late Harappan, which were found resting directly upon the urban phase settlement without any distinct cultural break. It appears that during this post-urban phase people did not maintain the fort wall, though several pottery types continue with some change in shape and surface treatment.

The site was reoccupied by the Early Historic (Iron Age) people after the desertion of the Harappans. Their deposit has been identified as cultural period Kanmer IV. During this period a variety of Red Ware including Red Polished Ware, Rang Mahal type Red Ware, Roman Amphorae and some West Asian pottery has been found at the site. A number of potter's kilns belonging to this period were discovered in the south central part of the mound. The last cultural level i.e., Kanmer V belonging to the Mediaeval period, was marked by residential structures and large numbers of storage pits.

The site has yielded varied faunal and floral remains. Cereals such as barley (Hordeum vulgare), bread-wheat (Triticum aestivum), dwarf-wheat (Triticum sphaerococcum), rice (Oryza sativa), field-pea (Pisum arvense), and green-gram (Vigna radiata) besides cotton (Gossypium arboretum/herbaceum) are in the collection. Perhaps rice appeared at the site during the Late Harappan phase.

The site has yielded evidence of both winter and summer crops. The faunal remains include mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and molluscan species. Among the domestic animals, cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and horse were identified. More than a dozen wild animals were identified in the collection, including the nilgai, antelopes, deer, carnivores, rodents and elephant.

kalyanaraman 5 Nov. 2009

Excavation at Kanmer revealed that the site was enclosed by massive stone-built perimeter walls. http://www.chikyu.ac.jp/rihn_e/project/4FR-3.html

Kanmer, Rapar taluka, Kutch, Gujarat, IndiaKanmer is a small settlement of Indus Civilization. It has five fold cultural sequence i.e., Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, Late Harppan, Historic and Medieval. The site is being excavated jointly by Department of Archaeology, Inst. Rajasthan Studies, JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udiapur, India, Gujarat State Department of Archaeology, India and Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto under the general direction of J.S. Kharakwal, Y.S. Rawat and Toshiki Osada.

submitted by
j.S. kharakwal 19 April 2007

On the Western merges of The Little Rann of Kutch, a small village with ancient history.
I've been staying at an archaeological excavation camp near by, I joined an expedition of Udaipur university headed by Dr. J.S. Kharakwal excavating a mound which belongs to the Hindus Vally civilisation.
The village is in a remote area and it preserved old traditions, cult, traditional wear and religion.
Many temples and shrines for the village goddess and other deities, Sati and hero stones.
The villagers maintain primitive cultivation of fields and trashing with oxes.
They greet each other with 'Jai Mata Ji' (greetings to the goddess).Kanmer: a harappan site in kachchh, Gujarat, india, pp. 21-137 Toshiki osada ed. Linguistics, archaeology and the human past (occasional paper 2) Kyoto: Indus project, research institute for humanity and nature
http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=16589&noglimit=1&mode=&order=
Site Name: Farmana Harappan burial site 
Country: India Type: Ancient Village or Settlement
Nearest Town: Delhi Nearest Village: Farmana
Latitude: 28.985470N  Longitude: 76.811110E
Ancient Village or Settlement in India. 65 graves point to largest Harappan burial site next door to capital. Archaeologists from three universities have been at work since the beginning of this year in Haryana’s Sonepat district, digging for what may turn out to be one of the most significant breakthroughs in the study of South Asian protohistory.

Evidence of 65 burials has been unearthed over the past month at the site in Farmana, 60-odd km from Delhi, making it the largest Harappan burial site found in India so far.

The digging is in its third season now. Evidence of seven burials was discovered last year, and should the work continue into another season, experts say Farmana may throw up evidence of a larger number of burials than even Harappa, the Pakistani Punjab town from which the civilisation of the Indus valley (c. 3300 BC-1300 BC) takes its name.

The discovery holds enormous potential, said Prof Vasant Shinde of the Department of Archaeology, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Pune, the director of the excavation project.

“With a larger sample size it will be easier for scholars to determine the composition of the population, the prevalent customs, whether they were indigenous or migrated from outside,” Prof Shinde said.

A century-and-a-half after the great civilization was discovered, historians still have no definite answers to a number of questions, including where the Harappans came from, and why their highly sophisticated culture suddenly died out.

“For the first time, we will conduct scientific tests on skeletal remains, pottery and botanical evidence found at the site, to try to understand multiple aspects of Harappan life,” Prof Shinde said.

“DNA tests on bones might conclusively end the debate on whether the Harappans were an indigenous population or migrants. Trace element analyses will help us chart their diet ¿ a higher percentage of zinc will prove they were non-vegetarians; larger traces of magnesium will suggest a vegetarian diet.”

Most chemical, botanical and physical anthropology tests will be done at Deccan College. But the more sophisticated and expensive DNA and dating tests will be conducted in Japan. The Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto and Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, are collaborating with Deccan College under the aegis of the Archaeological Survey of India for the project.

The team also plans to carry out coring tests in lakes around the Farmana site to ascertain climatic conditions prevalent at the time of the Harappan civilization, and investigate whether the decline of the culture followed catastrophic climate change.

The burials found so far are expected to be from around 4509 BP (before present), or 2600-2200 BC. “There are three different levels of burials and at some places skeletal remains have been found one above the other. All the graves are rectangular ¿ different from other Harappan burials sites, which usually have oblong graves,” Prof Shinde said.

The site shows evidence of primary (full skeleton), secondary (only some bones) and symbolic burials, with most graves oriented northwest-southeast, though there are some with north-south and northeast-southwest orientations as well. The variations in burial orientation suggests different groups in the same community, Prof Shinde said. The differences in the numbers of pots as offerings suggest social and economic differences within the community. Also in evidence are significant signs of regional variations that contest the idea of a homogenous Harappan culture.

Prof Upinder Singh of the Department of History, Delhi University, expressed enthusiasm about the project. “If such a large Harappan cemetery has been discovered, I am sure it is going to be of significant help in historical research,” she said. “The entire fraternity of research scholars and academics would be looking forward to knowing about the findings at the site.”

Source: Indian Express March 3, 2009
Kharakwal, JS, YS Rawat and Toshiki Osada, 2007, Kanmer: a Harappan site in Kachchh, Gujarat, India. Pp. 21-137 in: Toshiki Osada (ed.), Linguistics, archaeology and the human past (Occasional paper 2) Kyoto: Indus project, Research institute for Humanity and Nature.

Megaliths

Natural deaths, unnatural deaths: stone planting Vedic samskara In normal deaths, the soul joins the departed ancestors after this ceremony. In unnatural deaths, the merger does not happen. The soul is directly made to merge with Narayanam param devam through a ceremony called Narayana Bali. In unnatural deaths, no cremation takes place. The body is buried and a stone is fixed on the site. As in the case of natural death ceremony, the rationale is that the soul gets fixed in this stone. But once the Narayana Bali ceremony is over, the stone (in which the soul was tied) is left in the waters. From the commentary for Pura nanuru verses 263 and 264, we come to know that Nadukal that we see in many places is not the original stone that was used to trap the departed soul for guiding it to leave for the other realm. That stone is left in running water after the ceremony. Later a location is chosen with a bed of small stones on the ground – over which a stone with the engraving of the image of the departed person and his name is installed. Red flowers and peacock feathers are decorated to this stone and regular poojas are done with incense and food. .. In verse 260 also we find a clear mention that the soul has left for Higher worlds. The stone that is installed where the person died is used as a memorial. The Yajur Vedic mantras do describe the stone culture whereby the soul is trapped and left in the waters by which the transfer to the other realm is made. (1) *A curious information is that this ceremony of the Nadukal is restricted to Mullai lands of Tamil nadu (forest tracts). In his commentary on sutra 5 of Tholkaapiyam Puraththinai, Nachinaarkiniyar says that it is the custom of people of Mullai tracts to leave the stone in the waters, followed by planting a stone (as a memorial). (கல் நாட்டுதல் பெரும் படைக்குப் பின்னாக கூறிர்ராலேனின் நீர்ப் படுத்தப் பின்னர், கல் படுத்து , பெயர் பொறித்து, நாட்டுதல் காட்டு நாட்டோர் முறைமை ). This is written by him for explaining the Tholkaapiya sutra 5 Puratththinai - காட்சி கால்கோ ணீர்ப்படை நடுகல். Kaal kol is the first level ceremony of establishing the stone. This is followed by neer-padai by which the stone is left in the waters (the ceremony of transferring the soul to the realm of departed soul) This is followed by planting a stone as memorial. This memorial is what we see as nadukal in many places in Tamil nadu. * The curious feature is that Tholkaapiyam says that this custom is prevalent in Mullai of Maayon. Similar stones are found in Saraswathy Basin (Harappan) also. I have always theorized that the saraswathy civilization is post Krishna civilization of the people who left Dwaraka in the wake of the deluge... Photo courtesy :- Dept of Archeology http://images.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://www.tnarch.gov.in/images/epi- Memorial for a hero who lost his life in a cattle ride, 6th Century CE Tiruvannamalai Dist http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_j7IwynrIhuk/S5QEZFiWIQI/AAAAAAAABGw/OrLA4c7OcoQ/s320/nadukal.bmp Reference:- (1) (1) Dear friends! A river filled with stones is flowing, try to cross it, stand up and strive to go beyond. Renounce all that which is painful and accept all, that which gives happiness. This world is alike a river and the human being has to cross it to reach the paraloka(heaven) if the human being strives with preservance and grit he can easily cross the river of material life. (http://www.aryabhatt.com/vedas/yajurveda5.htm) YV 35/10. ashmanvatI rIyate saM rabhadhvam uttiShThata pra taratA sakhAyaH | atrA jahAma ye asann ashevAH shivAn vayam ut taremAbhi vAjAn || RV 10.53.8 ashmanvatI flows by. Hold tight together, keep your self erect and cross [the river], friends. There let us leave that which is not good, and we cross over to that which is auspicious. [This is the single most important element of the sauchIka agni hymns in terms of a date. It clearly mentions crossing of the river ashmanvatI to the other side where the auspicious lies. http://manasataramgini.wordpress.com/2006/11/26/the-crossing-of-ashmanvati ashmanvatI rIyate saM rabhadhvamut tiSThata pra taratAsakhAyaH |\\ atrA jahAma ye asannashevAH shivAn vayamuttaremAbhi vAjAn A river full of stones is flowing very fast. O friends! Get up with a zeal and cross this river well.But there is a condition. Whatever pains or restricts you, leave that here. We should cross this river to attain a position of welfare and well-being. 10.53 (varga 14) verse 8a ashmanvatI rIyate saM rabhadhvamut tiSThata pra taratAsakhAyaH |\\ 10.53 (varga 14) verse 8c atrA jahAma ye asannashevAH shivAn vayamuttaremAbhi vAjAn ||\\ See Aashvalaayana Grhya Mantra Vyaakhya, Chapter 4, p. 248. (Source: Ram Gopal, 1983, The history and principles of vedic interpretation, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, p.26) http://jayasreesaranathan.blogspot.com/2010/03/stone-binds-energy.html A stone between the dead body and the living relations, marks off the boundary-line of Death's domain Rigveda 10.53.8 (cf. AV 12,2,26; VS 35,10) is rendered in a funeral rite. Monier- Williams remarks that the rules of the AsvaUyana Grihya Sutras relating to funeral ceremonies possess great interest in their connexion with the 18th hymn of the 10th Mandala of the Rig-Veda : " Although the Sutras direct that the texts of this hymn are to be used yet the rite must have undergone considerable modifications since the period when the hymn was composed." " We notice even at that early epoch an evident belief in the soul's eternal existence, and the permanence of its personality hereafter, which notably contrasts with the later ideas of transmigration, absorption into the divine essence, and pantheistic identification with the supreme Soul of the universe. *' We learn also from this same hymn that the body in ancient times was not burnt but buried ; nor can we discover the slightest allusion to the later practice of Sati or cremation of the widow with her husband. "The corpse of the deceased person was deposited close to a grave dug ready for its reception, and by its side his widow, if he happened to be a married man, seated herself, while his children, relatives, and friends ranged themselves in a circle round her. The priest stood near at an altar, on which the sacred fire was kindled, and having invoked Death, called upon him to withdraw from the path of the living, and not to molest the young and healthy survivors, who were assembled to perform pious rites for the dead, without giving up the expectation of a long life themselves. He then placed a stone between the dead body and the living relations, to mark off the boundary-line of Death's domain, and offered up a prayer that none of those present might be removed to another world before attaining to old age, and that none of the younger might be taken before the elder Then the widow\s married female friends walked up to the altar and offered oblations in the fire ; after which the widow herself withdrew from the inner circle assigned to the dead, and joined the survivors outside the boundary-line, while the officiating priest took the bow out of the hand of the deceased, in order to show that the manly strength which he possessed during life, did not perish with him, but remained with his family. The body was then tenderly laid ia the grave with repetition of the words of the hymn : " Open thy arms, earth, receive the dead With gentle pressure and with loving welcome. Enshroud him tenderly, e'en as a mother Folds her soft vestment round the child she loves. Soul of the dead 1 depart ; take thou the path The ancient path by which our ancestors have Gone before thee." " The ceremony was concluded by the careful closing of the tomb with a stone slab. Finally a mound of earth was raised to mark and consecrate the spot." http://www.archive.org/stream/lawsofmanuormana00murduoft/lawsofmanuormana00murduoft_djvu.txt  Murdoch, John, 1898, "The laws of Manu; or, Manava Dharma-sástra, abridged English translation", London, Christian Literature Society of India. Haradatta: “The gods invoked by Agni to a sacrifice address each other: ashmanvatii, i.e. the unobstructed divine army, should march forward. You should also get ready to go to the sacrifice. Traverse the journey, O friends. In our journey let us avoid uncomfortable paths and adopt the comfortable ones for the sake of sacrificial foods.” …ashmanvati (full of stones), i.e. having a stone placed towards the north, this rite riiyate proceeds, i.e. concludes. O relatives! You should get ready to traverse the paths leading to your houses…” Ashmanvatii riiyate sam rabhadhvam uttishthata pra tarata sakhaayah atria jahaama ye asannashevaah shivaan vayam ut taremaabhi vaajaan (RV 10.53.8) Dear friends! A river filled with stones is flowing, try to cross it, stand up and strive to go beyond. Renounce all that which is painful and accept all, that which gives happiness. This world is alike a river and the human being has to cross it to reach the paraloka(heaven) if the human being strives with preservance and grit he can easily cross the river of material life. (http://www.aryabhatt.com/vedas/yajurveda5.htm) YV 35/10. ashmanvatI rIyate saM rabhadhvam uttiShThata pra taratA sakhAyaH | atrA jahAma ye asann ashevAH shivAn vayam ut taremAbhi vAjAn || RV 10.53.8 ashmanvatI flows by. Hold tight together, keep your self erect and cross [the river], friends. There let us leave that which is not good, and we cross over to that which is auspicious. [This is the single most important element of the sauchIka agni hymns in terms of a date. It clearly mentions crossing of the river ashmanvatI to the other side where the auspicious lies. http://manasataramgini.wordpress.com/2006/11/26/the-crossing-of-ashmanvati ashmanvatI rIyate saM rabhadhvamut tiSThata pra taratAsakhAyaH |\\ atrA jahAma ye asannashevAH shivAn vayamuttaremAbhi vAjAn A river full of stones is flowing very fast. O friends! Get up with a zeal and cross this river well.But there is a condition. Whatever pains or restricts you, leave that here. We should cross this river to attain a position of welfare and well-being. 10.53 (varga 14) verse 8a ashmanvatI rIyate saM rabhadhvamut tiSThata pra taratAsakhAyaH |\\ 10.53 (varga 14) verse 8c atrA jahAma ye asannashevAH shivAn vayamuttaremAbhi vAjAn ||\\ See Aashvalaayana Grhya Mantra Vyaakhya, Chapter 4, p. 248. (Source: Ram Gopal, 1983, The history and principles of vedic interpretation, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, p.26) S. Kalyanaraman, 22 Feb. 2010 Living tradition, venerating ancestors: dolmen and Rigveda Stone that separates the living from the dead: Rigveda This note points to the essential connection between dolmen in many parts of the globe and the funerary practices described in the Rigveda. Planting the stone is a way of venerating the ancestors. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolmen A dolmen is a megalithic tomb with three or more upright stones. The dolmen is derived from taol maen ‘stone table’ in Breton, a Celtic language. Dolmen are found in all continents of the globe. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Muniyara.jpg/220px-Muniyara.jpg See dolmen in Marayoor, Kerala belonging to Adi Chera. See the megalithic portal http://www.megalithic.co.uk/ See Morernani a megalithic site in India: http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=15839 Megalithic site found in South Sumatra Wed, 02/17/2010 2:13 PM  The Archipelago The findings are said to date back to 5000 BCE http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/02/17/megalithic-site-found-south-sumatra.html The living megalithic tradition in eastern Indonesia by Haris Sukendar, Indonesian National Research Centre of Archaeology, Jakarta: http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/view/502/491 The Continuity of Megalithic Culture and Dolmen in Indonesia By Dr. Agus Aris Munandar, Departement of Archaeology Faculty of Humanities University of Indonesia Dolmen is the “stone table completely with menhir as legs” (SOKMONO, R., 1973, Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia I. Yogyakarta: Yayasan Kanisius, p. 72) http://www.idolmen.org/file/pdf/s149-152.pdf Rigvedic rite of burying the bones from the cremation includes the planting of a stone. This is intended to separate the living from the dead. RV 10.18.9 Taking his bow from the hand of the dead man, for the sake of our vigour, energy and sgtrength, (I say) you are there; may we (who are) here, blessed with male offspring, overcome all the enemies who assail us. Dhanur hastaad aadadaano mrutasyaasme kshatraaya carcase balaaya Atraiva tvam ih vayam suveeraa vishvaa sprdho abhimaateer jayema RV 10.18.9 With this rica, a stone is set up between the dead and the living to separate them “According to this approach, food or water that is offered to the pitrs is first offered to  Visnu and thereby transformed intovisnu-prasada. The word prasada means "mercy" or  "grace." Thus visnu-prasada is God's grace. This prasada of Visnu is then offered to the  pitrs, who now receive God's grace instead of mere food or water. In this way, the grace  of God has the power to elevate and sustain the pitrs in a manner that no human power  can match. In the case of a homa or havan, a ritual performed with fire, the fire is used  as the "delivery system" by which Visnu is first offered food. This food offering, which is  now God's grace, is then offered to the pitrs through the fire. It is thus  Agnideva, the fire  God, who acts as the link between this world and the world of the pitrs.” (Pancharatra tradition: Hindu Funeral Rites and Ancestor Worship [1] Antyesti, Sraddha and Tarpanahttp://www.scribd.com/doc/2676491/sraaddha1 ) Megaliths, menhir, planting a stone: abiding tradition for thousands of years http://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/megaliths The page provides scores of examples of megaliths with menhirs all over Bharat. The practice of venerating the ancestors by planting a long stone continues even today in the antyeshti ceremonies performed after cremation of a person. The person authorized to perform the samskara, usually the eldest son or a jnaati (relative of the deceased person), includes an important process: planting of a stone. This is referred to as The meaning of the gloss, kal  is: (Tamil. Telugu. Tu. Ka. Ma.) Memorial stone in a village, as for a hero; வீரக்கல். பலர் . . . கன்னின்றவர் (குறள், 771).  A stone fixed in the house of a deceased person for ten days since his demise;சாச்சடங்கில் இறந்தார்பொருட்டுப் பத்துநாளைக்கு நாட் டப்படுங் கல். 10. A flaw in emeralds, one of eight marakata-k-kuṟṟam, q.v.; மரகதக்குற்றம் எட்டனுள் ஒன்று. (சிலப். 14, 184, உரை.)  Megaliths are standing memorials of this Hindu samskara. A stone is planted in the house of the deceased, after cremation, for a period of ten days. What has been found in Sembiyan Kandiyur is consistent with the practice of Pitru-medha described in As’valayana Grhya Sutra. Post cremation Burial (Pitr-medha) During the Vedic and early Grhya periods it was common to bury the incinerated bones of a deceased person in an urn. This was the pitr-medha ceremony. The Grhya-sutras of Asvalayana describe how the burned bones were to be collected on the third lunar day (tithi) after death. In the case of a man who had died, the bones were to be collected by elderly men and placed into a male urn. In the case of a woman, the bones were to be collected by elderly women and placed into a female urn. Urns were designed by their shape to be male or female. The performers of this ceremony were to walk three times in a counterclockwise direction around the bones while sprinkling milk and water from a particular kind of twig (sami). The bones were then placed into the urn as they were picked up individually with the thumb and fourth finger. First the bones of the feet were to be gathered and then successively the other bones were to be gathered working toward the head. After the bones had been purified and gathered they were sealed and buried in a secure location. http://hindutva97.blogspot.com/2008/04/hindu-cremation-rites-including-pitru.html Megaliths, menhir, planting a stone: abiding tradition for thousands of yearshttp://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/megaliths The page provides scores of examples of megaliths with menhirs all over Bharat. The practice of venerating the ancestors by planting a long stone continues even today in the antyeshti ceremonies performed after cremation of a person, the person authorized to perform the samskara, usually the eldest son or a jnaati (relative of the deceased person), performs an important process: planting of a stone. The meaning of the gloss, kal  is: (Tamil. Telugu. Tu. Ka. Ma.)  Memorial stone in a village, as for a hero; வீரக்கல். பலர் . . . கன்னின்றவர் (குறள், 771).  A stone fixed in the house of a deceased person for ten days since his demise; சாச்சடங்கில் இறந்தார்பொருட்டுப் பத்துநாளைக்கு நாட் டப்படுங் கல். 10. A flaw in emeralds, one of eight marakata-k-kuṟṟam, q.v.; மரகதக்குற்றம் எட்டனுள் ஒன்று. (சிலப். 14, 184, உரை.)  Megaliths are standing memorials of this Hindu samskara. A stone is planted in the house of the deceased, after cremation, for a period of ten days. Kalyanaraman 19 Dec. 2009 Atharva Veda refers to Iron as a metal: Atharva Veda: 11.3.5, 6, 7 ashvaa kanaa gaavastandulaa mashakaastushaah ||5|| kabru faleekaranaah sharo'bhram ||6|| shyaamamayo'sya maamsaani lohitamasya lohitam || 7|| Horses are the grains, oxen the winnowed ricegrains, gnats the husks. (5) Kabru is the husked grain, the rain cloud is the reed. (6) Grey iron is its flesh, copper its blood. (7) The above hymn is in glorification of Odana or the boiled rice, a staple diet for most Indians even now. It glorifies Odana metaphorically in many ways by saying that Brihaspati is its head, Brahma the mouth, Heaven and Earth are the ears, the Sun and Moon are the eyes, the seven Rishis are the vital airs inhaled and exhaled, and so on. Links:  Bronze Age India and the State in History Metal work in Bronze Age India See also:  Bronze Age and Iron Age artifacts unearthed in Myanmar The Bronze Age of Southeast AsiaThe Bronze Age of Southeast Asia By Charles Higham Bronze age stone urns in Assam, Sulawesi, Laos: migrations over millennia from northern India through SE Asia to Indonesia Recreating an ancient trade route Bronze age indus quarries of Rohri hills and Ongar in Sindh Source:  By Charles Higham, 1996, The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia, p. 295 http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/AA/pinnow-map-small.jpg  Location map of Austro-speakers and location map of mineral resources evidence a remarkable overlap,suggesting a hypothesis that mleccha speakers were the inventors of bronze-age alloying and also of Indus script. Megaliths, ancient temples and Sarasvati civilization continuumThis webpage provides an overview of megaliths of Bharat and perspectives on Bronze age iron in Bharat. The so-called gap in history between post-Indus valley (ca. 1900 BCE) and historical periods (6th cent. BCE) has been bridged. The early iron assemblages of Bhagawanpura and Dadheri have bridged this gap. See notes at:  http://www.docstoc.com/docs/17836531/megalithiciron What were once categorized as megalithic sites [e.g. Kanmer (Kutch), Farmana (near Rakhi Garhi)], have now been recognised as Sarasvati civilization sites with the discoveries of metal artefacts and objects with Indus script. The discovery of bronze ratha, bronze sculptures of typical Indus script animals and of a round seal containing only one pictograph: the rim of a narrow-neck jar (the most frequently occurring Indus script sign) at Daimabad, dated to ca. 1400 BCE have extended the civilization impact area south of the Vindhyas to the banks of Pravara river in Maharashtra. The typical megaliths of Kanmer are found in the length and breadth of Bharat in scores of megalithic sites, most of which are also temple sites. Together with dolmens and mehirs, most of these megalithic sites have been recognized as iron age sites with discoveries of iron artefacts. The discovery of iron smelters in Ganga basin (Malhar, Lohardewa, Raja-nal-ki-tila) by Rakesh Tiwari point to the dating of bronze age iron to ca. 18th cent. BCE and iron age continued into the historical periods in this basin. The archaeological team of DK Chakrabarti and RN Singh of Univ. of Cambridge have located over 100 archaeological sites near Rakhigarhi (the largest site of the civilization excavated so far).  There are larger sites in Bhatinda, Gurnikalan (ca. 200 ha.) which need to be explored. Together with the exploration of over 1800 archaeological sites on Sarasvati River Basin, it will also be necessary to excavate selected Megalithic sites to unearth the continuity of Sarasvati civilization beyond Daimabad in the regions south of the Vindhyas. Megaliths are a veneration of ancestors of the civilization. So are the stupas (dagobas) found in Sarasvati civilization area and in many other parts of Bharat and regions north-west of Bharat.  It is not a mere coincidence that the word kole.l means both a smithy and a temple in Kota and Toda languages. The artisans who worked with metals also invented the temples as places to venerate the ancestors and adarsha purusha. The techniques of ligatures used on Indus script and Indus age sculptures continue in the shilpa of utsava beras and also divinities depicted with multiple arms carrying weapons and other cultural artefacts.  All these sites become, together with water-bodies endowed with sacredness, tirthasthanas. At the tirthasthanas (as in Pehoa, Prthudaka on the banks of River Sarasvati in Haryana, near Kurukshetra), pitr-s, ancestors are venerated by the offerings of tarpanam and pinda pradaanam. If Gaya on Ganga is pitr-gaya, Sarasvati has maatr-gaya in tirthasthana such as Siddhapura (Gujarat). The legacy of stone-cutters [sangataraasu (Te.); sang 'stone' (K.)] who could create a rock-cut reservoir continue into rock-cut caves such as those of Udayagiri and other megalithic cave/rock-art sites. Pillars similar to the polished stone pillars created in Dholavira are found in many temples and shivalingas of many megalithic sites. The image of Varaha and Mahishasura mardhini become a pan-bharatiya hindu metaphor. The blending of adhyaatma with the sculptural tradition is unique in Hindu civilization, a veritable reverberation of dharma in its many ethical facets and facets of cultural expression as in yoga, aasanas, namaste, wearing of sindhu, veneration of shiva with perpetual dripping of water in abhishekam evoking the water-giver doing tapasya sitting on the summit of Mt. Kailas and yielding 10 of the greatest rivers of the world from Manasarovar glacier nearby. The celebration of divinity in every phenomena, in men, in women, in mountains, in waters rendering them all sacred makes the bharatabhumi itself sacred, a geographical manifestation of bharatamaataa. The world-view of Bharatiya immersed in dharma expands and merges secular, aadhyatmika and mundane life into a seamless web, eka neeDham (a web). Sarasvati heritage is a challenge to archaeologists, geologists, art historians to help unravel the continuum of Hindu civilization and culture which lives on, as Sarasvati flows on. A beginning can be made by revisiting megaliths and identifying sites for further exploration to define the cultural continuum of Hindu civilization. kalyanaraman kalyan97@gmail.com 29 Nov. 2009 http://www.acme.com/GeoRSS/?xmlsrc=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/cache/georss_79.689532_12.842249.xml (Map) Early iron age in South Asia: Gregory Possehl and Praveena Gullapalli (1999)  Bronze age iron in India Bronze Age iron and Metalithic sites. Excerpts from the article: “There are four principal archaeological assemblages that document the Early Iron Age in South Asia: the Gandharan Grave Culture, the Painted Grey Ware Assemblage, the Pirak Assemblage, and the Megalithic Complex (although Chakrabarti [1992] points a six region division). The early iron from these assemblages has been dated to the first half of the first millennium BCE, with some dates circa 1000 BCE. (Nagaraja Rao 1971; Gaur 1983)…Painted Grey Ware sites extend from the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan east across the Punjab into Uttar Pradesh in India…The ceramic wares of the Painted Grey Ware assemblage are quite different from those of the Harappan and Post-urban Harappan that precede the assemblace in northern India and Cholistan…Jagat Pati Joshi and his tem…their excavations at Bhagawanpura and Dadheri have found evidence for Post-urban Harappan occupations followed by an overlap between the Post-urban Harappan and the Painted Grey Ware (Joshi 1976, 1978, 1993). Thus the historical gap that once existed separating the Early Iron Age culture from those of the preceding Bronze Age in northern India and Pakistan has now been closed and there is good evidence for cultural continuity between the two periods…Number of Painted Grey Ware sites: Bahawalpur 14, Punjab 108, Haryana 258, Rajasthan 101, Uttar Pradesh 218…The Megaliths of South Asia are an immense field of study…The connections have not yet been sorted out for this complex…Archaeological stratigraphy, radiocarbon dates, and the study of associated materials inform us, however, that the earliest Megaliths in the subcontinent date from somewhat early in the first or in the very late second millennium, and are associated with the early mass production of iron…Numbers of megalithic sites in Peninsular India by state (From Deo 1985-89): Tamil Nadu 389, Karnataka 300, Kerala 188, Andhra Pradesh 147, Maharashtra 90, Pondicherry 3…The earliest iron implements associated with the Peninsular Indian Megalithic are simple implements such as arrowheads, daggers, and domestic vessels. They are associated with the transitional times between the Megalithic Complex and the preceding South Indian Neolithic. There is solid evidence for cultural continuity in the region during this shift in metal technology (Shaffer 1995). The earliest date for iron in the region (ca. 1100 BCE) is from the Neolithic/Megalithic Period of Hallur on the Tungabhadra River in Karnataka (Nagaraja Rao 1971, 1981)…Excavations at Gufkral in the Vale of Kashmir by the Archaeological Survey of India (Indian Archaeology, A Review 1981-82: 19-25) have revealed a ‘Megalithic’ occupation associated with iron… Radiocarbon dates for Gufkral Period II, Megalithic iron age Lab. No. Calibrated date BCE (1d CAL) (Calib-3 program) BS-434            2195 (2035) 1900 BS-431            1885 (1747) 1677 BS-433            2131 (1945) 1779 BS-371            1888 (1747) 1674 …These dates would push back the widespread use of iron into the beginnings of the second millennium BCE. There is an underlying Neolithic at Gufkral, however, and we know almost nothing about the nature and amount of iron found in Period II. Could we be documenting an instance of ‘Bronze Age Iron’ in the subcontinent here?... Read on… http://www.docstoc.com/docs/17836531/megalithiciron  S.No Iron Age Sites 14C/ TL/ OSL Dates 1 Ahar [ Rajasthan] 2124 – 1707 BC [IB], 1871 – 1526 BC [IC]The Calibrated points for IB and IC be considered 2100 and 1900 BC 2 Gufkral [Kashmir] 1850- 1550 BC 3 Peshawar and Chitral [ Northwest] 1000 BC / Gandhara grave culture- 1800 BC 4   Nagda, Eran, Dangwada [Malwa] c. 2000 – 1750 BC, 1500 BC Calibrated,Nagda, 1100BC [ un calibrated] 5     Vidarbha c. 1000 BC 6 Hallur, Veerapuram,  Kumaranahalli, Watgal - IIB[Deccan] Hallur- 1378 BC, 1255 BC [14C ], Veerapuram – 1525 BC, 1295 BC [14 C], KumaranaHalli – 1470 BC, 1410 BC, 1350 BC, 1160 BC [ TL ], Watgal- IIB- c.2300- 2000 BC , IIC- 2000 BC, IV- c.1500BC 7 *Adichanallur,[TamilNadu] 3000± 700, 3400± 700, 3160±600, 2700±600, 2600±500, 2500±530, 1920±350 BP [OSL ] 8 Bahiri,  [West Bengal] 1200- 1000 BC 9 Golbai Sasan [Orissa] 1100- 900 BC 10 Barudih,[Jharkhand] 1401 – 837 BC 11 Dadupur, Jakherea, Raja – Nal- Tila, Malhar, Belan Valley, Jhusi- Allahabad, Lohuradeva, [UP] 1700 BC,[Dadupur], 1882- 1639 BC, [Malhar] 2012 – 1742 BC, [ Raja- Nal- Tila], c. 1300 BC [Belan Valley,Jhusi- 1100 BC, Lohurdeva- 1200/1100 BC [Calibrated] Source Indian Archaeology*NIOT Author: D.K Chakravarti*OSL dates:R.K.Gartia, Manipur University Iswal iron-age site Megaliths: Orissa, Karnataka, other states Ayawal* Burial Chamber (Dolmen)  Kutkankeri* Cup and Ring marks / Rock Art Ujjain* Ancient Temple Vaital temple* Ancient Temple  Lingraj temple* Ancient Temple  Bindu Sagar Ancient Temple  Brahmeshwara temple* Ancient Temple  Mukteshwar Temple* Ancient Temple  Kedar Gouri Temple* Ancient Temple  Parsusrameswar temple* Ancient Temple  Rajarani temple* Ancient Temple  Konarak sun temple* Ancient Temple  Undavalli cave temple* Ancient Temple  Udaigiri Caves Cave or Rock Shelter Konarak sun temple* Ancient Temple Read on...http://www.docstoc.com/docs/17876610/megaliths2 Megaliths in Tamilnadu, Kerala  Marayoor Muniyaras* Barrow Cemetery  Sambandhanur burial site Burial Chamber (Dolmen)  Kollur Burial Chamber (Dolmen)  Sri Kailasanathar temple* Ancient Temple  Sri Katchabeswarar temple* Ancient Temple  Sri Ekambaranathar temple* Ancient Temple  Sri Vaikuntha Perumal Temple* Ancient Temple  Sri Ranganathaswamy temple* Ancient Temple  Rock Fort temple* Ancient Temple  Edakkal Caves Cave or Rock Shelter  Chidambaram Natarаja temple* Ancient Temple  Mamallapuram* Ancient Temple  Mamallapuram Shore Temple* Ancient Temple  Halebidu* Ancient Temple  Tiger Headed Rock-Cut Cave* Ancient Temple  Atiranachanda* Ancient Temple  Sri brahadeeswara temple Ancient Temple  Sri Brihadeeswara temple* Ancient Temple  Kerareshwarah Temple* Ancient Temple  Vijayalaiaieswar temple* Ancient Temple  Narthamalai temples* Ancient Temple  Ammachatram* Barrow Cemetery  Sithannavasal* Barrow Cemetery  Kudminatha Temple* Ancient Temple  Read on...http://www.docstoc.com/docs/17827842/megalithstamilnadu Megalithic sites in Bharat: links  Bhuj* Ancient Temple Latitude: 23.254139N  Longitude: 69.661111E  Ghandigram ancient cemetery* Standing Stones Latitude: 22.861492N  Longitude: 69.285253E  Lothal* Ancient Village or Settlement Latitude: 22.400000N  Longitude: 72.300000E  Mount Abu* Ancient Temple Latitude: 24.401519N  Longitude: 72.451117E  Banaravandh* Barrow Cemetery Latitude: 24.401519N  Longitude: 72.451117E  Maha Kalika temple* Ancient Village or Settlement Latitude: 23.830000N  Longitude: 68.780000E  Lakhpat fort* Stone Fort or Dun Latitude: 23.825503N  Longitude: 68.777458E  Jakhou port cemetery* Ancient Village or Settlement Latitude: 23.214900N  Longitude: 68.711500E  Gomtidwarka Temple* Ancient Temple Latitude: 22.250558N  Longitude: 68.964861E  Dwarka* Ancient Temple Latitude: 22.230828N  Longitude: 68.970722E  Jaisalmer area* Sculptured Stone Latitude: 26.910000N  Longitude: 70.910000E  Udaipur* Ancient Temple Latitude: 24.784275N  Longitude: 74.677661E  Ujjain* Ancient Temple Latitude: 23.175978N  Longitude: 75.784425E  Bundi* Ancient Temple Latitude: 25.441144N  Longitude: 75.642408E  Sarasvati River Indus script Ancient Village or Settlement Lat.: 27.370000N  Longitude: 74.280000E  Ellora cave temples* Ancient Temple Latitude: 20.042492N  Longitude: 75.167508E  Karla caves* Cup and Ring marks / Rock Art Latitude: 18.740000N  Longitude: 73.420000E  Bhim Betka* Cup and Ring marks / Rock Art Latitude: 22.927778N  Longitude: 77.583333E  Sanchi* Ancient Temple Latitude: 23.479342N  Longitude: 77.739819E  Heliodorus pillar* Ancient Temple Latitude: 23.523364N  Longitude: 77.805214E  Drugdhamna Stone Circle Latitude: 21.187430N  Longitude: 78.224230E  Farmana Harappan burial site Ancient Village or Settlement Lat.: 28.985470N  Long.: 76.811110E http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=16589  See images of these megalithic sites. Megalithic sites from Gauri Shankar to Rameshwaram See http://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/kanmer The discovery of Kanmer, Rann of Kutch, as a Sarasvati civilization site points to the need for re-visiting the following megalithic sites, some of which show menhir stones and all of which have ancient temples. The heritage may be traceable to Sarasvati civilization times, if systematic archaeological exploratory work is carried out. The grand narrative of cultural artefacts and metallurgical evolution which defined Sarasvati civilization may perhaps explain why kole.l means both a smithy and a temple in Kota/Toda tradition. The sites outlined are: Gauri Shankar, Khadir, Dhrangadhra, Khotay, Anegundi, Badami, Rameshwaram. Read on...http://www.docstoc.com/docs/17671649/megalithicsites Megaliths, India A good overview of "Preshistoric human colonization of India" is given by V.N. Misra here, although the megalith culture is there seen to date - incorrectly - to the Iron Age, on the unproven presumption that iron tools were necessary to make such sites. Certainly this does not apply to Neolithic megaliths and dolmens Misra writes: "A variety of megalithic monuments, erected as burials or memorials, are found in the northern Vindhyas in southern Uttar Pradesh, Vidarbha region of Maharashtra and over most parts of south India. These monuments include cairns, stone circles, dolmens, dolmenoid cists, port-hole cists, menhirs, and rock cut caves, the last  confined to Kerala (Krishnaswami 1949; Gururaja Rao 1972; Sundara 1975). At several places in the northern Vindhyas, Vidarbha and south India, there are large megalithic fields containing several hundred burial monuments. In comparison to the burial sites, the habitation sites are few and far between, suggesting that a part of the megalithic population may have led a semi-nomadic life. The erection of these burials could be achieved only with the help of iron tools meant for quarrying and dressing large rock slabs and boulders. Some of the burial types like port-hole cists (a type of megalithic monument) are very elaborate, involving several large dressed slabs and provision of a hole in one of the slabs for insertion of new dead bodies at a later date. A number of burial sites and a few habitation sites have been excavated, the more important being Takalghat and Khapa (Deo 1970), Mahurjhari (Deo 1973) and Naikund (Deo and Jamkhedkar 1982) in Vidarbha; Brahmagiri and Chandravalli (Wheeler 1948) and Jadigenhalli (Seshadri 1960) in Karnataka; Nagarjunakonda (Subrahmanyam et al 1975) in Andhra Pradesh; Adichanallur (Rea 1902), Amirthamangalam (Banerjee 1956) and Sanur (Banerjee and Soundara Rajan 1959) in Tamil Nadu; and Porkalam (Thapar 1952) in Kerala." http://www.megaliths.net/india.htm A note on MEGALITHS and MEGALITHIC CULTURE of south India by ramchandra rao A large number of puzzling megalithic monuments are found all over south India: where did these people come from...are they wandering Celts..or Atlanteans fleeing from the destruction? Scythians from central asia, or very much a local group?Prehistoric Megaliths or large stone constructions dating from before written history are found in huge numbers in South India. The monuments are usually found in granitic areas.We still do not know exactly who the megalithic people were, whether they represent an immigrant group, or a local development. Since similar monuments are found in many places around the world, right from Ireland, malta, west asia, baluchistan to south east asia it is possible they represent a single group which spread all over the world. Among the possible groups are The Celts originating from central asia, who later became great seafarers: some group from West Asia like the ancient Elamites of mesopotamia: the Central Asian "Scythians", who roamed all over the world : a group of early Aryan tribes: and more fanciful, the Atlanteans washed off far and wide.The facts are known from archeology : the detailed explanations are yet to come.Structure:Most of the megaliths found appear to be graves or similar constructions. Very common are rectangular chambers made of large stone slabs. For instance near Hyderabad city the slabs are about 2 metres by one metre, about 6 cm thick.A box like structure is formed with the slabs resting on each other without any mortar. Sometimes there is an opening cut into one of the sides. Similar megaliths are found all the way from india, malta to Ireland but the usual dating of the indian megaliths is much more recent than the ones of britain/malta.Pottery:Invariably large well made, well fired wheel turned pottery is found. Usually it is black and red. Some pots still retain a shinypolish. In some areas notably Tamilnadu are urn fields, where large numbers of funeral urns filled with ashes and charred bones are seen. Sometimes terracotta sarcophagus also are found. One was of the size of a modern bathroom tub. It had a large lid and was decorated with a terracotta ram's head. Maybe some important person was buried in it.Metals:In all the south indian megaliths iron tools are found. It was an iron age culture. In sandstone area to the north copper tools were found, and they appear older. The iron tools are well made, massive, usually plough type and long crowbar -- celts or javelins. While the " javelins" might have been used for hunting, the local people even today use long steel rods for excavating soil and breaking granite boulders.Axes, arrowheads and large flat swords are seen. Horse stirrups, ladles, vessels(?), also are commonly found. In some areas bells are common, like the ones tied to necks of cows. In southern areas emblems of roosters ( the cockerel, or male 'jungle hen', gallus are reported.--- This has interesting implications. Economy It seems to be based on agriculture, with efficient -- in fact expert use of water and irrigation. Rice seems to be introduced by the megalithic people into s. India. Various other grains also are traced. Of particular significance is the making of granite stone dams across small seasonal rivulets. Becasue of the impervious dense and hard granitic bedrock, these dams form little lakes after the rains and keep the land moist for a long time until the height of the following summer. Two crops can be raised in otherwise arid areas. ( one of the few examples of beneficial meddling by our species).Ethnic aspectsMost of the opinions about the megalithic peoples are unfortunately based on pet notions , imaginary scenarios and the like. Today's politics too colour the opinions. But based on the meager facts everyone is welcome to speculate, providing it is clearly understood to be speculation.                    http://www.fortunecity.com/greenfield/tree/21/megal.htm                                                                                  Decoding the Indus script epigraphs of two Meluhha sites  The pictorial motifs and the epigraphs of the Kanmer seal and Gola Dhoro (Bagasra) seals and sealing have been decoded as metalsmith guild tokens. Both sites are in Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. The pictorial glyphs and the sign glyphs together constitute the listing of smithy/forge/metalguild workshop repertoire. Pictorial motif of a one-horned heifer in front of standard device is common to all the five seals of Gola Dhoro (Bagasra) and a sealing of Gola Dhoro: damá¹›a = heifer, young bull, steer (G.); Rebus: tambra = copper (Skt.) kod.e 'young bull'; Rebus: kot.e 'forge'. sangad.a 'lathe, furnace'. Rebus: sam.gara 'guild' (lit. agreeing together). Copper artefacts (Gola Dhoro); Copper knives with bone handles (Gola Dhoro)

Gola Dhoro Seals | Side view of the seal. Seal as part of some sort of container found at Gola Dhoro. Ancient Indus seal found at Gola Dhoro, frontal view.
Golo Dhoro being a very small site, we never expected to recover many Indus seals. To our great surprise the site has revealed five inscribed steatite seals with one horned animal - usually referred as unicorn, with a standard device engraved in front of it. The backs have prominently projecting pierced boss. Seals of this type are common in urban Harappan sites and most probably they may have been used in trade and exchange transactions by the Harappans. Stamped impression of such seals on a clay/terracotta sealing have also been found in the excavation.
One of the steatite seals discovered this season has decorative linear patterns incised on three sides and a deep, scooped out rectangular socket-like cavity on the fourth side and originally it perhaps had a sliding lid to cover the socket. These are in addition to the usual engraved inscription and the unicorn figure on the seal and therefore it appears to be a unique one, since such seals with socket have not been reported from any other Harappan site so far.
The gates of the fortification have been eluding us, but during last season's excavations we have been able to locate entrance to the fort on the southern side of the settlement. However during the next proposed excavation season, we would like to probe the eastern side of the fortification where we suspect that we may be able to find another entrance. Besides, we would like to reopen the shell working and stone bead making areas.
Habitation at the site continued in the post-urban period too for another 200 years up to 1700 BCE. In the last phase there are indication that the trade activities and the production of various craft items, use of the fortification wall, writing and making steatite seals came to an abrupt end. Archaeologists studying the manufacturing techniques and artistic styles of the modern artisans are begging to reconstruct how the ancient artisans produced these striking objects. They also study some relationship between these crafts and traditional trading practices in order to understand better the economic organization of the ancient cities and towns. By combining the results of these craft studies with similar information on subsistence, archaeologists are now beginning to better understand the Harappan civilization. The detailed analysis of the excavated data of Gola Dhoro is hoped to help archaeologist to better understand this unique and one of the earliest civilization of the world. http://www.harappa.com/goladhoro/goladhorosealfind.html Craft Production at Gola Dhoro |   Faience Making A large number of tubular beads and a few bangles of faience were recovered from the site. The local manufacture of faience from the site comes from the recovery of large number of chunks of white rock quartz that may have been the basic source of silica powder used in the faience production. The areas associated with the production of silica powder are mostly associated with intense burning and whitish powder and are confined to within the fortified area only. One such interesting area measuring 3.5 x 2m is situated close to the eastern periphery of the fortification wall. Here a fine patch of fire contained a thick layer of whitish powder and small quartz pieces. X-ray Diffraction analyses of the whitish powder samples from these areas indicate it as quartz powder. The recovery of exceptionally large number and heavy stone querns and pestles kept upside down in near by area perhaps used in the preparation in silica powder. Presence of them in larger numbers at one place perhaps suggest their industrial rather than domestic use. Repeated firing and subsequent crushing of quartz to produce a fine quartz powder to be used as an abrasive in polishing of stone bead is being carried out in present day at Khambhat. A similar technique to produce a fine silica powder for the production of faience objects seems to have been carried out by the Harappans at Gola Dhoro. Except for the areas used preparation of silica powder we have not so for recovered anything else that could be positively associated with the faience production.   Stone Bead Making  Another important craft activity carried out at the site was stone bead production. The majority of the evidence of this craft comes from the southern half of the settlement outside the fortification wall. Though at present we are not able to claim to have discovered the workshop, but we are hopeful that further excavations at the site may yield fruitful evidence. This craft at the site is represented by large number of stone beads, also found in various stages of their production. The assemblage associated with stone bead production also include tapered cylindrical drills made on chert, jasper and chalcedony and constricted cylindrical drills made on a rare form of metamorphic rock that is referred to as "Ernestite" for drilling soft and hard stones respectively. However, one of the important discoveries associated with this industry is the recovery of stockpiles of raw material, neatly kept in two clay-lined bins that containing large amounts variegated and molted jasper. Both these bins were recovered from a trench close to the interior eastern periphery of the fortification wall. A preliminary observation of these bins indicated that the materials were segregated on the bases of size and the type of raw material. One of the bins contains larger chunks of green - red - white variegated jasper, a broken stone dish and a few complete good quality T. pyrum shell. While the other bin contains small chunks of black and white molted jasper that seems to have been extensively used at the site in the manufacture of beads. The absence of manufacturing waste of the green-red-white - variegated jasper from the site perhaps indicate that this material was not meant to be used at the site but was carefully stockpiled to be shipped to some where else for the manufacture of beads. This area was perhaps a stockpiling area of a merchant dealing with the supply of raw material to the craftsmen of the settlement as well as to other Harappan bead making workshops. We have already started looking for the resource areas of these stones, however it appears that this material was brought to the settlement that was approximately 70 kilometers southwest in Saurashtra. http://www.harappa.com/goladhoro/faiencemaking.html Craft Production at Gola Dhoro |   Shell Bangle Workshop One of the most important craft activities pursued with great vigor at the site was the production of shell bangles from Turbinella pyrum. One of the fascinating discoveries associated with this craft was the recovery of a rectangular mud brick structure measuring approximately 5.60 x 3.20m with an adjoining chamber, situated on the northwestern periphery inside the fortification. Within this structure three large heaps of shell resting against the western wall, containing thousands of mostly unused shell of T. pyrum were uncovered. In between the two shell heaps, thousands of unfinished and finished shell circlets and large quantities of micro shell wasters produced during cutting of the shell, and a grinding stone resting below the bangles, are really unique finds and undoubtedly indicate it being a shell workshop of Harappan times.   A preliminary study of the shell piles of the workshop indicated that one of the piles literally has hundreds of the shell that were either undersized or worm-eaten. The segregation of shell on the basis of quality indicate that the shell cutter of Bagasra separated the bad quality shell from the main piles since they could not have been effectively used in the manufacture of bangles. This has also led us to infer that unlike another Harappan shell working site of Nageshwar on the Gulf Kutch, that the shell cutters of Gola Dhoro were not personally involved in the collection of shell. Otherwise they would have discarded bad quality shell that could have not been used later, near the source area, instead of transporting it for more than 100 kilometers to the settlement.   From the preliminary studies it appears that except for limited ladle manufacture from Chicoreus ramosus, the settlement basically remains one of the larger Harappan shell bangle-manufacturing centers in Gujarat. Not only the bangles but perhaps also some raw shell and especially Fasciolaria trapezium species were being traded from the site, previously believed to have been obtained from Oman for the manufacture inlay in core area. Nevertheless, the excavations of the workshop is not complete as yet - we hope in this area, we may finally end up discovering the copper saw that used for cutting the shell. http://www.harappa.com/goladhoro/goladhoroshellworkshop.html