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Kernos ring of Kulli with wealth accounting ledgers of khār, 'blacksmith' working with poḷa 'magnetite ore', poḷaḍ 'steel'

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https://tinyurl.com/ya744hnz

This is an addendum to:  


I suggest that the name K(C)ernunnos on the Pillar of Boatmen and on the Gundestrup Cauldron is related to the torcs which are distinct identifiers of the seated person as a blacksmith. The torc or the ring called in Meluhha (Indus Script Corpora) karã̄ n. pl.wristlets, bangles' rūpaka, 'metaphor'or rebus: khār 'blacksmith'. Thus, I suggest that the kernos ring is a signifier of a blacksmith's work. This etymological trace explains why the Kulli kernos ring has the added Indus Script hypertexts of two zebu, bos indicus, and black drongo, both signifying, respectively po'magnetite ore', poa 'steel'. These hypertexts are added on the Kulli kernos ring to signify wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork catalogues.

khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü  । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy -बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru  । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji -or -güjü  । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü -हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü -कूरू‍&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu -। लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü -क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 - । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu -;  लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -। लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil. (Kashmiri)
Detail from the interior plate. Gundestrup Cauldron. Kernunnos holds a torc -- signifier of a kernos ring--  on his right hand. Indus Script Hypertexts signify metalwork catalogues:  badhia 'rhinoceros' Rebus: badhi 'carpenter'; badhoe 'worker in wood and iron'. पंजा pañjā 'claw of a tiger' rebus: पंजा pañjā 'kiln, smelter.; फडा phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága Rebus:phaḍa फड ' metals manufactory, company, guild, public place'; kūdī 'twigkuṭhi 'smelter'.

C(K)ernunnos on the Pillar of the Boatmen, from the Musée national du Moyen Âge (Museum of the Middle Ages), in ParisFrance"The theonym [C]ernunnos appears on the Pillar of the Boatmen, a Gallo-Roman monument dating to the early 1st century CE, to label a god depicted with stag's antlers in their early stage of annual growth. [Both antlers have torcs hanging from them...The name has been compared to a divine epithet Carnonos in a Celtic inscription written in Greek characters at MontagnacHérault (as καρνονου, karnonou, in the dative case).Gallo-Latin adjective carnuātus, "horned," is also found." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cernunnos The torcs of Kernunnos are relatable to the kernos ring.

"For more than one thousand years, people from every corner of the Greco-Roman world sought the hope for a blessed afterlife through initiation into the Mysteries of Demeter and Kore at Eleusis. In antiquity itself and in our memory of antiquity, the Eleusinian Mysteries stand out as the oldest and most venerable mystery cult. Despite the tremendous popularity of the Eleusinian Mysteries, their origins are unknown. Because they are lost in an era without written records, they can only be reconstructed with the help of archaeology. This book provides a much-needed synthesis of the archaeology of Eleusis during the Bronze Age and reconstructs the formation and early development of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The discussion of the origins of the Eleusinian Mysteries is complemented with discussions of the theology of Demeter and an update on the state of research in the archaeology of Eleusis from the Bronze Age to the end of antiquity."(Michael B. Cosmopoulos, 2015, Bronze Age Eleusis and the Origins of the Eleusinian Mysteries, Cambridge University Press.)

Kernoi rings

The pottery of Mohenjo-dara, one of the two major urban centers of the Indus Valley civilization (2500-2000 B.C.) is described and documented. The authors survey Harappan ceramic technology and style, and develop an important and unique approach to vessel form analysis and terminology. Included is Leslie Alcock's account of the pottery from the 1950 excavations by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.University Museum Monograph, 53 
“Hollow pottery rings surmounted by small vessels are common ‘ritual’ objects at Mediterranean and Levantine sites where they are known by the Greek name kernos (pl.kernoi).More rarely they occur in Mesopotamian contexts…Two or more small pots attached to the top side of a hollow ring so that liquid poured into the pots would run down into the hollow ring connecting them…Only six certain and two possible fragmentary examples are recorded from the UM excavations…..Because these objects are so rare in South Asia, mention should be made of two other fragmentary examples found at Harappa. Both of these have also been discussed by BM Pande in his detailed study of ring-kernoi’. The first example was published in a photograph only by Vats (1940: Pl. LXXI:6) with no description in the text. The second example, almost half a hollow ring with scars where three small vessels were attached, was excavated by Wheeler in 1946 but remained unpublished until Pande’s study…Pande’s excellent study of these enigmatic objects cites examples from Mediterranean, Egyptian,  Levantine, and Mesopotamian sites ranging in date from the mid-fourth millennium BCE to at least the early centuries.” [BM Pande, 1971, Harappan Ring-Kernoi: A study. East & West 21 (3-4), pp. 311-324)George Dales, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Leslie Alcock, 1986, UPenn Museum of ArchaeologyExcavations at Mohenjo Daro, PakistanThe Pottery, with an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, p.226).

In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings -- "a terracotta vessel with many little bowls stuck on to it. In them there is sage, white poppy heads, wheat, barley, peas (?), vetches (?), pulse, lentils, beans, spelt (?), oats, cakes of compressed fruit, honey, olive oil, wine, milk, and unwashed sheep's wool. When one has carried this vessel, like a liknophoros, he tastes of the contents"[Phillippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: From Cybele to the Virgin Mary (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, English translation 2004)].  
Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos

Kernos carried on her head. "The kernos was carried in procession at the Eleusinian Mysteries atop the head of a priestess, as can be found depicted in art. A lamp was sometimes placed in the middle of a stationary kernos. The verb kernophorein means "to bear the kernos"; the noun for this is kernophoria; Stephanos Xanthoudides, "Cretan Kernoi," Annual of the British School at Athens 12 (1906), p. 9."
See: 

2. Rosicrucian Digest, Eleusis, Volume 90 Number 2 2009 https://rosicrucian.org/rosicrucian-digest-eleusis

A votive plaque known as the Ninnion Tablet depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, discovered in the sanctuary at Eleusis (mid-4th century BCE). In this votive plaque depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a female figure (top center of rectangular portion) wears a kernos on her head

Kulli terracotta ring (also called Kernos Ring) with pot, two zebu (bos indicus), black drongo is Indus Script hypertext to signify pōḷā magnetite ore, pwlad 'steel' dhā̆vaḍ, 'smelter' kō̃da,'furnace'

https://tinyurl.com/y9n3ppyt  A Note on a Terracotta Ring-shaped Object with Animal Figurines and a Miniature Pot of the Balochistan Tradition in the Okayama Orient Museum by Akinori Uesugi (2013)

Abstract. In this paper, a terracotta ring-shaped object with animal figurines and a miniature pot in the collection of the Okayama Orient Museum is reported. Although its provenance is unknown, its uniqueness is important for understanding the nature of the Kulli culture in Balochistan during the late third millennium BCE. Similar objects that are known from the Middle East and the eastern Mediterranean region may be related to this rare object of the Kulli culure.  


Description of the Kulli terracotta object with Indus Script Hypertext, ca. 3rd millennium BCE 
The object consists of a ring with three short legs, two humped bulls, one bird and a miniature pot (Figures above). A whitishslip (light grey 2.5Y 8/2) is executed over areddish orange clay (dull orange 7.5YR 7/3)and paintings are made in black (brownish black 10YR 3/1- yellowish grey 
2.5Y 4/1).The measurements are shown in Table 1. The bird is placed on the rear side of thering with a tall cylindrical stand.



I suggest that this terracotta ring object is an Indus Script Hypertext with the following hieroglyph components:

1.. Zebu, bos indicusपोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu, bos indicus taurus' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus (similar sounding homonym): पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, ferrite ore: Fe3O4'.
pōḷa 'zebu' Rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite ore'. पोळ (p. 534) [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large.पोळा (p. 534) [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship.पोळींव (p. 534) [ pōḷīṃva ] p of पोळणें Burned, scorched, singed, seared. (Marathi)

2.Bird, black drongo:  pōlaḍu 'black drongo bird' (Telugu) Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus:  पोलाद pōlāda n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel.  (Marathi) bulad 'steel, flint and steel for making fire' (Amharic); fUlAd 'steel' (Arabic) pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), fuladh (Persian) folādī (Pashto)
 Image result for black drongo zebuZebu, bos indicus PLUS black drongo bird (perched on the back of the bull) This bird is called పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu 'friend of cattle'.

3. Circle:*varta2 ʻ circular object ʼ or more prob. ʻ something made of metal ʼ, cf. vartaka -- 2 n. ʻ bell -- metal, brass ʼ lex. and vartalōha -- . [√vr̥t?] Pk. vaṭṭa -- m.n., °aya -- m. ʻ cup ʼ; Ash. waṭāˊk ʻ cup, plate ʼ; K. waṭukh, dat. °ṭakas m. ʻ cup, bowl ʼ; S. vaṭo m. ʻ metal drinking cup ʼ; N. bāṭā, ʻ round copper or brass vessel ʼ; A. bāṭi ʻ cup ʼ; B. bāṭā ʻ box for betel ʼ; Or. baṭā ʻ metal pot for betel ʼ, bāṭi ʻ cup, saucer ʼ; Mth. baṭṭā ʻ large metal cup ʼ, bāṭī ʻ small do. ʼ, H. baṭṛī f.; G. M. vāṭī f. ʻ vessel ʼ.(CDIAL 11347) 

dāẽ 'tied' rebus dhā̆vaḍ 'iron smelter.' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or Rebus: bhaṭa, 'furnace'baṭa 'iron'(Gujarati)


4. Pot: kuṇḍá1 n. (RV. in cmpd.) ʻ bowl, waterpot ʼ KātyŚr., ʻ basin of water, pit ʼ MBh. (semant. cf. kumbhá -- 1), °ḍaka -- m.n. ʻ pot ʼ Kathās., °ḍī -- f. Pāṇ., °ḍikā -- f. Up. 2. *gōṇḍa -- . [← Drav., e.g. Tam. kuṭam, Kan. guṇḍi, EWA i 226 with other ʻ pot ʼ words s.v. kuṭa -- 1]1. Pa. kuṇḍi -- , °ḍikā -- f. ʻ pot ʼ; Pk. kuṁḍa -- , koṁ° n. ʻ pot, pool ʼ, kuṁḍī -- , °ḍiyā -- f. ʻ pot ʼ; Kt. kuṇi ʻ pot ʼ, Wg. kuṇḍäˊi; Pr. künǰúdotdot; ʻ water jar ʼ; Paš. weg. kuṛã̄ ʻ clay pot ʼ < *kũṛā IIFL iii 3, 98 (or poss. < kuṭa -- 1), lauṛ. kuṇḍalīˊ ʻ bucket ʼ; Gaw. kuṇḍuṛīˊ ʻ milk bowl, bucket ʼ; Kal. kuṇḍṓk ʻ wooden milk bowl ʼ; Kho. kúṇḍuk°ug ʻ milk bowl ʼ, (Lor.) ʻ a kind of platter ʼ; Bshk. kūnḗċ ʻ jar ʼ (+?); K. kŏnḍ m. ʻ metal or earthenware vessel, deep still spring ʼ, kọ̆nḍu m. ʻ large cooking pot ʼ, kunāla m. ʻ earthenware vessel with wide top and narrow base ʼ; S. kunu m. ʻ whirlpool ʼ, °no m. ʻ earthen churning pot ʼ, °nī f. ʻ earthen cooking pot ʼ, °niṛo m.; L. kunnã̄ m. ʻ tub, well ʼ, °nī f. ʻ wide -- mouthed earthen cooking pot ʼ, kunāl m. ʻ large shallow earthen vessel ʼ; P. kū̃ḍā m. ʻ cooking pot ʼ (←H.), kunāl°lā m., °lī f., kuṇḍālā m. ʻ dish ʼ; WPah. cam. kuṇḍ ʻ pool ʼ, bhal. kunnu n. ʻ cistern for washing clothes in ʼ; Ku. kuno ʻ cooking pot ʼ, kuni°nelo ʻ copper vessel ʼ; B. kũṛ ʻ small morass, low plot of riceland ʼ, kũṛi ʻ earthen pot, pipe -- bowl ʼ; Or. kuṇḍa ʻ earthen vessel ʼ, °ḍā ʻ large do. ʼ, °ḍi ʻ stone pot ʼ; Bi. kū̃ṛ ʻ iron or earthen vessel, cavity in sugar mill ʼ, kū̃ṛā ʻ earthen vessel for grain ʼ; Mth. kũṛ ʻ pot ʼ, kū̃ṛā ʻ churn ʼ; Bhoj. kũṛī ʻ vessel to draw water in ʼ; H. kū̃ḍ f. ʻ tub ʼ, kū̃ṛā m. ʻ small tub ʼ, kū̃ḍā m. ʻ earthen vessel to knead bread in ʼ, kū̃ṛī f. ʻ stone cup ʼ; G. kũḍ m. ʻ basin ʼ, kũḍī f. ʻ water jar ʼ; M. kũḍ n. ʻ pool, well ʼ, kũḍā m. ʻ large openmouthed jar ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; Si. ken̆ḍiyakeḍ° ʻ pot, drinking vessel ʼ.2. N. gũṛ ʻ nest ʼ (or ← Drav. Kan. gūḍu ʻ nest ʼ, &c.: see kulāˊya -- ); H. gõṛā m. ʻ reservoir used in irrigation ʼ.Addenda: kuṇḍa -- 1: S.kcch. kūṇḍho m. ʻ flower -- pot ʼ, kūnnī f. ʻ small earthen pot ʼ; WPah.kṭg. kv́ṇḍh m. ʻ pit or vessel used for an oblation with fire into which barley etc. is thrown ʼ; J. kũḍ m. ʻ pool, deep hole in a stream ʼ; Brj. kū̃ṛo m., °ṛī f. ʻ pot ʼ.(CDIAL 3264) Rupaka, 'metaphor' or Rebus: kō̃da -कोँद ।'kiln'; kundanace' (Kashmiri)



Top and front views of the terracotta ring object with Indus Script Hypertexts (zebu, bird, pot), in Okayama Orient Museum

Terracotta ring objects (called 'Kernos Ring') are widely distributed in Kulli culture (After Fig. 8 in Akinori Uesugi's monograph)
Chronological distribution of ring-shapedobjects in Southwest Asia from 5000 BCE(After Fig. 9 in Akinori Uesugi's monograph)The ring object dated to 5000 BCE is from Tell Kosak Shamali in northern Syria. Similar objects continue upto the first millennium BCE.
Kulli style animal figures (zebu, bird) in Okayama Orient Museum

Rūpaka, 'metaphors' or rebus Indus Script Hypertext cipher continuum in Navagunjara wealth accounting, metalwork ledgers

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https://tinyurl.com/y9h4wgod

Thanks to Dennys Frenez and Massimo Vidale for a succinct, well-referenced account of Navagunjara. I suggest that what Dennys and Massimo have described is a continuum of Indus Script Hypertext Cipher tradition by creating composite animals to convey metalwork catalogues, wealth accounting ledgers. The composite animal is called सांगड sāṅgaḍa 'combined parts of animals' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus, sangara 'trade'.; saṁgaha 'catalogues' samgraha'manager'. sangarh also means 'fortification' (Pashto)

Nīla cakra or Blue spoked-wheel which adorns the śikhara of the Jagannatha temple, has a wheel with eight spokes, images of peacock (stylized) and fish-fins. moraka, maraka 'peacock' rebus: morakkaka (loha) 'calcining metal'khambhaṛā 'fish fin' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus: kammaṭa 'coiner, coinage, mint' aya 'fish' rebus: aya, 'iron' ayas 'alloyed metal'. arā 'spoke of wheel' rebus: āra 'brass' eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus:arka, eraka 'gold, copper,molten cast'. The hump on the peacock signifies a zebu, bos indicus: pola 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus: pola 'magnetiteore'. Thus, a catalog of metalwork, wealth-accounting ledgers. Nīla 'blue' rebus: nīlī 'indigo' (another wealth-producing resource). Hieroglyph, blue colour : nīˊla ʻ dark blue, dark green, black ʼ RV., nīlaka -- lex. 2. nīˊla -- n. ʻ blue substance ʼ ŚBr., ʻ indigo ʼ Yājñ.1. Pa. nīla -- , °aka -- ʻ dark blue, blue -- green ʼ; Pk. ṇīla<-> ʻ blue, green ʼ, Gy. pal. nīˊlă; Ḍ. nīla ʻ blue, dark green ʼ; Ash. nīˊlestə ʻ green, blue ʼ; Wg. nyīlənīrə ʻ blue ʼ, Kt. nīləninyílë, Pr. nīlnyīˊli, Dm. nīla; Tir. nīləʻ green blue ʼ; Paš. nil ʻ dark blue ʼ; Shum. nīl ʻ blue ʼ, Gaw. nīˊla, Kal.urt. nīˊl*l, Bshk. (Biddulph) nül, f. nīl, Tor. nīˊlə; Phal. nīˊlo ʻ green, blue ʼ, Sh. nīlṷ, K. nyūlu, dat. nīlis; S. nīro ʻ blue ʼ, L. nīlā, P. nīlālīlā; WPah.bhal. nīl m. ʻ wild cock ʼ, nīlo ʻ blue, green ʼ, jaun. līlo ʻ blue ʼ; Ku. nīl m. ʻ a bruise ʼ; N. nilo ʻ blue ʼ, A. nil, B. nila, Or. niḷa; Mth. nīl ʻ dark blue, black ʼ; H. nīlālīl(ā) ʻ blue ʼ, G. nīḷũnīlũlīlũ, M. nīḷniḷā; Si. nilʻ green, blue ʼ; Md. nulē ʻ blue ʼ. -- X *lōhila -- q.v. 2. S. nīru m. ʻ blue colour, indigo ʼ; L. nīl m. ʻ indigo ʼ, P. nīllīl m., Or. nīḷā, (Sambhalpur) nirā. *nīliya -- , nīlī -- , *nailiya -- ; ānīla -- ; *nīlakāra -- , nīlamaṇi -- , nīlavarṇa -- , nīlōtpala -- ; indranīla -- Addenda: nīˊla -- . 1. S.kcch. nīlo ʻ green ʼ; Md.  ʻ blue ʼ, nulē ʻ is blue ʼ.2. nīˊla -- n.: WPah.poet. nīḷ m. ʻ indigo ʼ, J. nīḷ m. ʻ inner part of the blue or other pine ʼ.(CDIAL 7563) Rebus: nīlī f. ʻ indigo plant, indigo ʼ Mn. [nīˊla -- ]Pa. nīlī -- f. ʻ indigo ʼ, Pk. ṇīlī -- f.; Gy. pal. nīˊli ʻ species of edible mallow ʼ; P. nīl f. ʻ indigo ʼ, Ku. nīl, N. A. B. nil, Or. nila, Bi. līl; H. nīlī f. ʻ indigo plant ʼ, līl f. ʻ indigo ʼ, M nīḷ f.(CDIAL 7568)

Related image
la Cakra atop the Puri Jagannath Temple.

"In the Hindu epic MahabharataNavagunjara is a creature composed of nine different animals. The animal is a common motif in the Pata-Chitra style of painting, of the Indian state of Odisha. The beast is considered a form of the Hindu god Vishnu, or of Krishna, who is considered an Avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu...The version of the Mahabharata, written by the Odia poet Sarala Dasa, narrates the legend of Navagunjara; no other version has the story. Once, when Arjuna was doing penance on a hill, Krishna-Vishnu appears to him as Navagunjara. Navagunjara has the head of a rooster, and stands on three feet, those of an elephant, tiger and deer or horse; the fourth limb is a raised human arm carrying a lotus or a wheel. The beast has the neck of a peacock, the back or hump of a bull and the waist of a lion; the tail is a serpent. Initially, Arjuna was terrified as well as mesmerized by the strange creature and raises his bow to shoot it. Finally, Arjuna realizes that Navagunjara is a manifestation of Vishnu and drops his weapons, bowing before Navagunjara...The Navagunjara-Arjuna scene is sculpted at the northern side of the Jagannath TemplePuri... Also, the Nila Chakra disc atop the Jagannath Temple has eight Navagunjaras carved on the outer circumference, with all facing towards the flagpost above." (Pattanaik, Devdutt (2003). Indian Mythology: Tales, Symbols, and Rituals from the Heart of the Subcontinent. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company. pp. 19, 21; Starza, O. M. (1993). The Jagannatha Temple at Puri: Its Architecture, Art, and Cult. BRILL. p. 45..https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navagunjara

Arjuna bows to Navagunjara, depicted here with the head of Jagannath, the Odishan form of Vishnu-Krishna. At Swetaganga bathing kund in Puri.


Navagunjara (Source: https://www.speakingtree.in/article/the-mythical-navagunjara)
File:Navagunjara (27157146205).jpg
8 Navagunjaras The Nila Chakra disc atop the Jagannath Temple has eight Navagunjaras carved on the outer circumference, with all facing towards the flagpost above. Odisha State Museum; Bhubaneshwar.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Navagunjara_(27157146205).jpg

Source: https://www.odishaviews.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/8_html_2760ffaf.jpg
The Navagunjara beast from the Mahabharata, a common motif in pattachitra. Image credit: Artisans'
The Navagunjara beast from the Mahabharata, a common motif in pattachitra. Image credit: Artisans'
bizarre-mythological-creatures-hindu-Navagunjara
Appearance : Navagunjara has the head of a rooster, and stands on three feet. Front foot is of an elephant. Rare legs are of tiger and horse. The fourth limb is a raised human arm carrying a lotus or a wheel. The animal has the neck of a peacock, the hump of a bull and the waist of a lion and weirdly, the tail is a serpent!
http://www.trendingtop5.com/top-5-bizarre-mythological-creatures-weird-mythical-animals/


(Courtesy - Rare Book Society  of India Image source - The Metropolitan Museum of Art with Prashanth Nair. This colored drawing depicts a rare form of Krishna, Navagunjara, consisting of nine (nava) animal parts. In the Mahabharata, the Navagunjara form of Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu) appears to Arjuna after he has thrown down his weapons before the god. The painting is on European laid paper with an 1830 watermark of Waterman and Sons.       

The Navagunara had the head of a rooster, and stood on three feet, each of which was of an elephant, a tiger and the deer or a horse. The fourth limb was a raised human arm carrying a lotus. The creature further had the neck of a peacock the hump of a camel (which incidentally also was in the shape of a linga), the waist of a lion, and the tail was a serpent.

1.       head of a rooster, 

2.       neck of a peacock, 

3.       the back or hump of a bull in the shape of a Linga, 

4.       the waist of a lion, 

5.       a human hand with chakra, 

6.       feet of an elephant, 

7.       feet of a deer or horse feet 

feet ofa tiger and 

tail is a serpent.
Source: http://threeinformation.blogspot.com/2015/02/navagunjara.html
Basilisk aldrovandi.jpgWoodblock print of a basilisk from Ulisse AldrovandiSerpentum, et draconum historiae libri duo, 1640Comparable to a baisilik which is defined as: Classical Mythologycreature, variously described as a serpent, lizard, or dragon,said to kill by its breath or look; any of several tropical American iguanid lizards of the genus Basiliscus, noted fortheir ability to run across the surface of water on their hind legs.                                                                                                                                                          Navagunjara = Nine attributes joined. Nava = 9 , Guṇ = quality, attribute, Jara = 'joined' *jaḍati ʻ joins, sets ʼ. 2. *jāḍa -- ʻ joining, pair ʼ. [← Drav. LM 333]1. Pk. jaḍia -- ʻ set (of jewels), joined ʼ; K. jarun ʻ to set jewels ʼ (← Ind.); S. jaṛaṇu ʻ to join, rivet, set ʼ, jaṛa f. ʻ rivet, boundary between two fields ʼ; P. jaṛāuṇā ʻ to have fastened or set ʼ; A. zarāiba ʻ to collect ʼ; B. jaṛāna ʻ to set jewels, wrap round, entangle ʼ, jaṛ ʻ heaped together ʼ; Or. jaṛibā ʻ to unite ʼ; OAw. jaraï ʻ sets jewels, bedecks ʼ; H. jaṛnā ʻ to join, stick in, set ʼ (→ N. jaṛnu ʻ to set, be set ʼ); OMarw. jaṛāū ʻ inlaid ʼ; G. jaṛvũ ʻ to join, meet with, set jewels ʼ; M. j̈aḍṇẽ ʻ to join, connect, inlay, be firmly established ʼ, j̈aṭṇẽ ʻ to combine, confederate ʼ.2. S. jāṛo m. ʻ twin ʼ, L. P. jāṛā m.; M. j̈āḍī f. ʻ a double yoke ʼ.(CDIAL 5091) moraka, maraka 'peacock' rebus: morakkaka (loha) 'calcining metal'. 

The animal parts joined are: peacock, cock's comb, bull, lion, elephant, tiger, human hand, horse or wild-ass, and cobra hood.                                                                                                                            moraka, maraka 'peacock' rebus: morakkaka (loha) 'calcining metal'koṭṭu cock's comb, peacock's tuft. rebus: खोट [ khōa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down)पोळ a 'zebu, a bull set at liberty'  पोळ a 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)' arye 'lion' rebus: āra'brass'karibha, ibha'elephant' rebus: karba, ib'iron'kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter'phaḍa फड 'cobra hood' rebus: phaḍa 'फड 'guild, metals manufactory' tāmarasa 'lotus' rebus: tāmra 'copper'. khara 'Equus hemionus, 'Indian onager' Rebus: khār'blacksmith'                                                                                 The metaphors or rupaka are sought to be explained as:                                                             Navagunjara, a Universal Form of Krishna. I suggest that the nine rūpaka, 'metaphors' are explained as a composite form of metalwork catalogues or wealth-accounting ledgers as a continuum from the Indus Script Cipher tradition.

Date:
ca. 1835
Culture:
India (Rajasthan, Jodhpur[?])
Medium:
Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper
Dimensions:
Image: 10 1/4 x 8 in. (26 x 20.3 cm)
Classification:
Paintings
Credit Line:
Purchase, Evelyn Kranes Kossak Gift, 2006
Accession Number:
2006.240


Source: http://metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/73296

Navagunjara is also depicted in Ganjifa playing cards as the king card and Arjuna as the minister card.

Source: https://www.academia.edu/34359988/From_the_Harappan_Chimaeras_to_Navagunjara._Two_Composite_Creatures_at_the_Opposite_Ends_of_the_Iconographic_Tradition_of_the_Subcontinent

[quote]Pata-Chitras of Orissa:An Illustration of Some Common Themes

by Bernard Cesarone

1. Themes from folklore: nava-gunjara

Pata-chitras based on folklore include paintings of Manasa, a snake goddess popular in parts of Orissa and especially Bengal, and of the nava-gunjara theme, in which Vishnu or Krishna is shown as a composite creature of nine different animals (Mohanty, 1980, p.10). An example of the latter is shown in Figure 31. 

Navagunjara
Figure 31.

Krishna appearing as  
nava-gunjara
 before Arjuna
In this painting of the nava-gunjara, Arjuna stands before Vishnu in the composite form of nine animals. In the Bhagavad Gita, part of the epic Mahabharata, there is a point in the discourse between Arjuna and Krishna wherein Arjuna asks the Lord for a vision of his true form. Krishna grants this vision, both glorious and terrifying, in which Arjuna sees the entire universe inside Krishna. This great form of Krishna is called virat-rupa (omnipresent or vast form). A variant of this in Orissa is the nava-gunjara, or a composite form of nine animals (Swali & Swali, 1984, p.24). 33
Navagunjara
Figure 31a.

Nava-gunjara
In a rendition of the Mahabharata (which, as noted, includes the Bhagavad Gita) by the fifteenth century Oriya poet Sarala Das, several episodes are added beyond those found elsewhere in India. In this telling of the tale, Vishnu himself proceeds to a hill where Arjuna is doing penance in a forest. Here, Vishnu reveals himself to Arjuna in the nava-gunjara form, a vigorous animal standing on three legs, those of the elephant, tiger, and horse. The fourth limb is not an animal leg, but an upraised human arm, the hand of which is holding a lotus flower. Besides these four creatures, Vishnu-nava-gunjara also has the head of a rooster, the neck of a peacock, the hump of a bull, and the waist of a lion. A snake comprises the tail. When Arjuna saw this creature, he immediately recognized it as the virat-rupa of Vishnu-Krishna. He threw aside the bow and arrows he had been carrying, folded his hands, and invoked the Lord's blessing (Swali & Swali, 1984, p.24).
Navagunjara
Figure 31b.

Nava-gunjara
Thus, in this painting, we see the various aspects of this story. There is the aggregate creature composed of the nine animals as described by Sarala Das. We see the creature's human hand holding the lotus, elephant leg on the ground, and peacock neck and rooster head facing Arjuna. We see vegetation - admittedly, rather sparse - representing the forested hilltop of Arjuna's penance. Arjuna's bow and arrow lie on the ground at his side. Arjuna himself, crowned, stands with folded hands before Vishnu, whom he has recognized. (See the close-up in Figure 31a, above.) The horse and tiger hind legs of the nava-gunjara are detailed in Figure 31b left, as well as the waist of the lion, hump of the bull, and serpent tail. In this picture, we also see the typical double border, the outer wider border with a wavy leaf design and the inner with a design of arcs or semicircles. Note too that this picture is "out of square"; more a parallelogram than a rectangle. This is true both of the borders and of the outer edge of the cloth itself (not clearly visible in Figure 31). Such angled lines and cuts are frequent in pata-chitras.[unquote] http://www.asianart.com/articles/patachitra/folklore.html#32p

A parallel hypertexting theme is: Nawarupa (Burmeseနဝရူပ, also spelt nawa rupaPalinavarūpa, lit. "nine forms"=), also known as byala (Arakanese: ဗျာလ or ဗျာလ္လ), is a chimeric creature found in Burmese and Rakhine (Arakanese) mythology. The nawarupa is made of 9 animals, possessing the trunk of a naga or elephant, the eyes of a deer, the horns of a rhinoceros, the tongue or wings of a parrot, the body of a lion or naya, the tail of a peacock or yak, the ears of an elephant or horse, and the feet of a chinthe or karaweik. In the Konbaung dynasty, the nawarupa decorated one of the ceremonial royal barges. 

Translation of 31 Indus Script Meluhha Hypertexts with composite body parts of animals called सांगड sāṅgaḍa, catalogues, metalwork accounting ledgers

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Translation of 31 Indus Script Meluhha Hypertexts which include composite animals with body parts called सांगड sāṅgaḍa. The Rūpaka 'metaphor' or rebus (homonymous, similar sounding word) reading is:  samgaha 'catalogues' of wealth, metalwork accounting ledgers

The objective of this monograph is to present a translation of the messages on Indus Script Corpora with the so-called composite animal motif. The word in Meluhha for a composition made up of body parts of animals is called सांगड sāṅgaḍa. The Rūpaka 'metaphor' or rebus reading is: samgaha 'catalogue'. It will be demonstrated that the catalogue relates to metalwork and wealth accounting ledgers.

Thanks to Dennys Frenez and Massimo Vidale for a comprehensive review of chimerae in Indus Script. 
https://www.academia.edu/35258400/Harappan_Chimaeras_as_Symbolic_Hypertexts._Some_Thoughts_on_Plato_Chimaera_and_the_Indus_Civilization The authors note: "...presents an analysis and interpretation of the so-called Harappan chimaera, one of the most peculiar and elaborate iconographies of Indus Civilization (c. 2600 to 1900 BCE). It is represented on many stamp seals of fired steatite and corresponding clay sealings, terracotta tablets in bas-relief, copper tablets, and tokens. The Harappan chimaera was composed of body parts derived from different animals, as well as humans and other fantastic beings of the Indus imagination. A detailed documentation and description of all the objects bearing chimaeras makes it possible to recognize not only a basic set of reular combinations and some aspects of their possible change in time, but also visual associations among parts of the chimaera's body that could be perceived and semantically interpreted at different levels. We believe that the sophisticated structure of these imaes fully deserves to be considered an early form of 'hypertext', following definitions currently used in computer sciences. We conclude by relating the evidence and its cognitive background to other spheres of the early urban societies in the Indus basin."

Hieroglyph/hypertext components constituting the composite animal

Text of H96 H-96 ḍhāla 'flagḍhālako 'ingot';  karṇaka, 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe'; गंडा [gaṇḍā ] m An aggregate of four' rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar'; khaṇḍ 'implements'; kanac 'corner' Rebus: kañcu, 'bell-metal or bronze' (Telugu)

bicha 'scorpion' rebus:; bica 'haematite, ferrite ore' ; bica 'stone ore' (Mu.Santali)
पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods. pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’. Rebus: pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri)
dhatu 'scarf' rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore'  PLUS Tor. miṇḍ 'ram', miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (CDIAL 10310) Rebus: meḍ (Ho.); mẽṛhet 'iron' (Munda.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages)
कुंद--cattle Rebus: konda 'furnace, fire-altar'  kō̃da कोँद 'furnace for smelting':  payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद । परिपाककन्दुः f. a kiln (a potter's, a lime-kiln, and brick-kiln, or the like); a furnace (for smelting). -thöji - or -thöjü -; । परिपाक-(द्रावण-)मूषाf. a crucible, a melting-pot. -ʦañĕ -। परिपाकोपयोगिशान्ताङ्गारसमूहः f.pl. a special kind of charcoal (made from deodar and similar wood) used in smelting furnaces. -wôlu -वोलु&below; । धात्वादिद्रावण-इष्टिकादिपरिपाकशिल्पी m. a metal-smelter; a brick-baker. -wān -वान् । द्रावणचुल्ली m. a smelting furnace.
kola 'tiger, jackal' (Konkani.) Rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' kollan 'smith' PLUS  panja 'claw of beast, feline paw' rebus: panja 'kiln' (Semantic determinative)
फडा phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága Rebus:phaḍa फड 'manufactory, company, guild' pattaḍa 'manufactories', 'smithy, forge'.
Hieroglyph: hand, hand with bangles: kará1 ʻ doing, causing ʼ AV., m. ʻ hand ʼ RV. [√kr̥1]
Pa. Pk. kara -- m. ʻ hand ʼ; S. karu m. ʻ arm ʼ; Mth. kar m. ʻ hand ʼ (prob. ← Sk.); Si. kara ʻ hand, shoulder ʼ, inscr. karā ʻ to ʼ < karāya. -- Deriv. S. karāī f. ʻ wrist ʼ; G. karã̄ n. pl. ʻ wristlets, bangles ʼ. Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith'. 

karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' Note: karibha 'trunk of elephant' (Pali) ibha 'elephant' (Samskritam) Rebus: karba 'iron' (Ka.)(DEDR 1278) as in ajirda karba 'iron' (Ka.) kari, karu 'black' (Ma.)(DEDR 1278) karbura 'gold' (Ka.) karbon 'black gold, iron' (Ka.) kabbiṇa 'iron' (Ka.) karum pon 'iron' (Ta.); kabin 'iron' (Ko.)(DEDR 1278) Ib 'iron' (Santali) [cf. Toda gloss below: ib ‘needle’.] Ta. Irumpu iron, instrument, weapon. a. irumpu,irimpu iron. Ko. ibid. To. Ib needle. Koḍ. Irïmbï iron. Te. Inumu id. Kol. (Kin.) inum (pl. inmul)iron, sword. Kui (Friend-Pereira) rumba vaḍi ironstone (for vaḍi, see 5285). (DEDR 486) Allograph: karibha -- m. ʻ Ficus religiosa (?) [Semantics of ficus religiosa may be relatable to homonyms used to denote both the sacred tree and rebus gloss: loa, ficus (Santali); loh ‘metal’ (Skt.)] 


mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

See: Markhor with human face in m1179 Markhor or ram with human face in composite hieroglyph

H-96
H-96 

H-593 karṇaka, 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe'; kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'.PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'; ḍhaṁkaṇa'lid' rebus dhakka 'excellent, bright, blazing' PLUS aya'fish' rebus: ayas'alloy metal'aya'iron'; aya 'fish' rebus: ayas 'alloy metal' aya 'iron' (semantic determinative) PLUS  khambhaṛā'fish-fin'rebus:   Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'
H-593

H-595, H-594
H-594
H-594 I suggest that this is a composite animal because, in addition to the trunk of the elephant, hoofed legs of a bovine are shown. It also has scarves on thes shoulder. खोंड khōṇḍa 'A young bull, a bullcalf'; rebus kundaṇa, 'fine gold' (Kannada); konda 'furnace, fire-altar'  kō̃da कोँद 'furnace for smelting':  payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद । परिपाककन्दुः f. a kiln (a potter's, a lime-kiln, and brick-kiln, or the like); a furnace (for smelting). -thöji - or -thöjü -; । परिपाक-(द्रावण-)मूषाf. a crucible, a melting-pot. -ʦañĕ -। परिपाकोपयोगिशान्ताङ्गारसमूहः f.pl. a special kind of charcoal (made from deodar and similar wood) used in smelting furnaces. -wôlu -वोलु&below; । धात्वादिद्रावण-इष्टिकादिपरिपाकशिल्पी m. a metal-smelter; a brick-baker. -wān -वान् । द्रावणचुल्ली m. a smelting furnace.

K-85  kanac 'corner' Rebus: kañcu, 'bell-metal or bronze' (Telugu); sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' PLUS गंडा [gaṇḍā ] m An aggregate of four' rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar'; khaṇḍ 'implements'
K-85 karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron'
पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods. pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’. Rebus: pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri)

L-220  kanac 'corner' Rebus: kañcu, 'bell-metal or bronze' (Telugu); sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' PLUS गंडा [gaṇḍā ] m An aggregate of four' rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar'; khaṇḍ 'implements'; koḍa 'one'(Santali) Rebus: koḍ 'artisan's workshop'; meḍ 'body' rebus: meḍ'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic languages) 
L-220
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-299  Hieroglyph: hand, hand with bangles: kará1 ʻ doing, causing ʼ AV., m. ʻ hand ʼ RV. [√kr̥1]
Pa. Pk. kara -- m. ʻ hand ʼ; S. karu m. ʻ arm ʼ; Mth. kar m. ʻ hand ʼ (prob. ← Sk.); Si. kara ʻ hand, shoulder ʼ, inscr. karā ʻ to ʼ < karāya. -- Deriv. S. karāī f. ʻ wrist ʼ; G. karã̄ n. pl. ʻ wristlets, bangles ʼ. Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith'. Rebus readings: gaṇḍ 'four'. kaṇḍ 'bit'. Rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar', 'implements'. kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'

म्लेच्छा* स्य = mleccha-mukha n. " foreigner-face " , copper (so named because the complexion of the Greek and Muhammedan invaders of India was supposed to be copper-coloured) L.म्लेच्छितक n. the speaking in a foreign jargon (unintelligible to others) Cat.; म्लेच्छन [p= 838,1] n. the act of speaking confusedly or barbarously Dha1tup.; म्लिष्ट [p= 837,3] mfn. spoken indistinctly or barbarously Pa1n2. 7-2 , 18; withered , faded , faint (= म्लान) L.; n. indistinct speech , a foreign language L. म्लेच्छित [p= 838,1] mfn. = म्लिष्ट Pa1n2. 7-2 , 18 Sch.; n. a foreign tongue L. म्लान n. withered or faded condition , absence of brightness or lustre VarBr2S.; mfn. faded , withered , exhausted , languid , weak , feeble MBh. Ka1v. &c; म्लेच्छ [p= 837,3] any person who does not speak Sanskrit and does not conform to the usual Hindu institutions S3Br. &c (f(ई). म्लेच्छ--ता f. the condition of barbarian VP.  म्लेच्छ--भाषा f. a foreign or barbarous language MBh. म्लेच्छ--वाच् mfn. speaking a barbarous language (i.e. not Sanskrit ; opp. to आर्य-वाच्) Mn. x , 43.म्लेच्छ--जाति [p= 837,3] m. a man belonging to the म्लेच्छs , a barbarian , savage , mountaineer (as a किरात , शबर or पुलिन्द) MBh. म्लेच्छ--मण्डल n. the country of the म्लेच्छs or barbarian W.म्लेच्छ  a person who lives by agriculture or by making weapons L.;  म्लेच्छn. copper
L.; n. vermilion L.; म्लेच्छा* ख्य [p= 838,1] n. " called म्लेच्छ " , copper L.
M-299
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-300 m300 Mohenjo-daro seal. Ligaturing components: horns of zebu, human face, tail-hood of serpent, elephant tusk, scarves on neck, bovine forelegs, feline hind legs. 

paṭa ‘hood of snake’. Rebus: padm ‘tempered, sharpness (metal)’. nāga 'serpent' Rebus: nāga 'lead (alloy)'
mũh 'face' Rebus: mũhe 'ingot'. khū̃ṭ  ‘zebu’.khū̃ṭ ‘community, guild’ (Munda)
ibha 'elephant' Rebus: ib 'iron'. Ibbo ‘merchant’ (Gujarati).
ḍhangar ‘bull’ Rebus: dhangar ‘blacksmith’ (Maithili) ḍangar ‘blacksmith’ (Hindi)
kol ‘tiger’ Rebus: kol ‘working in iron’.
dhaṭu  m.  (also dhaṭhu)  m. ‘scarf’  (WPah.) Rebus: dhatu ‘mineral (ore)’ 

Rebus reading of the ‘face’ glyph: mũhe ‘face’ (Santali) mũh opening or hole (in a stove for stoking (Bi.); ingot (Santali) mũh metal ingot (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali) kaula mengro ‘blacksmith’ (Gypsy) mleccha-mukha (Skt.) = milakkhu ‘copper’ (Pali) The Sanskrit loss mleccha-mukha should literally mean: copper-ingot absorbing the Santali gloss, mũh, as a suffix.
M-300

M-301 karaṇḍa 'backbone' rebus: karaḍa 'hard alloy' khāra खार 'backbone, spine' rebus: khār  खार् । 'blacksmith'; karṇaka, 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe'
m_301
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-302 glyphs of fish, fish ligatured with lid, fish ligatued with notch,arrow Translation: ḍhaṁkaṇa 'lid' rebus dhakka 'excellent, bright, blazing' PLUS aya 'fish' rebus: ayas 'alloy metal' aya 'iron'; खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon).; खांडा khāṇḍā 'equipment'. kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: khaṇḍa 'equipment'

M-302
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-303  arā 'spoke' rebus: āra 'brass' eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus:eraka, arka 'gold, copper,moltencast; kuṭi 'a. slice, a bit, a small piece (Santali.Bodding) Rebus: kuṭhi'iron smelter furnace' (Santali) baṭa'rimless pot' Rebus: bhaṭa'furnace' PLUS muka 'ladle' rebus; mū̃h'ingot',  kolmo 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'; kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: khaṇḍa 'equipment' 

M-303
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-324 dhatu karNI, 'supercargo of minerals'

kanka ‘Rim of jar’ (Santali); karṇaka rim of jar’(Skt.) Rebus: karNI 'supercargo', karṇaka ‘scribe’ (Te.); gaṇaka id. (Skt.) (Santali) kaṇḍa kanka 'rim of jar' (Santali); rebus: furnace scribe. kaṇḍa kanka may be a dimunitive form of *kan-khār ‘copper smith’ comparable to the cognate gloss: kaṉṉār ‘coppersmiths, blacksmiths’ (Tamil) If so, kaṇḍa kan-khār connotes: ‘copper-smith furnace.’kaṇḍa ‘fire-altar (Santali); kan ‘copper’ (Ta.) Hieroglyph:  धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu  *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773) tántu m. ʻ thread, warp ʼ RV. [√tanPa. tantu -- m. ʻ thread, cord ʼ, Pk. taṁtu -- m.; Kho. (Lor.) ton ʻ warp ʼ < *tand (whence tandeni ʻ thread between wings of spinning wheel ʼ); S. tandu f. ʻ gold or silver thread ʼ; L. tand (pl. °dũ) f. ʻ yarn, thread being spun, string of the tongue ʼ; P. tand m. ʻ thread ʼ, tanduā°dūā m. ʻ string of the tongue, frenum of glans penis ʼ; A. tã̄t ʻ warp in the loom, cloth being woven ʼ; B. tã̄t ʻ cord ʼ; M. tã̄tū m. ʻ thread ʼ; Si. tatu°ta ʻ string of a lute ʼ; -- with -- o, -- ā to retain orig. gender: S. tando m. ʻ cord, twine, strand of rope ʼ; N. tã̄do ʻ bowstring ʼ; H. tã̄tā m. ʻ series, line ʼ; G. tã̄tɔ m. ʻ thread ʼ; -- OG. tāṁtaṇaü m. ʻ thread ʼ < *tāṁtaḍaü, G.tã̄tṇɔ m.(CDIAL 5661)

Rebus: M. dhāūdhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; (CDIAL 6773) धातु  primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral, ore (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh. &c element of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]) (Monier-Williams. Samskritam). 

Components of hieroglyph multiplex of m324b inscription are:

--ram or sheep (forelegs denote a bovine)
--neck-band, ring
--bos indicus (zebu)(the high horns denote a bos indicus)
--elephant (the elephant's trunk ligatured to human face)
--tiger (hind legs denote a tiger)
--serpent (tail denotes a serpent)
--human face

All these glyphic elements are decoded rebus:

meḍho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120); rebus: meD 'iron' (Ho.) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) mRdu 'iron' (Samskrtam)
kaḍum ‘neck-band, ring’ rebus: khāḍ ‘trench, firepit’
adar ḍangra ‘zebu’ poLa 'zebu' rebus: poLa 'magnetite' aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) ḍhangar ‘blacksmith’ (H.)  
ibha ‘elephant’ (Skt.); rebus: ib ‘iron’ (Ko.) kariba 'elephant trunk' rebus: karba 'iron' (Kannada)
Hieroglyph 1: kolo ‘jackal’ (Kon.) Hieroglyph 2: kola 'tail'; xolā = tail (Kur.); qoli id. (Malt.)(DEDr 2135). Rebus: kol ‘pañcalōha’ (Ta.)கொல் kol, n. 1. Iron; இரும்பு. மின் வெள்ளி பொன் கொல்லெனச் சொல்லும் (தக்கயாகப். 550). 2. Metal; உலோகம். (நாமதீப. 318.) கொல்லன் kollaṉ, n. < T. golla. Custodian of treasure; கஜானாக்காரன். (P. T. L.) கொல்லிச்சி kollicci, n. Fem. of கொல்லன். Woman of the blacksmith caste; கொல்லச் சாதிப் பெண். (யாழ். அக.) The gloss kollicci is notable. It clearly evidences that kol was a blacksmith. kola ‘blacksmith’ (Ka.); Koḍ. kollë blacksmith (DEDR 2133). Vikalpa: dumba दुम्ब or (El.) duma दुम । पशुपुच्छः m. the tail of an animal. (Kashmiri) Rebus: ḍōmba ?Gypsy (CDIAL 5570). rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelters' kolimi 'smithy, forge' kol ‘furnace, forge’ (Kuwi) kol ‘alloy of five metals, pancaloha’ (Ta.)
mũhe ‘face’ (Santali); mleccha-mukha (Skt.) = milakkhu ‘copper’ (Pali) mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali)

moṇḍ the tail of a serpent (Santali) Rebus: Md. moḍenī ʻ massages, mixes ʼ. Kal.rumb. moṇḍ -- ʻ to thresh ʼ, urt. maṇḍ -- ʻ to soften ʼ (CDIAL 9890) Thus, the ligature of the serpent as a tail of the composite animal glyph is decoded as: polished metal (artifact).

கோடு kōṭu : •நடுநிலை நீங்குகை. கோடிறீக் கூற் றம் (நாலடி, 5). 3. [K. kōḍu.] Tusk; யானை பன்றிகளின் தந்தம். மத்த யானையின் கோடும் (தேவா. 39, 1). 4. Horn; விலங்கின் கொம்பு. கோட்டிடை யாடினை கூத்து (திவ். இயற். திருவிருத். 21). 

Ta. kōṭu (in cpds. kōṭṭu-) horn, tusk, branch of tree, cluster, bunch, coil of hair, line, diagram, bank of stream or pool; kuvaṭu branch of a tree; kōṭṭāṉ, kōṭṭuvāṉ rock horned-owl (cf. 1657 Ta. kuṭiñai). Ko. kṛ (obl. kṭ-) horns (one horn is kob), half of hair on each side of parting, side in game, log, section of bamboo used as fuel, line marked out. To. kwṛ (obl. kwṭ-) horn, branch, path across stream in thicket. Ka. kōḍu horn, tusk, branch of a tree; kōr̤ horn. Tu. kōḍů, kōḍu horn. Te. kōḍu rivulet, branch of a river. Pa. kōḍ (pl. kōḍul) horn (DEDR 2200) Rebus: koḍ = the place where artisans work (G.) 

Orthographically, the glytic compositions add on the characteristic short tail as a hieroglyph (on both ligatured signs and on pictorial motifs)

sangaḍi = joined animals (Marathi) Rebus: sãgaṛh m. ʻ line of entrenchments, stone walls for defence ʼ (Lahnda)(CDIAL 12845) [Note: Within this fortification, zebu signifies a poliya 'citizen, gatekeeper of town quarter'.] This suggests that seal m0324b is an archaeometallurgist signifying the guild of artisans at work in the fortified settlement.
M-324
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-436 Hieroglyph:  धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu  *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773) Rebus: dhātu 'mineral ore'PLUS vaṭam 'string' Together, rebus:  dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter' PLUS kolom 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge'.
M-436
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-449, M-1399, M-2020  baṭa 'rimless pot' Rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace' PLUS muka 'ladle' rebus; mū̃h 'ingot', Hieroglyph:  धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g. त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu  *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773) Rebus: dhātu 'mineral ore' PLUS vaṭam 'string' Together, rebus:  dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter'
M-449
M-1399


M-2020
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).


M-488  bhaṭa'warrior' rebus: bhaṭa'furnace'; dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu'mineral ore'; bicha 'scorpion' rebus: bica 'haematite, ferrite ore';  मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages); dula 'pair' rebus: dul metal casting' PLUS khaṇḍa'division' rebus: khaṇḍa'implements'. kolmo'three' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge'

M-488
heraka 'spy' rebus: eraka'moltencast copper'kui 'tree' rebus:kuhi 'smelter' 
karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron'
sattuva ,'svastika hieroglyph' rebus: sattva'pewter'; jasta 'zinc'
kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol'working in iron'kolhe'smelter'
 pattar 'trough' Rebus: pattharaka'merchant' pattar ‘guild, goldsmith’.
bārṇe, bāraṇe  'an offering of food to a demon; a meal after fasting, a breakfast (Tu.) barada, barda, birada 'a vow' (Gujarati) Rebus: baran, bharat (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin)(P.B.)  
Tor. miṇḍ 'ram', miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (CDIAL 10310) Rebus: meḍ (Ho.); mẽṛhet 'iron' (Munda.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages)
manḍa'arbour,canopy' Rebus 1: mã̄ḍʻarray of instruments'.Rebus 2: maṇḍā = warehouse, workshop (Konkani.) maṇḍī. 'large grain market' (Urdu).
loa ‘ficus religioss’ rebus: loha ‘copper’      

M-571 dula'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'ayo'fish' rebus: aya 'iron'ayas'alloy metal'; dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS  dánta m. ʻ tooth ʼ RV. [dánt -- RV.]Pa. danta -- m. ʻ tooth, tusk ʼ; Pk. daṁta -- m. ʻ tooth, part of a mountain ʼ; Gy. eur. dand m. ʻ tooth ʼ, pal. dṓndă, Ash. dō˘nt, Kt. dut, Wg. dō̃tdū̃t, Pr. letumlätəm'ätəm ʻ my (?) tooth ʼ, Dm. dan, Tir. d*lndə, Paš. lauṛ. dan(d), uzb. dōn, Niṅg. daṅ, Shum. dandem ʻ my tooth ʼ, Woṭ. dan m., Gaw. dant, Kal.urt. d*ln, rumb. dh*lndōŕy*lk (lit. ʻ front and back teeth ʼ? -- see *dāṁṣṭra -- ); Kho. don, Bshk. d*lndə, Tor. d*ln, Kand. dɔdi, Mai. dān, Sv. dānd, Phal. dān, pl. dānda, Sh.gil. do̯n, pl. dōnye̯ m. (→ Ḍ. don m.), pales. d*ln, jij. dɔn, K. dand m., rām. pog. ḍoḍ. dant, S. ḍ̠andu m.; L. dand, mult. ḍand, (Ju.) ḍ̠ãd m., khet. dant ʻ tooth ʼ, (Shahpur) dãd f. ʻ cliff, precipice ʼ; P. dand m. ʻ tooth, ʼ WPah.bhad. bhal. paṅ. cur. dant, cam. dand, pāḍ. dann, Ku. N. dã̄t (< *dã̄d in N. dã̄de ʻ harrow, a kind of grass ʼ), A. B. dã̄t, Or. dānta, Mth. Bhoj. Aw.lakh. H. Marw. G. M. dã̄t m., Ko. dāntu, Si. data. -- Ext. -- ḍa -- : Dm. dandə́ŕidánduri ʻ horse's bit ʼ, Phal. dándaṛi. -- See Add.
Addenda: dánta -- : S.kcch. ḍandh m.pl. ʻ teeth ʼ; WPah.kṭg. (kc.) dānd m., J. dã̄d m., Garh. dã̄t, Md. dat.(CDIAL 6152) Rebus: dhatu'mineral ore' PLUS kolom'rice plant' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge'karṇaka, 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe'
M-571
karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron'
पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods. pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’. Rebus: pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri)
 फडा phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága Rebus:phaḍa फड 'metals manufactory, company, guild], pattaḍa 'manufactories'

M-1173 bhaṭa 'warrior' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'; dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore'; kuṭila,'curve' rebus: kuṭila, katthīl  'bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin)' ; śrēṣṭrī 'ladder' Rebus: seṭhʻ head of a guild, Members of the guild'; kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'  
M-1173

M-1176, M-1174, M-1175 dāṭu 'cross' rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore';  kuṭi'tree''water-carrier' rebus: kuṭhi'smelter' PLUS karṇaka, 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe'
M-1174

M-1175 पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods. pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’. Rebus: pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri)

M-1176
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-1398 karṇaka, 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe';  khareḍo'a currycomb' Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati) kharādī ' turner, a person who fashions or shapes'; karaḍāखरडें 'daybook, wealth-accounting ledger'.
M-1398
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-1402 dula 'pair' rebus: dul metal casting' PLUS khaṇḍa 'division' rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'; kaṇḍa 'arrow' (Skt.) H. kãḍerā m. ʻ a caste of bow -- and arrow-- makers (CDIAL 3024); karṇaka, 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe'; khareḍo 'a currycomb' Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati) kharādī ' turner, a person who fashions or shapes'; karaḍā खरडें 'daybook, wealth-accounting ledger'; koḍa 'one'(Santali) Rebus: koḍ 'artisan's workshop'; loa, ficus (Santali); loh ‘metal’ (Skt.); khuṭo ʻleg, footʼ.  khũṭ ‘community, guild’ (Santali)
Ta. kuracu, kuraccai horse's hoof. Ka. gorasu, gorase, gorise, gorusu hoofTe. gorija, gorise, (B. also) gorije, korije id. / Cf. Skt. khura- id.; Turner, CDIAL, no. 3906 (embedded). (DEDR 1770) Ta. kurappam currycomb. Ma. kurappam, kurappan id. Ka. korapa, gorapa id. Te. kurapamu, koṟapamu, goṟapamu id. / ? Cf. Turner, CDIAL, no. 3730, kṣurapra- ('scraper'-meanings). (DEDR 1771)
M-1402
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-1430 loa, ficus (Santali); loh ‘metal’ (Skt.); karṇaka, 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe'; Pictorial motif: ku'tree' rebus:kuhi 'smelter' 
M-1430
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-1927 See K-85 for identical reading of text message. kanac 'corner' Rebus: kañcu, 'bell-metal or bronze' (Telugu); sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop' PLUS गंडा [gaṇḍā ] m An aggregate of four' rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar'; khaṇḍ 'implements' PLUS kolom 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Reading of five; panca'five' rebus: panja'kiln, smelter'.
M-1927
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

M-2033 dula pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal';  kuṭila,'curve' rebus: kuṭila, katthīl  'bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin)' tri-dhatu 'three mineral ores' (See trefoil on the shawl of Mohenjodaro priest); kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bronze'; bhaṭa 'warrior' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'; dánta m. ʻ tooth ʼ RV. [dánt -- RV.]Pa. danta -- m. ʻ tooth, tusk ʼ; Pk. daṁta -- m. ʻ tooth, part of a mountain ʼ; Gy. eur. dand m. ʻ tooth ʼ, pal. dṓndă, Ash. dō˘nt, Kt. dut, Wg. dō̃tdū̃t, Pr. letumlätəm'ätəm ʻ my (?) tooth ʼ, Dm. dan, Tir. d*lndə, Paš. lauṛ. dan(d), uzb. dōn, Niṅg. daṅ, Shum. dandem ʻ my tooth ʼ, Woṭ. dan m., Gaw. dant, Kal.urt. d*ln, rumb. dh*lndōŕy*lk (lit. ʻ front and back teeth ʼ? -- see *dāṁṣṭra -- ); Kho. don, Bshk. d*lndə, Tor. d*ln, Kand. dɔdi, Mai. dān, Sv. dānd, Phal. dān, pl. dānda, Sh.gil. do̯n, pl. dōnye̯ m. (→ Ḍ. don m.), pales. d*ln, jij. dɔn, K. dand m., rām. pog. ḍoḍ. dant, S. ḍ̠andu m.; L. dand, mult. ḍand, (Ju.) ḍ̠ãd m., khet. dant ʻ tooth ʼ, (Shahpur) dãd f. ʻ cliff, precipice ʼ; P. dand m. ʻ tooth, ʼ WPah.bhad. bhal. paṅ. cur. dant, cam. dand, pāḍ. dann, Ku. N. dã̄t (< *dã̄d in N. dã̄de ʻ harrow, a kind of grass ʼ), A. B. dã̄t, Or. dānta, Mth. Bhoj. Aw.lakh. H. Marw. G. M. dã̄t m., Ko. dāntu, Si. data. -- Ext. -- ḍa -- : Dm. dandə́ŕidánduri ʻ horse's bit ʼ, Phal. dándaṛi. -- See Add.
Addenda: dánta -- : S.kcch. ḍandh m.pl. ʻ teeth ʼ; WPah.kṭg. (kc.) dānd m., J. dã̄d m., Garh. dã̄t, Md. dat.(CDIAL 6152) Rebus: dhatu 'mineral ore' PLUS meḍ 'body' rebus: meḍ 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic languages) Pictorial motifs:  kamaḍha'penance, yoga', rebus kammaṭa'mint, coiner,coinage'; karā 'crocodile' rebus: khār'blacksmith'; फडा phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága Rebus:phaḍa फड 'manufactory, company, guild' pattaḍa 'manufactories', 'smithy, forge'..
M-2033
mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali).

A superpower of the past -- Rajeev Srinivasan

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म्लेच्छ bhāratam janam are 'farmers, armourers', प्रव्रज्‍या किरातशवरपुलिन्दादिजातिः । इत्यमरः ॥ भरतखण्ड has six divisions, म्लेच्छखण्ड (5) + आर्यखण्ड (1).

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https://tinyurl.com/y75gab3v


This monograph on म्लेच्छ bhāratam janam is organized in six sections.


Section 1. Excerpt from Jaina Kośa: म्लेच्छ

Section 2. शब्दकल्पद्रुमः (म्लेच्छ:)

Section 3. वाचस्पत्यम् (म्लेच्छ:)

Section 4. Evidence from Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa for mleccha vācas 

Section 5.  Mahābhārata > Ādi Parva > Jātugr̥ha Parva CXLVII 

Excerpt from Jātugr̥ha parva of Mahābhārata (which attests Mleccha as a language)


RV 3.26.6 refers to Gaa in the context of Marut-s: व्रातं व्रातं गणम् गणम् Vrātam Vrātam gaṇam gaṇam In this expression, व्रात signifies a particular form of assembly, a guild. व्रात m. (connected with √1. वृ , or with व्रत्/अ and √2. वृ) a multitude , flock , assemblage , troop , swarm , group , host (व्र्/आतं व्रातम् , in companies or troops ; प्/अञ्च व्र्/आतास् , the five races of men) , association , guild RV. &c; n. manual or bodily labour , day-labour (Monier-Williams).


This monograph provide excerpts from primary sources to describe व्रातं व्रातं गणम् गणम् Vrātam Vrātam gaṇam gaṇam who are म्लेच्छ:, म्लेच्छितं or म्लेच्छ-भाषा. The context for mlecchita-vikalpa, 'writing alternative by mleccha' -- as a writing system is seen in three kalā, 'arts' exemplified by Indus Script hypertexts which are (46) akṣara-muṣṭka-kathana–art of expressing letters/numbers with clenched hand and fingers; (47) mlecchita-vikalpa—cryptography, that is, writing system (e.g. mleccha hieroglyphs read rebus). This cryptography using mleccha language by Yudhishthira, Vidura and Khanaka (a mine worker) is described in Mahabharata jatugriha parva (shellac house with non-metallic killer devices); (48) deśa-bhāṣā-jñāna—knowledge of spoken dialects or language study (mleccha is a spoken tongue, des’a-bhasha, dialect of indic language family).(From list of 64 arts in Vātsyāyana's Vidyā samuddeśa).


"Mleccha is a dialect spoken in conversation between Vidura and Yudhisthira as reported in the Great Epic, Mahabharata. Mleccha are vrātya; they live in dvīpa (islands). Mleccha are not ‘foreigners’, but those who do not fully adhere to the practices of yajña. Vrātya are referred to in over 240 ca-s in the gveda. Atharva Veda notes that both vrātya and yajñika are children of Prajapati. Vrātya are rājanya. They are ascetics and also given to organizing themselves with arms to defend themselves. Thus, the picture that emerges from gveda is that of people practicing both vrata and yajna. In fact, the yajna itself begins with a Mahavrata as described in the Aitareya āranyaka.Mlecchita vikalpa is referred to by Vatsyāyana as one of the 64 arts. It is interpreted as cipher writing or writing in pictures." 

http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/vikalpa1.htm


विजयार्ध पर्वत व गंगा सिन्धु, नदियों के कारण भरतक्षेत्र के छह खण्ड हो गये हैं। इनमें से दक्षिण वाला मध्यखण्ड आर्यखण्ड है। (देखें - आर्यखण्ड )]। शेष पाँचों ही खण्ड म्लेच्छखण्ड नाम से प्रसिद्ध हैं। -- Jaina Kośa


म्लेच्छ  'copper'; म्लेच्छ--मुख = म्लेच्छा* स्य = copper (so named because the complexion of the Greek and Muhammedan invaders of India was supposed to be copper-coloured)

म्लेच्छ  'a person who lives by agriculture or by making weapons'

Section 1. Excerpt from Jaina Kośa: म्लेच्छ
  1. म्लेच्छखण्ड निर्देश 
    ति. प./४/गाथा नं. सेसा विपंचखंडा णामेणं होंति म्लेच्छखंडत्ति। उत्तरतियखंडेसुं मज्झिमखंडस्स बहुमज्झे।२६८। गंगामहाणदीए अइढाइज्जेसु। कुंडजसरिपरिवारा हुवंति ण हु अज्जखंडम्मि।२४५। = [विजयार्ध पर्वत व गंगा सिन्धु, नदियों के कारण भरतक्षेत्र के छह खण्ड हो गये हैं। इनमें से दक्षिण वाला मध्यखण्ड आर्यखण्ड है। (देखें - आर्यखण्ड )]। शेष पाँचों ही खण्ड म्लेच्छखण्ड नाम से प्रसिद्ध हैं।२६८। गंगा महानदी की ये कुण्डों से उत्पन्न हुई (१४०००) परिवार नदियाँ म्लेच्छखण्डों में ही हैं, आर्यखण्ड में नहीं।२४५। (विशेष देखें - लोक / ७ )। 
  2. म्लेच्छमनुष्यों के भेद व स्वरूप 
    स. सि./३/३६/पृ./पंक्ति म्लेच्छा द्विविधाः - अन्तर्द्वीपजा कर्मभूमिजाश्चेति। (२३०/३)...ते एतेऽन्तर्द्वीपजा म्लेच्छाः। कर्मभूमिजाश्च शकयवनशवरपुलिन्दादयः। (२३१/६)। = म्लेच्छ दो प्रकार के हैं−अन्तर्द्वीपज और कर्मभूमिज। अन्तर्द्वीपों में उत्पन्न हुए अन्तर्द्वीपजम्लेक्ष हैं और शक, यवन, शवर व पुलिन्दादिक कर्मभूमिजम्लेच्छ हैं। (रा. वा./३/३६/४/२०४/१४, २६)। 
    भ. आ./वि./७८१/९३६/२६ इत्येवमादयो ज्ञेया अन्तर्द्वीपजा नराः। समुद्रद्वीपमध्यस्थाः कन्दमूलफलाशिनः। वेदयन्ते मनुष्यायुस्ते मृगोपमचेष्टिताः। समुद्रों में (लवणोद व कालोद में) स्थित अन्तर्द्वीपों में रहने वाले तथा कन्द-मूल फल खाने वाले ये लम्बकर्ण आदि (देखें - आगे शीर्षक नं .३) अन्तर्द्वीपज मनुष्य हैं। जो मनुष्यायु का अनुभव करते हुए भी पशुओं की भाँति आचरण करते हैं। 
    म. पु./३१/१४१-१४२ इत्युपायैरुपायज्ञः साधयन्म्लेच्छभूभुजः। तेभ्यः कन्यादिरत्नानि प्रभोर्भोग्यान्युपाहरत्‌।१४१। धर्मकर्मबहिभूता इत्यमी म्लेच्छका मताः। अन्यथाऽन्यैः समाचारैः आर्यावर्तेन ते समाः।१४२। = इस प्रकार अनेक उपायों को जानने वाले सेनापति ने अनेक उपायों के द्वारा म्लेच्छ राजाओं को वश किया और उनसे चक्रवर्ती के उपभोग के योग्य कन्या आदि अनेक रत्न भेंट में लिये।१४१। ये लोग धर्म क्रियाओं से रहित हैं, इसलिए म्लेच्छ माने गये हैं। धर्म क्रियाओं के सिवाय अन्य आचरणों से आर्यखण्ड में उत्पन्न होने वाले मनुष्यों के समान हैं।१४२। [यद्यपि ये सभी लोग मिथ्यादृष्टि होते हैं परन्तु किसी भी कारण से आर्यखण्ड में आ जाने पर दीक्षा आदि को प्राप्त हो सकते हैं।− देखें - प्रब्रज्या / १ / ३ ।] त्रि. सा./९२१ दीवा तावदियंतरवासा कुणरा वि सण्णामा। = तीन अन्तर्द्वीपों में बसने वाले कुमानुष तिस तिस द्वीप के नाम के समान होते हैं। 
  3. अन्तर्द्वीपज म्लेच्छों का आकार 
    1. लवणोद स्थित अन्तर्द्वीपों में (दृष्टि नं. १) 
      ति. प./४/२४८४-२४८८ एक्कोस्फलंगुलिका वेसणकाभासका य णामेहिं। पुव्वादिसुं दिसासुं चउदीवाणं कुमाणुसा होंति।२४८४। सुक्कलिकण्णा कण्णप्पावरणा लंबकण्णससकण्णा। अग्गिदिसादिसु कमसो चउद्दीवकुमाणुसा एदे।२४८५। सिंहस्ससाणमहिसव्वराहसद्‌दू-लघूककपिवदणा। सक्कुलिकण्णे कोरुगपहुदीणे अंतरेसु ते कमसो।२४८६। मच्छमुहा कालमुहा हिमगिरिपणिधीए पुव्वपच्छिमदो। मेसमुहगोमुहक्खा दक्खिणवेयड्‌ढपणिधीए।२४८७। पुव्वावरेण सिहरिप्पणिधीए मेघविज्जुमुहणामा। आदंसणहत्थिमुहा उत्तरवेयड्‌ढपणिधीए।२४८८। = पूर्वादिक दिशाओं में स्थित चार द्वीपों के कुमानुष क्रम से एक जाँघ वाले, पूँछ वाले, सींग वाले और गूँगे होते हुए इन्हीं नामों से युक्त हैं।२४८४। अग्नि आदिक विदिशाओं में स्थित ये चार द्वीपों के कुमानुष क्रम से शष्कुलीकर्ण, कर्ण प्रावरण, लंबकर्ण और शशकर्ण होते हैं।२४८५। शष्कुलीकर्ण  और एकोरुक आदिकों के बीच में अर्थात्‌ अन्तरदिशाओं में स्थित आठ द्वीपों के कुमानुष क्रम से सिंह, अश्व, श्वान, महिष, वराह, शार्दूल, घूक और बन्दर के समान मुख वाले होते हैं।२४८६। हिमवान्‌ पर्वत के प्रणिधि भाग में पूर्व-पश्चिम दिशाओं में क्रम से मत्स्यमुख व कालमुख तथा दक्षिणविजयार्ध के प्रणिधि भाग में मेषमुख व गोमुख कुमानुष होते हैं।२४८७। शिखरी पर्वत के पूर्व-पश्चिम प्रणिधि भाग में क्रम से मेघमुख व विद्युन्मुख तथा उत्तर विजयार्ध के प्रणिधि भाग में आदर्शमुख व हस्तिमुख कुमानुष होते हैं।२४८८। (भ. आ./वि./७८१/९३६/२३ पर उद्‌धृत श्लो. नं. ९−१०); (त्रि. सा./९१६−९१९); (ज. प./५३−५७)। 
    2. लवणोद स्थित अन्तर्द्वीपों में (दृष्टि नं. २) 
      ति. प./४/२४९४-२४९९ एक्कोरुकवेसणिका लंगुलिका तह य भासगा तुरिमा। पुव्वादिसु वि दिससुं चउदीवाणं कुमाणुसा कमसो।२४९४। अणलादिसु विदिसासुं ससकण्णाताण उभयपासेसुं। अट्‌ठंतरा य दीवा पुव्वगिदिसादिगणणिज्जा।२४९५। पुव्वदिसट्ठि-एक्कोरुकाण अग्गिदिसट्ठियससकण्णाणं विच्चालादिसु कमेण अट्‌ठंतरदीवट्ठिदकुमाणुसणामाणि गणिदव्वाकेसरिमुहा मणुस्सा चक्कुलि-कण्णा अचक्कुलिकण्णा। साणमुहा कपिवदणा चक्कुलिकण्णा अचक्कुलीकण्णा।२४९६। हयकणाइं कमसो कुमाणुसा तेसु होंति दीवेसुं। घूकमुहा कालमुहा हिमवंतगिरिस्स पुव्वपच्छिमदो।२४९७। गोमुहमेसमुहक्खा दक्खिणवेयङ्‌ढपणिधिदीवेसुं। मेघमुहा विज्जुमुहा सिहरिगि- रिंदस्स पुच्छिमदो।२४९८। दप्पणगयसरिसमुहा उत्तरवेयड्‌ढपणिधि भागगदा। अब्भंतरम्मि भागे बाहिरए होंति तम्मेत्ता।२४९९। = पूर्वादिक दिशाओं में स्थिर चार द्वीपों के कुमानुष क्रम से एक जाँघ वाले, सींग वाले, पूँछवाले और गूँगे होते हैं।२४९४। आग्नेय आदिक दिशाओं के चार द्वीपों में शशकर्ण कुमानुष होते हैं। उनके दोनों पार्श्वभागों में आठ अन्तरद्वीप हैं जो पूर्व आग्नेय दिशादि क्रम से जानना चाहिए।२४९५। पूर्व दिशा में स्थित एकोरुक और अग्नि दिशा में स्थित शशकर्ण कुमानुषों के अन्तराल आदिक अन्तरालों में क्रम से आठ अन्तरद्वीपों में स्थित कुमानुषों के नामों को गिनना चाहिए। इन अन्तरद्वीपों में क्रम से केशरीमुख, शष्कुलिकर्ण, अशष्कुलिकर्ण, श्वानमुख, वानरमुख, अशष्कुलिकर्ण, शष्कुलिकर्ण और हयकर्ण कुमानुष होते हैं। हिमवान्‌ पर्वत के पूर्व-पश्चिम भागों में क्रम से वे कुमानुष घूकमुख और कालमुख होते हैं।२४९६-२४९७। दक्षिण विजयार्ध के प्रणिधिभागस्थ द्वीपों में रहने वाले कुमानुष गोमुख और मेषमुख, तथा शिखरी पर्वत के पूर्व-पश्चिम द्वीपों में रहने वाले वे कुमानुष मेघमुख और विद्युन्मुख होते हैं।२४९८। उत्तरविजयार्ध के प्रणिधिभागों में स्थित वे कुमानुष क्रम से दर्पण और हाथी के सदृश मुखवाले होते हैं। जितने द्वीप व उनमें रहने वाले कुमानुष अभ्यन्तर भाग में है, उतने ही वे बाह्य भाग में भी विद्यमान हैं।२४९९। (स. सि./३/३६/२३०/९); (रा. वा./३/३६/४/२०४/२०); (ह. पु./५/४७१-४७६)। 
    3. कालोदस्थित अन्तरद्वीपों में 
      ति. प./४/२७२७-२७३४ मुच्छमुहा अभिकण्णा पवित्रमुहा तेसु हत्थिकण्णा य। पुव्वादिसु दीवेसु विचिट्‌ठंति कुमाणुसा कमसो।२७२७। अणिलादियासु सूवरकण्णा दीवेसु ताण विदिसासं। अट्‌ठंतरदीवेसुं पुव्वग्गिदिसादि गणणिज्जा।२७२८। चेट्‌ठंति अट्टकण्णा मज्जरमुहा पुणो वि तच्चेय। कण्णप्पावरणा गजवण्णा य मज्जाखयणा य।२७२९। मज्जरमुहा य तहा गोकण्णा एवमट्‌ठ पत्तेक्कं। पुव्वपवण्णिदबहुविहपाव-फलेहिं कुमणसाणि जायंति।२७३०। पुव्वावरपणिधीए सिसुमारमुहा तह य मयरमुहा। चेट्‌ठंति रुप्पगिरिणो कुमाणुसा कालजल-हिम्मि।२७३१। वयमुहवग्गमुहक्खा हिमवंतणगस्स पुव्वपच्छिमदो। पणिधीए चेट्‌ठंते कुमाणुसा पावपाकेहिं।२७३२। सिहरिस्स तरच्छमुहा सिगालवयणा कुमाणसा होंति। पुव्वावरपणिधीए जम्मंतरदरियकम्मेहिं।२७३३। दीपिकमिंजारमुहा कुमाणुसा होंति रुप्पसेलस्स। पुव्वावरपणिधीए कालोदयजलहिदीवम्मि।२७३४। = उनमें से पूर्वादिक दिशाओं में स्थित द्वीपों में क्रम से मत्स्यमुख, अभिकर्ण (अश्वकर्ण), पक्षिमुख और हस्तिकर्ण कुमानुष होते हैं।२७२७। उनकी वायव्यप्रभृति विदिशाओं में स्थित द्वीपों में रहने वाले कुमानुष शूकरकर्ण होते हैं। इसके अतिरिक्त पूर्वाग्निदिशादिक क्रम से गणनीय आठ अन्तरद्वीपों में कुमानुष निम्न प्रकार स्थित हैं।२७२८। उष्ट्रकर्ण, मार्जारमुख, पुनः मार्जारमुख, कर्णप्रावरण, गजमुख, मार्जारमुख, पुनः मार्जारमुख और गोकर्ण, इन आठ में से प्रत्येक पूर्व में बतलाये हुए बहुत प्रकार के पापों के फल से कुमानुष जीव उत्पन्न होते हैं।२७२९-२७३०। काल समुद्र के भीतर विजयार्ध के पूर्वापर पार्श्वभागों में जो कुमानुष रहते हैं, वे क्रम से शिशुमारमुख और मकरमुख होते हैं।२७३१। हिमवान्‌ पर्वत के पूर्व-पश्चिम पार्श्वभागों में रहने वाले कुमानुष क्रम से पापकर्मों के उदय से वृकमुख और व्याघ्रमुख होते हैं।२७३२। शिखरी पर्वत के पूर्व-पश्चिम पार्श्वभागों में रहने वाले कुमानुष पूर्व जन्म में किये हुए पापकर्मों से तरक्षमुख (अक्षमुख) और शृगालमुख होते हैं।२७३३। विजयार्ध पर्वत के पूर्वापर प्रणिधिभाग में कालोदक-समुद्रस्थ द्वीपों में क्रम से द्वीपिकमुख और भृंगारमुख कुमानुष होते हैं।२७३४। (ह. पु./५/५६७-५७२)। 
    4. म्लेच्छ मनुष्यों का जन्म, आहार गुणस्थान आदि 
      ति. प./४/गाथा नं. एक्कोरुगा गुहासुं वसंति भुंजंति मट्टियं मिट्ठं। सेसा तरुतलवासा पुप्फेहिं फलेहिं जीवंति।२४८९। गव्भादो ते मणुवाजुगलंजुगला सुहेण णिस्सरिया। तिरिया समुच्चिदेहिं दिणेहिं धारंति तारुण्‍णं।२५१२। वेधणुसहस्‍सतुंगा मंदकसाया पियंगुसामलया। सव्‍वे ते पल्‍लाऊ कुभोगभूमोए चेट्‍ठंति।२५१३। तब्‍भूमिजोग्‍गभोगं भोत्तूणं आउसस्‍स अवसाणे। कालवसं संपत्ता जायंते भवणतिदयम्मि।२५१४। सम्‍मद्दंसणरयणं गहियं जेहिं णरेहिं तिरिएहिं। दीवेसु चउविहेसुं सोहम्‍मदुगम्मि जायंते।२५१५। सव्‍वेसिं भोगभुवे दो गुणठाणाणि सव्‍व्‍कालम्मि। दीसंति चउवियप्पं सव्‍वमिलिच्‍छम्मि मिच्‍छत्तं।२९३७।=
      1. इन उपरोक्त सब अन्‍तर्द्वीपज म्‍लेच्‍छों में से, एकोरुक (एक टा̐गवाले) कुमानुष गुफाओं में रहते हैं और मीठी मिट्टी की खाते हैं। शेष सब वृक्षों के नीचे रहते हैं और (कल्‍पवृक्षों के) फलफूलों से जीवन व्‍यतीत करते हैं।२४८९। (स.सि./३/३/२३१/३); (रा.वा./३/३/४/२०४/२४); (ज.प./१०/५८,८२); (त्रि.सा./१२०)।
      2. वे मनुष्‍य व तिर्यंच युगल-युगलरूप में गर्भ से सुखपूर्वक जन्‍म लेकर समुचित (उनचास) दिनों में यौवन अवस्‍था  को धारण करते हैं।२५१२। (ज.प./१०/८०)।
      3. वे सब कुमानुष २००० धनुष ऊ̐चे, मन्‍दकषायी, प्रियंगु के समान श्‍यामल और एक पल्‍यप्रमाण आयु से युक्त होकर कुभोगभूमि में स्थित रहते हैं।२५१३। (ज.प./१०/१०/८१­८२)।
      4. पश्‍चात् वे उस भूमि के योग्‍य भोगों को भोगकर आयु के अन्‍त में मरण को प्राप्त हो भव‍नत्रिक देवों में उत्‍पन्‍न होते हैं।२५१४। जिन मनुष्‍यों व तिर्यंचों ने इन चार प्रकार के द्वीपों में (दिशा, विदिशा, अन्‍तर्दिशा तथा पर्वतों के पार्श्‍व भागों में स्थित, इन चार प्रकार के अन्‍तर्द्वीपों में) सम्‍यग्‍दर्शनरूप रत्‍न को ग्रहण कर लिया है, वे सौधर्मयुगल में उत्‍पन्‍न होते हैं।२५१५। (ज.प./१०/८३­८)।
      5. सब भोगभूमिजों में (भोग व कुभोगभूमिजों में) दो गुणस्‍थान (प्र. व चतु.) और उत्‍कृष्टरूप से चार (१­४) गुणस्‍थान रहते हैं। सब म्‍लेच्‍छखण्‍डों में एक मिथ्‍यात्‍व गुणस्‍थान ही रहते हैं।२९३७।
      6. म्‍लेच्‍छ खण्‍ड से आर्यखण्‍ड में आये हुए कर्मभूमिज म्‍लेच्‍छ तथा उनकी कन्‍याओं से उत्‍पन्‍न हुई चक्रवर्ती की सन्‍तान कदाचित् प्रव्रज्‍या के योग्‍य भी होते हैं। ( देखें - प्रव्रज्‍या / १ / ३ )।
        देखें - काल / ४ −(कुमानुषों या अन्‍तर्द्वीपों में सर्वदा जघन्‍य भोगभूमि की व्‍यवस्‍था रहती है। (त्रि.सा./भाषा/९२०)।
    5. कुमानुष म्‍लेच्‍छों में उत्‍पन्न होने योग्‍य परिणाम 
      देखें - आयु / ३ / १० (मिथ्‍यात्‍वरत, व्रतियों की निन्‍दा करने वाले तथा भ्रष्‍टाचारी आदि मरकर कुमानुष होते हैं।)।
      देखें - पाप / ४ (पाप के फल से कुमानुषों में उत्‍पन्न होते हैं।)।
http://www.jainkosh.org/wiki/म्लेच्छ

Section 2. शब्दकल्पद्रुमः (म्लेच्छ:)


म्लेच्छ, कि देश्योक्तौ । इति कविकल्पद्रुमः ॥ (चुरा०-वा भ्वा०-पर०-अक०-सक० च-सेट् ।) देश्याग्राम्या उक्तिर्देश्योक्तिरसंस्कृतकथनमित्यर्थः ।कि, म्लेच्छयति म्लेच्छति मूढः । अन्तर्विद्यामसौविद्बान्न म्लेच्छति धृतव्रत इति हलायुधः ॥अनेकार्थत्वादव्यक्तशब्देऽपि । तथा चामरः ।अथ म्लिष्टमविस्पष्टमिति । म्लेच्छ व्यक्तायां वाचिइति प्राञ्चः । तत्र रमानाथस्तु । म्लेच्छति वटु-र्व्यक्तं वदतीत्यर्थः । अव्यक्तायामिति पाठे कुत्-सितायां वाचीत्यर्थः ।‘तत्सादृश्यमभावश्च तदन्यत्वं तदल्पता ।अप्राशस्त्यं विरोधश्च नञर्थाः षट् प्रकीर्त्तिताः ॥’इति भाष्यवचनेन नञोऽप्राशस्त्यार्थत्वात् इतिव्याख्यानाय हलायुधोक्तमुदाहृतवान् । इतिदुर्गादासः ॥
म्लेच्छं, क्ली, (म्लेच्छस्तद्देशः उत्पत्तिस्थानत्वेना-स्त्यस्य । अर्शआद्यच् ।) हिङ्गुलम् । इतिराजनिर्घण्टः ॥ (तथास्य पर्य्यायः ।“हिङ्गुलन्दरदं म्लेच्छमिङ्गुलञ्चूर्णपारदम् ॥”इति भावप्रकाशस्य पूर्ब्बखण्डे प्रथमे भागे ॥)
म्लेच्छः, पुं, (म्लेच्छयति वा म्लेच्छति असंस्कृतंवदतीति । म्लेच्छ् + अच् ।) किरातशवरपुलि-न्दादिजातिः । इत्यमरः ॥ पामरमेदः । पाप-रक्तः । अपभाषणम् । इति मेदिनी । छे, ६ ॥म्लेच्छादीनां सर्व्वधर्म्मराहित्यमुक्तं यथा, हरि-वंशे । १४ । १५ -- १९ ।“सगरः स्वां प्रतिज्ञाञ्च गुरोर्व्वाक्यं निशम्य च ।धर्म्मं जघान तेषां वै वेशान्यत्वं चकार ह ॥अर्द्धं शकानां शिरसो मुण्डयित्वा व्यसर्जयत् ।जवनानां शिरः सर्व्वं काम्बोजानान्तथैव च ॥पारदा मुक्तकेशाश्च पह्नवाः श्मश्रुधारिणः ।निःस्वाध्यायवषट्काराः कृतास्तेन महात्मना ॥शका जवनकाम्बोजाः पारदाः पह्नवास्तथा ।कोलसप्याः समहिषा दार्व्वाश्चोलाः सकेरलाः ।सर्व्वे ते क्षत्त्रियास्तात धर्म्मस्तेषां निराकृतः ॥वशिष्ठवचनाद्राजन् सगरेण महात्मना ॥”शकानां शकदेशोद्भवानां क्षत्त्रियाणाम् । एवंजवनादीनामिति । अत्र जवनशब्दस्तद्देशोद्भव-वाची चवर्गतृतीयादिः । जवनो देशवेगिनो-रिति त्रिकाण्डशेषाभिधानदर्शनात् ॥ * ॥ तेषांम्लेच्छत्वमप्युक्तं विष्णुपुराणे । तथाकृतान् जवना-दीनुपक्रम्य ते चात्मधर्म्मपरित्यागात् म्लेच्छत्वंययुरिति । बौधायनः ।“गोमांसखादको यश्च विरुद्धं बहु भाषते ।सर्व्वाचारविहीनश्च म्लेच्छ इत्यभिधीयते ॥”इति प्रायश्चित्ततत्त्वम् ॥ * ॥अपिच । देवयान्यां ययातेर्द्वौ पुत्त्रौ यदुः तुर्चसुश्च ।शर्म्मिष्ठायां त्रयः पुत्त्राः द्रुह्युः अनुः पुरुश्च ।तत्र यदुप्रभृतयश्चत्वारः पितुराज्ञाहेलनं कृत-वन्तः पित्रा शप्ताः । ज्येष्ठपुत्त्रं यदुं शशाप तववंशे राजा चक्रवर्त्ती मा भूदिति । तुर्व्वसु-द्रुह्य्वनून् शशाप युष्माकं वंश्या वेदवाह्या म्लेच्छाभविष्यन्ति । इति श्रीभागवतमतम् ॥ * ॥(“असृजत् पह्नवान् पुच्छात् प्रस्रावाद्द्राविडान्शकान् ।योनिदेशाच्च यवनान् शकृतः शवरान् बहून् ॥मूत्रतश्चासृजत् काञ्चीञ्छरभांश्चैव पार्श्वतःपौण्ड्रान् किरातान् यवनान् सिंहलान् वर्व्वरान्खशान् ॥चियुकांश्च पुलिन्दांश्च चीनान् हूनान् सके-रलान् ।ससर्ज्ज फेनतः सा गौर्म्लेच्छान् बहुविधानपि ॥”सा वशिष्ठस्य धेनुः । इति महाभारते । १ । १७६ ।३५ -- ३७ ॥) अन्यच्च । “शकजवनकाम्बोज-पारदपह्नवा हन्यमानास्तत्कुलगुरुं वशिष्ठंशरणं ययुः । अथैतान् वशिष्ठो जीवन्मृतकान्कृत्वा सगरमाह । वत्स वत्सालमेभिर्जीवन्मृत-कैरनुसृतैः । एते च मयैव त्वत्प्रतिज्ञापालनायनिजधर्म्मद्बिजसङ्गपरित्यागं कारिताः । सतथेति तद्गुरुवचनमभिनन्द्य तेषां वेशान्य-त्वमकारयत् । जवनान्मुण्डितशिरसोऽर्द्धमुण्डान्शकान् प्रलम्बकेशान् पारदान् पह्नवांश्च श्मश्रु-धरान्निःस्वाध्यायवषट्कारानेतानन्यांश्च क्षत्त्रि-यांश्चकार । ते चात्मधर्म्मपरित्यागाद्ब्राह्मणैश्चपरित्यक्ता म्लेच्छतां ययुः ।” इति विष्णुपुराणे । ४ ।३ । १८ -- २१ ॥ * ॥ प्रकारान्तरेण तस्योत्-पत्तिर्यया, --सूत उवाच ।“वंशे स्वायम्भुवस्यासीदङ्गो नाम प्रजापतिः ।मृत्योस्तु दुहिता तेन परिणीतातिदुर्मुखी ॥सुतीर्था नाम तस्यास्तु वेनो नाम सुतःपुरा ।अधर्म्मंनिरतः कामी बलवान् वसुधाधिपः ।लोकेऽप्यधर्म्मकृज्जातः परभार्य्यापहारकः ॥धर्म्मचारप्रसिद्ध्यर्थं जगतोऽस्य महर्षिभिः ।अनुनीतोऽपि न ददावनुक्षां स यदा ततः ॥शापेन मारयित्वैनमराजकभयार्द्दिताः ।ममन्थुर्ब्राह्मणास्तस्य बलाद्देहमकल्भषाः ॥तत्कायान्मथ्यमानात्तु निपेतुर्म्लेच्छजातयः ।शरीरे मातुरंशेन कृष्णाञ्जनसमप्रभाः ॥”इति मत्स्यपुराणे । १० । ३ -- ८ ॥ * ॥म्लेच्छभाषाभ्यासनिषेधो यथा, --“न सातयेदिष्टकाभिः फलानि वै फलेन तु ।न म्लेच्छभाषां शिक्षेत नाकर्षेच्च पदासनम् ॥”इति कौर्म्म्ये उपविभागे १५ अध्यायः ॥ * ॥तस्य मध्यमा तामसी गतिर्यथा, मानवे ।१२ । ४३ ।“हस्तिनश्च तुरङ्गाश्च शूद्रा म्लेच्छाश्च गर्हिताः ।सिंहा व्याघ्रा वराहाश्च मध्यमा तामसीगतिः ॥”(मन्त्रणाकाले म्लेच्छापसारणमुक्तं यथा, मनु-संहितायाम् । ७ । १४९ ।“जडमूकान्धवधिरांस्तैर्य्यग्योनान् वयोऽति-गान् ।स्त्रीम्लेच्छव्याधितव्यङ्गान् मन्त्रकालेऽपसार-येत् ॥”“अथवा एवंविधा मन्त्रिणो न कर्त्तव्याः । बुद्धि-विभ्रमसम्भवात् ।” इति तद्भाष्ये मेधातिथिः ॥म्लेच्छानां पशुधर्म्मित्वम् । यथा, महाभारते । १ ।८४ । १५ ।“गुरुदारप्रसक्तेषु तिर्य्यग्योनिगतेषु च ।पशुधर्म्मिषु पापेषु म्लेच्छेषु त्वं भविष्यसि ॥”)
म्लेच्छकन्दः, पुं, (म्लेच्छप्रियः कन्द इति मध्यपदलोपी कर्म्मधारयः ।) लशुनम् । इति राज-निर्घण्टः ॥ (तस्य पर्य्यायो यथा, --“लशुनस्तु रसोनः स्यादुग्रगन्धो महौषधम् ।अरिष्टो म्लेच्छकन्दश्च पवनेष्टो रसोनकः ॥”इति भावप्रकाशस्य पूर्ब्बखण्डे प्रथमे भागे ॥)
म्लेच्छजातिः, स्त्री, (म्लेच्छस्य जातिरिति षष्ठी-तत्पुरुषः म्लेच्छरूपा जातिरिति कर्म्मधारयोवा ।) गोमांसखादकबहुविरुद्धभाषकसर्व्वा-चारविहीनवर्णः । यथा, --“गोमांसखादको यस्तु विरुद्धं बहु भाषते ।सर्व्वाचारविहीनश्च म्लेच्छ इत्यभिधीयते ॥”इति प्रायश्चित्ततत्त्वधृतबौधायनवचनम् ॥अपि च ।“भेदाः किरातशवरपुलिन्दा म्लेच्छजातयः ॥”इत्यमरः । २ । ४० । २० ॥अन्यच्च ।“पौण्ड्रकाश्चौड्रद्रविडाः काम्बोजा शवनाःशकाः ।पारदाः पह्नवाश्चीनाः किराताः दरदाःखशाः ॥मुखबाहूरुपज्जानां या लोके जातयो बहिः ।म्लेच्छवाचश्चार्य्यवाचः सर्व्वे ते दस्यवः स्मृताः ॥”इति मानवे १० अध्यायः ॥
म्लेच्छदेशः, पुं, (म्लेच्छानां देशः म्लेच्छप्रधानोदेशो वा ।) चातुर्व्वर्ण्यव्यवस्थादिरहित-स्थानम् । तत्पर्य्यायः । प्रत्यन्तः २ । इत्यमरः ।२ । १ । ७ ॥ भारतवर्षस्यान्तं प्रतिगःप्रत्यन्तः । म्लेच्छति शिष्टाचारहीनो भवत्यत्रम्लेच्छः अल् । स चासौ देशश्चेति म्लेच्छदेशः ।किंवा म्लेच्छयन्ति असंस्कृतं वदन्ति शिष्टा-चारहीना भवन्तीति वा पचाद्यचि म्लेच्छानीचजातयः तेषां देशो म्लेच्छदेशः । भारतवर्ष-स्यान्तः शिष्टाचाररहितः कामरूपवङ्गादिः ।उक्तञ्च ।चातुर्व्वर्ण्यव्यवस्थानं यस्मिन् देशे न विद्यते ।म्लेच्छदेशः स विज्ञेय आर्य्यावर्त्तस्ततः पर-मिति ॥”इति भरतः ॥(अपि च, मनुः । २ । २३ ।“कृष्णसारस्तु चरति मृगो यत्र स्वभावतः ।स ज्ञेयो यज्ञियो देशो म्लेच्छदेशस्ततःपरम् ॥”)
म्लेच्छभोजनं, क्ली, (भुज्यते यदिति । भुज् + कर्म्मणिल्युट् । ततो म्लेच्छानां भोजनम् ।) यावकः ।इति शब्दरत्नावली ॥
म्लेच्छभोजनः, पुं, (भुज्यतेऽसौ इति । भुज् +ल्युट् । म्लेच्छानां भोजनः । (गोधूमः । इतित्रिकाण्डशेषः ॥
म्लेच्छमण्डलं, क्ली, (म्लेच्छानां मण्डलं समूहोऽत्र ।)म्लेच्छदेशः । इति हेमचन्द्रः ॥
म्लेच्छमुखं, क्ली, (म्लेच्छे म्लेच्छदेशे मुखमुत्पत्ति-रस्य । इत्यमरटीकायां रघुनाथः ।) ताम्रम् ।इत्यमरः । २ । ९ । ९७ ॥ (तथास्य पर्य्यायः ।“ताम्रमौदुम्बरं शुल्वमुदुम्बरमपि स्मृतम् ।रविप्रियं म्लेच्छमुखं सूर्य्यपर्य्यायनामकम् ॥”इति भावप्रकाशस्य पूर्ब्बखण्डे प्रथमे भागे ॥“ताम्रमौडुम्बरं शूल्वं विद्यात् म्लेच्छमुख-न्तथा ॥”इति गारुडे २०८ अध्याये ॥)
म्लेच्छाशः, पुं, (म्लेच्छैरश्यते इति । अश् + कर्म्मणि+ घञ् ।) म्लेच्छभोजनः । गोधूमः । इतिकेचित् ॥
म्लेच्छास्यं, क्ली, (म्लेच्छे म्लेच्छदेशे आस्यमुत्पत्ति-रस्य ।) ताम्रम् । इति हारावली ॥
म्लेच्छितं, क्ली, (म्लेछ् देश्योक्तौ + क्तः ।) म्लेच्छ-भाषा । अपशब्दः । तत्पर्य्यायः । परभाषा २ ।इति हारावली ॥

https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/शब्दकल्पद्रुमः

Section 3. वाचस्पत्यम् (म्लेच्छ:)

म्लेच्छ अपशब्दे वा चु० उभ० पक्षे भ्वा० पर० अक०सेट् । म्लेच्छयति ते म्लेच्छति अमम्लेच्छत् त अम्लेच्छीत्
म्लेच्छ पु० म्लेच्छ--घञ् । १ अपशब्दे “म्लेच्छोह वा नामयदप्रशब्द” इति श्रुतिः । कर्त्तरि अच् । २ पामरजातौ,३ नीचजातौ च पुंस्त्री० स्त्रियां ङीष् “गोमांसखादको यस्तु विरुद्धं बहु भाषते । सर्चाचारविहीनश्च म्लेच्छइत्यभिधीयते” बौधायनः । ४ पापरते त्रि० मेदि० ।५ हिङ्गुले न० राजनि० ।म्लेच्छकन्द पु० म्लेच्छप्रियः कन्दः शा० त० । लशुने राजनि०म्लेच्छजाति स्त्री म्लेच्छाभिधा जातिः । गोमांसादिभक्षकेकिरातादिजातिभेदे अमरः ।
म्लेच्छदेश पु० म्लेच्छाधारो देशः । चातुर्वर्ण्याचाररहितेदेशे अमरः । “चातुर्वर्ण्यव्यवस्थानं यस्मिन् देशे नविद्यते । म्लेच्छदेशः स विज्ञेय आर्य्यावर्त्तस्ततःपरम्” ।
म्लेच्छभोजन न० म्लेच्छैर्भुज्यते भुज--कर्मणि ल्युट् ।१ यावके अन्नभेदे शब्दर० । २ गोधूमे पु० त्रिका० ।
म्लेच्छमण्डल न० ६ त० । म्लेच्छदेशे हेमच० ।
म्लेच्छमुख न० म्लेच्छानां मुखमिव रक्तत्वात् । ताम्रे अमरः ।म्लेच्छास्यमप्यत्र हारा० ।
म्लेच्छित न० म्लेच्छ--क्त । अपशब्दे असंस्कृतशब्दे हारा० ।
https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम्/

Section 4. Evidence from Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa for mleccha vācas 


Evidence from Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa for mleccha vācas

An extraordinary narrative account from Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa is cited in full to provide the context of the yagna in which vāk(speech personified as woman) is referred to the importance of grammatical speech in yagna performance and this grammatical, intelligible speech is distinguished from mlecccha, unintelligible speech.  The example of the usage of phrase ‘he ‘lavo is explained by Sayana as a pronunciation variant of: ‘he ‘rayo. i.e. ‘ho, the spiteful (enemies)!’ This grammatically correct phrase, the Asuras were unable to pronounce correctly, notes Sayana. The ŚB text and translation are cited in full because of the early evidence provided of the mleccha speech (exemplifying what is referred to Indian language studies as ‘ralayo rabhedhah’; the transformed use of ‘la’ where the syllable ‘ra’ was intended. This is the clearest evidence of a proto-Indian language which had dialectical variants in the usage by asuras and devas (i.e. those who do not perform yagna and those who perform yagna using vāk, speech.) This is comparable to mleccha vācas and ārya vācas differentiation by Manu. The text of ŚB 3.2.1.22-28 and translation are as follows:

yoṣā vā iyaṃ vāgyadenaṃ na yuvitehaiva mā tiṣṭhantamabhyehīti brūhi tām tu na āgatām pratiprabrūtāditi sā hainaṃ tadeva tiṣṭhantamabhyeyāya tasmādu strī pumāṃsaṃ saṃskṛte tiṣṭhantamabhyaiti tāṃ haibhya āgatām pratiprovāceyaṃ vā āgāditi tāṃ devāḥ |

asurebhyo ‘ntarāyaṃstāṃ svīkṛtyāgnāveva parigṛhya sarvahutamajuhavurāhutirhi devānāṃ sa yāmevāmūmanuṣṭubhājuhavustadevaināṃ taddevāḥ svyakurvata te ‘surā āttavacaso he ‘lavo he ‘lava iti vadantaḥ parābabhūvuḥ  atraitāmapi vācamūduḥ |

upajijñāsyāṃ sa mlecastasmānna brāhmaṇo mlecedasuryā haiṣā vā natevaiṣa dviṣatāṃ sapatnānāmādatte vācaṃ te ‘syāttavacasaḥ parābhavanti ya evametadveda o ‘yaṃ yajño vācamabhidadhyau |

mithunyenayā syāmiti tāṃ saṃbabhūva indro ha vā īkṣāṃ cakre |

mahadvā ito ‘bhvaṃ janiṣyate yajñasya ca mithunādvācaśca yanmā tannābhibhavediti sa indra eva garbho bhūtvaitanmithunam praviveśa sa ha saṃvatsare jāyamāna īkṣāṃ cakre |

 mahāvīryā vā iyaṃ yoniryā māmadīdharata yadvai meto mahadevābhvaṃ nānuprajāyeta yanmā tannābhibhavediti tām pratiparāmṛśyaveṣṭyācinat |

tāṃ yajñasya śīrṣanpratyadadhādyajño hi kṛṣṇaḥ sa yaḥ sa yajñastatkṛṣṇājinaṃ yo sā yoniḥ sā kṛṣṇaviṣāṇātha yadenāmindra āveṣṭyācinattasmādāveṣṭiteva sa yathaivāta indro ‘jāyata garbhobhūtvaitasmānmithunādevamevaiṣo ‘to jāyate garbho bhūtvaitasmānmithunāt tāṃ vā uttānāmiva badhnāti |

Translation: 22.The gods reflected, ‘That vāk being a woman, we must take care lest she should allure him. – Say to her, “Come hither to make me where I stand!” and report to us her having come.’ She then went up to where he was standing. Hence a woman goes to a man who stays in a well-trimmed (house). He reported to them her having come, saying,  ‘She has indeed come.’ 23. The gods then cut her off from the Asuras; and having gained possession of her and enveloped her completely in fire, they offered her up as a holocaust, it being an offering of the gods. (78) And in that they offered her with an anushtubh verse, thereby they made her their own; and the Asuras being deprived of speech, were undone, crying, ‘He ‘lavah! He ‘lavah!’ (79) 24. Such was the unintelligible speech which they then uttered, -- and he (who speaks thus) is a Mlekkha (barbarian). Hence let no Brahman speak barbarous language, since such is the speech of the Asuras. Thus alone he deprives his spiteful enemies of speech; and whosoever knows this, his enemies, being deprived of speech, are undone. 25. That Yajna (sacrifice) lusted after vāk (speech [80]), thinking, ‘May I pair with her!’ He united with her. 26. Indra then thought within himself, ‘Surely a great monster will spring from this union of Yagna and vāk: [I must take care] lest it should get the better of me.’ Indra himself then became an embryo and entered into that union. 27. Now when he was born after a year’s time, he thought within himself, ‘Verily of great vigour is this womb which has contained me: [I must take care] that no great monster shall be born from it after me, lest it should get the better of me!’ 28. Having seized and pressed it tightly, he tore it off and put it on the head of Yagna (sacrifice [81]); for the black (antelope) is the sacrifice: the black deer skin is the same as that sacrifice, and the black deer’s horn is the same as that womb.  And because it was by pressing it tightly together that Indra tore out (the womb), therefore it (the horn) is bound tightly (to the end of the garment); and as Indra, having become an embryo, sprang from that union, so is he (the sacrifice), after becoming an embryo, born from that union (of the skin and the horn). (ŚB 3.2.1.23-25). (fn 78) According to Sayana, ‘he ‘lavo’ stands for ‘he ‘rayo’ (i.e. ho, the spiteful (enemies)!’ which the Asuras were unable to pronounce correctly. The Kaanva text, however, reads te hātavāko ‘su  hailo haila ity etām ha vācam vadantah parābabhūvuh (? i.e. he p. 32 ilaa, ‘ho, speech’.) A third version of this passage seems to be referred to in the Mahā  bhāya (Kielh.), p.2. (p.38). (fn 79) Compare the corresponding legend about Yagna and Dakṣiṇā  (priests’ fee), (Taitt. S. VI.1.3.6. (p.38) (fn 79) ‘Yagnasya sīran’; one would expect ‘kṛṇa(sāra)sya sīran.’ The Taitt.S. reads ‘tām mṛgeu ny adadhāt.’ (p.38) (fn81) In the Kanva text ‘atah (therewith)’ refers to the head of the sacrifice, -- sa yak khirasta upasprisaty ato vā enām etad agre pravisan pravisaty ato vā agre gāyamāno gāyate tasmāk khirasta upasprisati. (p.39)(cf. śatapatha Brāhmaṇa vol. 2 of 5, tr. By Julius Eggeling, 1885, in SBE Part 12; fn 78-81).

Mesopotamian texts refer to a language called meluhha (which required an Akkadian translator); this meluhha is cognate with mleccha. Seafaring meluhhan merchants used the script in trade transactions; artisans created metal artifacts, lapidary artificats of terracotta, ivory for trade. Glosses of the proto-Indic or Indus language are used to read rebus the Indus script inscriptions. The glyphs of the script include both pictorial motifs and signs and both categories of glyphs are read rebus. As a first step in delineating the Indus language, an Indian lexicon provides a resource, compiled semantically cluster over 1240 groups of glosses from ancient Indian languages as a proto-Indic substrate dictionary. See http://www.scribd.com/doc/2232617/lexicon linked athttp://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/indus-writing

“The word meluh.h.a  is of special interest.  It occurs as a verb in a different form (mlecha-) in Vedic only in ŚB 3.2.1, an eastern text of N. Bihar where it indicates ‘to speak in barbarian fashion’. But it has a form closer to Meluh.h.a in Middle Indian (MIA): Pali, the church language of S. Buddhism which originated as a western N. Indian dialect (roughly, between Mathura, Gujarat and the Vindhya) has milakkha, milakkhu. Other forms, closer to ŚB mleccha are found in MIA *mliccha > Sindhi milis, Panjabi milech, malech, Kashmiri bri.c.hun ‘weep, lament’ (< *mrech-, with the common r/l interchange of IA), W. Pahari mel+c.h ‘dirty’. It seems that, just as in other cases mentioned above, the original local form *m(e)luh. (i.e. m(e)lukh in IA pronunciation, cf. E. Iranian bAxdhI  ‘Bactria’ > AV *bahli-ka, balhi-ka) was preserved only in the South (Gujarat? >Pali), while the North (Panjab, Kashmir, even ŚB and Bengal) has *mlecch. The sound shift from-h.h.-/-kh- > -cch- is unexplained; it may have been modeled on similar correspondences in MIA   (Skt. Aki ‘eye’ _ MIA akkhi, acchi; ks.Etra ‘_eld’ _ MIA khetta, chetta, etc.) The meaning of Mleccha must have evolved from ‘self-designation’ > ‘name of foreigners’, cf. those of the Franks > Arab farinjI ‘foreigner.’ Its introduction into Vedic must have begun in Meluh.h.a, in Baluchistan-Sindh, and have been transmitted for a long time in a non-literary level of IA as a nickname, before surfacing in E. North India in Middle/Late Vedic as Mleccha. (Pali milāca is influenced by a `tribal’ name, Piśā ca, as is Sindhi milindu, milidu by Pulinda; the word has been further `abbreviated’ by avoiding the difficult cluster ml- : Prākṛt mecha, miccha, Kashmiri m ĩ c(h), Bengali mech (a Tib.-Burm tribe) and perhaps Pashai mece if not < *mēcca `defective’ (Turner, CDIAL 10389. | Parpola 1994: 174 has attempted a Dravidian explanation. He understands Meluh.h. a (var. Melah.h.a) as Drav. *Mēlakam [mēlaxam] `high country’ (= Baluchistan) (=Ta-milakam) and points to Neo-Assyr. Baluh.h.u `galbanum’, sinda `wood from Sindh’. He traces mlech, milakkha back to *mleks. , which is seen as agreeing, with central Drav. Metathesis with *mlēxa = mēlaxa-m. Kuiper 1991:24 indicates not infrequent elision of (Dravid.) —a- when taken over into Skt. | Shafer 1954 has a Tib-Burm. Etymology *mltse; Southworth 1990: 223 reconstructs Pdrav. 2 *muzi/mizi `say, speak, utter’, DEDR 4989, tamil `Tamil’ < `own speech’.)” [Witzel, Michael, 1999, Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan (Rgvedic, Middle and Late VedicElectronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS) 5-1 (1999) pp.1-67.http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501article.pdf]

Note: Coining a term, “Para-Munda”, denoting a hypothetical language related but not ancestral to modern Munda languages, the author goes on to identify it as “Harappan”, the language of theHarappan civilization. The author later recounts this and posits that Harappan were illiterate  and takes the glyphs of the script to be symbols without any basis in any underlying language.[cf. Steve Farmer, Richard Sproat, and Michael Witzel, 2005, The Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization  EJVS 11-2  Dec. 13, 2005.]
vāk is adored in Rigveda as a divinity attesting to the importance in chandas (prosody of Vedic language renderings) to precise and accurate pronunciation of sounds, syllables and metrical rigour. vāk is the messaging system to convey thoughts through prayers of extraordinary profundity. Thus, Agni, the flames of the fire from the yajnakunda become the carrier of vāk, the fire of words pouring forth into cosmos from consciousness of the inspired, मन्त्रद्रष्टा mantradrashtaa, the seer of mantra, the Rishi. This sacred mantra is also referred to as brahma in the rendering by Rishi Viswamitra: 
(RV 3.53.12:  Ya ime rodasī ubhe aham indram atuṣṭavam
viśvāmitrasya rakṣati brahmedam bhāratam janam
Trans. I have made Indra glorified by these two, heaven and earth, and this prayer of viśvāmitra protects the people of Bhārata. [Made Indra glorified: indram atuṣṭavam — the verb is the third preterite of the casual, I have caused to be praised; it may mean: I praise Indra, abiding between heaven and earth, i.e. in the firmament]. 
This brahma, this sacred mantra protects the bhāratam janam or metalcaster folk. Defiling of the sacredness associated with the correct pronunciation of vāk is corrected by differentiating between correct speech, ārya vācas and incorrect speech, mleccha vācas.
India was called Bhāratavarṣa after the king Bhārata. (Vāyu 33, 51-2; Bd. 2,14,60-2; lin:ga 1,47,20,24; Viṣṇu 2,1,28,32).

The evidence is remarkable that almost every single glyph or glyptic element of the Indus script can be read rebus using the repertoire of artisans (lapidaries working with precious shell, ivory, stones and terracotta, mine-workers, metal-smiths working with a variety of minerals, furnaces and other tools) who created the inscribed objects and used many of them to authenticate their trade transactions. Many of the inscribed objects are seen to be calling cards of the professional artisans, listing their professional skills and repertoire.

The identification of glosses from the present-day languages of India on Sarasvati river basin is justified by the continuation of culture evidenced by many artifacts evidencing civilization continuum from the Vedic  Sarasvati River basin, since language and culture are intertwined, continuing legacies:

Huntington notes [http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/Makara%20Site/makara]: “There is a continuity of composite creatures demonstrable in Indic culture since Kot Diji ca. 4000 BCE.”

Mriga (pair of deer or antelope) in Buddha sculptures compare with Harappan period prototype of a pair of ibexes on the platform below a seated yogin. http://tinyurl.com/gonsh

Continued use of śankha (turbinella pyrum) bangles which tradition began 6500 BCE at Nausharo;

Continued wearing of sindhur at the parting of the hair by married ladies as evidenced by two terracotta toys painted black on the hair, painted golden on the jewelry and painted red to show sindhur at the parting of the hair;

Finds of shivalinga in situ in a worshipful state in Harappa (a metaphor of Mt. Kailas summit where Maheśvara is in tapas, according to Hindu tradition);

Terracotta toys of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro showing Namaste postures and yogasana postures;

Three-ring ear-cleaning device

Legacy of architectural forms

Legacy of puṣkariṇi in front of mandirams; as in front of Mohenjo-daro stupa 

Legacy of metallurgy and the writing system on punch-marked coins

Section 5.  Mahābhārata > Ādi Parva > Jātugr̥ha Parva CXLVII 
Excerpt from Jātugr̥ha parva of Mahābhārata (which attests Mleccha as a language)


Let me cite a reference in Mahābhārata which refers to mleccha (cognate Meluhha, as a language used by Vidura and Yudhishthira): "Vaisampayana continued, 'Hearing these words, the illustrious Kunti was deeply grieved, and with her children, O bull of Bharata's race, stepped into the boat and went over the Ganges. Then leaving the boat according to the advice of Vidura, the Pandavas took with them the wealth that had been given to them (while at Varanavata) by their enemies and safely entered the deep woods. In the house of lac, however, that had been prepared for the destruction of the Pandavas, an innocent Nishada woman who had come there for some purpose, was, with her children burnt to death. And that worst of Mlechchhas, the wretched Purochana (who was the architect employed in building the house of lac) was also burnt in the conflagration. And thus were the sons of Dhirtarashtra with their counsellors deceived in their expectations. And thus also were the illustrious Pandavas, by the advice of Vidura, saved with their mother. But the people (of Varanavata) knew not of their safety. And the citizens of Varanavata, seeing the house of lac consumed (and believing the Pandavas to have been burnt to death) became exceedingly sorry. And they sent messengers unto king Dhritarashtra to represent everything that had happened. And they said to the monarch, 'Thy great end hath been achieved! Thou hast at last burnt the Pandavas to death! Thy desire fulfilled, enjoy with thy children. O king of the Kurus, the kingdom.' Hearing this, Dhritarashtra with his children, made a show of grief, and along with his relatives, including [paragraph continues] Kshattri (Vidura) and Bhishma the foremost of the Kurus, performed the last honours of the Pandavas.' (Mahābhārata, Section CXLIII,, Jatugriha Parva, pp. 302-303). The Great Epic is replete with hundreds of references to Mlecchas and mleccha speakers.

MAHABHARATA, BOOK 01: ADI PARVA

Section 143

CXLIII Jatugriha Parva Vaisampayana said, Then the son of Suvala Sakuni, king DuryodhanaDuhsasana and Kama, in consultation with one another, formed an evil conspiracy. With the sanction of Dhritarashtra, the king of the Kurus, they resolved to burn to death Kunti and her five sons. But that wise Vidura, capable of reading the heart by external signs, ascertained the intention of these wicked persons by observing their countenances alone. Then the sinless Vidura, of soul enlightened by true knowledge, and devoted to the good of the Pandavas, came to the conclusion that Kunti with her children should fly away from her foes. And providing for that purpose a boat strong enough to withstand both wind and wave, he addressed Kunti and said, This Dhritarashtra hath been born for destroying the fame and offspring of the Kuru race. Of wicked soul, he is about to cast off eternal virtue.
O blessed one, I have kept ready on the stream a boat capable of withstanding both wind and wave. Escape by it with thy children from the net that death hath spread around you' Vaisampayana continued, Hearing these words, the illustrious Kuntiwas deeply grieved, and with her children, O bull of Bharata's race, stepped into the boat and went over the GangesThen leaving the boat according to the advice of Vidura, the Pandavas took with them the wealth that had been given to them while at Varanavata by their enemies and safely entered the deep woods. In the house of lac, however, that had been prepared for the destruction of the Pandavas, an innocent Nishada woman who had come there for some purpose, was, with her children burnt to death. And that worst of Mlechchhas, the wretched Purochana who was the architect employed in building the house of lac was also burnt in the conflagration. And thus were the sons of Dhirtarashtra with their counsellors deceived in their expectations. And thus also were the illustrious Pandavas, by the advice of Vidura, saved with their mother.But the people of Varanavata knew not of their safety. And the citizens of Varanavata, seeing the house of lac consumed and believing the Pandavas to have been burnt to death became exceedingly sorry.
And they sent messengers unto king Dhritarashtra to represent everything that had happened. And they said to the monarch, Thy great end hath been achieved! Thou hast at last burnt the Pandavas to death! Thy desire fulfilled, enjoy with thy children. O king of the Kurus, the kingdom' Hearing this, Dhritarashtra with his children, made a show of grief, and along with his relatives, including Kshattri Vidura and Bhishma the foremost of the Kurus, performed the last honours of the Pandavas'Janamejaya said, O best of Brahmanas, I desire to hear in full this history of the burning of the house of lac and the escape of the Pandavas there from. That was a cruel act of theirs the Kurus, acting under the counsels of the wicked KanikaRecite the history to me of all that happened. I am burning with curiosity to hear it'
Vaisampayana said, O chastiser of all foes, listen to me, O monarch, as I recite the history of the burning of the house of lac and the escape of the PandavasThe wicked Duryodhana, beholding Bhimasena surpass everybody in strength and Arjunahighly accomplished in arms became pensive and sad. Then Karna, the offspring of the Sun, and Sakuni, the son of Suvala, endeavoured by various means to compass the death of the PandavasThe Pandavas too counteracted all those contrivances one after another, and in obedience to the counsels of Vidura, never spoke of them afterwards. Then the citizens, beholding the son of Pandu possessed of accomplishments, began, O Bharata, to speak of them in all places of public resort. And assembled in courtyards and other places of gathering, they talked of the eldest son of Pandu Yudhishthira as possessed of the qualifications for ruling the kingdom. And they said, Dhritarashtra, though possessed of the eye of knowledge, having been born blind, had not obtained the kingdom before. How can he therefore become king now? Then Bhishma, the son ofSantanu, of rigid vows and devoted to truth, having formerly relinquished the sovereignty would never accept it now. We shall, therefore, now install on the throne with proper ceremonies the eldest of the Pandavas endued with youth, accomplished in battle, versed in the Vedas, and truthful and kind.
Worshipping Bhishma, the son of Santanu and Dhritarashtra conversant with the rules of morality, he will certainly maintain the former and the latter with his children in every kind of enjoyment. The wretched Duryodhana, hearing these words of the parting partisans of Yudhishthira, became very much distressed. Deeply afflicted, the wicked prince could not put up with those speeches. Inflamed with jealousy, he went unto Dhritarashtra, and finding him alone he saluted him with reverence and distressed at the sight of the partiality of the citizens for Yudhishthira, he addressed the monarch and said, O father, I have heard the parting citizens utter words of ill omen. Passing thee by, and Bhishma too, they desire the son of Pandu to be their king. Bhishma will sanction this, for he will not rule the kingdom. It seems, therefore, that the citizens are endeavouring to inflict a great injury on us. Pandu obtained of old the ancestral kingdom by virtue of his own accomplishments, but thou, from blindness, didst not obtain the kingdom, though fully qualified to have it. If Pandu's son now obtaineth the kingdom as his inheritance from Pandu, his son will obtain it after him and that son's son also, and so on will it descend in Pandu's line. In that case, O king of the world, ourselves with our children, excluded from the royal line, shall certainly be disregarded by all men.

Therefore, O monarch, adopt such counsels that we may not suffer perpetual distress, becoming dependent on others for our food. O king, if thou hadst obtained the sovereignty before, we would certainly have succeeded to it, however much the people might be unfavourable to us

Section 144

CXLIV Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana continued, King Dhritarashtra whose knowledge only was his eyes, on hearing these words of his son and recollecting everything that Kanika had, said unto him, became afflicted with sorrow, and his mind also thereupon began to waver. Then Duryodhana and Karna, and Sakuni, the son of Suvala, and Duhsasana as their fourth, held a consultation together. Prince Duryodhana said unto Dhritarashtra, Send, O father, by some clever contrivance, thePandavas to the town of VaranavataWe shall then have no fear of them' Dhritarashtra, on hearing these words uttered by his son, reflected for a moment and replied unto Duryodhana, saying, Pandu, ever devoted to virtue, always behaved dutifully towards all his relatives but particularly towards me. He cared very little for the enjoyments of the world, but devotedly gave everything unto me, even the kingdom. His son is as much devoted to virtue as he, and is possessed of every accomplishment. Of world-wide fame, he is again the favourite of the people.
He is possessed of allies; how can we by force exile him from his ancestral kingdom? The counsellors and soldiers of the state and their sons and grandsons have all been cherished and maintained by PanduThus benefited of old by Pandu, shall not, O child, the citizens slay us with all our friends and relatives now on account of Yudhishthira Duryodhana replied, What thou sayest, O father, is perfectly true. But in view of the evil that is looming on the future as regards thyself, if we conciliate the people with wealth and honours, they would assuredly side with us for these proofs of our power. The treasury and the ministers of state, O king, are at this moment under our control. Therefore, it behoveth thee now to banish, by some gentle means, the Pandavas to the town of Varanavata; O king, when the sovereignty shall have been vested in me, then, OBharata, may Kunti with her children come back from that place' Dhritarashtra replied, This, O Duryodhana, is the very thought existing in my mind. But from its sinfulness I have never given expression to it. Neither Bhishma, nor Drona, norKshattri, nor Gautama Kripa will ever sanction the exile of the Pandavas.
In their eyes, O dear son, amongst the Kurus ourselves and the Pandavas are equal. Those wise and virtuous persons will make no difference between us. If therefore, we behave so towards the Pandavas, shall we not, O son, deserve death at the hands of the Kurus, of these illustrious personages, and of the whole world' Duryodhana answered, Bhishma hath no excess of affection for either side, and will, therefore, be neutral in case of dispute. The son of Drona Aswatthaman is on my side.There is no doubt that where the son is, there the father will be. Kripa, the son of Saradwat, must be on the side on whichDrona and Aswatthaman are. He will never abandon Drona and his sister's son AswatthamanKshattri Vidura is dependent on us for his means of life, though he is secretly with the foe. It he sides the Pandavas, he alone can do us no injury, Therefore, exile thou the Pandavas to Varanavata without any fear.
And take such steps that they may go thither this very day. By this act, O father, extinguish the grief that consumeth me like a blazing fire, that robbeth me of sleep, and that pierces my heart even like a terrible dart

Section 145

CXLV Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana said, Then prince Duryodhana, along with his brothers began to gradually win over the people to his side by grants of wealth and honours. Meanwhile, some clever councillors, instructed by Dhritarashtra, one day began to describe in court the town of Varanavata as a charming place. And they said, The festival of Pasupati Sivahath commenced in the town of VaranavataThe concourse of people is great and the procession is the most delightful of all ever witnessed on earth. Decked with every ornament, it charmed the hearts of all spectators' Thus did those councillors, instructed by Dhritarashtra, speak of Varanavata, and whilst they were so speaking, the Pandavas, O king, felt the desire of going to that delightful town. And when the king Dhritarashtra ascertained that the curiosity of the Pandavas had been awakened, the son of Ambika addressed them, saying, These men of mine often speak of Varanavata as the most delightful town in the world. If therefore, ye children, ye desire to witness that festival, go to Varanavata with your followers and friends and enjoy yourselves there like the celestials.
And give ye away pearls and gems unto the Brahmanas and the musicians that may be assembled there. And sporting there for some time as ye please like the resplendent celestials and enjoying as much pleasure as ye like, return ye to Hastinapuraagain' Vaisampayana continued, Yudhishthira, fully understanding the motives of Dhritarashtra and considering that he himself was weak and friendless, replied unto the king, saying, So be it' Then addressing Bhishma, the son of Santanu, the wise ViduraDronaValhika, the KauravaSomadattaKripaAswatthamanBhurisravas, and the other councillors, andBrahmanas and ascetics, and the priests and the citizens, and the illustrious Gandhari, he said slowly and humbly, With our friends and followers we go to the delightful and populous town of Varanavata at the command of DhritarashtraCheerfully give us your benedictions so that acquiring prosperity, therewith we may not be touched by sin' Thus addressed by the eldest of Pandu's sons, the Kaurava chiefs all cheerfully pronounced blessings on them, saying, Ye sons of Pandu, let all the elements bless you along your way and let not the slightest evil befall you' The Pandavas, having performed propitiatory rites for obtaining their share of the kingdom, and finishing their preparations, set out for Varanavata

Section 146

CXLVI Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana said, The wicked Duryodhana became very pleased when the king, OBharata, had said so unto PandavasAnd, O bull of Bharata's race, Duryodhana, then, summoning his counsellor, Purochanain private, took hold of his right hand and said, O Purochana, this world, so full of wealth, is mine. But it is thine equally with me.
It behoveth thee, therefore, to protect it. I have no more trustworthy counsellor than thee with whom to consult. Therefore, O sire, keep my counsel and exterminate my foes by a clever device. O, do as I bid thee. The Pandavas have, byDhritarashtra, been sent to Varanavata, where they will, at Dhritarashtra's command, enjoy themselves during the festivities.Do that by which thou mayest this very day reach Varanavata in a car drawn by swift mules. Repairing thither, cause thou to be erected a quadrangular palace in the neighbourhood of the arsenal, rich in the materials and furniture, and guard thou the mansion well with prying eyes. And use thou in erecting that house hemp and resin and all other inflammable materials that are procurable. And mixing a little earth with clarified butter and oil and fat and a large quantity of lac, make thou a plaster for lining the walls, and scatter thou all around that house hemp and oil and clarified butter and lac and wood in such a way that the Pandavas, or any others, may not, even with scrutiny behold them there or conclude the house to be an inflammable one. And having erected such mansion, cause thou the Pandavas, after worshipping them with great reverence, to dwell in it with Kunti and all their friends.
And place thou there seats and conveyances and beds, all of the best workmanship, for the Pandavas, so that Dhritarashtra may have no reason to complain. Thou must also so manage it all that none of Varanavata may know anything till the end we have in view is accomplished. And assuring thyself that the Pandavas are sleeping within in confidence and without fear, thou must then set fire to that mansion beginning at the outer door. The Pandavas thereupon must be burnt to death, but the people will say that they have been burnt in an accidental conflagration of their house. Saying, So be it' unto the Kuruprince, Purochana repaired to Varanavata in a car drawn by fleet mules. And going thither, O king, without loss of time, obedient to the instructions of Duryodhana, did everything that the prince had bid him do

Section 147

CXLVII Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana said, Meanwhile the Pandavas got into their cars, yoking thereto some fine horses endued with the speed of wind. While they were on the point of entering their cars, they touched, in great sorrow, the feet of Bhishma, of king Dhritarashtra, of the illustrious Drona, of Kripa, of Vidura and of the other elders of the Kuru race.Then saluting with reverence all the older men, and embracing their equals, receiving the farewell of even the children, and taking leave of all the venerable ladies in their household, and walking round them respectfully, and bidding farewell unto all the citizens, the Pandavas, ever mindful of their vows, set out for VaranavataAnd Vidura of great wisdom and the other bulls among the Kurus and the citizens also, from great affliction, followed those tigers among men to some distance.
And some amongst the citizens and the country people, who followed the Pandavas, afflicted beyond measure at beholding the sons of Pandu in such distress, began to say aloud, King Dhritarashtra of wicked soul seeth no things with the same eye.The Kuru monarch casteth not his eye on virtue. Neither the sinless Yudhishthira, nor Bhima the foremost of mighty men, norDhananjaya the youngest son of Kunti, will ever be guilty of the sin of waging a rebellious war. When these will remain quiet, how shall the illustrious son of Madri do anything? Having inherited the kingdom from their father, Dhritarashtra could not bear them. How is that Bhishma who suffers the exile of the Pandavas to that wretched place, sanctions this act of great injustice? Vichitravirya, the son of Santanu, and the royal sage Pandu of Kuru's race both cherished us of old with fatherly care. But now that Pandu that tiger among men, hath ascended to heaven, Dhritarashtra cannot bear with these princes his children. We who do not sanction this exile shall all go, leaving this excellent town and our own homes, where Yudhishthirawill go' Unto those distressed citizens talking in this way, the virtuous Yudhishthira, himself afflicted with sorrow, reflecting for a few moments said, The king is our father, worthy of regard, our spiritual guide, and our superior.
To carry out with unsuspicious hearts whatever he biddeth, is indeed, our duty. Ye are our friends. Walking round us and making us happy by your blessings, return ye to your abodes. When the time cometh for anything to be done for us by you, then, indeed, accomplish all that is agreeable and beneficial to us' Thus addressed, the citizens walked round the Pandavasand blessed them with their blessings and returned to their respective abodes. And after the citizens had ceased following thePandavasVidura, conversant with all the dictates of morality, desirous of awakening the eldest of the Pandavas to a sense of his dangers, addressed him in these words. The learned Vidura, conversant with the jargon of the Mlechchhas, addressed the learned Yudhishthira who also was conversant with the same jargon, in the words of the Mlechchha tongue, so as to be unintelligible to all except YudhishthiraHe said, He that knoweth the schemes his foes contrive in accordance with the dictates of political science, should, knowing them, act in such a way as to avoid all danger. He that knoweth that there are sharp weapons capable of cutting the body though not made of steel, and understandeth also the means of warding them off, can never be injured by foes. He liveth who protecteth himself by the knowledge that neither the consumer of straw and wood nor the drier of the dew burneth the inmates of a hole in the deep woods.
The blind man seeth not his way: the blind man hath no knowledge of direction. He that hath no firmness never acquireth prosperity. Remembering this, be upon your guard. The man who taketh a weapon not made of steel ie, an inflammable abode given him by his foes, can escape from fire by making his abode like unto that of a jackal having many outlets. By wandering a man may acquire the knowledge of ways, and by the stars he can ascertain the direction, and he that keepeth his five senses under control can never be oppressed y his enemies' Thus addressed, Pandu's son, Yudhishthira the just replied unto Vidura, that foremost of all learned men, saying, I have understood thee' Then Vidura, having instructed thePandavas and followed them thus far, walked around them and bidding them farewell returned to his own abode. When the citizens and Bhishma and Vidura had all ceased following, Kunti approached Yudhishthira and said, The words that Kshattrisaid unto thee in the midst of many people so indistinctly as if he did not say anything, and thy reply also to him in similar words and voice, we have not understood. If it is not improper; for us to know them I should then like to hear everything that had passed between him and thee' Yudhishthira replied, The virtuous Vidura said unto me that we should know that the mansion for our accommodation at Varanavata hath been built of inflammable materials.
He said unto me, The path of escape too shall not be unknown to thee, and further, Those that can control their senses can acquire the sovereignty of the whole world, The reply that I gave unto Vidura was, I have understood thee' Vaisampayanacontinued, The Pandavas set out on the eighth day of the month of Phalguna when the star Rohini was in the ascendant, and arriving at Varanavata they beheld the town and the people

Section 148

CXLVIII Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana said, Then all the citizens of Varanavata on hearing that the son of Panduhad come, were filled with joy at the tidings, speedily came out of Varanavata, in vehicles of various kinds numbering by thousands, taking with them every auspicious article as directed by the Sastras, for receiving those foremost of men. And the people of Varanavata, approaching the sons of Kunti blessed them by uttering the Jaya and stood surrounding them. That tiger among men, viz, the virtuous Yudhishthira thus surrounded by them looked resplendent like him having the thunderbolt in his hands viz, Indra in the midst of the celestials. And those sinless ones, welcomed by the citizens and welcoming the citizens in return, then entered the populous town of Varanavata decked with every ornament. Entering the town those heroes first went, O monarch, to the abodes of Brahmanas engaged in their proper duties. Those foremost of men then went to the abodes of the officials of the town, and then of the Sutas and the Vaisyas and then to those of even the Sudras, O bull ofBharata's race, thus adored by the citizens, the Pandavas at last went with Purochana going before them, to the palace that had been built for them, Purochana then began to place before them food and drink and beds and carpets, all of the first and most agreeable order. The Pandavas attired in costly robes, continued to live there, adored by Purochana and the people having their homes in Varanavata.
After the Pandavas had thus lived for ten nights, Purochana spoke to them of the mansion he had built called The Blessed Home' but in reality the cursed house. Then those tigers among men, attired in costly dress, entered that mansion at the instance of Purochana like Guhyakas entering the palace of Siva on the Kailasa mount. The foremost of all virtuous men,Yudhishthira, inspecting the house, said unto Bhima that it was really built of inflammable materials. Smelling the scent of fat mixed with clarified butter and preparations of lac, he said unto Bhima, O chastiser of foes, this house is truly built of inflammable materials! Indeed, it is apparent that such is the case! The enemy, it is evident, by the aid of trusted artists well-skilled in the construction of houses, have finely built this mansion, after procuring hemp, resin, heath, straw, and bamboos, all soaked in clarified butter. This wicked wretch, Purochana, acting under the instruction of Duryodhana, stayeth here with the object of burning me to death when he seeth me trustful. But, O son of PrithaVidura of great intelligence, knew of this danger, and, therefore, hath warned me of it beforehand. Knowing it all, that youngest uncle of ours, ever wishing our good from affection hath told us that this house, so full of danger, hath been constructed by the wretches underDuryodhana acting in secrecy' Hearing this, Bhima replied, If, sir, you know this house to be so inflammable, it would then be well for us to return thither where we had taken up our quarters first'
Yudhishthira replied, It seems to me that we should rather continue to live here in seeming unsuspiciousness but all the while with caution and our senses wide awake and seeking for some certain means of escape. If Purochana findeth from our countenances that we have fathomed designs, acting with haste he may suddenly burn us to death. Indeed, Purochana careth little for obloquy or sin. The wretch stayeth here acting under the instruction of DuryodhanaIf we are burnt to death, will our grandfather Bhishma be angry? Why will he, by showing his wrath, make the Kauravas angry with him? Or, perhaps, our grandfather Bhishma and the other bull of Kuru's race, regarding indignation at such a sinful act to be virtuous, may become wrathful. If however, from fear of being burnt, we fly from here, Duryodhana, ambitious of sovereignty will certainly compass our death by means of spies. While we have no rank and power, Duryodhana hath both; while we have no friends and allies,Duryodhana hath both; while we are without wealth, Duryodhana hath at his command a full treasury. Will he not, therefore, certainly destroy us by adopting adequate means?
Let us, therefore, by deceiving this wretch Purochana and that other wretch Duryodhana, pass our days, disguising ourselves at times. Let us also lead a hunting life, wandering over the earth. We shall then, if we have to escape our enemies, be familiar with all paths. We shall also, this very day, cause a subterranean passage to be dug in our chamber in great secrecy.If we act in this way, concealing what we do from all, fire shall never be able to consume us. We shall live here, actively doing everything for our safety but with such privacy that neither Purochana nor any of the citizens of Varanavata may know what we are after

Section 149 (See Samskritam Chapter 135)

CXLIX Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana continued, A friend of Vidura's, well-skilled in mining, coming unto the Pandavas, addressed them in secret, saying, I have been sent by Vidura and am a skilful miner. I am to serve the Pandavas.Tell me what I am to do for ye. From the trust he reposeth in me Vidura hath said unto me, Go thou unto the Pandavas and accomplish thou their good.
What shall I do for you? Purochana will set fire to the door of thy house on the fourteenth night of this dark fortnight. To burn to death those tigers among men, the Pandavas, with their mother, is the design of that wicked wretch, the son of DhritarashtraO son of PanduVidura also told thee something in the Mlechchha tongue to which thou also didst reply in same language. I state these particulars as my credentials' Hearing these words, Yudhishthira, the truthful son of Kuntireplied, O amiable one, I now know thee as a dear and trusted friend of Vidura, true and ever devoted to him. There is nothing that the learned Vidura doth not know. As his, so ours art thou. Make no difference between him and us. We are as much thine as his.
O, protect us as the learned Vidura ever protecteth us. I know that this house, so inflammable, hath been contrived for me byPurochana at the command of Dhritarashtra's son. That wicked wretch commanding wealth and allies pursueth us without intermission. O, save us with a little exertion from the impending conflagration. If we are burnt to death here, Duryodhana'smost cherished desire will be satisfied. Here is that wretch's well-furnished arsenal. This large mansion hath been built abutting the high ramparts of the arsenal without any outlet. But this unholy contrivance of Duryodhana was known to Vidurafrom the first, and he it was who enlightened us beforehand. The danger of which Kshattri had foreknowledge is now at our door. Save us from it without Purochana's knowledge thereof'
On hearing these words, the miner said, So be it' and carefully beginning his work of excavation, made a large subterranean passage. And the mouth of that passage was in the centre of that house, and it was on a level with the floor and closed up with planks. The mouth was so covered from fear of Purochana, that wicked wretch who kept a constant watch at the door of the house. The Pandavas used to sleep within their chambers with arms ready for use, while, during the day, they went a-hunting from forest to forest. Thus, O king, they lived in that mansion very guardedly, deceiving Purochana by a show of trustfulness and contentment while in reality they were trustless and discontented. Nor did the citizens of Varanavata know anything about these plans of the PandavasIn fact, none else knew of them except Vidura's friend, that good miner

Section 150

CL Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana said, Seeing the Pandavas living there cheerfully and without suspicion for a full year, Purochana became exceedingly glad. And beholding Purochana so very glad, Yudhishthira, the virtuous son of Kunti, addressing Bhima and Arjuna and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva said, The cruel-hearted wretch hath been well-deceived. I think the time is come for our escape.
Setting fire to the arsenal and burning Purochana to death and letting his body lie here, let us, six persons, fly hence unobserved by all' Vaisampayana continued, Then on the occasion of an almsgiving, O king, Kunti fed on a certain night a large number of BrahmanasThere came also a number of ladies who while eating and drinking, enjoyed there as they pleased, and with Kunti's leave returned to their respective homes. Desirous of obtaining food, there came, as though impelled by fate, to that feast, in course of her wanderings, a Nishada woman, the mother of five children, accompanied by all her sons. O king, she, and her children, intoxicated with the wine they drank, became incapable. Deprived of consciousness and more dead than alive, she with all her sons lay down in that mansion to sleep. Then when all the inmates of the house lay down to sleep, there began to blow a violent wind in the night. Bhima then set fire to the house just wherePurochana was sleeping. Then the son of Pandu set fire to the door of that house of lac. Then he set fire to the mansion in several parts all around.
Then when the sons of Pandu were satisfied that the house had caught fire in several parts those chastisers of foes with their mother, entered the subterranean passage without losing any time. Then the heat and the roar of the fire became intense and awakened the townspeople. Beholding the house in flames, the citizens with sorrowful faces began to say, The wretchPurochana of wicked soul had under the instruction of Duryodhana built his house for the destruction of his employer's relatives. He indeed hath set fire to it. O, fie on Dhritarashtra's heart which is so partial. He hath burnt to death, as if he were their foe, the sinless heirs of PanduO, the sinful and wicked-souled Purochana who hath burnt those best of men, the innocent and unsuspicious princes, hath himself been burnt to death as fate would have it' Vaisampayana continued, The citizens of Varanavata thus bewailed the fate of the Pandavas, and waited there for the whole night surrounding that house.The Pandavas, however, accompanied by their mother coming out of the subterranean passage, fled in haste unnoticed. But those chastisers of foes, for sleepiness and fear, could not with their mother proceed in haste.
But, O monarch, Bhimasena, endued with terrible prowess and swiftness of motion took upon his body all his brothers and mother and began to push through the darkness. Placing his mother on his shoulder, the twins on his sides, and Yudhishthiraand Arjuna on both his arms, Vrikodara of great energy and strength and endued with the speed of the wind, commenced his march, breaking the trees with his breast and pressing deep the earth with his stamp

Section 151

CLI Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana said, About this time, the learned Vidura had sent into those woods a man of pure character and much trusted by him. This person going to where he had been directed, saw the Pandavas with their mother in the forest employed in a certain place in measuring the depth of a river. The design that the wicked Duryodhanahad formed had been, through his spies, known to Vidura of great intelligence, and, therefore, he had sent that prudent person unto the PandavasSent by Vidura unto them, he showed the Pandavas on the sacred banks of the Ganga a boat with engines and flags, constructed by trusted artificers and capable of withstanding wind and wave and endued with the speed of the tempest or of thought. He then addressed the Pandavas in these words to show that he had really been sent by Vidura, OYudhishthira, he said, listen to these words the learned Vidura had said unto thee as a proof of the fact that I come from him.Neither the consumer of straw and the wood nor the drier of dew ever burneth the inmates of a hole in the forest. He escapeth from death who protecteth himself knowing this, etc' By these credentials know me to be the person who has been truly sent by Vidura and to be also his trusted agent.
Vidura, conversant with everything, hath again said, O son of Kunti, thou shalt surely defeat in battle Karna, and Duryodhanawith his brothers, and SakuniThis boat is ready on the waters, and it will glide pleasantly thereon, and shall certainly bear you all from these regions' Then beholding those foremost of men with their mother pensive and sad he caused them to go into the boat that was on the Ganga, and accompanied them himself. Addressing them again, he said, Vidura having smelt your heads and embraced you mentally, hath said again that in commencing your auspicious journey and going alone you should never be careless' Saying these words unto those heroic princes, the person sent by Vidura took those bulls among men over to the other side of the Ganga in his boat. And having taken them over the water and seen them all safe on the opposite bank, he uttered the word Jaya' victory to their success and then left them and returned to the place whence he had come. The illustrious Pandavas also sending through that person some message to Vidura, began, after having crossed theGanga, to proceed with haste and in great secrecy

Section 152

CLII Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana said, Then, when the night had passed away, a large concourse of the townspeople came there in haste to see the sons of PanduAfter extinguishing the fire, they saw that the house just burnt down had been built of lac in materials and that Duryodhana's counsellor Purochana had been burnt to death. And the people began to bewail aloud saying, Indeed, this had been contrived by the sinful Duryodhana for the destruction of the Pandavas.
There is little doubt that Duryodhana hath, with Dhritarashtra's knowledge, burnt to death the heirs of Pandu, else the prince would have been prevented by his father. There is little doubt that even Bhishma, the son of Santanu, and Drona and Viduraand Kripa and other Kauravas have not, any of them, followed the dictates of duty. Let us now send to Dhritarashtra to say, Thy great desire hath been achieved! Thou hast burnt to death the PandavasThey then began to extinguish the members to obtain some trace of the Pandavas, and they saw the innocent Nishada woman with her five sons burnt to death. Then the miner sent by Vidura, while removing the ashes, covered the hole he had dug with those ashes in such a way that it remained unnoticed by all who had gone there. The citizens then sent to Dhritarashtra to inform him that the Pandavas along with Duryodhana's counsellor Purochana had been burnt to death. King Dhritarashtra, on hearing the evil news of the death of the Pandavas, wept in great sorrow. And he said, King Pandu, my brother of great fame, hath, indeed, died today when those heroic sons of his together with their mother have been burnt to death. Ye men, repair quickly to Varanavata and cause the funeral rites to be performed of those heroes and of the daughter of Kuntiraj!
Let also the bones of the deceased be sanctified with the usual rites, and let all the beneficial and great acts usual on such occasions be performed. Let the friends and relatives of those that have been burnt to death repair thither. Let also all other beneficial acts that ought, under the circumstances, to be performed by us for the Pandavas and Kunti be accomplished by wealth' Having said this, Dhritarashtra, the son of Ambika, surrounded by his relatives, offered oblations of water to the sons of PanduAnd all of them, afflicted with excessive sorrow, bewailed aloud, exclaiming, O YudhishthiraOh prince of the Kururace, While others cried aloud, Oh, BhimaPhalgunawhile some again, Oh, the twins, Oh, Kunti,
Thus did they sorrow for the Pandavas and offer oblations of water unto them. The citizens also wept for the Pandavas butVidura did not weep much, because he knew the truth. Meanwhile the Pandavas endued with great strength with their mother forming a company of six going out of the town of Varanavata arrived at the banks of the GangaThey then speedily reached the opposite bank aided by the strength of the boatmen's arms, the rapidity of the river's current, and a favourable wind.Leaving the boat, they proceeded in the southern direction finding their way in the dark by the light of the stars. After much suffering they at last reached, O king, a dense forest. They were then tired and thirsty; sleep was closing their eyes every moment. Then Yudhishthira, addressing Bhima endued with great energy, said, What can be more painful than this? We are now in the deep woods. We know not which side is which, nor can we proceed much further.
We do not know whether that wretch Purochana hath or hath not been burnt to death. How shall we escape from these dangers unseen by others? Bharata, taking us on thyself, proceed thou as before. Thou alone amongst us art strong and swift as the wind' Thus addressed by Yudhishthira the just, the mighty Bhimasena, taking up on his body Kunti and his brothers, began to proceed with great celerity

Section 153

CLIII Jatugriha Parva continued Vaisampayana said As the mighty Bhima proceeded, the whole forest with its trees and their branches seemed to tremble, in consequence of their clash with his breast. The motion of his thighs raised a wind like unto that which blows during the months of Jyaishtha and Ashadha May and JuneAnd the mighty Bhima proceeded, making a path for himself, but treading down the trees and creepers before him. In fact, he broke by the pressure of his body the large trees and plants, with their flowers and fruits, standing on his way. Even so passeth through the woods breaking down mighty trees, the leader of a herd of elephants, of the age of sixty years, angry and endued with excess of energy, during the season of rut when the liquid juice trickle down the three parts of his body.
Indeed, so great was the force with which Bhima endued with the speed of Garuda or of Marut the god of wind, proceeded that the Pandavas seemed to faint in consequence. Frequently swimming across streams difficult of being crossed, thePandavas disguised themselves on their way from fear of the sons of DhritarashtraAnd Bhima carried on his shoulder his illustrious mother of delicate sensibilities along the uneven banks of rivers. Towards the evening, O bull of Bharata's race,Bhima bearing his brothers and mother on his back reached a terrible forest where fruits and roots and water were scarce and which resounded with the terrible cries of birds and beasts. The twilight deepened the cries of birds and beasts became fiercer, darkness shrouded everything from the view and untimely winds began to blow that broke and laid low many a tree large and small and many creepers with dry leaves and fruits. The Kaurava princes, afflicted with fatigue and thirst, and heavy with sleep, were unable to proceed further. They then all sat down in that forest without food and drink. Then Kunti, smitten with thirst, said unto her sons, I am the mother of the five Pandavas and am now in their midst. Yet I am burning with thirst' Kunti repeatedly said this unto her sons.
Hearing these words, Bhima's heart, from affection for his mother, was warmed by compassion and he resolved to go along as before. Then Bhima, proceeding through that terrible and extensive forest without a living soul, saw a beautiful banian tree with widespreading branches. Setting down there his brothers and mother, O bull of Bharata's race; he said unto them, Rest you here, while I go in quest of water. I hear the sweet cries of aquatic fowls. I think there must be a large pool here'Commanded, O Bharata, by his elder brother who said unto him, Go, Bhima proceeded in the direction whence the cries of those aquatic fowls were coming. And, O bull of Bharata's race, he soon came upon a lake and bathed and slaked his thirst.And affectionate unto his brothers, he brought for them, O Bharata, water by soaking his upper garments. Hastily retracing his way over those four miles he came unto where his mother was and beholding her he was afflicted with sorrow and began to sigh like a snake. Distressed with grief at seeing his mother and brothers asleep on the bare ground, Vrikodara began to weep, Oh, wretch that I am, who behold my brothers asleep on the bare ground, what can befall me more painful than this?
Alas, they who formerly at Varanavata could not sleep on the softest and costliest beds are now asleep on the bare ground!Oh, what more painful sight shall I ever behold than that of Kunti, the sister of Vasudeva, that grinder of hostile hosts, the daughter of Kuntiraja, herself decked with every auspicious mark, the daughter-in-law of Vichitravirya, the wife of the illustrious Pandu, the mother of us five brothers, resplendent as the filaments of the lotus and delicate and tender and fit to sleep on the costliest bed, thus asleep, as she should never be, on the bare ground! Oh, she who hath brought forth these sons by Dharma and Indra and Maruta, she who hath ever slept within palaces, now sleepeth, fatigued, on the bare ground!What more painful sight shall ever be beheld by me than that of these tigers among men my brothers asleep on the ground!Oh, the virtuous Yudhishthira, who deserveth the sovereignty of the three worlds, sleepeth, fatigued, like an ordinary man, on the bare ground! This Arjuna of the darkish hue of blue clouds, and unequalled amongst men sleepeth on the ground like an ordinary person! Oh, what can be more painful than this? Oh the twins, who in beauty are like the twin Aswins amongst the celestials, are asleep like ordinary mortals on the bare ground! He who hath no jealous evil-minded relatives, liveth in happiness in this world like a single tree in a village. The tree that standeth single in a village with its leaves and fruits, from absence of other of the same species, becometh sacred and is worshipped and venerated by all.
They again that have many relatives who, however, are all heroic and virtuous, live happily in the world without sorrow of any kind. Themselves powerful and growing in prosperity and always gladdening their friends and relatives, they live, depending on each other, like tall trees growing in the same forest. We, however, have been forced in exile by the wickedDhritarashtra and his sons having escaped with difficulty, from sheer good fortune, a fiery death. Having escaped from that fire, we are now resting in the shade of this tree. Having already suffered so much, where now are we to go? Ye sons ofDhritarashtra of little foresight, ye wicked fellows, enjoy your temporary success. The gods are certainly auspicious to you.But ye wicked wretches, ye are alive yet, only because Yudhishthira doth not command me to take your lives. Else this very day, filled with wrath, I would send thee, O Duryodhana, to the regions of Yama Pluto with thy children and friends and brothers, and Karna, and Sakuni the son of SuvalaBut what can I do, for, ye sinful wretches, the virtuous king Yudhishthira, the eldest of the Pandavas, is not yet angry with you'
Having said this, Bhima of mighty arms, fired with wrath, began to squeeze his palms, sighing deeply in affliction. Excited again with wrath like an extinguished fire blazing up all on a sudden, Vrikodara once more beheld his brothers sleeping on the ground like ordinary persons sleeping in trustfulness. And Bhima said unto himself, I think there is some town not far off from this forest. These all are asleep, so I will sit awake. And this will slake their thirst after they rise refreshed from sleep'Saying this, Bhima sat there awake, keeping watch over his sleeping mother and brothers
http://ancientvoice.wikidot.com/src-mbh-01:section-153

Section 6. Ancient arts related to communicating ideas


Vātsyāyana’s Kāmasūtra refers to a cipher called mlecchita vikalpa (alternative representation in writing of mleccha(Meluhha) language) as one of the 64 arts to be learnt by youth. Vātsyāyana also uses the phrase deśabhāṣā jñānamreferring to the learning of vernacular languages and dialects. deśabhāṣā is also variously referred to as deśī or deśya.He also uses the phrase akṣara muṣṭikā kathanam as another of the 64 arts. This is a reference to karaṇa or karaṇīmentioned in Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra as gesticulation or articulation in dance using positions of finger-knuckles and wrists to convey messages or bhāvá ‘thought or disposition’akṣara muṣṭikā is explained by Monier-Williams (p. 3) as: ‘the art of communicating syllables or ideas by the fingers (one of the 64 kalās, Vātsyāyana)’.



करण the occupation of this class is writing , accounts (Monier-Williams, p. 254) n. (in law) an instrument , document , bond Mn. viii , 51 ; 52 ; 154. m. writer , scriben. the special business of any tribe or caste


करणी f. a particular position of the fingers (Monier-Williams, p. 254) n. pronunciation , articulation , APrāt.करण n. the act of making , doing , producing , effecting  S3Br.  MBh. &c (very often ifc. e.g. मुष्टि-क्° , विरूप-क्°) Pori ‘the joints of a bamboo, a cane, or the fingers’ (Maltese)(DEDR 4541). Pkt. pora- joint (CDIAL 8406).



Meluhha is cognate mleccha. Mleccha were island-dwellers (attested in Mahabharata and other ancientIndian sprachbund texts). Their speech did not conform to the rules of grammar (mlecchāḥ  bhūma iti adhyeyam vyākaraṇam) and had dialectical variants or unrefined sounds in words (mlecchitavai na apabhāṣitavai(Patanjali: Mahābhāya). 


One resource for reconstruction of mleccha is a work which dealt with Prākit forms. The work is Simharaja, 1909, Prākṛit i Rupavatara -- A Prākṛit  grammar based on the Valmikisutra, Vol. I, Ed. by E. Hultzsch, Albermarle St., Royal Asiatic Society. Full text at:  http://ia700202.us.archive.org/23/items/Prākṛit arupavata00simhuoft/Prākṛit arupavata00simhuoft.pdf



Prākitarūpāvatāra literally means ‘the descent of Prākit forms’. Pischel noted: “…the Prākitarūpāvatāra is not unimportant for the knowledge of the declension and conjugation, chiefly because Simharāja frequently quotes more forms than Hēmachandra and Trivikrama. No doubt many of these forms are theoretically inferred; but they are formed strictly according to the rules and are not without interest.” (Pischel, 1900, Grammatik der Prākit-Sprachen, Strassburg, p.43). Pischel also had written a book titled, Hēmachandra's Prākit grammar, Halle, 1877.  The full text of the Vālmīkisūtra, with gaṇas, dēśīyas, and iṣṭis, has been printed in Telugu characters at Mysore in 1886 as an appendix to the ṣaḍbhāṣachandrikā.



A format to determine the structure of Prākit is to identify words which are identical with Sanskrit words or can be derived from Sanskrit. In this process, dēśīyas or dēśyas, ‘provincialisms’ are excluded. One part of the work of Simharja is samjñāvibhāga ‘technical terms’. Another is pari bhāṣāvibhāga ‘explanatory rules’. Dialects are identified in a part called  śaurasēnyādivibhāga; the dialects include: śaurasēni, māgadhī, paiśācī, chūḷikā paiśācī, apabhramśa.

Additional rules are identified beyond those employed by Pāṇini:


sus, nominative; as, accusative; ṭās, instrumental; nēs, dative; nam, genitive; nip, locative.

Other resources available for delineation of mleccha are: The Prākṛita-prakāśa; or the Prākṛit  grammar of Vararuchi. With the commentary Manorama of Bhamaha. The first complete ed. of the original text... With notes, an English translation and index of Prākṛit words; to which is prefixed a short introd. to Prākṛit grammar (Ed. Cowell, Edward Byles,1868, London, Trubner)


On these lines, and using the methods used for delineating Ardhamāgadhi language, by Prākṛita grammarians, and in a process of extrapolation of such possible morphemic changes into the past, an attempt may be made to hypothesize morphemic or phonetic variants of mleccha words as they might have been, in various periods from ca. 4th millennium BCE. There are also grammars of languages such as Marathi (William Carey), Braj bhāṣā grammar (James Robert), Sindhi, Hindi, Tamil (Tolkāppiyam) and Gujarati which can be used as supplementary references, together with the classic Hemacandra's Dēsīnāmamālā, Prākṛit  Grammar of Hemachandra edited by P. L. Vaidya (BORI, Pune), Vararuchi's works and Richard Pischel's  Comparative Grammar of Prākṛit  Languages.(Repr. Motilal Banarsidass, 1957). Colin P. Masica's Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge University Press, 1993,"... has provided a fundamental, comparative introduction that will interest not only general and theoretical linguists but also students of one or more languages (Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Gujurati, Marathi, Sinhalese, etc.) who want to acquaint themselves with the broader linguistic context. Generally synchronic in approach, concentrating on the phonology, morphology and syntax of the modern representatives of the group, the volume also covers their historical development, writing systems, and aspects of sociolinguistics.Thomas Oberlies' Pali grammar (Walter de Gruyter, 2001) presents a full description of Pali, the language used in the Theravada Buddhist canon, which is still alive in Ceylon and South-East Asia. The development of its phonological and morphological systems is traced in detail from Old Indic (including mleccha?). Comprehensive references to comparable features and phenomena from other Middle Indic languages mean that this grammar can also be used to study the literature of Jainism. Madhukar Anant Mehendale's Historical Grammar of Inscriptional Prākṛit s is a useful aid to delineate changes in morphemes over time. A good introduction is: Alfred C. Woolner's  Introduction to Prākṛit , 1928 (Motilal Banarsidass). "Introduction to Prākṛit  provides the reader with a guide for the more attentive and scholarly study of Prākṛit  occurring in Sanskrit plays, poetry and prose--both literary and inscriptional. It presents a general view of the subject with special stress on Sauraseni and Maharastri Prākṛit  system. The book is divided into two parts. Part I consists of I-XI Chapters which deal with the three periods of Indo-Aryan speech, the three stages of the Middle Period, the literary and spoken Prākṛit s, their classification and characteristics, their system of Single and Compound Consonants, Vowels, Sandhi, Declension, Conjugation and their history of literature. Part II consists of a number of extracts from Sanskrit and Prākṛit  literature which illustrate different types of Prākṛit --Sauraseni, Maharastri, Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Avanti, Apabhramsa, etc., most of which are translated into English. The book contains valuable information on the Phonetics and Grammar of the Dramatic Prākṛit s--Sauraseni and Maharastri. It is documented with an Index as well as a Students'. " 


It may be noted that Hemacandra is a resource which has provided the sememe ibbo 'merchant' which reads rebus with ibha 'elephant' hieroglyph.


Sir George A. Grierson's article on The Prākṛit  Vibhasas cites: "Pischel, in §§3, 4, and 5 of his Prākṛit  Grammar, refers very briefly to the Vibhāṣās of the Prākṛit  grammarians. In § 3 he quotes Mārkaṇḍēya's (Intr., 4) division of the Prākṛit s into Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā, Apabhraṁśa, and Paiśāca, his division of the Vibhāṣās into Śākārī, Cāṇḍālī, Śābarī, Ābhīrikā, and Ṭākkī (not Śākkī, as written by Pischel), and his rejection of Auḍhrī (Pischel, Oḍrī) and Drāviḍī. In § 4 he says, “Rāmatarkavāgīśa observes that the vibhāṣāḥcannot be called Apabhraṁśa, if they are used in dramatic works and the like.” He repeats the latter statement in § 5, and this is all that he says on the subject. Nowhere does he say what the term vibhāṣā means. The present paper is an attempt to supply this deficiency." See also: http://www.indianetzone.com/39/Prākṛit _language.htm

"...Ganga, on the lower reaches of which were the kingdoms of Anga, Variga, and Kalinga, regarded in the Mahabharata as Mleccha. Now the non- Aryan people that today live closest to the territory formerly occupied by these ancient kingdoms are Tibeto-Burmans of the Baric branch.  One of the languages of that branch is called Mech, a term given to them by their Hindu neighbors. The Mech live partly in Bengal and partly in Assam. B(runo) Lieblich remarked the resemblance between Mleccha and Mech and that Skr. Mleccha normally became Prākṛit  Meccha or Mecha and that the last form is actually found in Sauraseni. 1 Sten Konow thought Mech probably a corruption of Mleccha.* I do not believe that the people of the ancient kingdoms of Anga, Vanga, and Kalinga were precisely of the same stock as the modern Mech, but rather that they and the modern Mech spoke languages of the Baric division of Sino-Tibetan. " (Robert Shafer, 1954, Ethnography of Ancient India, Otto Harras Sowitz, Wiesbaden).http://archive.org/stream/ethnographyofanc033514mbp/ethnographyofanc033514mbp_djvu.txt


The following note is based on: Source: MK Dhavalikar, 1997, Meluhha, the land of copper, South Asian Studies, 13:1, 275-279 (embedded document appended):

Citing a cuneiform tablet inscription of Sargon of Akkad (2370-2316 BCE), Dhavalikar notes that the boats of Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha were moored at the quay in his capital (Leemans, WF, 1960, Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period as revealed by texts from Southern Mesopotamia, EJ Brill, Leiden, p. 11). The goods imported include agate, carnelian, shell, ivory, varieties of wood and copper. Dhavalikar cites a reference to the people or ‘sons’ of Meluhha who had undergone a process of acculturation into Mesopotamian society of Ur III times cf. Parpola, S., A. Parpola and RH Brunswwig, Jr., 1977, The Meluhha Village: evidence of acculturation of Harappan traders in the late Third Millennium Mesopotamia, JESHO, 20 , p.152. Oppenheim describes Meluhha as the land of seafarers. (Oppenheim, AL, 1954, The seafaring merchants of Ur, JAOS, 74: 6-17). Dhavalikar notes the name given to a rāga of classical Indian (Hindustani) music – maluha kedār – which may indicate maluha as a geographical connotation as in the name of another rāga called Gujarī Todi. Noting a pronunciation variant for meluhha, melukkha, the form is noted as closer to Prākṛit  milakkhu (Jaina Sūtras, SBE XLV, p. 414, n.) cognate Pali malikkho or  malikkhako (Childer’s Pali Dictionary). Prākṛit  milakkhu or Pali malikkho are cognate with the Sanskrit word mleccha (References cited include Mahabharata, Patanjali). Jayaswal (Jayaswal, KP, 1914, On the origin of Mlechcha, ZDMG, 68: pp. 719-720) takes the Sanskrit representation to be cognate with Semitic melekh (Hebrew) meaning ‘king’.


Śathapatha Brāhmaṇa [3.2.1(24)], a Vedic text (ca. 8th century BCE) uses the word mleccha as a noun referring to Asuras who ill-pronounce or speak an imprecise language: tatraitāmapi vācamūduḥ | upajijñāsyāṃ sa mlecastasmānna brāhmaṇo mlecedasuryāhaiṣā vā natevaiṣa dviṣatāṃ sapatnānāmādatte vācaṃ te 'syāttavacasaḥ parābhavanti ya evametadveda. This is a remarkable reference to mleccha (meluhha) as a language in the ancient Indian tradition. Pali texts Digha Nikāya and Vinaya, also denotes milakkha as a language (milakkha bhāsā). Comparable to the reference in Manu, a Jaina text (Pannavana, 1.37) also described two groups of speakers (people?):  ārya and milakkhu. Pāṇini also observes the imprecise nature of mleccha language by using the terms: avyaktayam vāci (X, 1663) and mleccha avyakte śabde (1.205). This is echoed in Patanjali’s reference to apaśabda.

Dhavalikar notes: “Sengupta (1971) has made out a strong case for identifying mlecchas with the Phoenicians. He proposes to derive the word mleccha from Moloch or Molech and relates it to Melek or Melqart which was the god of the Phoenicians. But the Phoenicians flourished in the latter half of the second and the first half of the first millennium when the Harappan civilization was a thing of the past.” (: MK Dhavalikar, 1997, Meluhha, the land of copper, South Asian Studies, 13:1, p. 276).


Worterbuch (St. Petersburg Dictionary), Hemacandra’s Abhidāna Cintāmaṇi  (IV.105), lexicons of Monier Williams and Apte give ‘copper’ as one of the meanings of the lexeme mleccha.


Gudea (ca. 2200 BCE) under the Lagash dynasty brought usu wood and gold dust and carnelian from Meluhha. Ibbi-Sin (2029-2006 BCE) under the third dynasty of Ur “imported from Meluhha copper, wood used for making chairs and dagger sheaths, mesu wood, and the multi-coloured birds of ivory.”


Dhavalikar argues for the identification of Gujarat with Meluhha (interpreted as a region and as copper ore of Gujarat) and makes a reference to Viṣṇu Purāṇa (IV,24) which refers to Gujarat as mleccha country.


Nicholas Kazanas has demonstrated that Avestan (OldIranian) is much later than Vedic. "'Vedic and Avestan' by N. Kazanas In this essay the author examines independent linguistic evidence, often provided by iranianists like R. Beekes, and arrives at the conclusion that the Avesta, even its older parts (the gaθas), is much later than the Rigveda. Also, of course, that Vedic is more archaic than Avestan and that it was not the Indoaryans who moved away from the common Indo-Iranian habitat into the Region of the Seven Rivers, but the Iranians broke off and eventually settled and spread in ancientv Iran." http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/pdf/en/indology/Vedic_and_Avestan.pdf 


The oldest Prākṛit  lexicon is the work of a Jaina scholar, Paiyalacchi nāmamālā of Dhanapāla (972 A. D.)


Mahapurana of PushpadantaA critical study: By Dr Smt. Ratna Nagesha Shriyan. L. D. Bharatiya Samskriti Vidyamandira, Ahmadabad–9 . Price: Rs. 30.


A thesis approved for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy by the Bombay University, this is a critical study of the Desya and rare material contained in the three Apabhramsa works of Pushpadanta, a major Apabhramsa poet of the Ninth Century CE D. 

The first part mainly deals with the nature and character of Desya element and the role of Desya element in Prākṛit  and Apabhramsa in general and Pushpadanta’s works in particular. The authoress pointed out that the term Deśī has been used in the earlier Sanskrit and Prākṛit  literature mainly in three different senses, viz., (1) a local spoken dialect (2) a type of Prākṛit , (3) and as equivalent to Apabhramsa. The interpretations of the word Deśī as given by Hemachandra and modern scholars are also given in detail. The authoress comes to the conclusion that most of the modern scholars agree that “Desya or Deśī is a very loose label applied by early grammarians and lexicographers to a section of Middle Indo-Aryan lexical material of a heterogeneous character.


In part II, the more important one, the learned Doctor has collected 1430 words and divided them into seven categories– (1) items only derivable from Samskrit (2) Tadbhavas with specialized or changed meaning (3) items partly derivable from Samskrit (4) items that have correspondents only in late Samskrit (5) onometopoetic words (6) foreign loans and (7) pure Deśī words. Critical and comparative notes on their meanings and interpretations, with corroborating passages from original texts are also given here and they evidence the high scholarly labours of the authoress. We cannot, but respect the words of Dr H. C. Bhayani of the Gujarat University in whose opinion the present study paves “the way for investigating the bases and authenticity of Hemachandra’s Deśīnāmamālā and provides highly valuable material for middle and Modern Indo-Aryan lexicography.”

“Words which are not derived from Sanskrit in his grammar, which though derived from Sanskrit, are not found in that sense in the Sanskrit lexicons, which have changed their meaning in Prākṛit , the change not being due to the secondary or metaphorical use of words, and which are used in standard Prākṛit  from times immemorial, are considered as deśī by Hemacandra (I,3,4). Thus, he teaches in his grammar (IV,2) that pajjar is one of the substitutes of the root kath in Prākṛit . In II,136 he says that trasta assumes the forms hittha and taTTha in Prākṛit . The words pajjara, hittha and taTTha are not, therefore, des’yas and are excluded from the work. The Verbal substitutes have been, as a matter of fact, considered as deśī words by Hemacandra’s predecessors (1.11,13,20). Again the word amayaNiggamo signifies the moon in Prākṛit , and it is evidently a bhava of amrutanirgama which by some such analysis as amrutaanirgamo yasyacan denote the moon But the Sanskrit word is not found in that sense in any of the lexicons and hence amayaNiggamo is reckoned as a deśya and taught in this work. The word yayillo is a regular derivative of baliivarda according to rules of Prākṛit  grammar, and as the latter word can by the force of lakshaNa mean a ‘fool’, the word vayillo in this sense is not considered a deśī word and, therefore, is not included in this work. Every provincial expression is not considered a deśī word, but only those which have found entrance into the known Prākṛit  literature. Otherwise, the number of deśī words will be innumerable and it will be impossible to teach them all. As Hemacandra himself says (I,4): vacaspaterapi matirna prabhavati divyayugasahasreNa. This definition of a deśī word does not appear to have been followed by the predecessors of Hemacandra; and therein consists, he says, the superiority of his work over that of others. He quotes in a number of places words which have been taught as deśī words by his predecessors and shows that they are derived from Sanskrit words. Thus in I.37 Hemacandra says that the words acchoDaNam, alinjaramk, amilaayam andacchabhallo are considered as deśī words by some authors, but he does not do so as they are evidently derived from Sanskrit words. Again in II.89, he says that the word gamgarii is taught a a deśī word by some authors but Hemacandra says this is not a deśī word as it is derived from Sanskrit gargarii. But here our author shows some latitude and says that it may be considered a deśī word. Many such instances may be quoted and in most cases Hemacandra gives the Sanskrit equivalents to such words.” (Paravastu Venkata  Ramanujaswami, in: Introduction, The Deśīnāmamālā of Hemachandra ed. By R. Pischel, 1938, 2nd edn., Dept. of Public Instruction, Bombay, pp.3-4).



TABLE : DICTIONARIES

PRĀKṛIT  :

10 C.E : Deshi Nama Mala (Hemachandra)

11 C.E  ayyalacchi Nama Mala (Maha Kavi Dhanapala)

12 C.E :Abhidana Rajendra (Vijayendra Suri)

SANSKRIT

4 C.E : Amarakosha (Amarasimha) Dhanvantari Nighantu (Dhanvantari)

6 C.E : Anekartha Samucchaya (Shashaavata)

10 C.E : Abhidana Ratna Mala (Hemachandra ),Srikanda Shesha Vishvakosha (Srikanda Shesha),HaravaLi (Purushottama Deva) ,Abhidana Ratnamala (Halayudha)

11 C.E :Vyjayanti (Yadava Prakasha), Nama Mala (Dhananjaya) , Anekartha Nama Mala (Amara Keerti) , Shabdha Pradipa (Sureshvara)

12 C.E :Namarthaarnava Sankshepa , Shabda Kalpa Druma (Keshava Svamin ), Vishva Prakasha (Maheshvara) , Namartha Ratnamala (Abhaya Pala) , Abidana Cintamani +Anekartha Sangraha (Hemachandra) , Anekartha Kosha (Mankha) , Akyata Candrika (Malla Bhatta) , Raja Nighantu (Narahari)

14 C.E : Nanartha Ratna Mala (Irugappa Dandanatha) , Madana Vinoda Nighantu (Madana Pala)

15 C.E : Shabda Chandrike ( Vamana Bhatta) , Shabda Ratnakara(Bana)

16 C.E :Sundara Prakashabdarnava (Padma Sundara)

17 C.E :Kalpa Druma (Keshava Daivajna), Nama Sangraha Mala(Appaiah Dikshita)

TAMIL :

10 C.E – Sendan Divakaram (Divakaram) , Pingalantai (Pingalar)

12 C.E : Chudamani Nighantu (Mangala Puttiran)

16 C.E : Chudamani Nighantu ( Mandala Purutan) ,Akaradi Nighantu (Chidambara Revana)

17 C.E : Uriccol Nighantu (Gangeyan) , Kayataram (Kayatarar) ,Bharati Deepam (Anonymus) , Ashiriya Nighantu (Anonymus)

18 C.E : Pothigai Nighantu (Swaminatha Kavirayar), Pal Porul Chudamani (Eshwara Bharati) , Arumpporul Vilakka Nighantu (Anonymus)

KANNADA

10 C.E : Ranna Kanda (Ranna)

11 C.E : Abhidana Vastu Kosha (Nagavarma-2) ,Abhidana Ratna Mala+Amarakosha Bhashya (Halayudha)

12 C.E :Nachirajiya (Naciraja)

13 C.E : Akaradi Vaidya Nighantu+Indra Dipike+Madanari (Amrutanandi)

14 C.E: Karnataka Shbda Sara (Anonymus) , Karnataka Nighantu (Anonymus), Abhinavabhidana (Abhinava Mangaraja)

15 C.E : Chaturasya Nighantu(Bommarasa) , Dhanvantariya Nighantu (Anonymus)

16 C.E : Kabbigara Kaipidi (Linga Mantri) , Shabda Ratnakara (Anonumus) , Nanartha Kanda (Chenna Kavi) , Nanartha Ratnakara+Ekakshara Nighantu (Devottama) , Karnataka Shabda Manjari (Totadarya) , Bharata Nighantu (Anonymus) , Amarakosha Dipike (Vitthala)

17 C.E : Karnataka Sanjivini +Kavi Kanthahara (Shrungara Kavi) , Karnataka Nighantu (Surya kavi)

TELUGU :

14-18 C.E : Venkateshandhramu (Ganavarapu Venkatakavi) , Akaradi Deshiyandhra Nighantu ( Anonymus), Andhra Prayoga Ratnakaram (Anonymus) , Sarva Lakshana Shiromani (Anonymus) ,Padya Rupa Amara Kosham ( Venkata Rayudu), Andhra Nama Sangraham (Lakshmana Kavi) , Andhra Nama Vishesham (Sura Kavi) Samba Nighantuvu (Kasturi Ranga) , Andhra Bhasharnavam ( Venkata Narayanudu) , Akshara Malika Nighantu (Parvatishvara Shastry) , Andhra Pada Nidanam (Tumu Ramadasa) , Sarnadhra Sara sangraham (Amrutapuram Sanyasi),Nanartha Nighantu (Jayarama Rayulu)

TABLE 2 : GRAMMERS

PRĀKṛIT :

5-7 C.E : Prakruta Prakasha (Vararuchi) , Prakruta Lakshana (Chanda) , Prakruta Kamadhenu (Anonymus)

12 C.E : Prakrutanushasana (Purushottama) , Siddha Hema Shabdanushasana (Hemachandra)

14 C.E : Prkruta Shabdanushasdana (Trivikrama) , Shdbhasha Chandrika (Lakshmidhara)

17 C.E : Prakruta Sarvasva (Markandeya)

SANSKRIT

4-2 B.C.E : Ashtadhyayi (Panini) , Mahabhashya-Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Patanjali)

2 C.E : Katantra Vyakarana (Shrvavarman)

6 C.E : Mahabhashya Dipika-Commentary on Mahabhashya (Bhatruhari ), Kashika Vrutti- Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Vamana)

7 C.E : Ashtadhyayi-Commentary (Jayaditya)

8 C.E : Kashika Vivarana Pancika –Commentary on Kashika Vrutti (Jinendra Buddivada)

9 C.E : Pada Manjari – Commentary on Kashika Vrutti (Haradatta)

11 C.E : Pradipa ( Kaiyata) , Bhasha Vrutti -Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (Purushottama Deva)

13 C.E ; Rupavatara (Dharma Keerti)

14 C.E : Mitakshara- Commentary on Ashtadhyayi (AnnaM Bhatta) , Rupamala (Vimala Sarsvati)

15 C.E : Prakriya Kaumudi (Ramachandra Shesha)

16 C.E : Shabda kaustubha (Bhattoji Dikshita) , Prakriya Sarvasva (Nayarana Bhatta)

17 C.E : Pradipodyota (Nagesha Bhatta)

TAMIL :

-3 to 10 C.E : Tolkappiam (Tolkappiyanar)

11 C.E : Viracholiyam (Buddha Mitra)

12 C.E : Neminatham (Gunaveera pandita) , Tolkappiam- Poruladigaram Commentary (Perashiyar)

13 C.E : Nannul (Bhavanadi) , Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Senavaraiyar)

14 C.E : Tolkappiam-Commentary (Naccinarkkiniyar)

16 C.E : Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Teyvacilaiyar , Kalladanar)

17 C.E : Tolkappiam- Solladigaram Commentary (Anonymus)

KANNADA

11 C.E : Kavyavalokana (Nagavarma)

13 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana ( Keshiraja) , Shabdanushasanam (Akalanka Deva)

17 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana-Commentary (Nitturu Nanjayya)

17 C.E : Shabdamani Darpana-Commentary (Anonymus)

TELUGU :

13 C.E : Andhra Bhasha Bhushanam (Mulaghatika Ketana)

14 C.E : Kavyalankara Chidamani (Vinnakota Peddana)

Part-6:

TABLE 3 : POETICS/PROSODY/RHETORIC

SANSKRIT :

5 C.E : Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira)

6 C.E : Kavyalankara (Bamaha) , Kavyadarsha (Dandin)

9 C.E : Kavyalankara Sara Sangraha (Uddata) , Kavyalankara Sutravrutti (Vamana) , Kavyalankara (Rudrata), Dhvanyaloka (Anandavarhana)

10 C.E : Cahmdraloka (Jayadeva)

11 C.E : Chandonushasana (Jayakirti), Kavyamimamse (Rajashekhara) , Abhidaavrutti Maatruke (Mukula Bhatta) , Kavyakautuka (Bhatta Tauta) , Hrudaya Drapana (Bhatta Nayaka)

12 C.E :Vrutta Ratnakara (Kedara Bhatta) ,Kavya Praklasha (mummata)

15 C.E : Chando Manjari (ganga Raja)

TAMIL :

-3 to 10 C.E : Tolkappiam (Tolkappiyanar)

10 C.E : Yappurungulam + Yappurungulakkarikai (Amruta Saagara)

11 C.E : Chulamani (Gunasagarar) , Purapporul Vembamalai (Iyanaar Idanaar), Dandiyalankaram(Annonymus)

12 C.E : Ilakkana Vilakkam (Jivanana Munivar)

13 C.E : Veyyappadial (Gunaveera Panditar)

17 C.E : Chidambaram Seyyuttakkovai (Kumara Kruparar)

18 C.E : Ilakkana Vilakkam (Vaidyanathan Alvar)

KANNADA

9 C.E : Kaviraja Marga (Sri Vijaya)

10 C.E : Chandobudhi (Nagavarma-1)

11 C.E : Kavyavalokana (Nagavarma-2)

12 C.E : Udayadityalankaram (Udayaditya) , Shrungara Ratnakara (Kavi Kama)

15-16 C.E : Madhavalankara (Madhava), Kavi jihva Bandhana (Eshwara Kavi) , Kavya Sara (Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda) , Rasa Ratnakara+Apratima Veera Charite (Tirumalarya)

17 C.E : Navarasalankara (Timma) , Kuvalayananda( Jayendra)

TELUGU :

13 C.E : Kavi Vagbhadanamu (Tikkana)

14 C.E : Pratapa Rudriya (Vaidyanatha) , Kavi Janaashrayamu (Rachanna ) , Kavyalankara Chudamani ( Vinnakota Peddana) , Shrungara Dipika (Srinatha)

Part-7 :
TABLE 4 : ENCYCLOPEDIAS

SANSKRIT :

5 C.E : Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira)

12 C.E : Abhilashitartha Chintamani ( Bhulokamalla)

TAMIL :

10 C.E : Sendan Divakaram (Divakaram) , Pingalantai (Pingalar)

12 C.E : Chudamani Nigantu (Mangala Puttiran)

KANNADA :

10-11 C.E : Lokopakara (Chavundaraya)

15 C.E : Viveka Chintamani (Nijaguna Shivayogi) , Siribhuvalaya (Kumudendu), Shivatatva Chintamani (Lakkana Dandesha)

16 C.E :Sakala Vaidya Samhita Sararnva ( Veeraraja)

TELUGU :

20 C.E :Andhra Vignana Sarvasvam ( K.V.L. Pantulu)

Part-8:
TABLE 5 : MEDICINE/VETERINARY SCIENCE/EROTICS

SANSKRIT :

-2 TO 0 C.E : Sushruta Samhite (Sushruta) , Gajayurveda (Palakapya) , Ashvashastra (Shalihotra), Vaidyaka Sarvasva ashva Chikitse(Nakula)

0 TO 2 C.E : Charaka Samhita (Charaka) , Kumara Tantra (Ravana) , Prayoga Ratnakara (Garga), Bruhaspatimata (Bruhaspati), Kamasutra (Vatsayana)

4 C.E :Ashtanga Hrudaya + Ashtanga Sangraha (Vagbhata) , Ashvayurveda Saara Sindhu (MallaDeva) ,

5-7 C.E :Matanga Leela , Shalihotra , Ashva Vaidyaka

7 to 10 C.E : Madhava Nidanam +Rugna Nischaya (Madhavakara) , Charaka samhite-Commentary (Jayadatta Suri) , Rati Rahasya (kokkoka)

11 to 13 C.E : Nibandha sangraha (Dallana) , Shabda Pradipa (Sureshvara) , Raja Nighantu+Dhanvantari Nighantu (Narahari) , Sarottama Nighantu (Anonymus) , Bhanumati (Chakradatta) , Jayamangala (Yashodhara) , Nagara sarvasva (Padmashri)

14 to 15 C.E : Madana Vinoda Nighantu (Madanapala), Sarangadhara Samhite (Sarangadhara) , RatiManjari (JayaDeva)

16 to 17 C.E : Anna Pana Vidhi (Susena) , Pathyapathya Nighantu + Bhojana Kutuhala ( Raghunatha) , Anangaranga (Kalyana Malla) , Kandarpa Chudamani (Veerabhadra Deva)

TAMIL :

13 to 18 C.E : Vaidya Shataka Nadi + Chikitsa Sara Sangraha ( Teraiyar) , Amudakalai Jnanam+Muppu+Muppuvaippu+Muppuchunnam+Charakku+GuruseyNeer+PacchaiVettu chuttiram (Agastya) , Kadai Kandam +Valalai ChuttiraM +Nadukandam (Konganavar) , Karagappa +Muppu Chuttiram +Dravakam (Nandikeshvara) , Karpam +Valai Chuttiram (Bogara)

KANNADA :

11-12 C.E : Karnata Kalyana Karaka (Jagaddala Somanatha) , Balagraha Chikitse (Devendra Muni) , Govaodya (Kirti Varma) , Madana Tilaka (Chandra Raja) , Anubhava Mukura (Janna)

14 C.E : Khagendra Mani Darpana (Mangaraja) , Ashvashastra (Abhinava Chandra)

15 C.E : Vaidyanruta (Sridhara Deva) , Vaidya Sangatya (Salva) , Ashva Vaidya (Bacarasa), Janavashya (Kallarasa)

16 C.E : Vaidya Sara Sangraha (Channaraja) , Hastayurveda-Commentary (Veerabhadraraja ) , Ashva Vaidya (Bacarasa), Janavashya (Kallarasa)

17 C.E : Vaidya Sara Sangraha (Nanjanatha Bhupala) , Vaidya Samhita Sararnava (Veeraraja ) , Shalihotra Samhita (Ramachandra), Hayasara Samuccaya (Padmana Pandita), Vaidyakanda (Brahma), Strivaidya (Timmaraja)

TELUGU :

15 C.E : Haya Lakshana Sara (manumanchi Bhatta)

TABLE 9 : ASTRONOMY/MATHEMATICS/ASTROLOGY

SANSKRIT :

3-2 B. C.E : Surya Prajnapti , Stananga Sutra , Anuyogadvara Sutra , Shatkhandagama

2-0 B. C.E : Vedanga Jyotishya (Lagada) , Bhadrabahu samhita +Surya Prajnapti-Commentary (Bhadrabahu) , Tiloyapanatti (Yatishvaracharya), Tatvarthayagama shastra (Umasvamin)

5-6 C.E : Arya Bhatiya (Arya Bhata) , Pancvha siddantika + Bruhajjataka+Laghu Jataka + Bruhatsamhita (Varahamihira) , Dashagitika Sara (Anonymus) , Aryastashata (Anonymus)

6-7 C.E : Brahma sputa Siddhanta+Kanadakadhyaya(Brahma Gupta) , Maha Bhaskariyam + Karana Kutuhala (Bhaskara-1) , Rajamruganka (Bhoja)

8 C.E : Shishayabhuvruddhi (Lallacharya) , Ganita Sara sangaraha (Mahaveeracharya) , Horasatpanchashika(Pruthuyana)

11-12 C.E : Siddhanta Shekhara (Sripati) , Siddhanta Shiromani (Bhaskara-2)

14 C.E : Yantraraja (Mahendra Suri)

15 C.E : Tantra sangraha (Neelakantha somayaji)

16 C.E : Sputa Nirnaya (Achyuta)

TAMIL :

16-18 C.E : Ganakkadigaram , Ganita Nul , Asthana Golakam , Ganita Venba , Ganita Divakaram, Ponnilakkam

KANNADA :

11 C.E : Jataka Tilaka (Sridharacharya) ,

12 C.E : Vyavahara Ganita+Kshetra Ganita+Chitra Hasuge +Jaina Ganita Sutra Tikodaaharana +Lilavati (Rajaditya)

15 C.E : Kannada Lilavati (Bala Vaidyada Cheluva)

17 C.E : Ksetra Ganita (Timmarasa) , Behara Ganita (Bhaskara)

TELUGU :

11 C.E : Ganita sara Sangrahamu (Pavaluri Mallana)


The direction of 'borrowings' from one language to another is a secondary component of the philological excursus; there is no universal linguistic rule to firmly aver such a direction of borrowing. Certainly, more work is called for in delineating the structure and forms of meluhha (mleccha) language beyond a mere list of metalware glosses.

Kernoi rings as sacred objects to signify Indus Script Hypertexts of metalwork wealth-accounting ledgers

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https://tinyurl.com/y9568l2x

This is an addendum to: Kernos ring of Kulli with wealth accounting ledgers of khār, 'blacksmith' working with poa 'magnetite ore', poa'steel' 

https://tinyurl.com/ya744hnz2.  Kulli terracotta ring with pot Indus Script hypertexts signify pōā magnetite ore, pwlad 'steel' dhā̆va, 'smelter' kō̃da,'furnace' 

The objects shown atop the kernoi rings include narrow-necked jars and animals or birds. I suggest that all these objects are Indus Script Hypertexts signifying metalwork catalogues, wealth-accounting ledgers. This rebus reading explains the reason why the kernoi rings become sacred objects, yielding a messaging system to declare the contributions made by metalwork artisans and seafaring merchants to augmenting a nation's wealth.
Narrow-necked pots: Hieroglyph, karika 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇī  'supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.'

ḍ̠āṛhū̃ 'pomegranate' (Sindhi) Rebus: ḍhālako 'a large metal ingot'.


पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods. pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’. Rebus: pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri)


pōlaḍu,'black drongo' rebus pōlaḍ'steel' 

Hypertext: miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages)

The word mr̥du is shown on the grape vine held on the right hand of a Yavana (Greek) fighter on a Bharhut sculptural frieze. The word for a grapevine is mr̥dvi. The rebus signifiers are mr̥dh 'fight, battle', mr̥du 'iron'. 

The soldier carries a broad sword on his left hand. The metaphor is that he signifies a mint-worker working with 'dotted circle' hypertextdhā̆vaḍ 'iron smelter'. The fish-fins above this dotted circle signify 
khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner,coinage'. Thus, he is a mint-worker, guard of the treasures created in the metals manufactories.

I suggest that the name K(C)ernunnos on the Pillar of Boatmen and on the Gundestrup Cauldron is related to the torcs which are distinct identifiers of the seated person as a blacksmith. The torc or the ring called in Meluhha (Indus Script Corpora) karã̄ n. pl.wristlets, bangles' rūpaka, 'metaphor'or rebus: khār 'blacksmith'. Thus, I suggest that the kernos ring is a signifier of a blacksmith's work. This etymological trace explains why the Kulli kernos ring has the added Indus Script hypertexts of two zebu, bos indicus, and black drongo, both signifying, respectively po'magnetite ore', poa 'steel'. These hypertexts are added on the Kulli kernos ring to signify wealth accounting ledgers of metalwork catalogues.

khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü  । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy -बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru  । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji -or -güjü  । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü -हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü -कूरू‍&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu -। लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü -क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 - । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu -;  लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -। लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil. (Kashmiri)
Detail from the interior plate. Gundestrup Cauldron. Kernunnos holds a torc -- signifier of a kernos ring--  on his right hand. Indus Script Hypertexts signify metalwork catalogues:  badhia 'rhinoceros' Rebus: badhi 'carpenter'; badhoe 'worker in wood and iron'. पंजा pañjā 'claw of a tiger' rebus: पंजा pañjā 'kiln, smelter.; फडा phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága Rebus:phaḍa फड ' metals manufactory, company, guild, public place'; kūdī 'twigkuṭhi 'smelter'.

C(K)ernunnos on the Pillar of the Boatmen, from the Musée national du Moyen Âge (Museum of the Middle Ages), in ParisFrance"The theonym [C]ernunnos appears on the Pillar of the Boatmen, a Gallo-Roman monument dating to the early 1st century CE, to label a god depicted with stag's antlers in their early stage of annual growth. [Both antlers have torcs hanging from them...The name has been compared to a divine epithet Carnonos in a Celtic inscription written in Greek characters at MontagnacHérault (as καρνονου, karnonou, in the dative case).Gallo-Latin adjective carnuātus, "horned," is also found." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cernunnos The torcs of Kernunnos are relatable to the kernos ring.

"For more than one thousand years, people from every corner of the Greco-Roman world sought the hope for a blessed afterlife through initiation into the Mysteries of Demeter and Kore at Eleusis. In antiquity itself and in our memory of antiquity, the Eleusinian Mysteries stand out as the oldest and most venerable mystery cult. Despite the tremendous popularity of the Eleusinian Mysteries, their origins are unknown. Because they are lost in an era without written records, they can only be reconstructed with the help of archaeology. This book provides a much-needed synthesis of the archaeology of Eleusis during the Bronze Age and reconstructs the formation and early development of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The discussion of the origins of the Eleusinian Mysteries is complemented with discussions of the theology of Demeter and an update on the state of research in the archaeology of Eleusis from the Bronze Age to the end of antiquity.(Michael B. Cosmopoulos, 2015, Bronze Age Eleusis and the Origins of the Eleusinian Mysteries, Cambridge University Press.)

Kernoi rings

The pottery of Mohenjo-dara, one of the two major urban centers of the Indus Valley civilization (2500-2000 B.C.) is described and documented. The authors survey Harappan ceramic technology and style, and develop an important and unique approach to vessel form analysis and terminology. Included is Leslie Alcock's account of the pottery from the 1950 excavations by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.University Museum Monograph, 53 
“Hollow pottery rings surmounted by small vessels are common ‘ritual’ objects at Mediterranean and Levantine sites where they are known by the Greek name kernos (pl.kernoi).More rarely they occur in Mesopotamian contexts…Two or more small pots attached to the top side of a hollow ring so that liquid poured into the pots would run down into the hollow ring connecting them…Only six certain and two possible fragmentary examples are recorded from the UM excavations…..Because these objects are so rare in South Asia, mention should be made of two other fragmentary examples found at Harappa. Both of these have also been discussed by BM Pande in his detailed study of ring-kernoi’. The first example was published in a photograph only by Vats (1940: Pl. LXXI:6) with no description in the text. The second example, almost half a hollow ring with scars where three small vessels were attached, was excavated by Wheeler in 1946 but remained unpublished until Pande’s study…Pande’s excellent study of these enigmatic objects cites examples from Mediterranean, Egyptian,  Levantine, and Mesopotamian sites ranging in date from the mid-fourth millennium BCE to at least the early centuries.” [BM Pande, 1971, Harappan Ring-Kernoi: A study. East & West 21 (3-4), pp. 311-324)George Dales, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Leslie Alcock, 1986, UPenn Museum of ArchaeologyExcavations at Mohenjo Daro, PakistanThe Pottery, with an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, p.226).

In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings -- "a terracotta vessel with many little bowls stuck on to it. In them there is sage, white poppy heads, wheat, barley, peas (?), vetches (?), pulse, lentils, beans, spelt (?), oats, cakes of compressed fruit, honey, olive oil, wine, milk, and unwashed sheep's wool. When one has carried this vessel, like a liknophoros, he tastes of the contents"[Phillippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: From Cybele to the Virgin Mary (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, English translation 2004)].  

“KernosRings (Fig. 92:1-6). Hollow pottery rings surmounted by small vessels are common ‘ritual’ objects at Mediterranean and Levantine sites where they are known by the Greek name kernod (pl. kernoi). More rarely they occur in Mesopotamian contexts…Bases: attached to the top side of the hollow ring; usually piered through to connect vessel interior with hollow ring, but two examples (Fig. 92:2,6) are solid…Two or more small pots attached to the top side of a hollow ring so that liquid poured into the pots would run down into the hollow ring connecting them…Only six certain and two possible fragmentary examples are recorded from the UM excavations…Because these objects are so rare in South Asia, mention should be made of two other fragmentary examples found at Harappa. Both of these have also been discussed by B.M. Pande in his detailed study of ‘ring-kernoi’….Pande reports that one of his colleagues who was present during Wheeler’s excavations says the object was discovered near Cemetery R37, Burial 5, and belongs to the mid-levels of the Harappa culture…Pande’s excellent study of these enigmatic objects cites examples from Mediterranean, Egyptian, Levantine, and Mesopotamian sites ranging in date from the mid-fourth-millennium BCE to at least the early centuries CE. Reference should be made to his study for details of the elaborate ritual nature of many of these Western examples.” (George Dales, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Leslie Alcock, 1986, Excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistn: The pottery, with an account of the pottery from the 1950 excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, UPenn Museum of Archaeology, p.226).



GF Dales reported the find of a kernos from Mohenjo-daro. (GF Dales, 1965, New investigations at Mohenjo-daro, Archaeology, XVIII, 2, pp. 145-50).



“A fragment of a pottery kernod – circular tube with small vases at intervals – associated with the mud brick embankment was found in the recent excavations at Mohenjo-daro, conducted by Dales. His view that the object had ‘not hitherto been reported from Harappan sites’ does not appear to be totally correct, for a few other like examples have been unearthed at Harappan sites. In the excavations at Harappa, a similar object was found in the Great Granary area. But for the variation with regard to the form of the vase, the object from Harappa belongs to the same class of objects as the latest Mohenjo-daro example.The fragmentary Harappa kernos has only extant vase resembling a cup with a splayed-out mouth and plain featureless rim, as against a miniature-sized globular jar with a narrow neck and externally-curved rim of the Mohenjo-daro specimen. In the same group of vessels may also be included two more examples – one each from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa – which are lodged in the Central Antiquities Collection Safdarjang Tomb Baradari, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. The earlier Mohenjo-daro specimen, which is also fragmentary, has two intact vases, akin to the Harappa one. The other specimen, from Wheeler’s excavations at Harappa, has only the half segment of the tube surviving and the vases are broken and lost.That the four specimens – two each from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa – belong to the same class of objects known as kernos, is beyond doubt. This is obvious from their general shape and characteristic features comparable to the ones found in a vast area outside India and in large numbers.”(pp.311-312).



"The kernoi have a wide distribution both in space and time. The distribution in time ranges from about the middle of the 4thmillennium BCE to the early centuries CE, and, in fact, to the modern times in certain parts of the world. The area of distribution includes Greece (and the islands), Crete, Cyprus, Israel, Egypt and modern Iraq (and the peripheral regions)...The main focus of distribution of the kernos is mainly Greece, Crete and the adjoining islands, where these occur for the first time in the Early Minoan (c. 2500-2100 BCE) and pre-Mycenaen (c. 2500-1800 BCE) to Late Minoan (c. 1550-1150 BCE) down to the late Greek and Roman times (c. 6th cent. BCE onwards). Thus a continuous tradition of use can be discerned for an interminable period of about three thousand years, the tradition surviving even in the modern times, with subsequent mofications and alterations, in the Greek Orthodox church…At Palaikastro site ‘was found a clay cover with a conical pierced top and a kind of door in the side, as covers for lamps…(which) were set on the kernoi, when they were decked for ritual use.’ (RM Dawkins, Excavations at Palaikastro III, Annual of the British School of Athens, X, 1903-1904, p.221)...At Kourtes site, (Nilsson,The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion, Lund, 1927,  pp. 116-117, fig. 19.. This kernos consists of a ‘hollow ring (diameter 19 cm) upon which six small jugs with narrow necks and spreading mouths are placed alternately with three coarsely made human figurines, of  which one holds his arms to his head, another to his breast, while the third graps the handles of the vases next to him. As Xanthoudides justly remarks, this very pecular feature connects the vessel with the group of dancing women fastened on a common ring-shaped base from Palaikastro’" (BM Pande, opcit, p.314)/



A variant of the ring-kernos has a number of small vessels attached to the ring and communicating with the interior. Some of these have also attached to them plastic serpents, bulls’ heds and perchaing birds. (Nilsson, opcit., p. 117).




“That the object kernos – ring kernos or the other types – had ritualistic function in ancient Greece, or is a cult-object in the Megiddo cult, is beyond doubt. In Cyprus, more often than not, these are found in graves as a part of the funerary furniture. This is evident from their location in a site (whereever found from the excavations) connected with cult, rituals or as accompanying the dead. Even the shape of the ring-kernos – clearly the result of a complex evolution – and the variety of forms or objets represented on the ring-kernoi prove that they were ritualistic vessels. Ancient Greek and Roman literature attests to this fact. Harrison, while discussing the kernophoria, has described two types of kernos on the authority of Athenaeus and the scholiasts on Nikander etc. The first of these was a winnowing fan which in the beginning was a simple agricultural instrument, but was subsequently mysticized by the religion of Dionysus. But there was another kind of kernos, which according to Athenaeus, was ‘a vessel made of earthenware,having in it many little cups fastened to it’, in which while poppies, wheat, barley, pulse etc. were kept. It ws thereafter carried aloft and certain rites were performed and was distributed to those who had done so. Athenaeus also gives a long list of the contents of the kernos. From Eleusis, where such an objet had been found in the excavations, are also available accounts of the officials mentioning a vessel…which is identical to the kernos of Athenaeus…The kernos from Haghios Nikolaos, again an example of the composite variety, is important, for, ‘inside it was found a clay lamp with one wick and two holes in the cover’, which conforms to the description given by the scholiast on Nikander. According to Xanthoudides, ‘the kernos was a sacred vessel not used exclusively at the Eleusinian mysteries, but also in the worship of other gods, as is known from the cults of Rhea Cybele, Attis, and the Corybantes’.”(BM Pande, opcit., pp.320-321)




It is thus obvious that the kernos – the ring-kernos or the other types – was a vessel connected, in ancient Greece and Crete, with harvest and used in the related festivals. The ring kernoi from Israel, which might have ‘originated in the footed ring-vases of early Cyprus and Egypt’, have pomegranates, doves, gazelles on them. These are symbolic and mark ‘its function in the fertility cult’ and the miniature jars ‘contained wine, the fruit of the grape’. Thus, ‘the kernos ring was probably for libations: the liquid would be poured into the cups to circulate throughout the doves, pomegranates, and jars, symbolizing the fertility of the earth and the fructifying of its produce’. (BM Pande opcit, p. 321).



Fig. 92.1,3 Mohenjo-daro kernos ring with pots
Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos
Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase), Terracotta, Cypriot

Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase)

Period:
Cypro-Geometric I
Date:
ca. 1050–950 B.C.
Culture:
Cypriot
Medium:
Terracotta
Dimensions:
H. 4 7/16 in. (11.3 cm)
Classification:
Vases
Credit Line:
The Cesnola Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76
Accession Number:
74.51.659
File:Pottery kernos, Early Cycladic II-III, 2500-2000 BC, AM Milos, 152540.jpg
Kernos (and "souce-boat"), pottery. Early Cycladic II-III period, 2500 to 2000 BC. Vessel found in burial site in Rivari on Mlios, excavations in 1997. Archaeological Museum of Milos.
Céramiques de tous les pays et de toutes les époques

Outro cerno cicládico (ca. século XXII a.C.) https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerno
Terracotta kernos (vase for multiple offerings), Terracotta, Cypriot
Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase) Cypriot 
From the Cesnola Collection, Accession # 74.51.660 http://www.ipernity.com/doc/laurieannie/24387123

Terracotta kernos (vase for multiple offerings)

Period:
Cypro-Archaic I
Date:
750–600 B.C.
Culture:
Cypriot
Medium:
Terracotta
Dimensions:
H. 4 1/8 in. (10.5 cm); diameter 7 1/8 in. (18.1 cm)
Classification:
Vases
Credit Line:
The Cesnola Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76
Accession Number:
74.51.688
4.jpg
Terracotta. Kernos. 2300-2200 BCE

 

https://tinyurl.com/y7zupcay
Thanks to @manasataramgini for exquisite images of a Kernos ring (evidenced ca. 2000 BCE from Greek pottery) said to be from Balochistan. This artifiact (now said to be in Japan) contains Indus Script hypertext of hieroglyphs, zebu abd black drongo. The Indus Script hypertext readings are:
pōḷa'bos indicus, zebu' rebus: pōḷa'magnetite, ferrite ore'
pōladu 'black drongo bird' rebus: [pōlāda] n ( or P) [pōlādi] 'steel'.
S. Kalyanaraman
Sarssvati Research Center 
Januar 6, 2018
A rare e.g. of a Kernos ring from the subcontinent. It was apprently smuggled to japan from a site in what's today Balochistan
Top view of same: Kernos rings were made frequently in bronze age and later West Asia and Greece. This e.g. from subcontinent suggests that it was made using local motifs but inspired closely by west Asian Kernos design.
Bottom view of same along with a stand alone bull from what's today Balochistan showing similar techinique of manufacture.
Background note on Kernos ring
In the typology of ancient Greek pottery, the kernos (Greek κέρνος or κέρχνος, plural kernoi) is a pottery ring or stone tray to which are attached several small vessels for holding offerings. Its unusual design is described in literary sources, which also list the ritual ingredients it might contain.[1] The kernos was used primarily in the cults of Demeter and Kore, and of Cybele and Attis.[2]
The Greek term is sometimes applied to similar compound vessels from other cultures found in the Mediterranean, the LevantMesopotamia, and South Asia.[3]

Literary description

Athenaeus preserves an ancient description of the kernos as
The kernos was carried in procession at the Eleusinian Mysteries atop the head of a priestess, as can be found depicted in art. A lamp was sometimes placed in the middle of a stationary kernos.[5]

References

  1. Jump up^ Jacquelyn Collins-Clinton, A Late Antique Shrine of Liber Pater at Cosa (Brill, 1976), pp. 29 –30 online.
  2. Jump up^ Phillippe Borgeaud, Mother of the Gods: From Cybele to the Virgin Mary (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, English translation 2004), passim.
  3. Jump up^ Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery (University of Pennsylvania Museum, 1986), p. 226 online.
  4. Jump up^ Athenaeus 11.478c = Polemon, frg. 88 Preller; English translation from Homer A. Thompson, Hellenistic Pottery and Terracottas (American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1987), p. 448 online.
  5. Jump up^ The verb kernophorein means "to bear the kernos"; the noun for this is kernophoria; Stephanos Xanthoudides, "Cretan Kernoi," Annual of the British School at Athens 12 (1906), p. 9.
Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos
In this votive plaque depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a female figure (top center of rectangular portion) wears a kernos on her head

Kernos Libation vase. Early Aegean, HelladicBronze Age, Late Helladic Periodabout 1200–1100 B.C.Diameter: 26.7 cm (10 1/2 in.) Accession number: 35.735. "Ring-shaped with bull's head and three small vases, part of fourth, and place for fifth on ring. Twisted basket handle with one of pair of doves on top. Conventional decoratin of herring-bone and floral patterns in dark brown on light pinkish brown clay. Nostrils of bull pierced, and a third hole below. Amphora, 2 skyphoi painted solid. Filled arcs connected by diagonals. Chevrons, triangles. Close Style, perhaps fr. Rhodes or Cyprus (EV)."
Image result for kernos ring bull birdImage result for kernos ring bull bird
Line-drawing of the tripartite kernos for the Heraion of Samos | Tripartite Offering Vessels

Image result for terracotta kernos ring
Terracotta tripartite kernos. Louvre Museum.https://www.pinterest.com/pin/457748749602706628/
A SYRIAN CERAMIC TRIPARTITE VESSEL WITH IBEX FIGURE
Syrian ceramic tripartite vessel with ibex figure. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/457748749602703821/
Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase), Terracotta, Cypriot

Terracotta ring-kernos (offering vase)

Period:
Cypro-Geometric I
Date:
ca. 1050–950 B.C.
Culture:
Cypriot
Medium:
Terracotta
Dimensions:
H. 4 7/16 in. (11.3 cm)
Classification:
Vases
Credit Line:
The Cesnola Collection, Purchased by subscription, 1874–76
Accession Number:
74.51.659








https://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/240246









Fig.5 Ring kernoi from Cyprus “…an example of a ring-kernos of the White Painted II variety from Cyprus has, over an elaborately painted ring with a basket handle, bull’s and goat’s heads, pomegranates and miniature vases (fig.5).”(BM Pande, opcit., p.318)



Fig.6 Ring kernoi from Cyprus “Late Mycenaean (c. 1500-1100 BCE), Cyprus, comprises ‘a ring upon which three vessels, two with narrow mouths and one cup with a handle, and a bull’s head is fastened.” (BM Pande, opcit., p.318)











“The Palestinian examples, notably from Megiddo and Gezer, are again of an elaborate type The Megiddo specimen (fig 10) has, on a ring base, one gazelle head, two amphorae, two pomegranates, two doves and one cup which all communicate with the hollow base. The gazelle head is decorated with red lines, has pierced eyes and orifice through mouth; the other pots or birds are also painted or decorated likewise. The Gezer examples also have alternating figures of birds and pomegranates (fig. 11).” (BM Pande, opcit., pp. 318-319)





Fig. 13 Ring kernoi from Melos
Terracotta kernos from the Cycladic period (ca.2000 BC), found at Melos

Kernos carried on her head. "The kernos was carried in procession at the Eleusinian Mysteries atop the head of a priestess, as can be found depicted in art. A lamp was sometimes placed in the middle of a stationary kernos. The verb kernophorein means "to bear the kernos"; the noun for this is kernophoria; Stephanos Xanthoudides, "Cretan Kernoi," Annual of the British School at Athens 12 (1906), p. 9."
See: 

2. Rosicrucian Digest, Eleusis, Volume 90 Number 2 2009 https://rosicrucian.org/rosicrucian-digest-eleusis

A votive plaque known as the Ninnion Tablet depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, discovered in the sanctuary at Eleusis (mid-4th century BCE). In this votive plaque depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a female figure (top center of rectangular portion) wears a kernos on her head

Kulli terracotta ring (also called Kernos Ring) with pot, two zebu (bos indicus), black drongo is Indus Script hypertext to signify pōḷā magnetite ore, pwlad 'steel' dhā̆vaḍ, 'smelter' kō̃da,'furnace'

https://tinyurl.com/y9n3ppyt  A Note on a Terracotta Ring-shaped Object with Animal Figurines and a Miniature Pot of the Balochistan Tradition in the Okayama Orient Museum by Akinori Uesugi (2013)


Abstract. In this paper, a terracotta ring-shaped object with animal figurines and a miniature pot in the collection of the Okayama Orient Museum is reported. Although its provenance is unknown, its uniqueness is important for understanding the nature of the Kulli culture in Balochistan during the late third millennium BCE. Similar objects that are known from the Middle East and the eastern Mediterranean region may be related to this rare object of the Kulli culure.  


Description of the Kulli terracotta object with Indus Script Hypertext, ca. 3rd millennium BCE 

The object consists of a ring with three short legs, two humped bulls, one bird and a miniature pot (Figures above). A whitishslip (light grey 2.5Y 8/2) is executed over areddish orange clay (dull orange 7.5YR 7/3)and paintings are made in black (brownish black 10YR 3/1- yellowish grey 
2.5Y 4/1).The measurements are shown in Table 1. The bird is placed on the rear side of thering with a tall cylindrical stand.




I suggest that this terracotta ring object is an Indus Script Hypertext with the following hieroglyph components:

1.. Zebu, bos indicusपोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu, bos indicus taurus' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus (similar sounding homonym): पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, ferrite ore: Fe3O4'.
pōḷa 'zebu' Rebus: pōḷa 'magnetite ore'. पोळ (p. 534) [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large.पोळा (p. 534) [ pōḷā ] m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship.पोळींव (p. 534) [ pōḷīṃva ] p of पोळणें Burned, scorched, singed, seared. (Marathi)


2.Bird, black drongo:  pōlaḍu 'black drongo bird' (Telugu) Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus:  पोलाद pōlāda n ( or P) Steel. पोलादी a Of steel.  (Marathi) bulad 'steel, flint and steel for making fire' (Amharic); fUlAd 'steel' (Arabic) pōlāda 'steel', pwlad (Russian), fuladh (Persian) folādī (Pashto)
 Image result for black drongo zebuZebu, bos indicus PLUS black drongo bird (perched on the back of the bull) This bird is called పసులపోలిగాడు pasula-pōli-gāḍu 'friend of cattle'.

3. Circle:*varta2 ʻ circular object ʼ or more prob. ʻ something made of metal ʼ, cf. vartaka -- 2 n. ʻ bell -- metal, brass ʼ lex. and vartalōha -- . [√vr̥t?] Pk. vaṭṭa -- m.n., °aya -- m. ʻ cup ʼ; Ash. waṭāˊk ʻ cup, plate ʼ; K. waṭukh, dat. °ṭakas m. ʻ cup, bowl ʼ; S. vaṭo m. ʻ metal drinking cup ʼ; N. bāṭā, ʻ round copper or brass vessel ʼ; A. bāṭi ʻ cup ʼ; B. bāṭā ʻ box for betel ʼ; Or. baṭā ʻ metal pot for betel ʼ, bāṭi ʻ cup, saucer ʼ; Mth. baṭṭā ʻ large metal cup ʼ, bāṭī ʻ small do. ʼ, H. baṭṛī f.; G. M. vāṭī f. ʻ vessel ʼ.(CDIAL 11347) 

dāẽ 'tied' rebus dhā̆vaḍ 'iron smelter.' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or Rebus: bhaṭa, 'furnace'baṭa 'iron'(Gujarati)


4. Pot: kuṇḍá1 n. (RV. in cmpd.) ʻ bowl, waterpot ʼ KātyŚr., ʻ basin of water, pit ʼ MBh. (semant. cf. kumbhá -- 1), °ḍaka -- m.n. ʻ pot ʼ Kathās., °ḍī -- f. Pāṇ., °ḍikā -- f. Up. 2. *gōṇḍa -- . [← Drav., e.g. Tam. kuṭam, Kan. guṇḍi, EWA i 226 with other ʻ pot ʼ words s.v. kuṭa -- 1]1. Pa. kuṇḍi -- , °ḍikā -- f. ʻ pot ʼ; Pk. kuṁḍa -- , koṁ° n. ʻ pot, pool ʼ, kuṁḍī -- , °ḍiyā -- f. ʻ pot ʼ; Kt. kuṇi ʻ pot ʼ, Wg. kuṇḍäˊi; Pr. künǰúdotdot; ʻ water jar ʼ; Paš. weg. kuṛã̄ ʻ clay pot ʼ < *kũṛā IIFL iii 3, 98 (or poss. < kuṭa -- 1), lauṛ. kuṇḍalīˊ ʻ bucket ʼ; Gaw. kuṇḍuṛīˊ ʻ milk bowl, bucket ʼ; Kal. kuṇḍṓk ʻ wooden milk bowl ʼ; Kho. kúṇḍuk°ug ʻ milk bowl ʼ, (Lor.) ʻ a kind of platter ʼ; Bshk. kūnḗċ ʻ jar ʼ (+?); K. kŏnḍ m. ʻ metal or earthenware vessel, deep still spring ʼ, kọ̆nḍu m. ʻ large cooking pot ʼ, kunāla m. ʻ earthenware vessel with wide top and narrow base ʼ; S. kunu m. ʻ whirlpool ʼ, °no m. ʻ earthen churning pot ʼ, °nī f. ʻ earthen cooking pot ʼ, °niṛo m.; L. kunnã̄ m. ʻ tub, well ʼ, °nī f. ʻ wide -- mouthed earthen cooking pot ʼ, kunāl m. ʻ large shallow earthen vessel ʼ; P. kū̃ḍā m. ʻ cooking pot ʼ (←H.), kunāl°lā m., °lī f., kuṇḍālā m. ʻ dish ʼ; WPah. cam. kuṇḍ ʻ pool ʼ, bhal. kunnu n. ʻ cistern for washing clothes in ʼ; Ku. kuno ʻ cooking pot ʼ, kuni°nelo ʻ copper vessel ʼ; B. kũṛ ʻ small morass, low plot of riceland ʼ, kũṛi ʻ earthen pot, pipe -- bowl ʼ; Or. kuṇḍa ʻ earthen vessel ʼ, °ḍā ʻ large do. ʼ, °ḍi ʻ stone pot ʼ; Bi. kū̃ṛ ʻ iron or earthen vessel, cavity in sugar mill ʼ, kū̃ṛā ʻ earthen vessel for grain ʼ; Mth. kũṛ ʻ pot ʼ, kū̃ṛā ʻ churn ʼ; Bhoj. kũṛī ʻ vessel to draw water in ʼ; H. kū̃ḍ f. ʻ tub ʼ, kū̃ṛā m. ʻ small tub ʼ, kū̃ḍā m. ʻ earthen vessel to knead bread in ʼ, kū̃ṛī f. ʻ stone cup ʼ; G. kũḍ m. ʻ basin ʼ, kũḍī f. ʻ water jar ʼ; M. kũḍ n. ʻ pool, well ʼ, kũḍā m. ʻ large openmouthed jar ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; Si. ken̆ḍiyakeḍ° ʻ pot, drinking vessel ʼ.2. N. gũṛ ʻ nest ʼ (or ← Drav. Kan. gūḍu ʻ nest ʼ, &c.: see kulāˊya -- ); H. gõṛā m. ʻ reservoir used in irrigation ʼ.Addenda: kuṇḍa -- 1: S.kcch. kūṇḍho m. ʻ flower -- pot ʼ, kūnnī f. ʻ small earthen pot ʼ; WPah.kṭg. kv́ṇḍh m. ʻ pit or vessel used for an oblation with fire into which barley etc. is thrown ʼ; J. kũḍ m. ʻ pool, deep hole in a stream ʼ; Brj. kū̃ṛo m., °ṛī f. ʻ pot ʼ.(CDIAL 3264) Rupaka, 'metaphor' or Rebus: kō̃da -कोँद ।'kiln'; kundanace' (Kashmiri)





Top and front views of the terracotta ring object with Indus Script Hypertexts (zebu, bird, pot), in Okayama Orient Museum

Terracotta ring objects (called 'Kernos Ring') are widely distributed in Kulli culture (After Fig. 8 in Akinori Uesugi's monograph)
Chronological distribution of ring-shapedobjects in Southwest Asia from 5000 BCE(After Fig. 9 in Akinori Uesugi's monograph)The ring object dated to 5000 BCE is from Tell Kosak Shamali in northern Syria. Similar objects continue upto the first millennium BCE.
Kulli style animal figures (zebu, bird) in Okayama Orient Museum.
































JOURNAL ARTICLE

Harappan Ring-Kernoi: A Study

B. M. Pande
East and West
Vol. 21, No. 3/4 (September-December 1971), pp. 311-323


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Chennai-based indologist honoured -- Daily Pioneer, July 22, 2018

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CHENNAI-BASED INDOLOGIST HONOURED

 |  | CHENNAI | in Sunday Pioneer
S Kalyanaraman, Chennai-based Indologist and director, Saraswathi Research Centre, has been awarded honorary D Litt by the Deccan College, Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Pune in recognition of his academic contribution. This is the first time Deccan College, a deemed university which is also the third oldest educational institution in India, is selecting a scholar in the category of archaeology from Tamil Nadu for this prestigious honour, according to Prof Vasant S Shinde, vice- chancellor.
“Dr Kalyanaraman has done yeomen service to the knowledge repository of the country through his research and writings. Ours is a heritage university specialising in  studying the vast horizon of the ancient knowledge system of India. Dr Kalyanaraman is the ideal person for this honour whose passion for archaeology knows no frontiers,” Prof Shinde told The Pioneer over phone from Pune.
He said Dr Kalyanaraman integrates  archaeological research and findings with literary evidence and it was the uniqueness of his pursuit in search of knowledge. “The amount of data he has  collected from the Harappan excavations and  his contributions in the field of Saraswathi Valley civilisation is unparalleled,” said the vice-chancellor.
Dr Kalyanaraman’s works include the findings of the ancient tin route from south east Asia through India to Kaifa in modern  Israel. “This Tin Route was functional much before the Silk Route came into being. Our ancestors who had settled down in central India were good metal workers who could carve out bronze from tin and copper,” said Kalyanaraman who has authored a dozen books on archaeology.
From the seals of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, he had deciphered  information that substantiates the metallurgical expertise of ancient India’s artisans and the adventurous sea farers. Dr Kalyanaraman has also established through his studies that more than 25 Indian languages are inter connected . “There are no Dravidian or Aryan languages in the subcontinent. There are lot of commonalities in these languages which were known by the name Sprachdund (German for Speech Union)”  he said.
Kalyanaraman’s comprehensive seven-volume work on Saraswathi Civilisation was released by the then Deputy Prime Minister L K Advani in 2001.



Kernos ring may be cognate with kāṇike 'present', कारणिक 'examiner', kāraṇī ‘supercargo’

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https://tinyurl.com/yd3off2b

This is an addendum to: 

 https://tinyurl.com/y9568l2x


Ta. kāṇ (kāṇp-, kaṇṭ-) to see, consider, investigate, appear, become visible; n. sight, beauty; kāṇkai knowledge; kāṇpu seeing, sight; kāṭci sight, vision of a deity, view, appearance; kāṇikkai voluntary offering, gift to a temple, church, guru or other great person; kāṭṭu (kāṭṭi-) to show; n. showing; kaṇṇu (kaṇṇi-) to purpose, think, consider; kaṇ-kāṭci gratifying spectacle, exhibition, object of curiosity. Ma. kāṇuka to see, observe, consider, seem; kāṇi visitor, spectator; kāṇikka to show, point out; n. offering, present; kāṭṭuka to show, exhibit; kār̤ca, kār̤ma eyesight, offering, show, spectacle. Ko. kaṇ-/ka·ṇ- (kaḍ-)to see; ka·ṭ- (ka·c-) to show; kaḍ aṯ- (ac-), kaḍ ayr- (arc-) to find out; ka·ṇky payment of vow to god; kaŋga·c wonderful sight such as never seen before. To.ko·ṇ- (koḍ-) to see; ko·ṭ- (ko·ṭy-) to show; ko·ṇky offering to Hindu temple or to Kurumba; koṇy act of foretelling or of telling the past. Ka. kāṇ (kaṇḍ-) to see, appear; n. seeing, appearing; kāṇike, kāṇke sight, vision, present, gift; kāṇuvike seeing, appearing; kāṇisu to show, show oneself, appear; kaṇi sight, spectacle, ominous sight, divination. Koḍ. ka·ṇ- (ka·mb-, kaṇḍ-) to see; seem, look (so-and-so); ka·ṭ- (ka·ṭi-) to show. Tu. kāṇůsāvuni, kāṇisāvuni to show, represent, mention; kāṇikè, kāṇigè present to a superior. Te. kanu (allomorph kān-), kāncu to see; kānupu seeing, sight; kānipincu to appear, seem; show; kānuka gift offered to a superior, present, tribute; kaṇṭãbaḍu to appear, be seen, come in view; kanukali seeing, sight. Kol. kanḍt, kanḍakt seen, visible. Nk. kank er- to appear (< *kanḍk or the like). Pa. kanḍp- (kanḍt-) to look for, seek. Ga. (Oll.) kanḍp- (kanḍt-) to search. Kur. xannāto be pleasant to the eye, be of good effect, suit well. Br. xaning to see. Cf. 1159 Ta. kaṇ; ? cf. 1172 Ta. kaṇṭavaṉ.(DEDR 1443) இரத்தக்காணிக்கை iratta-k-kāṇikkai, n. < id. +. `Blood-present,' an endowment in the form of a gift of land rent-free for the support of the heirs of warriors wounded or killed in battle; போரில்வீழ்ந்த வீரருடைய மைந்தர்க்குக் கொடுக்கும் மானியம். (M.M.) காணிக்கை kāṇikkain. < காண்-. [T. kā- nuka, K. Tu. kāṇike, M. kāṇikka.] Voluntary offering, commonly in money, gold, fruits; gift to a temple or church; present to a guru or other great person; கடவுளர்க்கேனும் பெரியோர் கட்கேனும் சமர்ப்பிக்கும் பொருள். வேதாளநாதன் மகி ழுங் காணிக்கையாகி (சேதுபு. வேதாள. 34).காணிக்கைத்தட்டு kāṇikkai-t-taṭṭu, n. < காணிக்கை +. Salver for receiving gifts; கா ணிக்கைவாங்குந் தாலம்.
 कारणिक mfn. (g. काश्य्-ादि) " investigating , ascertaining the cause " , a judge Pan5cat.; a teacher MBh. ii , 167. (Monier-Williams) कारणी or कारणीक kāraṇī or kāraṇīka a (कारण S) That causes, conducts, carries on, manages. Applied to the prime minister of a state, the supercargo of a ship &c. 2 Useful, serviceable, answering calls or occasions. (Marathi) Supercargo = a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.



Why are pomegranates shown on Kernoi rings? I suggest the objects on the rings are metalwork catalogues, dharma saṁjñā, 'corporate responsibility badges'

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Indus Script Meluhha Hypertexts on Kernoi rings (which are dharma saṁjñā, 'corporate responsibility badges')

karã̄ n. pl.wristlets, bangles' rūpaka, 'metaphor'or rebus: khār 'blacksmith'.

ḍ̠āṛhū̃ 'pomegranate' (Sindhi) Rebus: ḍhālako 'a large metal ingot'.

पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods. pōḷī, ‘dewlap, honeycomb’. Rebus: pola ‘magnetite ore’ (Munda. Asuri)


pōlaḍu,'black drongo' rebus pōlaḍ 'steel' 

miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages)

khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü  । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy -बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru  । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji -or -güjü  । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl -हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü -हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü -कूरू‍&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu -। लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü -क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1 - । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu -;  लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay -नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ -। लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wān वान् । लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh -वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas -वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil. (Kashmiri)

See: 

 

Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/zuvogas 

 

 Balakot 06 Ceramic (stoneware) bangle with inscription
dhatu कारणी or कारणीक [ kāraṇī or kāraṇīka ] 'supercargo of a ship responsible for the cargo of mineral ores'

Intimations of such janapadas are seen in the way distinct badges (as corporate badges) evolved for specific functionaries. Roots of the corporate form detailed in Kautilya's Arthas'astra are to be found in the corporate identities indicated by distinct structural elements in Indus Script corpora such as ceramic (stoneware) bangles, fillets, seals -- all with inscriptions -- as Dharma saṁjñā Corporate badges. For an Economic History of Corporate form in Ancient India, see a paper by Vikramaditya S. Khanna (2005): http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=796464
Detail from the interior plate. Gundestrup Cauldron. Kernunnos holds a torc -- signifier of a kernos ring--  on his right hand. Indus Script Hypertexts signify metalwork catalogues:  badhia 'rhinoceros' Rebus: badhi 'carpenter'; badhoe 'worker in wood and iron'. पंजा pañjā 'claw of a tiger' rebus: पंजा pañjā 'kiln, smelter.; फडा phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága Rebus:phaḍa फड ' metals manufactory, company, guild, public place'; kūdī 'twigkuṭhi 'smelter'.

C(K)ernunnos on the Pillar of the Boatmen, from the Musée national du Moyen Âge (Museum of the Middle Ages), in ParisFrance"The theonym [C]ernunnos appears on the Pillar of the Boatmen, a Gallo-Roman monument dating to the early 1st century CE, to label a god depicted with stag's antlers in their early stage of annual growth. [Both antlers have torcs hanging from them...The name has been compared to a divine epithet Carnonos in a Celtic inscription written in Greek characters at MontagnacHérault (as καρνονου, karnonou, in the dative case).Gallo-Latin adjective carnuātus, "horned," is also found." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cernunnos The torcs of Kernunnos are relatable to the kernos ring.

THE CRETAN MIDDLE BRONZE AGE ‘MINOAN KERNOS’ WAS DESIGNED TO PREDICT A TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE AND TO FACILITATE A MAGNETIC COMPASS W.S. Downey Department of Petroleum Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University (Sarawak Campus CDT 250), 98009 Miri, Sarawak, M (2015) in: Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 15, No 1, pp. 95-107

ABSTRACT Archaeometry is the application of scientific techniques used to analyze archaeological materials. The Cretan Bronze Age Minoan Kernos, has hitherto, been regarded as a gaming board or for religious purposes. Here, it is shown, that, it was designed, specifically, to predict the occurrence of the 9th. January 1860 BCE Total Solar Eclipse. A prototype magnetic compass was centrally facilitated in a non-magnetic marble structure, whose geomagnetic declination angle, appears to coincide with the Kernos‟ eclipse prediction-axis orientation. Comparisons of eclipse constructions taken from Kernos measurements, with those of Hipparchus (2nd. c. BCE), appear to be similar, suggesting a common origin. Evidence obtained using a multidisciplinary approach, is testament to the sophistication of Middle Bronze Age science and technology and the ability to create a mathematically-based eclipse predictor and magnetic compass, 3800 years ago and 1700 years before the advent of the Antikythera Mechanism.
...
"The Minoan Kernos is one of many such „holed stones‟. Minoan Kernoi have several names in the archaeological literature: „stone slabs with depressions‟; „Pierres à cupules‟ as well as others (Cucuzza, 2010). They have been found in approximately 20 Minoan and Mycenaean sites in central and eastern Crete. Kernoi consist of circular holes cut into the surface of stone slabs and arranged in a circle or oval or arranged in a rectangle, parallel rows, spiral or irregular manner. 

Figure 2. Aspects of the Minoan Kernos at Malia (A-F). Photos (B – F) by Author. (A) Site Plan photo of the Protopalatial palace at Malia (Central Court long axis orientation at18º East of North) with arrow indicating the location of the MK (Google Earth). (B) Oblique photo of the MK (diameter ~ 88 cm) with arrow indicating the direction of the eclipse prediction axis (14º West of South). (C) View of the MK towards the ‘North’ with rain water defining a current tilt, (dotted line) at ~ 5º to the ‘Northwest’. (D) Plan view of the central depression (~ 15 cm diameter) with surrounding ridge and concentric larger shallow depression with elevated ‘lip’. (E) Close-up of the central depression with arrow indicating the highly polished lower ‘spherical- cap’. The rough sides of the depression are slightly ‘convex-upwards’. (F) View of the ‘Northeast’ quadrant of the upper exposed section (~ 13 cm) of the MK, showing distinct sub-parallel foliation in the Plattenkalk Marble. "


Kernos from Tell el-Hammah

Iron I-II (10th century BCE)
Bull or calf, vase, pots on Kernos ring

Biblical Archaeology Review 2:2, June 1976

The Kibbutz Sasa Kernos


A picture of the kernos found at Kibbutz Sasa and briefly described in our December, 1975 issue (“Two Cases of Discrimination,” BAR01:04) has now been released to The Biblical Archaeology Review by the Israel Antiquities Department.
A kernos (plural: kernoi) is a hollow pottery ring usually about 12 inches in diameter with various hollow pottery objects sitting on the ring and attached to it.
The Kibbutz Sasa kernos originally had six objects perched on the ring, of which four survive. Although other kernoi—or, more accurately, pieces of kernoi—have been found at Gezer, Ashdod, Beth Shean and elsewhere, the Kibbutz Sasa kernos is one of the most nearly complete ever excavated in Israel. Only the Megiddo kernos is more nearly complete, with seven of its eight original objects remaining.
The hollow objects on the Kibbutz Sasa kernos are a bird, a chalice and two pomegranates. Other kernoi have had various vessels, birds and animal heads.
The Kibbutz Sasa kernos is painted in black and red with geometric motifs, which suggests an Aegean cultural origin for the object and its design.
According to Prof. Trude Dothan in her forthcoming book on the Philistinesa, kernoi probably originated in Cyprus. The kernoi found in Palestine are generally associated with the Philistines and exemplify the link between Mycenean and Philistine culture.
https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/2/2/3

Kernos from Megiddo

Iron I (11th-10th centuries BCE) http://jerusalem.nottingham.ac.uk/items/show/97

Kernos Ring

This ring was probably used as a libation vessel during religious ceremonies in ancient Palestine. It consists of a hollow clay ring with hollow clay attachments in the forms of a gazelle head, two jars, two pomegranates, two doves, and a cup. The doves, whose heads have been restored, drink from the cup. An eighth attachment is missing, having been broken off in antiquity.
The pomegranate, the gazelle and the doves suggest that this ring was associated with a fertility cult. Wine or water would have been poured into the cup and circulated through the other objects attached to the ring, thus symbolizing the fertility of the earth and its produce.
Kernos rings are fairly common in Palestine, although few are as elaborate or as well preserved as this one. https://oi.uchicago.edu/collections/highlights/highlights-collection-ritual-objects
Musio Arxaikos, Kernos

The Archeological museum of Vathi is located it the town of Samos.

Image result for samian kernos

Figure 1. Kernos ring from Beth Shan (middle) flanked by fragments of other rings and bird protrusions (courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)



Figure 2. Kernos ring from Rosh Zayit (courtesy of Z. Gal)


(Brad E.Kelle, 2006, p.152)

Israel's Prophets and Israel's PastEssays on the Relationship of Prophetic Texts and Israelite History in Honor of John H. Hayes

Front Cover
Brad E. KelleMegan Bishop Moore
Bloomsbury Publishing USA01-Nov-2006

Anthropomorphs of Copper hoard culture are dharma saṁjñā, 'corporate responsibility badges' of metalworkers

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This monograph demonstrates that

1. Copper hoard culture links Ancient Far East & Ancient Near East through the navigable Himalayan riverine waterways of Mekong-Brahmaputra-Ganga-Sarasvati-Sindhu, navigable waterways of Persian Gulf, Tigris-Euphrates doab and the Mediterranean Sea; and

2. Anthropomorphs of Copper hoard culture are dharma saṁjñā, 'corporate responsibility badges' of metalworkers, consistent with the Indus Script Cipher of rupaka (metaphor or rebus) representations in Meluhha language.

It has been demonstrated that Dong Son/Karen Bronze Drums of Ancient Far East are composed of Indus Script Hypertexts to signify wealth-accounting ledgers and metal work catalogues. 

See: 


Hanoi-Haifa Maritime Tin Route, Meluhha Tin-Bronze revolution, 5th millennium BCE. Largest tin reserves of the world are in Ancient Far East, Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong Himalayan river basins http://tinyurl.com/l323x6c

Hieroglyphs on Dongson and Karen bronze drums and Meluhha rebus readings of metalwork catalogues


maraka 'peacock' Rebus: marakaka loha'copper alloy, calcining metal'


karibha, ibha 'elephant trunk' (Pali) rebus: karba, ib 'iron' ibbo 'merchant'


kanga 'heron' rebus: kang 'portable brazier' (Kashmiri)


ranku 'antelope' rebus: ranku 'tin'


Kur. mūxā frog. Malt. múqe id. Cf. Skt. mūkaka- id. (DEDR 5023) rebus: mū̃h 'ingot' (Santali) Santali gloss:

ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'alloy metal' (R̥gveda) aya 'iron' (Gujarati)


kāmsako, kāmsiyo = a large sized comb (Gujarati) Rebus: kamsa,kancu=bronze (Telugu)

Image result for dongson bronze drums
Related imageElephant. Peacock.

Distribution of Copperhoard sites. After Fig. 1 in: http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/117773/8/08_chapter%203.pdf

On this pdf document, Chapter 3 is a comprehensive report on Weapons and Implements in Copper hoard phase, pp 155 to 226. This provides details of antenna swords, harpoons, knives, razors, bar axes, spalyed axes, flat axes, socketed axes, doube axes, shouldered axes, bar celts, saws and rings. together with household implements, chisels or khurpi, ploughshares, picks.


BB Lal presented a paper in ICHR Seminar of March 2017 positing a flood ca. 1st quarter of 2nd millennium BCE which explains the huge flood sediments found in Copper hoard sites such as Brahmanabad which are also categorised as Ochre Colour Ware Sites or Painted Grey Ware or Black and Red Ware sites of Ganga-Yamuna doab and Central India.


"The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age culture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BCE to 600 BCE. It is a successor of the Black and red ware culture (BRW) within this region, and contemporary with the continuation of the BRW culture in the eastern Gangetic plain and Central India."





BB Lal presents a geomorphological perspective of a deluge which explains the "Copper hoards" found in the Gaiigi Valley over the past century and a half reiniiin enigmatic. Some attribute them to the invading Aryans, others to the Harappan refugees, and still others to the indigenous people. Be that as it may, circumstantial evidence suggests the association of the hoards with the so-called "Ocher Color Ware," datable to a period prior to c. 1200 B.C. However, at almost all the sites the potsherds occur sporadically. in a deposit of neat earth bereft of any signs of habitation like ash, flooring material, or the like, and with the deposit itself imperceptibly merging into the nafriml soil. How did the sherds find their way to the places where they are found? Could the deposits have been waterlogged? If so, it would mean that an area of over 60,000 square kilometers had gone under water at some time. Was this waterlogging due to incessant rain over a long period, or to the diversion of the waters of the Ghaggar, a iributary of the Indus, to the Garigd system, or to the bunding-up of the latter at some stnge? The matter is for from clear and requires detailed investigation." (Lal, BB, 1968, A Deluge? Which Deluge?: Yet Another Facet of the Problem of the Copper Hoard Culture, in: American Anthropologist, 70, 1968, pp. 857 to 863) .


https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/aa.1968.70.5.02a00030


"It may be noted that eastern India had contacts with Southeast Asia in Neolithic times (Dani, AH, 1960 Prehistory and Protohistory of Eastern India with a Detailed Account of the Neolithic Cultures in Mainland Southeast Asia. Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay; Worman, Eugene C.,1949, The "Neolithic" problem in the prehistory of India. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 39: 181-201). Latest research in Thailand (Solheim W. G., II ,1967, Southeast Asia and the West. S 157: 896-902) shows that bronze technology there starts by ca. 2300 B.C. as indicated by the radiocarbon dates for the Non Nok Tha site: TF-651, 2325±200 B.C. and GaK-956, 2290±90 B.C. [Copper socketed tool tentatively dated 3590±320 B.c, GaK 1034. Ed.] This suggests the probability of inspiration from Southeast Asia for the Copper Hoards although an independent origin is not precluded. But western contacts were impossible because of the forest barriers. Lal (Lal, BB, 1951, Further Copper Hoards from the Gangetic basin and a review of the problem. Ancient India 7: 20-39) and Gupta (Gupta, SP, 1963, Indian Copper Hoards: the problems of homogeneity, stages of development, origin, authorship and dating. The Journal of Bihar Research Society 49: 147 If.;1965 Further Copper Hoards: a reassessment in the light of new evidence. The Journal of Bihar Research Society 51 (parts 1-4): 1-7) identified the Hoards with the Mundas. It is worth noting that the eastern Austronesian tribes (forefathers of the Mon-Khmers, linguistically affiliated with the Mundas) independently developed the use of metal. And north-east India has been considered an integral part of Southeast Asia in the Neolithic period (Bongard-Levin, GM and Deopik, DV, 1957, K. problcme proiskhozhdeniya narodov munda. Sovctskaya Ithnografiya 1: 46-56)...The age of the Copper Hoards is more difficult to arrive at. If the OCP association of the Copper Hoards is accepted, they are pre-Po G. Ware and even pre-Black-and-Red ware in the Doab." (DP Agrawal, 1969, The copper hoards problem: the technological angle, in: Asian Perspectives, XII, pp.113-119).


There is a perfect correlation between two maps: 1. Map 1 showing Austro-Asiatic Speakers of North East India and Ancient Far East; and 2.Map 2showing Bronze Age sites of North East India and Ancient Far East. 


The people of these sites/regions are the authors of the Copper Hoard Culture of Neolithic Times in Ancient India and also in Ancient Far East.


Image result for pinnow austro-asiatic

Austroasiatic Languages:
Munda (Eastern India) and
Mon-Khmer (NE India, mainland SE Asia, Malaysia, Nicobars)
 

[Site maintained by Patricia Donegan and David Stampehttp://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/


Map of Bronze Age sites of eastern India and neighbouring areas: 1. Koldihwa; 2.Khairdih; 3. Chirand; 4. Mahisadal; 5. Pandu Rajar Dhibi; 6.Mehrgarh; 7. Harappa;8. Mohenjo-daro; 9.Ahar; 10. Kayatha; 11.Navdatoli; 12.Inamgaon; 13. Non PaWai; 14. Nong Nor;15. Ban Na Di andBan Chiang; 16. NonNok Tha; 17. Thanh Den; 18. Shizhaishan; 19. Ban Don Ta Phet [After Fig. 8.1 in: Charles Higham, 1996, The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia,  Cambridge University Press].


Sadānīra is the name of the river mentioned in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa signifying migrations to Kāśi-Videha by Ayu people from Kurukshetra.
This is the region close to iron ore resources.

Mâthava, the Videgha, was at that time on the (river) Sarasvatî. 
 
He (Agni) thence went burning along this earth towards the east; and Gotama Râhûgana and the Videgha Mâthava followed after him as he was burning along. He burnt over (dried up) all these rivers.
  
  Now that (river), which is called ‘Sadânîrâ,’ flows from the northern (Himâlaya) mountain: that one he did not burn over. That one the Brâhmans did not cross in former times, thinking, ‘it has not been burnt over by Agni Vaisvânara.’
  
 Now-a-days, however, there are many Brâhmans to the east of it. At that time it (the land east of the Sadânîrâ) was very uncultivated, very marshy, because it had not been tasted by Agni Vaisvânara.
  
  Now-a-days, however, it is very cultivated, for the Brâhmans have caused (Agni) to taste it through sacrifices. Even in late summer that (river), as it were, rages along: so cold is it, not having been burnt over by Agni Vaisvânara.
  
  Mâthava, the Videgha, then said (to Agni), ‘Where am I to abide?’ ‘To the east of this (river) be thy abode!’ said he. Even now this (river) forms the boundary of the Kosalas and Videhas; for these are the Mâthavas (or descendants of Mâthava). (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 1.4)


I suggest that Sadānīra is Karatoya river. This is the Videha region.See map.Rivers of Bangladesh, August 1997 edition, produced by Graphosman, 55/1 Purana Paltan, Dhaka – 1000, map of Bengal in History of Ancient Bengal, by Dr. R.C. Majumdar,First published 1971, Reprint 2005, p. 4

Image result for karatoya
I excerpt from Wikipedia:
Karatoya River (also spelt Korotoa River) (Bengaliকরতোয়া নদী), a small stream in Rajshahi Division of Bangladesh, was once a large and sacred river. A channel of it presently flows by the ancient ruins of Mahasthangarh (or Pundranagara, ancient capital of Pundravardhana) in Bogra District. The Karatoya mahatmya bears testimony to its past greatness.[1] In the Mahabharata it is mentioned that a visit to the Karatoya after three days’ fast produces the same merit as an aswamedha (horse killing) sacrifice.[2] Another ancient city, Sravasti, may have been located on the banks of the Karatoya, north of Mahasthangarh. However, there is a controversy about the possible location of Sravasti.[3]
The Karatoya, known as Phuljhur rises in the Baikunthapur jungles in the extreme north-west of Jalpaiguri district (West Bengal, India) and forms for some distance the boundary between Dinajpur and Rangpur districts. It, then, meanders through Rangpur and Bogra. In the south of Bogra district, it receives the Halhalia and the united stream is then known as Phuljhur. It leaves Bogra at Chanda kona and flowing in a southerly direction past Raiganj and Shujapur is joined by the Ichhamati at Nalka. The Phuljhur then flows south past the important village of Ullapara, a few miles below which it joins the Hurasagar at Narnia after a course of about 64 kilometres (40 mi) in this district. After this junction, it takes the name of Hurasagar and passing close by Shazadpur and Hera joins the Jamuna near Bera.


The Karatoya is mentioned in the Puranas and had a high repute for sanctity. It was the eastern boundary of the old kingdom of Paundravardhana, the country of the Paundras which it separated from Kamrupa. It is shown in Van Den Brouk's map of Bengal (C, 1660) as flowing into the Ganges and in fact. before the destructive floods of 1787 it brought down to the Atrai and to the Ganges a great volume of Teesta water. Since the main stream of the Teesta was dirverted to the east in 1787, the Karatoya and the Phuljhur have gradually silted up. and they are at the present day rivers of minor importance. One channel, which joins the Baral, 48 kilometres (30 mi) east of Pabna. is still called indifferently the Buri Teesta or old Teesta and the Karto or Karatoya. Traces of an old channel, for which the name of the Karatoya is claimed, are also pointed out in the Chatmohar thana, where it appears to have been obliterated by the Baral.
The name of the river is formed of two Bengali words kar (hand) and toa (water), signifying, in Hindu mythology, that the river was formed by the water which was poured on the hands of Shiva, when he married Parvati.[4]
Great changes have taken place in the course of some of the rivers in Bengal and the adjoining areas, during the period since 1500 AD. Although positive evidence is lacking, similar changes can be assumed in the remoter past. The Karatoya is one of the rivers that has changed over the years.[1]
The map (right) shows the main rivers in North Bengal and adjoining areas. Not shown are numerous tributaries and distributaries, which connect the main rivers, and allow the main rivers to change course. Therefore, the river-system pattern undergoes continuous changes. Such changes have not been reflected in the map. Moreover, many of the rivers have local names for sections of the course, adding to the complexity of the river system.
Tectonic disturbances have broken up the Karatoya into four distinct parts. The northern part, called the Dinajpur-Karatoya, is the main source of the Atrai. It rises in a marsh in Baikanthapur in Jalpaiguri district, but also receives water from underground streams. In Khansama upazila its name changes to Atrai. Near Birpur Upazila, Bangaladesh (25°54'02.0"N 88°43'32.6"E) its divided into Dhepa River and Atrai River. In a second section, the Dinajpur-Karatoya was connected with the Rangpur-Karatoya north of Khansama, but very little water now passes down that channel. The upper part of Rangpur-Karatoya originates in the Jalpaiguri district and is known as the Deonai-Jamuneshwari up to Gobindaganj upazila. In a third section, the Jamuneshwari-Karatoya flows south-southeast to Gobindaganj upazila, where the main stream turns east through the Katakhali and falls into the Bangali River. The portion of the former river passing through Shibganj upazila is dry most of the year. It effectively separates the Rangpur-Karatoya from the Bogra-Karatoya, which flows south past Bogra town till it joins the Bangali to make Phuljhor river, which falls into the Hoorasagar. The fourth part, the Pabna-Karatoya, is a moribund river bed near Handial. Various other channels are also pointed out as parts of the Old Karatoya.[4]
...In the Siyar-al-Mutakhkhirin it is recorded that the Karatoya was three times the size of the Ganges when Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded the northern parts of Bengal in 1115. In Ven den Brouck's map of Bengal, prepared in 1660, the Karatoya is shown as a large channel.[4]Rennel made a survey between 1764 and 1777 and his maps are one of the earliest authentic maps of Bengal in existence. In these maps Teesta is shown as flowing through North Bengal in several branches—Punarbhaba, Atrai, Karatoya etc. All these streams combined lower down with the Mahananda, now the westernmost river in North Bengal, and taking the name of Hoorsagar finally discharged into the Ganges at Jafarganj, near modern Goalundo. The Hoorsagar river is still in existence being the combined outfall of the Baral, a spill channel of the Ganges, the Atrai, the Jamuna or Jamuneswari (not the main Jamuna through which the Brahmaputra now flows), and the Karatoya, but instead of falling into the Ganges, it falls into the main Jamuna, a few miles above its confluence with the Padma at Goalundo.[5]

The famous places on Karatoya river are Bogra and Mahasthanagarh (Archaeological site). Bogra gets its name from the word bogāra 'blacksmith' affirming emphatic links with metalwork of the river basin.


Austroasiatic Languages:
Munda (Eastern India) and
Mon-Khmer (NE India, mainland SE Asia, Malaysia, Nicobars)
 
[Site maintained by Patricia Donegan and David Stampe]





  • Lexicography:
    • Munda Lexical Archive, an ongoing copylefted archive of most of the lexical materials available from the non-Kherwarian Munda languages, assembled, analyzed, and arranged by Patricia J. Donegan & David Stampe. A detailed description with credits is forthcoming. For now see 00README. (A current snapshot of the whole is available for download as a zip archive: munda-archive.zip)
      • Sora (Saora, Savara), data of G. V. Ramamurti, Verrier Elwin, H. S. Biligiri, David Stampe, Stanley Starosta, Bijoy P. Mahapatra, Ranganayaki Mahapatra, Arlene R. K. Zide, Khageswar Mahapatra, Piers Vitebsky, Patricia J. Donegan, et al.
      • Gorum (Parengi), data of Arlene R. K. Zide et al.
      • Gutob (Gadaba), data of Norman H. Zide, Bimal Prasad Das, Patricia J. Donegan, et al.
      • Remo (Bonda), data of Verrier Elwin, Frank Fernandez, S. Bhattacharya, Patricia J. Donegan, et al.
      • Gta' (Didayi), data of Suhas Chatterji, P. N. Chakravarti, Norman H. Zide, Khageswar Mahapatra, Patricia J. Donegan, et al.
      • Kharia, data of H. Floor, H. Geysens, H. S. Biligiri, Heinz-Jürgen Pinnow, et al.
      • Juang, data of Verrier Elwin, Dan M. Matson, Bijoy P. Mahapatra, Heinz-Jürgen Pinnow, et al.
      • Korku, data of Norman H. Zide, Beryl A. Girard, Patricia J. Donegan, et al.
    • Santali, a growing selection of Paul Otto Bodding's 5-volume A Santal Dictionary (Oslo, Norske Videnskaps-Akademi, 1929-1936), input by Makoto Minegishi and associates, ILCAA, Tokyo, but so far of limited value since it is accessible only by searching for an exactly spelled Santali headword! .
  • Etymology:
    • Munda:
      • Comparative Munda (mostly North), rough draft ed. Stampe, based on Heinz-Jürgen Pinnow's Versuch einer historischen Lautlehre der Kharia-Sprache(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1959) and Ram Dayal Munda's Proto-Kherwarian Phonology, unpublished MA thesis, University of Chicago, 1968.
      • Working files of South Munda lexical data by gloss assembled from collections of David Stampe, Patricia Donegan, H.-J. Pinnow, Sudhibhushan Bhattacharya, and Norman and Arlene Zide for a seminar by Stampe on Austroasiatic languages.
    • Indian Substratum: South Asia Residual Vocabulary Assemblage (SARVA), a compilation of ancient Indian words lacking apparent Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, or Austroasiatic origins, in progress by Franklin Southworth and Michael Witzel, with David Stampe.
    • Dravidian: Thomas Burrow and Murray B. Emeneau's A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed. 1984. Accessible by search on headwords or strings, through the Digital Dictionaries of South Asia project, U. Chicago.
    • Indo-Aryan: Sir Ralph Turner's A Comparative Dictionary of Indo-Aryan Languages, London: Oxford University Press, 1962-66, with 3 supplements 1969-85. Accessible by search on headwords or strings, through the Digital Dictionaries of South Asia project, U. Chicago.
    • Sino-Tibetan: James A. Matisoff's STEDT (Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus) Project, at Berkeley. The first fruit of the project, Matisoff'sHandbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction (University of California Publications in Linguistics 135), 2003, can be downloaded from California's eScholarship Repository as a searchable pdf file. On the STEDT site is an index of reconstructions and a first set ofaddenda and corrigenda for HPTB. Electronic publication of STEDT is planned in 8 semantically arranged fascicles.
  • http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/


    https://kampotmuseum.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/austroasiatic-languages.jpg
    {{{mapalt}}}
    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Austroasiatic-en.svg/300px-Austroasiatic-en.svg.png

    [Source: Vikrant Kumar, et. al., “Asian and Non-Asian Origins of Mon-Khmer- and Mundari-Speaking Austro-Asiatic Populations of India,” American Journal of Human Biology 18 (2006): 467.]




    Paul Sidwell and Roger Blench propose that the Austroasiatic phylum had dispersed via the Mekong River drainage basin.















    [quote] Carlos Aramayo notes: [quote]Copper Hoard, Weapons of South Asia, Delhi, 2002 in which he
    establishes a time between 2800 and 1500 BC for copper hoards based on analysis of copper implemets in the National Museum, New Delhi: "Till today around 5031 copper hoard implements have been reported from 197 sites mostly from Gangetic plains among which 193are in National Museum collection. We have fixed date of copper hoards from circa 2800 to 1500 B.C. and these could be divided into two groups as follows (A) North Eastern Indian (B) Ganga-Yamuna doab and Western India. The technology of western group B is of a distinctive and advanced type and is influenced by the Harappans...The anthropomorphic figure of copper hoard is a cult object and a symbol of good omen. The lugged shouldered axes and weed chisels are a new type in copper hoard implements. The shouldered axes show their origin from South East Asia via North-East India and Middle Ganga plain. The copper hoard implements and OCP ceramic are present in stratified deposits of Ganeshwar, Jodhpura, Mithathal, Madarpur, Saipai and Khatoli...Copper hoard implements of westerngroup show genetic relationship with Harappans." (Deo Prakash Sharma 2002). [unquote]]


    The signature tune of the copperhoards is the variety of forms of anthropomosphs discovered.


    In my view, Paul Yule has conclusively established that the anthropomorph is a continuum from Sarasvati Civilization metalwork artifacts. I further suggest that this continuum extends to the use of Indus Script Cipher to document Meluhha rebus (rupaka, 'metaphor') messages related to metalwork catalogues.



    In 2003, Paul Yule wrote a remarkable article on metallic anthropomorphic figures derived from Magan/Makkan, i.e. from an Umm an-Nar period context in al-Aqir/Bahla' in the south-western piedmont of the western Hajjar chain. "These artefacts are compared with those from northern Indian in terms of their origin and/or dating. They are particularly interesting owing to a secure provenance in middle Oman...The anthropomorphic artefacts dealt with...are all the more interesting as documents of an ever-growing body of information on prehistoric international contact/influence bridging the void between south-eastern Arabia and South Asia...Gerd Weisgerber recounts that in winter of 1983/4...al-Aqir near Bahla' in the al-Zahirah Wilaya delivered prehistoric planoconvex 'bun' ingots and other metallic artefacts from the same find complex..." 
    In the following plate, Figs. 1 to 5 are anthropomorphs, with 'winged' attributes. The metal finds from the al-Aqir wall include ingots, figures, an axe blade, a hoe, and a cleaver (see fig. 1, 1-8), all in copper alloy.

    Title / Object:anthropomorphic sheorajpur
    Fund context:Saipai, Dist. Kanpur
    Time of admission:1981
    Pool:SAI South Asian Archaeology
    Image ID:213 101
    Copyright:Dr Paul Yule, Heidelberg
    Photo credit:Yule, Metalwork of the Bronze in India, Pl 23 348 (dwg)
    Saipal, Dist. Etawah, UP. Anthropomorph, type I. 24.1x27.04x0.76 cm., 1270 gm., both sides show a chevron patterning, left arm broken off (Pl. 22, 337). Purana Qila Coll. Delhi (74.12/4) -- Lal, BB, 1972, 285 fig. 2d pl. 43d
    http://katalog.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/cgi-bin/titel.cgi?katkey=900213101
    Fig. 1: Prehistoric metallic artefacts from the Sultanate of Oman: 1-8  al-Aqir/Bahla'; 9 Ra's al-Jins 2, building vii, room 2, period 3 (DA 11961) "The cleaver no. 8 is unparalleled in the prehistory of the entire Near East. Its form resembles an iron coco-nut knife from a reportedly subrecent context in Gudevella (near Kharligarh, Dist. Balangir, Orissa) which the author examined some years ago in India...The dating of the figures, which command our immediate attention, depends on two strands of thought. First, the Umm an-Nar Period/Culture dating mentioned above, en-compasses a time-space from 2500 to 1800 BC. In any case, the presence of “bun“ ingots among the finds by nomeans contradicts a dating for the anthropomorphic figures toward the end of the second millennium BC. Since these are a product of a simple form of copper production, they existed with the beginning of smelting in Oman. The earliest dated examples predate this, i.e. the Umm an-NarPeriod. Thereafter, copper continues to be produced intothe medieval period. Anthropomorphic figures from the Ganges-Yamuna Doab which resemble significantly the al-Aqir artefacts (fig. 2,10-15) form a second line of evidence for the dating. To date, some 21 anthropomorphs from northern India have been published." (p. 539; cf. Yule, 1985, 128: Yule et al. 1989 (1992) 274: Yule et al 2002. More are known to exist, particularly from a large hoard deriving from Madarpur.)





    Fig. 2: Anthropomorphic figures from the Indian Subcontinent. 10 type I, Saipai, Dist. Etawah, U.P.; 11 type I, Lothal, Dist. Ahmedabad,Guj.; 12 type I variant, Madarpur, Dist. Moradabad, U.P.; 13 type II, Sheorajpur, Dist. Kanpur, U.P.; 14 miscellaneous type, Fathgarh,Dist. Farrukhabad, U.P.; 15 miscellaneous type, Dist. Manbhum, Bihar..

    The anthropomorph from Lothal/Gujarat (fig. 2,11), from a layer which its excavator dates to the 19 th century BCE. Lothal, phase 4 of period A, type 1. Some anthropomorphs were found stratified together with Ochre-Coloured Pottery, dated to ca. 2nd millennium BCE. Anthropomorph of Ra's al-Jins (Fig. 1,9) clearly reinforces the fact that South Asians travelled to and stayed at the site of Ra's al-Jins. "The excavators date the context from which the Ra’s al-Jins copper artefact derived to their period III, i.e. 2300-2200 BCE (Cleuziou & Tosi 1997, 57), which falls within thesame time as at least some of the copper ingots which are represented at al-Aqir, and for example also in contextfrom al-Maysar site M01...the Franco-Italian teamhas emphasized the presence of a settled Harappan-Peri-od population and lively trade with South Asia at Ra's al-Jins in coastal Arabia. (Cleuziou, S. & Tosi, M., 1997, Evidence for the use of aromatics in the early Bronze Age of Oman, in: A. Avanzini, ed., Profumi d'Arabia, Rome 57-81)."
    "In the late third-early second millennium, given the presence of a textually documented 'Meluhha village' in Lagash (southern Mesopotamia), one cannot be too surprised that such colonies existed 'east of Eden' in south-eastern Arabia juxtaposed with South Asia. In any case, here we encounter yet again evidence for contact between the two regions -- a contact of greater intimacy and importance than for the other areas of the Gulf."(Paul Yule, 2003, Beyond the pale of near Eastern Archaeology: Anthropomorphic figures from al-Aqir near Bahla' In: Stöllner, T. (Hrsg.): Mensch und Bergbau Studies in Honour of Gerd Weisgerber on Occasion of his 65th Birthday. Bochum 2003, pp. 537-542).
    See: Weisgerber, G., 1988, Oman: A bronze-producing centre during the 1st half of the 1st millennium BCE, in: J. Curtis, ed., Bronze-working centres of western Asia, c. 1000-539 BCE, London, 285-295.









    From Lothal was reported a fragmentary Type 1 anthropomorph (13.0 pres. X 12.8 pres. X c. 0.08 cm, Cu 97.27%, Pb 2.51% (Rao), surface ptterning runs lengthwise, lower portion slightly thicker than the edge of the head, 'arms' and 'legs' broken off (Pl. 1, 22)-- ASI Ahmedabad (10918 -- Rao, SR, 1958, 13 pl. 21A)

    The extraordinary presence of a Lothal anthropomorph of the type found on the banks of River Ganga in Sheorajpur (Uttar Pradesh) makes it apposite to discuss the anthropomorph as a Meluhha hieroglyph, since Lothal is reportedly a mature site of the civilization which has produced nearly 7000 inscriptions (what may be called Meluhha almost all 


    "Anthropomorphs occur in a variety of shapes and sizes (Plate A). The two basic types dominate, as defined by the proportions in combination with certain morphological features. All show processes suggestive of a human head, arms and legs. With one exception (no. 539) all are highly geometricising and flat. Fashioned from thick metal sheeting, these artifacts have stocky proportions and are patterned on both sides with elongated gouches or dents which usually are lengthwise oriented. Sometimes, however, the patterning is chevroned or cross-hatched. Significantly, the upper edge of the 'head' shows no thickening, as is the case of type H anthropomorphs. Examples have come to light at mid doab and a broken anthropomorph from distant Lothal as well. The only stratified example derives from Lothal, level IV. height range. 23.2-24.1cm; L/W: 0.65 - 0.88: 1; weight mean: 1260 gm." (Yule, Paul, pp.51-52).
    "Conclusions..."To the west at Harappa Lothal in Gujarat the presence of a fragmentary import type I anthropomorph suggests contact with the doab." "(p.92)


    From Lothal was reported a fragmentary Type 1 anthropomorph (13.0 pres. X 12.8 pres. X c. 0.08 cm, Cu 97.27%, Pb 2.51% (Rao), surface ptterning runs lengthwise, lower portion slightly thicker than the edge of the head, 'arms' and 'legs' broken off (Pl. 1, 22)-- ASI Ahmedabad (10918 -- Rao, SR, 1958, 13 pl. 21A)

    The extraordinary presence of a Lothal anthropomorph of the type found on the banks of River Ganga in Sheorajpur (Uttar Pradesh) makes it apposite to discuss the anthropomorph as a Meluhha hieroglyph, since Lothal is reportedly a mature site of the civilization which has produced nearly 7000 inscriptions (what may be called Meluhha epigraphs, almost all of which are relatable to the bronze age metalwork of India).


     

    See: 

    All four types of anthropomorphs of Copper Hoard Culture are dharma saṁjñā 'metalwork signifiers of responsibilities in guild or professional calling cards' http://tinyurl.com/jfhcb63 

    Fish sign incised on  copper anthropomorph, Sheorajpur, upper Ganges valley,   ca. 2nd millennium BCE,   4 kg; 47.7 X 39 X 2.1 cm. State Museum,   Lucknow (O.37) Typical find of Gangetic Copper Hoards. Sheorajpur anthropomorph with 'fish' hieroglyph and 'markhor' horns hieroglyph. ayo'fish' Rebus: ayo 'iron, metal' (Gujarati)  khambhaā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage'..

    mi
    ṇḍāl markhor (Tor.wali) meho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: me 'iron' (Ho.) med 'body' rebus: med 'iron' (Ho.)med 'copper' (Slavic) karNaka 'spread legs' rebus:karNI 'supercargo'. sangaDa 'joined parts of animals' rebus: sAngaDa 'double-canoe'.

    Anthropomorphic figure of Type II from Sheorajpur (Inv. No. O 37a, State Museum of Lucknow). The remarkable feature of this type is that a 'fish' hieroglyph of Indus Script is incised on the chest of the anthropomorph which stands with spread legs. ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal' PLUS karNaka 'spread legs' (Atharvaveda) rebus: karNI 'supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.) The shape of all three types is patterned like the horns of a ram: miṇḍāl ‘markhor’ (Tōrwālī) Rebus: mẽht, me ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic)  

    miṇḍāl ‘markhor’ (Tōrwālī) meho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: mẽht, me ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) Meluhha glosses are annexed which indicate association with cire perdue (or lost wax) method of casting metals using beeswax, particularly in the glosses for miedź, med'  'copper' in Northern Slavic and Altaic languages. 



     


    Copper Hoard. Anthropomorphs from Madarpur















    With curved horns, the ’anthropomorph’ is a ligature of a mountain goat or markhor (makara) and a fish incised between the horns. Typical find of Gangetic Copper Hoards.  At Sheorajpur, three anthropomorphs in metal were found. (Sheorajpur, Dt. Kanpur. Three anthropomorphic figures of copper. AI, 7, 1951, pp. 20, 29).
    One anthropomorph had fish hieroglyph incised on the chest of  the copper object, Sheorajpur, upper Ganges valley,   ca. 2nd millennium BCE,   4 kg; 47.7 X 39 X 2.1 cm. State Museum,   Lucknow (O.37) Typical find of Gangetic Copper Hoards. miṇḍāl markhor (Tor.wali) meḍho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Gujarati) meḍ iron (Ho.) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda) ayo ‘fish’ Rebus: ayo, ayas ‘metal. Thus, together read rebus: ayo meḍh ‘iron stone ore, metal merchant.’ 
    A remarkable legacy of the civilization occurs in the use of ‘fish‘ sign on a copper anthropomorph found in a copper hoard. This is an apparent link of the ‘fish’ broadly with the profession of ‘metal-work’. The ‘fish’ sign is apparently related to the copper object which seems to depict a ‘fighting ram’ symbolized by its in-curving horns. The ‘fish’ sign may relate to a copper furnace. The underlying imagery defined by the style of the copper casting is the pair of curving horns of a fighting ram ligatured into the outspread legs (of a warrior). 
    The Sheorajpur anthropomorph (348 on Plate A) has a 'fish' Indus Script hieroglyph incised on the chest.



    Type 1 Anthropomorph: metalworker (mintworker), merchant


    On one type of anthropomorph, an additional hieroglyph is incised. That of 'fish with fins'. 


    The reading of hieroglyphs in Indus Script cipher: khambhaṛā'fish-fin rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. ayo 'fish' rebus: aya'iron'ayas'metal' PLUS miṇḍāl markhor (Tor.wali) meḍho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: meḍh‘helper of merchant’ (Gujarati) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med'copper' (Slavic) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda) Thus, together read rebus: ayo meḍh kammaṭa  ‘iron stone ore, metal merchant, iron mint.’ Hieroglyph: Spread legs: कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 'spread legs'; (semantic determinant) Rebus: karṇaka'helmsman', karṇī 'scribe, account''supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.'. Thus, the hieroglyphs on the anthropomorph Type 1 signify a helmsman, engraver who works with alloys of metals to produce supercargo of mined products.


    Type 2 Anthropomorph: miner (worker in wood and iron), merchant

    On the second type of anthropomorph, a Varāha head is ligatured to the top of the anthropomorph and an additional hieroglyph is incised on the chest: That of a 'one-horned young bull' which accounts for nearly 80% of pictorial motifs on Indus Script seals. miṇḍāl markhor (Tor.wali) meḍho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Gujarati) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic) meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Munda) 


    Type 3 Anthropomorph: Type 2 + Hieorglyph of one-horned bull inscribed on chest


    khoṇḍ, kõda 'young bull-calf' Rebus: kō̃da -कोँद 'kiln, furnace'; kũdār ‘turner’. कोंद kōnda ‘engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems’ (Marathi) Hieorglyph: boar: baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: baḍhi ‘a caste who work both in iron and wood’; baḍhoe‘a carpenter, worker in wood’; badhoria‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) 'Rebus: bari'merchant'.barea 'merchant' (Santali)বরাহ barāha'boar'Rebus: bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea 'merchant' (Santali) Varāha is explained by वाचस्पत्यम् Vācaspatyam: वराय अभीष्ठाय मुस्तादिलाभाय आहन्ति खनति भूमिम्  To represent a boon, (to obtain) wished, desired products (including species of grass) mined from the earth, by striking, hitting. Hieroglyph: Spread legs: कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 'spread legs'; (semantic determinant) Rebus: karNa 'helmsman', karNI 'scribe, account''supercargo'. Thus, the hieroglyphs on the anthropomorph Type 2 signify a helmsman, engraver who works with metals and mines to produce supercargo of mined products. (Note: I had suggested that the head ligature on the anthropomorph signifies a crocodile, but Dr. Sanjay Manjul's suggestion that it signifies head of a boar is consistent with the Vedic metaphor and tradition of Varāha. 


    Type 4 Anthropomorph: Type 1 PLUS wings
    Hieroglyhph: eraka 'wing' Rebus: eraka, arka 'copper'. 



    Harpoons from many sites in India
    Antenna swords from many locations in India

    Antenna sword, Mehsana, Gujarat




     Copper Hoard swords have very well developed antennae, cast in one piece with the blade. The barbed harpoon is a characteristic weapon.


    https://www.scribd.com/document/384406467/The-copper-hoards-problem-the-technological-angle-DP-Agrawal-1969

    Mirror: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42929067

    5th Quang Nam Heritage Festival which opened on June 21, 2013 in Hoi An City. The exhibition highlights many ancient objects dated from the Dong Son – Sa Huynh – Oc Eo eras of Vietnam’s ancient history.

    Vishnu
    Copper form of Vishnu from Oc Eo culture, ca. 4000-3500 BP 
    Vietnam
    Dong Son copper drum, dated back some 2,000 years.
    Vietnam
    Copper utensils from Dong Son culture, dated back some 2,500-2,000 years.
    Vietnam
    Copper and iron ploughshare from Dong Son culture, dated back some 2,000 years.
    Vietnam
    Copper axes from Dong Son culture, dated back some 2,700-2,500 years. 
    Vishnu


    Vishnu stone head from Oc Eo culture, dated back 4,000-3,500 years.                              https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/amrithavahini/H68yz1a7n4k

    Translation of Sign 190 (four twigs on watery-field) on six inscriptions as Indus Script Hypertexts kaṇḍa, 'fire altar' kuṭhi 'smelter'

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    The locus of the Sarasvati Civilization sites on the Sarasvati River Basin extending into the Ganga-Yamuna doab (typical site: Alamgirpur) are presented in the following maps. The monograph discusses a unique hypertext of Sign 190 found on six inscriptions of the Sarasvati Civilization:


    Sign 190 is read as four 'twigs' in a watery-field: kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali) PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' khaṇḍa 'implements, metalware'. Thus, the hypertext signifies smelter implements.  
    Variants of Sign 190 (as reported by Wim Borsboom) and by Mahadevan
    Variants of Sign 169

    Even though the Sign 169 may be a variant of Sign 162, alternative reading is suggested because this hieroglyph is quadrupled in a unique hypertext discussed in this monograph.
    Sign 162 is translated as kolmo 'rice-plant' rupaka 'metapor' of rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'.
    Sign 169 is translated as kūdī rupaka 'metapor' of rebus: kuhi, 'smelter'.

    Thus, a clear distinction may be drawn that Sign 162 signifies metal used in smithy/forge while Sign 169 signifies metal produced out of a smelter.

    If interpretedd as a sprout, the reading is: sprouts (in watery field), twigs: kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali). 
    कूदी [p= 300,1] f. a bunch of twigs , bunch (v.l. कूट्/ई) AV. v , 19 , 12 
    कौशिक-सूत्र, according to Sāyaṇa. = बदरी, "Christ's thorn")(Monier-Williams)

    Sign 169 may be a variant of Sign 162. Sign 162 is kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'.  Both signs are circumscripted by an oval or lozenge-shaped glyph, Signs 387 and 389: the hypertexts are read: Sign 387 kolimi mũhã̄ 'smithy/forge ingot'. Sign 389 kuhi mũhã̄ , 'smelter ingot'
    Lothal 97 seal Text kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali) PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'. 
     
    The circumscript  has the shape of oval or lozenge is the shape of a bun ingot.
    mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced atone time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed likea four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes andformed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt komūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali). Thus, Sign 373 signifies word, mũhã̄ 'bun ingot'. 

    h-48A kolom'three' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge' PLUS kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali) PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' khaṇḍa 'implements, metalware'. Thus, the hypertext signifies smelter implements.  Field symbol: कोंद kōnda 'young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner, smelter.' कोंद kōnda 'kiln, furnace' PLUS sangaa 'lathe, portable brazier' PLUS  [ kammaṭamu ] Same as కమటము 'portable furnace' rebus: sangarh'fortification', sangar 'trade', kammaa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. 
    Shortugai, Bactria (Jarrige 1984) h-48A kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali) PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' khaṇḍa 'implements, metalware'. Thus, the hypertext signifies smelter implements.  Field symbol:gaṇḍa'rhinoceros'; rebus:khaṇḍa'tools, pots and pans .
    m-2047 AB kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali) PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' khaṇḍa 'implements, metalware'. Thus, the hypertext signifies smelter implements. Field symbol: kola 'tiger' rebus: kol'working in iron'kolhe'smelter'.

    n-1498AB (Copper tablet) m-543A (Copper tablet)Field symbol: pāṭroṛo, pattar'feeding trough' rebus paṭṭī'inventory' పట్ర paṭra, patta 'village, hamlet, maritime town' pāṭan; pattar 'goldsmith guild' PLUS कोंद kōnda 'young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner, smelter.' कोंद kōnda 'kiln, furnace' PLUS Tor. miṇḍ 'ram', miṇḍā́l 'markhor' (CDIAL 10310) Rebus: meḍ (Ho.); mẽṛhet 'iron' (Munda.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages)
     kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali) PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' khaṇḍa 'implements, metalware'. Thus, the hypertext signifies smelter implements. PLUS baraḍo 'spinebackbone' rebus: baran, bharat 'mixed alloys' (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi).PLUS  khār  खार 'backbonespine' rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) PLUS bhaa'warrior' rebus: bhaa 'furnace'. कर्णक kárṇaka, 'rim of jar',  karaṇī'scribe, supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.', kañi-āra'helmsman'.PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble.rebus:  गोटी [gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'.
    m-546A (Copper tablet) kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS kūdī 'bunch of twigs' (Sanskrit) rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter furnace' (Santali) PLUS gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' khaṇḍa 'implements, metalware'. Thus, the hypertext signifies smelter implements. PLUS baraḍo 'spinebackbone' rebus: baran, bharat 'mixed alloys' (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi).PLUS  khār  खार 'backbonespine' rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) This could be a semantic re-inforcement, determinative of with bharat khār blacksmithy work (on) mixed alloys.

    Referenced without comment, leaving the reader to judge the validity of the divergent translation/decipherment claims. See variant readings by Wim J Borsboom:
    https://www.academia.edu/7751469/Decipherment_Interpretation_and_Translation_of_Indus_Script_Sign_430_Sinha  "Decipherment, Interpretation and Translation of Indus Script Sign 430 (Sinha) "The Indus Script sign  430 (Sinha), consisting of four vertical uprights that look like sticks/twigs/branches and a number of cross-wise horizontals that look like woven-like twigs, had been identified by S. M. Sullivan in her “Indus Script Dictionary” (2011) as the phoneme ‘gat’, which together with ‘ja’ forms the Sanskrit word ‘jagat’ - ‘world’, ‘people’. Instead, I propose that it stands for the Sanskrit phoneme ‘gar’, as in ‘-nagar’, ‘garta’ - area, place (SP) and ‘gada’ - ‘fence’, ‘screen’, ‘enclosure’, (phonologically, the ‘d’ and ‘r’ are interchangeable). The grapheme resembles the way ‘wattle & daub’ walls and fences were constructed out of woven twigs." - Wim J Borsboom

    Failaka, Persian Gulf, Indus Script Hypertext seal impressions on storage jars from 'Temple Tower' signify armour, metal equipment, weapons

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    Map of Meluhha and Southwest Asia (inset Bahrain) (After Fig. 1 Eric Olijan, 2008, A possible Central Asian origin for the seal-impressed jar from the Temple Tower' at Failaka), in:Eric Olijad & RH Spoor, eds, Intercultural relations between South and Southwest Asia, Studiesin Commemoration of ECL During Caspers (1934-1996),BAR Intrnational Series 1826 (2008): 268-287). "It is only in the last decade that Central Asian elements have been correctly identified in the archaeological record of the Arabian Gulf. Up until her untimely death, E.C.L. During Caspers had been one of the leading experts in this field. I am therefore pleased to dedicate my contribution to one of Inez’ last passions, viz. the intercultural/mercantile connections between the Arabian Gulf and the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) —or the Murghabo-Bactrian Archaeological Complex as she used to call it."

    A massive building called the 'Temple Tower' in Failaka City, was excavated dated to ca. 1900 BCE. A seal impression was found impressed on a large jar, just underneath the shoulder. In two scenes, the narrative of the impression shows a bird of prey (eagle) devouring a slaim bovine. Eagle's talons are clearly shown and wings are extended. The filling motifs include a coiled snake and a rosette next to a crescent moon.

    I suggest that these are Indus Script Hypertexts, as this monograph demonstrates.
    Drawing of a Cylinder seal-impressed jar from the 'Temple Tower', Failaka (F88.2270, Kuwait National Museum no. 5827; drawing after Calvet, Y. & M. Pic,  1996, Un nouveau batiment de 'l'Age du Bronze sur le Tell F6, in Y. Calvet & JF Salle, eds., Failaka, Fouilles Francaise 1984-1985 (TMO 12), Lyon,: Fig. 3)

    In Gonur I South excavations, a complette storage jar, linked to a temple complex, was unearthed. The seal impression shows a standing winged birdman holding a dead caprid in each of its hands. In the field above the caprid, a heraldic eagle is shown.

     करडेल karaḍēla n (करडई & तेल) Oil of Carthamus or safflower.Rebus: kara'hard alloy' 

     مر ḳamar A قمر ḳamar, s.m. (9th) 'The moon'. Rebus: kamar 'blacksmith'.

    Hieroglyph: śyena 'falcon' Rebus: aśáni 'thunderbolt' rebusآهن ګر āhan gar, 'blacksmith'

    Hieroglyph:  dām m. ʻ young ungelt ox ʼ: damya ʻ tameable ʼ, m. ʻ young bullock to be tamed ʼ Mn. [~ *dāmiya -- . -- √dam]Pa. damma -- ʻ to be tamed (esp. of a young bullock) ʼ; Pk. damma -- ʻ to be tamed ʼ; S. ḍ̠amu ʻ tamed ʼ; -- ext. -- ḍa -- : A. damrā ʻ young bull ʼ, dāmuri ʻ calf ʼ; B.dāmṛā ʻ castrated bullock ʼ; Or. dāmaṛī ʻ heifer ʼ, dāmaṛiā ʻ bullcalf, young castrated bullock ʼ, dāmuṛ°ṛi ʻ young bullock ʼ.Addenda: damya -- : WPah.kṭg. dām m. ʻ young ungelt ox ʼ.(CDIAL 6184). This is a phonetic determinative of the 'twisted rope' hieroglyph: dhāī˜ f.dāˊman1 ʻ rope ʼ (Rigveda) Hence, signifies: dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a  class of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron smelting' 
    Cylinder seal-impressed jar from Gonur I South, Turkmenistan, A. Design of the cylinder seal (after Sarianidi. V.,1993, Excavations at Southern Gonur, Iran XXXI:25-37, Pl. IV-X, Fig.9)

    Hieroglyph: śyena 'falcon' Rebus: aśáni 'thunderbolt' rebusآهن ګر āhan gar, 'blacksmith'

    'markhor' Wkh. merg f. 'ibex' (CDIAL 9885) Tor. miṇḍ 'ram', miṇḍā́l'markhor' (CDIAL 10310) Rebus: meḍ (Ho.); mẽṛhet 'iron' (Munda.Ho.).

    A second speciment was found on the surface of Taip depe 'at the southeastern edge of the settlement'...This very large segment, consisting of two matching fragments, shows the imprint of two different cylinder seals and possibly that of a stamp seal. (After Masimov, IS, 1981, New finds of the Bronze Age seals from the Lower Murghab (in Russian), Sovjetskaya Arkheologiya 1981: 132-150, Figs. 10-12).
     
    Drawings of First cylinder-seal impressed jar from Taip 1, Turkmenistan (After Collon, D., 1987, First Impressions, Cylinder seals in the Ancient Near East, London, nos. 600, 599).
    Predatory bird attacking an animal is also shown on a cylinderal seal of BMAC.

    पोळा [ pōḷā ] zebu, bos indicus, rebus: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, Fe3O4'
    pōlaḍu, 'black drongo' rebus pōlaḍ'steel' 

    Hieroglyph: śyena 'falcon' Rebus: aśáni 'thunderbolt' rebusآهن ګر āhan gar, 'blacksmith'

    kõdā 'young bull' rebus: kõdā 'to turn in a lathe'(B.) कोंद kōnda 'engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems' (Marathi)  kō̃da कोँद 'furnace, kiln'

    मेढा [mēḍhā] 'twist, curl'. rebus: meD,med'iron, copper,metal' medha 'yajna', dhanam.) meḍhi 'plait' (twisted rope) rebus: meḍ'iron'


    BMAC - Indus hybrid cylinder seal with predatory bird attacking a rhinoceros (Collon, 1987, opcit., no. 614). This seal is part of the De Clerq collection and attributed to the Indus Civilisation (Corbiau, S., 1936, An Indo-Sumerian Cylinder, Iraq III: 100-103, p.,101).

    bhaṭa 'warrior' Rebus: bhaṭa'furnace

    Hieroglyph:śyena'falcon' Rebus: aśáni 'thunderbolt' rebusآهن ګر āhan gar, 'blacksmith'

    gaṇḍa'rhinoceros'; rebus:khaṇḍa'tools, pots and pans and metal-ware'.

    goṭā 'round pebble' Rebus gō̃ṭu an ornamental appendage to the border of a cloth, fringe' गोटी gōṭī f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone. Used in trials of strength among the Athletæ. 4 A stone in temples described at length under उचला 5 fig. A term for a round, fleshy, well-filled body. 6 A lump of silver: as obtained by melting down lace or fringe. goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore' khoṭa 'ingot, wedge'. गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'. 

    kolmo'rice-plant' rebus; kolimi 'smithy, forge'

    kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe'smelter' PLUS dula'two' rebus: dul'metal casting'

    Hieroglyph: leaping tigers: Kui pānja (pānji-) to fly, leap; n. act of flying, flight; (DEDR 4087), dspanja 'claw of beast, feline paw' rebus: panja 'kiln' (Semantic determinative).


    Compartmented seal with two coiled snakes attacking crescent moons (Baghestani, 1997, opcit., no. 456).A copper/bronze compartmented seal consists of a mirror image of a coiled snake with a crescent moon (Baghestani, S.,1997, Metallene Comparimentsiegel aus Os-Iran, Zentralasien und Nord-China, Archologie in Iran and Turan, Bd. 1, Rahden,: no.456). The heads of both animals are towards a crescent moon.
    phaḍa 'throne, hood of cobra' rebus: फड, phaḍa'metalwork artisan guild'
    dula'two' rebus: dul'metal casting'. Thus, metalcaster guild'
     مر ḳamar A قمر ḳamar, s.m. (9th) 'The moon'. Rebus: kamar'blacksmith'.
    Dilmun seal from Afghanistan (Sarianidi 1986, Die Kunst des alten Afghanistan, Leipzig: drawing on p. 231)."Two seals found in Afghanistan...may be indicative of direct contact with Babylonia and Dilmun during the latter stages of the BMAC. The first is a cylinder seal found in the hills near Herat...Even more spectacular is the Dilmun stamp seal published in drawing by Sarianidi...The design seems to consist of two rampant bulls with merging bodies, rendered back-toback. In the field between the bulls a stylised plant (?) can be discerned, the bottom right appears to have a crescent moon...The design is very similar to that of a Dilmun seal found at the Harappan port site of Dwarka (Crawford, HEW, 1998, Dilmun and its Gulf neighbours, Cambridge, Fig. 5.7)...the decoration on a copper/bronze cosmetic vial is particularly interesting. Its design shows several animals engaged in human activities. The central scene consists of a monkey standing before a seated ibex, holding in its hand a vessel commonly found in BMAC ceramic assemblages. A low table is situated between the two animals and on it lays a flat object. It seems likely that the design depicts a ritual in which the monkey is offering food and drink to the ibex." (Eric Olidjam, opcit, pp.281 to 283).

    kolmo'rice plant' rebus; kolimi 'smithy, forge'

    dula 'two' rebus; dul 'metal casting'

    barad, barat 'ox' rebus: bharat, baran'mixed alloys' (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin)

    Obverse of seal

    kolom'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'
    Hieroglyph: Dotted circle: dāya 'throw of one in dice' rebus: dhāi, dhātu'mineral ore'.
    High-relief decoration on the body of a BMAC copper/bronze cosmetic vial (Aftter Sarianidi, V., 1994, Aegean-Anatolian Motifs in the Glyptic Art of Bactria and Margiana, Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8: 27-36, Fig. 7)

    All the seals, seal impressions and artifacts with images discussed by Eric Olidjam are explained as Indus Script Hypertexts which signify wealth-accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues.

    kuṭhāru 'a monkey(Sanskrit) Rebus: kuṭhāru'armourer or weapons'

    OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ, P. kuṭhālī f., H. kuṭhārī f.; -- Md. koṭari ʻ room ʼ A semantic determinative for kuṭhāru 'armourer or weapons'. 

    Dm. mraṅ m. ‘markhor’ Wkh. merg f. ‘ibex’ (CDIAL 9885) Tor. miṇḍ ‘ram’, miṇḍā́l ‘markhor’ 
    (CDIAL 10310) Rebus: meḍ(Ho.); mẽṛhet ‘iron’ (Munda.Ho.)

    tagaraka'tabernae montana' rebus: tagara'tin'.

    DEDR 1179 Kur. kaṇḍō a stool. Malt. kanḍo stool, seat. గడమంచె gaḍa-manche. n. A wooden frame like a bench to keep things on. గంపలు మొదలగువాటిని ఉంచు మంచె. Rebus:  khaṇḍa 'equipment'.


    Prehistoric people started to spread, on open canoes, domesticated bananas across the world 6,000 years ago

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    Posted onCategoriesPeripheral Southeast AsiaSoutheast AsiaImage result for bananas papua new guineaTags
     via The Conversation, 13 July 2018: The earliest known domesticated bananas appear in Papua New Guinea 6,800 years ago. They appear again in Sri Lanka 6,000 years ago. The speed in which they spread suggests the presence of a far-reaching communication network. More impressive, domesticated bananas are sterile, and so propagation of bananas would necessitate the transportation of cuttings or whole plants!
    Plant dispersal around the world.
    Appearance of bananas in Sri Lanka 6,000 years ago points to prehistoric food globalisation.
    Author: Noel Tan Dr Noel Hidalgo Tan is the Senior Specialist in Archaeology at SEAMEO-SPAFA, the Southeast Asian Regional Centre for Archaelogy and Fine Arts. https://tinyurl.com/y83zg6vy

    In a globalised world, we routinely move enormous quantities of food around the planet in trade and for aid. Many countries, including the UK, would struggle to feed their populations without food imports. Most people are used to being able to buy a wide range of produce which domestic farmers would struggle – or find impossible – to grow. A typical example is the banana, once a prized exotic novelty, but now a staple in many country’s supermarkets.
    Bananas are one of the most widely grown, traded and eaten of all the crops – an essential and much-loved part of the diet for many people around the world. Modern bananas are sterile, containing only tiny residual seeds, so new banana plants are propagated from cuttings. The sterile domesticated banana is the result of ancient cross-breeding between wild species. In contrast, wild bananas are packed full of bullet-like seeds and contain very little edible fruit.

    Wild bananas. Swapan Photography/Shutterstock.com

    Wild bananas can be found in the wet hot forests of New Guinea and South and Southeast Asia, but for many years the origin of domesticated bananas was a complete mystery. Finding ancient evidence for soft, sappy plants like bananas is extremely difficult at the best of times. The problem is worse in the tropical forests, because of the rapid decay of organic matter in the heat and humidity.

    Microscopic evidence


    Palm phytolith. Author

    The answer was to use phytoliths, a technique first experimentally used in the late 1950s and adopted by archaeologists in the 1970s. These are tiny, complex-shaped particles of silica laid down in plant cells. Silica is an extremely durable mineral, and silica phytoliths have been shown to survive for millions of years in suitable circumstances. Phytoliths have provided an exciting tool for archaeologists and palaeobotanists exploring the origin and history of tropical plants. Some phytoliths of domesticated bananas are distinctive, and therefore give us a tool to chart their appearance in ancient sediments.
    We have known for some time that phytoliths of cultivated bananas appear at Kuk Swamp in Papua New Guinea around 6,800 years ago. But how they spread into the wider world has not been clear, and has led to much debate. Later finds include those from Munsa, Uganda 5,250 years ago, and Kot Diji in Pakistan, 4,250 years ago. But the status of these finds as domesticated bananas has been disputed.

    Wild breadfruit phytolith. Author provided

    We have been investigating ancient tropical forest use in Sri Lanka and Borneo for the best part of 20 years. Now, in Fahien Cave in Sri Lanka, in deposits about 6,000 years old, we have discovered phytoliths identical with those from cultivated bananas.
    The first people for whom we have evidence arrived at Fahien Cave perhaps as early as 46,000 years ago and used it for shelter regularly but intermittently thereafter.
    Phytolith evidence tells us that from the beginning they were eating and using a variety of wild plants, including breadfruit, durians, canarium nuts, species of palm and bamboo – and wild bananas. Even today, the leaves, flowers, fruits, stems and rhizomes of the two wild banana species on Sri Lanka are still used. Ethnographic observations suggest uses as diverse as plates, food wrapping, medicines, stimulants, textiles, clothing, packaging, paper-making, crafts, ornaments and also in ceremonial, magic and ritual activities.
    But after the earliest appearance of the phytoliths of domesticated bananas, about 6,000 years ago, we found that phytoliths of wild bananas declined sharply.

    Domesticated banana leaf phytolith chain. Author image

    How did bananas reach Sri Lanka?

    Less than 1,000 years separates the first certain appearance of phytoliths of cultivated bananas at Kuk Swamp, the earliest example of domesticated bananas anyone has discovered, and the first appearance of phytoliths of domesticated plants in Sri Lanka. Only dispersal by sea, carried perhaps by migrating people, is likely to have been rapid enough to bring domesticated bananas to Sri Lanka an estimated 800 years after their first certain appearance in Papua New Guinea. It is possible that they were then spread into South Asia and Africa from Sri Lanka, or that bananas reached them directly, during the same migration.
    Ancient DNA studies suggest that movement of populations and interconnection between distant peoples in the ancient world was remarkably common. These early travellers seem, on several occasions, to have carried food plants with them, especially starchy staple crops. For instance, in an earlier paper, we suggested the carriage of swamp sago from New Guinea to Borneo about 10,000 years ago. This would have required a sea voyage of more than 2,000km, but the durable seeds of this important food plant could have been carried easily.
    However, because domesticated bananas are sterile, reproduction has to be vegetative, so cuttings or whole plants must have been carried. The transport of banana plants or cuttings between Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka would have been fraught with difficulty, as it most likely happened in open canoes – an amazing feat, even if the journey took many voyages over many years.

    These heroic journeys also occurred on land. For instance Martin Jones’ FOGLIP Project has charted the spread of millets, wheat and barley across Asia from the sixth millennium BC. The ancient dispersal of manioc from central South America to Mexico and of maize in the opposite direction has also been suggested.

    What does all this indicate? Global connections and exchange may be perceived as part of the modern world – but it is becoming increasingly apparent that these tendencies are deeply rooted in our prehistory.

    Rice farming in India much older than thought, used as 'summer crop' by Indus civilisation

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    Rice farming in India much older than thought, used as 'summer crop' by Indus civilisation


    Zebu cattle pulling a wagon beside a pond at the Indus Civilisation site of Rakhigarhi in northwest India
    Credit: Cameron Petrie
    21 Nov 2016

    Thought to have arrived from China in 2000 BC, latest research shows domesticated rice agriculture in India and Pakistan existed centuries earlier, and suggests systems of seasonal crop variation that would have provided a rich and diverse diet for the Bronze Age residents of the Indus valley.

    Our findings appear to show there was already a long-held and sustainable culture of rice production in India as a widespread summer addition to the winter cropping during the Indus civilisation
    Jennifer Bates
    Latest research on archaeological sites of the ancient Indus Civilisation, which stretched across what is now Pakistan and northwest India during the Bronze Age, has revealed that domesticated rice farming in South Asia began far earlier than previously believed, and may have developed in tandem with - rather than as a result of - rice domestication in China.
    The research also confirms that Indus populations were the earliest people to use complex multi-cropping strategies across both seasons, growing foods during summer (rice, millets and beans) and winter (wheat, barley and pulses), which required different watering regimes. The findings suggest a network of regional farmers supplied assorted produce to the markets of the civilisation's ancient cities.
    Evidence for very early rice use has been known from the site of Lahuradewa in the central Ganges basin, but it has long been thought that domesticated rice agriculture didn't reach South Asia until towards the end of the Indus era, when the wetland rice arrived from China around 2000 BC. Researchers found evidence of domesticated rice in South Asia as much as 430 years earlier.
    The new research is published today in the journals Antiquity and Journal of Archaeological Science by researchers from the University of Cambridge's Division of Archaeology, in collaboration with colleagues at Banaras Hindu University and the University of Oxford.
    "We found evidence for an entirely separate domestication process in ancient South Asia, likely based around the wild species Oryza nivara. This led to the local development of a mix of 'wetland' and 'dryland' agriculture of local Oryza sativaindica rice agriculture before the truly 'wetland' Chinese rice, Oryza sativa japonica, arrived around 2000 BC," says study co-author Dr Jennifer Bates
    "While wetland rice is more productive, and took over to a large extent when introduced from China, our findings appear to show there was already a long-held and sustainable culture of rice production in India as a widespread summer addition to the winter cropping during the Indus civilisation."
    Co-author Dr Cameron Petrie says that the location of the Indus in a part of the world that received both summer and winter rains may have encouraged the development of seasonal crop rotation before other major civilisations of the time, such as Ancient Egypt and China's Shang Dynasty.
    "Most contemporary civilisations initially utilised either winter crops, such as the Mesopotamian reliance on wheat and barley, or the summer crops of rice and millet in China - producing surplus with the aim of stockpiling," says Petrie.
    "However, the area inhabited by the Indus is at a meteorological crossroads, and we found evidence of year-long farming that predates its appearance in the other ancient river valley civilisations."
    The archaeologists sifted for traces of ancient grains in the remains of several Indus villages within a few kilometers of the site called Rakhigari: the most recently excavated of the Indus cities that may have maintained a population of some 40,000.
    As well as the winter staples of wheat and barley and winter pulses like peas and vetches, they found evidence of summer crops: including domesticated rice, but also millet and the tropical beans urad and horsegram, and used radiocarbon dating to provide the first absolute dates for Indus multi-cropping: 2890-2630 BC for millets and winter pulses, 2580-2460 BC for horsegram, and 2430-2140 BC for rice.
    Millets are a group of small grain, now most commonly used in birdseed, which Petrie describes as "often being used as something to eat when there isn't much else". Urad beans, however, are a relative of the mung bean, often used in popular types of Indian dhal today.
    In contrast with evidence from elsewhere in the region, the village sites around Rakhigari reveal that summer crops appear to have been much more popular than the wheats of winter.
    The researchers say this may have been down to the environmental variation in this part of the former civilisation: on the seasonally flooded Ghaggar-Hakra plains where different rainfall patterns and vegetation would have lent themselves to crop diversification - potentially creating local food cultures within individual areas.
    This variety of crops may have been transported to the cities. Urban hubs may have served as melting pots for produce from regional growers, as well as meats and spices, and evidence for spices have been found elsewhere in the region.
    While they don't yet know what crops were being consumed at Rakhigarhi, Jennifer Bates points out that: "It is certainly possible that a sustainable food economy across the Indus zone was achieved through growing a diverse range of crops, with choice being influenced by local conditions.
    "It is also possible that there was trade and exchange in staple crops between populations living in different regions, though this is an idea that remains to be tested."
    "Such a diverse system was probably well suited to mitigating risk from shifts in climate," adds Cameron Petrie. "It may be that some of today's farming monocultures could learn from the local crop diversity of the Indus people 4,000 years ago."
    The findings are the latest from the Land, Water and Settlement Project, which has been conducting research on the ancient Indus Civilisation in northwest India since 2008.
    http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/rice-farming-in-india-much-older-than-thought-used-as-summer-crop-by-indus-civilisation

    Journal of Archaeological Science 78 (2017) 193e201 Approaching rice domestication in South Asia: New evidence from Indus settlements in northern India J. Bates a, * , C.A. Petrie a , R.N. Singh b

    https://www.scribd.com/document/384537213/Approaching-rice-domestication-in-South-Asia-New-evidence-from-Indus-settlements-in-northern-India-2017-Bates-et-al

    https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440316300322

    Itihāsa, AncientVoice: A Digital Portal to Veda-Itihāsa-Purānas -- Jijith Nadumuri Ravi

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    AncientVoice A Digital Portal to Veda Itihasa Puranas 00AncientVoice is an online portal containing 23,000 plus wikified pages on Mahābhārata, Rāmāyana, Ṛgveda, Yajurveda (both Kṛṣna and Sukla recensions), Sāmaveda, Atharvaveda and Vishnu Purāna. It uses a Wikipedia style format, with millions of hyperlinks forming a network of nouns, making the cross-referencing very easy.

    Abstract

    AncientVoice is an online portal containing 23,000 plus wikified pages on Mahābhārata, Rāmāyana, Ṛgveda, Yajurveda (both Kṛṣna and Sukla recensions), Sāmaveda, Atharvaveda and Vishnu Purāna. Currently in English, but the Samskṛt version is being developed. It uses a Wikipedia style format, with millions of hyperlinks forming a network of nouns, making the cross-referencing very easy. One may start out with the noun Ayodhya in the Mahābhārata to be lead to every other references to Ayodhya in the Mahābhārata, in the 18 Parvās and 2000 plus chapters. The search can be extended to Rāmāyana, to find the references of Ayodhya in each of the 7 Kāndās and 600 plus chapters or into the Vedas or Purānas, leading to comparative analysis. It also aids in studying noun to noun relationship, such as starting with noun Arjuna leading to nouns of his wives or children. It has a database of nouns categorized into place-names (villages, cities, towns, kingdoms etc), names of kings, women, heroes, ascetics, Samskṛt non-translatables like Akṣauhini, Anīkini, Vyūha, Ṛta, Dharma, Manas, Chitta etc. The portal also hosts lineage trees of dynasties, analysis of the Yuga system, Kālachakra. It contains many art works and illustrations depicting heroes and heroines of Mahābhārata.

    Introduction

    I started reading the Indian epics from the age of ten. The Mahābhārata series of the Amar-Chitra Katha 1 books and the Mahābhārata of Krishna Dwaipāyana Vyāsa, in Samskṛt translated to Malayālam by Dr PS Nair were my first books. This became a craze and I continued analyzing these books. I created maps of Bhāratavarsha by locating the kingdoms and cities mentioned in the Mahābhārata on A4 paper sheets. I painted the scenes from the Mahābhārata using water color and oil paints. All this was done during 1987 to 1995 period when I was 10 to 18 years of age.
    My approach to reading the narratives in Veda, Itihāsa, Purānās is that mythology is nothing but a transformation of history. Absolute events transform into history after a few decades and history transforms into mythology after a few centuries. It is always possible to extract history from mythology and absolute events from history, but with a predictable loss of information. The Greek mythographer Euhemerus of the 4thcentury BCE of Macedonia held a similar view that many mythological tales can be attributed to historical persons and events, the accounts of which then get altered and exaggerated over time.
    My view on Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana is that they are the substitutes of history of the period they describe. Just like a candle-light is better than total darkness, these Itihāsās serve to tell us something about those periods. In the absence of a proper history to describing these periods, Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana serve as something close to it. They are closer to historical documents than to mythological or imaginative works. It is very inappropriate to dismiss them as mere imaginations or as fables and legends or even as mythology. Careful readers can easily separate, fact and fiction from the narrations in the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana.
    Mahābhārata contains more factual narratives than the Rāmāyana where as the Purānas contain much more poetic exaggerations and embellishments than those are found in the Mahābhārata or in the Rāmāyana. Mahābhārata narrates a very realistic and factual political conflict in the Kuru royal dynasty between its Kaurava and Pāndava factions. This narrative is highly detailed so that it cannot be dismissed as a fictional narrative. No poet will labor to imagine up and render such huge amount of details at minute level such as the names of the obscure towns, villages, kingdoms and minor leaders of war. The main war-narrative is also huge and extensive like the eighteen-day war Kaurava-Pāndava war at Kurukshetra is described in five out of its eighteen volumes or Parvās (viz. Bhīṣma, Drona, Karna, Śalya and Sauptika Parvās) running into more than twenty-three thousand verses, which again make it impossible to dismiss it as a mythological narrative or a poetic imagination.
    Rāmāyana too has huge and extensive war-narrative of the war between Rāma and Rāvana, running into more than four thousand verses confined to one out of its 7 volumes or Kāndās viz. the Yuddha Kānda. Though this war-narrative is thus smaller than that of Mahābhārata, it is huge enough so that it is difficult to dismiss it as a fictional poetic imagination or a mythological narrative. However, the poet of Rāmāyana viz. Vālmīki, unlike Vyāsa, the poet of Mahābhārata, chose to render many of the war heroes as apes, bears and birds. This increases the mythology quotient of Rāmāyana in comparison with the Mahābhārata. The important point to note here is that, once we cross this outer layer of poetic imagination, the war-narrative in itself is factual and highly detailed.
    Compared to the two Itihāsās, viz. Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana, the Purānās contain much more poetic embellishment and imaginative narratives even though it is replete with factual data which is attested in historical records, such as the reign of the Nanda dynasty and Mourya dynasty in Magadha. Such references in the Puranās lead to the conclusion that a large portion of their content was authored during or after the reign of these historical dynasties.

    Geographical and Historical content in Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana

    Below is a definition of Mahābhārata according to Kriṣna Dvaipāyana Vyāsa is explained in its Ādi Parva first chapter itself: –
    Mahābhārata is the mystery of the Veda, and other subjects have been explained by me; the various rituals of the Upanishads with the Angas; the compilation of the Purānas and history formed by me and named after the three divisions of time, past, present, and future; the determination of the nature of decay, fear, disease, existence, and non-existence, a description of creeds and of the various modes of life; rule for the four castes, and the import of all the Purānas; an account of asceticism and of the duties of a religious student; the dimensions of the sun and moon, the planets, constellations, and stars, together with the duration of the four ages; the Rik, Sama and Yajur Vedas; also the Adhyatma; the sciences called Nyaya, Orthoephy and Treatment of diseases; charity and Pasupatadharma; birth celestial and human, for particular purposes; also a description of places of pilgrimage and other holy places of rivers, mountains, forests, the ocean, of heavenly cities and the kalpas; the art of war; the different kinds of nations and languages: the nature of the manners of the people; and the all-pervading spirit;—all these have been represented (in this work).
    The highest concentration of geographic information in Mahābhārata is found at the start of Bhiṣma Parva (Mahābhārata: Book 6 chapters 6 to 12), where he mentions more than 10000 geographic entities like rivers, lakes, place-names and names of kingdoms, regions, and sub-continents. Bhiṣma parva can be considered as the starting point of the core of Mahābhārata, authored by Vyāsa known as Jaya. The rest of the epic that precedes Bhiṣma Parva (book 6) and that succeed Sauptika Parva (book 10) is believed to be accumulated over this core called Jaya which grew to the work called Bhārata and later to Mahābhārata.
    Thus, true to what Vyāsa says, his work Jaya starts with astronomy (contemporary to that period) and geography. In subsequent chapters he explains the major philosophies of the age, in the form of Bhagavat Gita. Some say Bhagavat Gita is a later addition, though Vyāsa seems to know much of this philosophy himself, since one of his major activity was to analyze Vedic knowledge and classify the Vedas. The Original Vyāsa along with his race of many other Vyāsas, probably spanning many generations engaged in this activity for centuries. The surname Vyas or Byas is still popular. Since Vyāsa divided or classified the Vedas he is known as Veda-Vyāsa (one who divided or classified the Vedas). The rest of Jaya is the Kurukshetra War narrative, where he describes the art of war, its strategies and finally its ill effects.
    The Sabha Parva (Book 2), Chapter 14 contains passages that show glimpses of a political scenario, resulted due to the rising power of Magadha against the established Kuru rulers and how this threat is subdued by the combined policy of the Kurus (represented by the Pāndavās) and Yādavās (represented by Krishna). In a later period, we see that the Magadhās re-emerged as the major political power overshadowing the Kurus. This phase is part of the well-established recorded history. Mahābhārata also gives a glimpse of other cultures like the Nāga. Most of the Kuru-Pancāla cities had an older name showing there Nāga origin, such as Hastinapura of the Kurus, which was formerly known as Nāga-pura. Here Nāga is taken as a synonym of Hasti viz. elephant. Yet it is interesting how the word Nāga came to mean both snake and elephant. The Maya Sabha of Indraprastha, the Pāndava city, was built by clearing an earlier settlement of Nāgas at Khandava-prastha. The northern Pancāla city Ahichatra is named after name after Ahi (Nāga). It is tempting here to suggest a Kuru invasion into pre-existing Nāga territories. But many ancestors of the Kurus were Nāgās. We have the ancestral king Nahuṣa described as a Nāga. Pāndava Bhīmā’s maternal ancestor was a Nāga. Thus, in close analysis, the Kurus and Nāgās turns out to be sharing kinships.
    Rāmāyana, as the name indicates is a narrative of travels (ayana) of Rāma, and thus is related to geography. At least, Vālmiki when he named the epic as ‘Rāmāyana’, which directly translates to the travels of Rāma, had this thought in his mind, and developed his epic to describe the extensive travels made by Rāma from Ayodhya to Lanka.

    Divinity of Rāma and Krishna

    As Vaiṣnava Bhakti traditions spread, Rāma was counted as an Avatāra of Viṣnu. This transformation is in agreement with the Dhārmic Vedāntic thought which states that divinity is inherent in every human and in every creature. It is up to any individual to express this divinity. Thus, the traditional Vaiṣnava view of seeing Rāma as a god, a divine being or an Avatāra of Viṣnu, is actually not in conflict with the view of Rāma as a human hero. The true meaning of Avatāra is descendance, viz. the descend of higher consciousness into lower realms of consciousness, which can occur in the mind of any human being. Rāma can thus be seen as a human hero who, through the inner strength of his character brought forth the descend of the higher consciousness or Avatāra within himself, enabling him to be counted as an Avatāra of Viṣnu. Hence the later generations revered him as a god. Same is the case of Krishna, as revealed by Mahābhārata.
    Hence, both the views about Rāma and Krishna, viz. the view that they are human heroes of extraordinary capabilities, versus, the view that they were divine beings, gods or Avatāras – both can coexist without any mutual conflict. There is no conflict between the devotees who worship Rāma and Krishna as gods and the historians who analyze the life of Rāma or Krishna, based on the information available in our Itihāsās. The devotees (Bhaktās) and the traditionalists should accommodate the study of historicity of Rāma and Krishna and the projects of dating Rāma and Krishna in a linear historical time-line. This involves the historical analysis of the Rāmāyana and Mahābhārata, focusing on the dating of events mentioned in them, including the birth and death of Rāma and Krishna, using the data present in the narrative, which primarily contains the mention of the position of the planets, sun, moon, comets and stars in the sky. For this, the analysts and researchers use disciplines like archeoastronomy, archaeology, hydrology, climatology, bathymetry and so on.
    Conversely, these analysts and researchers should be mindful of the sentiments of the traditionalists and the devotees. Mutual harmony between a researcher and a devotee is reinforced if both are able to subscribe to the higher philosophy of Vedanta which urges them to go beyond the imagery of Rāma or Krishna to attain the ultimate divinity, which is within one’s own self.

    Aitihāsic literature and fossils

    There is many similarities between the Aitihāsic literature and fossils. Just like fossils preserve signs of the existence of a creature that lived in the past, Aitihāsic literature preserve information about the people and their lives in the past, often distorted yet reconstruct-able. Just like fossils are deposited layer by layer, Aitihāsic literature is accumulated in layers after layers. By knowing in which fossil-layer a fossil belongs we are able to approximately know in which time the creature is fossilized. Same is more or less true with information crystallized inside layers of Aitihāsic literature. The Mahābhārata has several layers which were formed at different periods of time separated by centuries. Same is the case with the Rāmāyana, the Purānas and the Vedas. Scholars are studying these layers of crystallized information to understand the life of people belonging to the period in which the layer was formed.
    Every civilization had an obsession to become immortal. The Egyptians mummified the dead bodies of their kings and heroes to make them immortal. We find that even after thousands of years their bodies are preserved to today, achieving some sort of immortality. The Bhāratiyās on the other hand, created the Itihāsas, the Purānas and the Vedas. They added whatever they wanted to say into these literatures and preserved them through oral traditions, with great care, like the Egyptians preserved their mummies in the pyramids. Thus, the Indians gained immortality by constructing pyramids of literature like the Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyana, the Vedas and the Purānas. Thus, we could see in Mahābhārata, the culture, the politics, the religion and the philosophy of the ancient people of Bhārata.

    Aitihāsic personalities and distant light sources

    Another analogy that comes into mind is the nature of Aitihāsic personalities and their similarities with distant light sources as explained by astronomy. In astronomy we know that some of the distant stars that we think as single are actually binary stars, multiple stars or sometimes even a galaxy of stars. Sometimes these stars that appear as one are never related and could be located at locations separated by light-years and appear as one as they happened to be on the same line of sight from us.
    This is true with some of the Aitihāsic personalities like Vyāsa and Vasistha. Due to their temporal-distance in the past they seem to us, when analyzing the Aitihāsic literature, to be a single person. But close study reveals them as a generation of people. Sometimes multiple personalities that lived at different ages and different places are fused together into one personality.

    Transmission loss of information in Aitihāsic literature

    Deep analysis of Itihāsas reveals that at their cores are actual events that occurred in some point of time in the distant past. Later, these turned into contemporary history. But unlike in our age, this historical information was transmitted from generation to generation through oral traditions. Information theory states that loss of information is inevitable due to the principle of entropy that maintains that any ordered system (coded-information being one example of an ordered system) is bound to lose its orderliness and tend to be chaotic. Ancient people who transmitted the epic history through oral traditions invented fables to fill the gaps that formed because of the missing information which was again due to information loss owing to the transmission loss. Thus, history turned into mythology.
    A typical example is the lack of knowledge of actual number of people who participated in the Kurukshetra War. This was substituted by a table (a hymn) that explains the relations between various divisions of the army like Akṣauhini and Anīkini (MBH 1.2). If we follow this calculation we get an impossible figure (considering the human-population of that era) as the number of soldiers and animals who took part in the war. Some historians had used this impossibility to rule out the historicity of Kurukshetra War, dismissing it as a fable. By the same way, the lack of knowledge of exact duration of the war resulted in the myth that it took place in 18 days, making the war much more impossible to occur historically. This is the negative effect of adding fables to historical facts.
    Sometimes the gaps in information is not due to transmission loss. The information required in a later stage is never transmitted initially but became a necessity subsequently. An example is the lack of information about the exact origin of the Kauravās and the Pāndavas. This lead to the fable that Kauravas were all born out of a dead-fetus born by Gāndhāri, which were divided into hundred pieces by Vyāsa and that the Pāndavas were born of the five well known Devatās. The fables about the birth of Drona, Kripa, Dhristadyumna and Pāncāli are other such examples.
    Sometimes absent information is never substituted by any fable but are approximated by other means. Examples are the names like Pāncāli and Gāndhāri (and also Kaikeyi in Rāmāyana). The original author (Vyāsa) seems to be ignorant about their actual maiden names. The name Panchali, Gāndhāri and Kaikeyi were derived based on their mother-land viz the Pāncāla, Gāndhāra and Kekeya Kingdoms. Another name of Pāncāli, is Draupadi, which is derived from her father Drupada, the king of Pāncāla. Yet another name of Pāncāli is Krishna, which could be the name by which she was called by her parents, but we can never be sure, since it can be a name derived from her physical appearance. She was darker in hue compared to other ladies and hence was called Krishna (the dark one). Same applies to Vasudeva Krishna and Krishna Dwaipāyana Vyāsa.

    Steps taken to prevent the transmission loss

    The ancient sages had devised a means to minimize the transmission loss by rendering the literature as poems and hymns, coded in a metric-system (Mātra: – guru and laghu sounds) so based on their phonetics. This is much like the check-sum used to ensure the integrity of transmitted information in digital transmission. Though this helped to reduce the distortions that occurred during oral transmission of epic literature, it could not eliminate the information-loss completely.
    Similarly, one of the major occupation of the ancient sages and people who handled this epic literature though oral transmission was to assemble together at one place and render the whole epic committed in memory so that others can verify that they are having the same version and errors had not crept in. This tradition is still existing in India, in spite of the fact that the entire epic has already been written down and committed to text, and now into hypertext over Internet. The myth of Ganeśa writing down the Mahābhārata, as Vyāsa rendered it from his memory is a glimpse of the stage at which the orally transmitted epic is written down into text for the first time, possibly by Gana-Patis (heads of the republics) of those ages.

    Preservation effect of fables

    There is a positive effect also in adding fables to historic facts. They serve to make the information more attractive and appealing which could encourage a society who were less inclined in preserving historical fact than in preserving stories that invoke a sense of wonder. The fiction part of the epic serves as an outer envelope that preserve the core historic information by continuous retelling over generations so that they reach us now (like a fruit is preserved by its outer covering, until it is ready to be consumed by its intended consumers). The ancient sages sometimes deliberately added these fables to the factual information to make the information long lived. This is a way of preserving information, which otherwise could have dissipated completely in course of a few centuries.

    Comparing Illiad and Oddyssey to Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana

    Comparison of Illiad and Odyssey which are much less in size compared to Rāmāyana and Mahābhārata, to the extent that the later ones are considered some-how to be a retelling of the former (Homeric) works, seems to be like comparing the stars like Sirius and Betelgeuse to the Sun. Due to proximity to Earth, the Sun is the most familiar star for people of Earth. But in absolute terms Sirius and Betelgeuse are obviously much larger and majestic than the Sun. Whoever says that Mahābhārata or Rāmāyana are a retelling of Homeric works are doing this due to their greater familiarity with Homeric works and their lack of familiarity with the works of Vyāsa and Vālmīki.

    Brief introduction to AncientVoice

    I was introduced to computers when I was in 9th standard in 1992. During 1993 to 1995 while doing pre-degree course I encounter unabridged versions of Mahabhārata. Using that I created a database of place-names mentioned in Mahābhārata which contained more than 100 entries. During 1995 to 1999 while doing my graduation in Engineering College I used computer software to create digital maps of Bhāratavarsha to plot the newly analyzed place-names. From 2001 to 2006 I worked in ISRO. There I studied the journals containing the ISRO satellite imagery of the dried-up Sarasvati river basin. It is here where I first encountered the journals describing Dr SR Rao’s discovery of the submerged town of Dwarka. I expanded my maps with these new knowledge about Dwāraka and Sarasvati.
    While working in ISRO I explored internet to get more information about our Itihāsās and it is when I realized that there is not much information available online on topics related to our culture while those about Greek epics were aplenty. I wanted to change this scenario. After many searches, in 2004 I encountered an online resource viz. Kisari Mohan Ganguli’s English Translation of Mahābhārata, in the form of downloadable text files at the website named Sacred Texts made available by the tireless work of John Bruno Hare.[i] Using the full text of Mahābhārata available for free in this site, I created a Windows-Help-File system for Mahābhārata, enabling me to zero-in on any desired noun in Mahābharata using the keyword search feature of help-file. Using this help-file as a tool I created articles focusing on each kingdom mentioned in the Mahābhārata, such as Kuru, Pāncāla, Kosala, Chedi, Matsya, Trigarta, Surasena and so on. I wanted to host it at some location in the internet so that internet will get filled with enough information about our Itihāsās. That is when I found Wikipedia where anyone can become editor and contribute articles. I uploaded my articles on Mahābhārata kingdoms to Wikipedia in a format understood by Wikipedia[ii]. I authored 150 plus articles in Wikipedia describing each kingdom mentioned the Mahābhārata. This work continued in 2005 and 2006.
    But since Wikipedia is not a place to publish original research, and because of the rampant vandalism quite common in the Wikipedia pages as it can be edited and modified by anyone, it became necessary for me to create a website of my own but with the same features offered by Wikipedia, such as, the interlinking thousands of nouns through hyperlinks with each noun expanding into an article of its own, where each such article connects with thousand other articles through noun to noun hyperlinks forming a connected network of articles expandable in the form of knowledge trees.
    The website AncientVoice established in November 2009 was the result of this need. It was developed based on the approach outlined in the preceding sections. Initially I have created it to preserve my older works in Wikipedia. After creating a copy of all the articles, I wrote in Wikipedia, I concentrated my energy to create a Wiki for Mahābhārata. This involves creating a single-page article for each of the 2000 plus chapters of Mahābhārata, identifying the 7000 plus nouns in the Mahābhārata, connecting each occurrence of each of those 7000 plus nouns in any of the 2000 plus chapters of Mahābhārata through hyperlinks. I knew if I attempt to do it manually, it will take me many years. Hence, I automated the process by creating a software tool by coding in C++. I completed the development of software tool by January 2010. Using this tool, I generated the 2000 plus chapter-pages and 7000 plus noun-pages of Mahābhārata by parsing the full text of Ganguli’s translation. These 9000 plus pages were then interconnected with an average of 100 hyperlink in each page. Each hyperlink represents a noun-occurrence. Thus, the entire Mahābhārata Wiki contains more than one million hyperlinks. The software tool dumped all this page as text files in Wiki format in a matter of four hours. All these files were then systematically uploaded and the Wiki was completed in a matter of few weeks by around April 2010.
    It still remains the only Mahābhārata Wiki available online.[iii] Thus, a manual work of many years was reduced to a few hours. Wikipedia attempted to create a similar Mahābhārata Wiki as part of its Wikisource projects but it lacks the interconnecting hyperlinks and is still incomplete after 11 long years.[iv]
    After the success of Mahābharata Wiki in 2010 similar Wikis for Rāmāyana, R̥gveda, Yajurveda (both Kṛṣna and Sukla recensions), Sāmaveda, Atharvaveda and Vishnu Purāna were completed in 2011. There is no other site anywhere in the world with dedicated Wikis for any of these texts. Apart from these Wikis, analysis articles discussing the Veda, Itihāsa, Purānās, heroes like the five Pāndāvas, lineage trees of Ikshvākus, Ailās, Pūrus, Bharatās and Kurus, maps of Bhāratavarsha with its kingdoms, cities, towns, villages, rivers, forests, mountains etc and many paintings depicting various scenes from the Mahābhārata, all of these are hosted in the site. The total number of pages in the site now exceeds 23000.
    Apart from AncientVoice, a similar website named Takshasila[v] was created for with Wikis for Iliad, Odyssey and Avestan texts like Vendidād, Visperad, Yasna, Yast and Siroza were created. Another site named Naalanda[vi] with Wikis for the major Upanishads, Tamil text Tirukkural and Silappatikaram was created subsequently. My analysis of the Quantum Consciousness studies and other recent topics is published in yet another site named RecentVoice. A fourth website named Technospace containing my technical articles related to software is not updated now.

    AncientVoice Wikis for Veda Itihāsa Purānas

    Figure 01: The launching page of AncientVoice
    Figure 02: The link towards the Wiki sub-sites of AncientVoice in the launching page
    Figure 03: Mahābhārata Wiki: Parvas
    Figure 04: Mahābhārata Wiki: Chapters
    Figure 05: Mahābhārata Wiki: Single Chapter
    Figure 06: Mahābhārata Wiki: Noun Level
    Figure 07: Mahābhārata Wiki: Hierarchical Structure of the knowledge network with five layers
    Figure 08: R̥gveda Wiki
    Figure 09: Rāmāyana Wiki
    Figure 10: Yajurveda Wiki
    Figure 11: Sāmaveda Wiki
    Figure 12: Atharvaveda Wiki
    Figure 13: Viṣnu Purāna Wiki

    AncientVoice Noun Categorization

    Figure 14: Noun Categories and the structure leading to each occurrence of each noun
    Figure 15: Alphabetical List of Nouns..

    AncientVoice Menu System

    Figure 16: The Menu System

    Bhāratavarsha Digital Maps

    Figure 17: The Less Detailed Kingdom Map showing the kingdoms mentioned in the Itihāsās
    Figure 18: The More Detailed City Map with cities mentioned in the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana

    Lineage Trees

    .Figure 19: Lineage of Aila-Pūru-Bharata-Kuru starting from Dakṣa
    Figure 20: Lineage of Aila-Pūru-Bharata-Kuru starting from Prācetas

    Comparative Analysis of Veda Itihāsa Purānās.


    Figure 21: Mahābhārata Parva size comparison

    .Figure 22: Comparison of Vedās with Itihāsās and Purānas

    Geographical Data in the Mahābhārata

    Figure 23: Passages with high density of geographical data and the Geography Noun Lists

    Paintings of scenes from Mahābhārata

    Figure 24: Indraprasta and Khāndavaprasta
    Figure 25: The Five Pāndavās and Pāncāli

    Yuga System and Kālacakra

    AncientVoice A Digital Portal to Veda Itihasa Puranas 26
    Figure 26: The 17 articles focusing on the Yuga System, Kālacakra and Kumari Kāndam

    .Conclusion
    AncientVoice website is a well structured digital portal into the Veda Itihāsa Purānās with rich in data, analysis articles, diagrams, illustrations, comparison charts and digital maps of Bhāratavarsha. It is like a huge ocean of information. It is used as a reference site by researchers from different parts of the world. University research students, novelists writing novels based on Veda Ithiāsa Purānas and researchers in the academia are using the site for their research works. All the content in this site is published under Creative Commons Share Alike Attribution License. This allows any researchers to use data in this site without copyright related complications, by providing due credit to the website and its creator (myself).
    The site is made available for benefiting the entire research community and writers focusing on Bhāratiya Samskr̥t literature, culture and tradition.

    References

    [iii] Mahābhārata Wiki of AncientVoice – http://ancientvoice.wikidot.com/source:mahabharata
    [iv] Incomplete Mahābhārata Wiki of Wikipedia Wiki-source https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Mahabharat
    This paper was presented at the International Conference on Growth and Development of Indian Culture: Historical and Literary Perspectives (Prehistoric Period – Twelfth Century CE.) helf between June 29 – July 1, 2018 Bengaluru, India and organized by Dr. S.R.Rao Foundation
    Jijith Nadumuri Ravi is the founder of the Website AncientVoice which contains 23500 pages on 
     | 
    Mahabharata,Ramayana, the four Vedas and Vishnu Purana. It contains ancient India maps, analysis articles, lineage maps, the full text of English translation of these texts in Wikified form with 7000 plus nouns analysed creating huge information networks of Indic texts. The author additionally hosts websites like Naalanda, Takshasila and RecentVoice, focusing on Greek, Avestan and Tamil literature. He was a former ISRO scientist (2001-2006) and an artist who loves to paint events from Mahabharata.
    http://indiafacts.org/ancientvoice-a-digital-portal-to-veda-itihasa-puranas/

    2nd cent. BCE Kosam copper coin. Indus Script Hypertexts wealth-accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues

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    https://tinyurl.com/y9gmeq5n


    2nd Century B.C :: Copper Coin From Kosam

    kuṭi 'tree' rebus kuṭhi 'smelter' 

    sattva, 'svastika symbol' rebus: sattva 'zinc', jasta'zinc, spelter; pewter'. 

    ḍāngāhill, dry upland (B.); ḍã̄g mountain-ridge rebus: ḍhangar 'blacksmith'

     eraka 'nave of wheel' Rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper' araka 'gold' PLUS  arā'spoke' rebus: āra 'brass'

    गंडा[gaṇḍā ] m An aggregate of four' rebus: khaṇḍa'equipment'  PLUS goṭa'pebble' Rebus:  goa 'laterite, ferrite ore'.

    Indian foundations of modern science-- Subhash Kak

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    The amazing breadth of Indian sciences is not known to the general public. Here's the story of how Indian contributions go substantially beyond Panini, zero, algebra, and Ayurveda.
    July 25, 2018
    Samudra manthan
    Scholars see India and Greece as the two principal birthplaces of science. School textbooks tell us about Pythagoras, Aristotle, Euclid, Archimedes, and Ptolemy, geometry of the Vedic altars, the invention of zero in India, Yoga psychology, and Indian technology of steel-making that went into the manufacture of the best swords. But if you take the trouble of reading scholarly books, articles and encyclopedias, you will find that in many ways the early Indian contributions are the more impressive for they include a deep theory of mind, Pāṇini’s astonishing Sanskrit grammar, binary numbers of Piṅgala, music theory, combinatorics, algebra, earliest astronomy, and the physics of Kaṇāda with its laws of motion.
    Of these, Kaṇāda is the least known. He may not have presented his ideas as mathematical equations, but he attempted something that no physicist to date has dared to do: he advanced a system that includes space, time, matter, as well as observers. He also postulated four types of atoms, two with mass (like proton and electron) and two without (like neutrino and photon), and the idea of invariance. A thousand or more years after Kaṇāda, Āryabhaṭa postulated that earth rotated and advanced the basic idea of relativity of motion.
    And then there is India’s imaginative literature, which includes the Epics, the Purāṇas and the Yoga Vāsiṣṭha (perhaps the greatest novel ever written), that speaks of time travel, airplanes, exoplanets (that is many solar-like systems), cloning of embryos, sex change, communication over distances, and weapons that can destroy everything. Some nationalists take these statements to mean the literal scientific truth, which claim is ridiculed by their political opponents who then use this broad brush to tar all Indian science.
    There are also anomalous statements in Indian texts whose origin is not understood. Just to mention a few: the correct speed of lightthe correct distance to the sun, cosmological cycles that broadly correspond to the numbers accepted currently, the fact that the sun and the moon are approximately 108 times their respective diameters from the earth, the correct number of species on earth (about 8.4 million), and so on. Historians either ignore them or say that they are extraordinary coincidences. We will come to these anomalies later in the essay.
    To return to the history of mainstream science, the discovery of infinite series and calculus by Newton and Leibniz heralded the Scientific Revolution that was to change the world. But new research has shown that over two centuries prior the Kerala School of Mathematics had already developed calculus and some historians suggest that this and advanced astronomical knowledge from Kerala went abroad via the Jesuits and provided the spark for its further development in Europe. Other historians discount the transmission of this knowledge to Europe.
    There is more agreement about the many achievements of Indian medical sciences. For example, the Royal Australia College of Surgeons in Melbourne, Australia has a prominent display of a statue of Suśruta (600 BCE) with the caption “Father of Surgery”. The ancient Ayurveda texts include the notion of germs and inoculation and also postulate mind-body connection, which has become an important area of contemporary research. Indian medicine was strongly empirical; it used Nature (which is governed by Ṛta) as guide, and it was informed by a sense of skepticism. In the West the notion of skepticism is usually credited to the Scottish philosopher of science, David Hume, but scholars have been puzzled by the commonality between his ideas and the earlier Indian ones. Recently, it was shown that Hume almost certainly learnt Indian ideas from Jesuits when he was at the Royal College of La Flèche in France.
    There are also indirect ways that Indian ideas led to scientific advance. Mendeleev was inspired by the two-dimensional structure of the Sanskrit alphabet to propose a similar two-dimensional structure of chemical elements. Erwin Schrödinger, a founder of quantum theory, credited ideas in the Upanishads for the key notion of superposition that was to bring about the quantum revolution in physics that changed chemistry, biology, and technology.
    I now briefly touch upon Indian influence on linguistics, logic, philosophy of physics, and theory of mind.
    Linguistics, algorithms and society
    Pāṇini’s work (4th or 5th century BCE) showed the way to the development of modern linguistics through the efforts of scholars such as Franz Bopp, Ferdinand de Saussure, Leonard Bloomfield, and Roman Jakobson. Bopp was a pioneering scholar of the comparative grammars of Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages. Ferdinand de Saussure in his most influential work, Course in General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale), that was published posthumously (1916), took the idea of the use of formal rules of Sanskrit grammar and applied them to general linguistic phenomena.
    The structure of Pāṇini‘s grammar contains a meta-language, meta-rules, and other technical devices that make this system effectively equivalent to the most powerful computing machine. Although it didn’t directly contribute to the development of computer languages, it influenced linguistics and mathematical logic that, in turn, gave birth to computer science.
    The works of Pāṇini and Bharata Muni also presage the modern field of semiotics which is the study of signs and symbols as a significant component of communications. Their template may be applied to sociology, anthropology and other humanistic disciplines for all social systems come with their grammar.
    The search for universal laws of grammar underlying the diversity of languages is ultimately an exploration of the very nature of the human mind. But the Indian texts remind that the other side to this grammar is the idea that a formal system cannot describe reality completely since it leaves out the self.
    Modern logic
    That Indian thought was central to the development of machine theory is asserted by Mary Boole — the wife of George Boole, inventor of modern logic — who herself was a leading science writer in the nineteenth century. She claimed that George Everest, who lived for a long time in India and whose name was eventually applied to the world’s highest peak, was the intermediary of the Indian ideas and they influenced not only her husband but the other two leading scientists in the attempt to mechanize thought: Augustus de Morgan and Charles Babbage. She says in her essay on Indian Thought and Western Science in the Nineteenth Century (1901): “Think what must have been the effect of the intense Hinduizing of three such men as Babbage, De Morgan, and George Boole on the mathematical atmosphere of 1830–65.” She further speculates that these ideas influenced the development of vector analysis and modern mathematics.
    Much prior to this, Mohsin Fani’s Dabistani-i Madhahib (17th Century) claimed that Kallisthenes, who was in Alexander’s party, took logic texts from India and the beginning of the Greek tradition of logic must be seen in this material. In Indian logic, minds are not empty slates; the very constitution of the mind provides some knowledge of the nature of the world. The four pramāṇas through which correct knowledge is acquired are direct perception, inference, analogy, and verbal testimony.
    Physics with observers
    Indian physics, which goes back to the Vaiśeṣika Sūtras (c. 500 BCE), does not appear to have directly influenced the discovery of physical laws in Europe. But Indian ideas that place the observer at center prefigure the conceptual foundations of modern physics, and this is acknowledged by the greatest physicists of the twentieth century.
    In the West, the universe was seen as a machine going back to Aristotle and the Greeks who saw the physical world consisting of four kinds of elements of earth, water, fire, and air. This model continued in Newton’s clockwork model of the solar system. Indian thought, in contrast, has a fifth element, ākāśa, which is the medium for inner light and consciousness. With the rise of relativity theory and quantum mechanics, the observer could no longer be ignored. In one sense, the journey of science is the discovery of self and consciousness.
    It is one of those obscure footnotes to the history of physics that Nikola Tesla, who was very famous in the 1890s, was asked by Swami Vivekananda to find an equation connecting mass and energy. We know that Tesla didn’t quite succeed at this but he was to work on various models of wireless transfer of energy for the remainder of his career.
    Cosmology and evolution
    The Ṛgveda speaks of the universe being infinite in size. The evolution of the universe is according to cosmic law. Since it cannot arise out of nothing, the universe must be infinitely old. Since it must evolve, there are cycles of chaos and order or creation and destruction. The world is also taken to be infinitely old. Beyond the solar system, other similar systems were postulated, which appear to have been confirmed with the modern discovery of exoplanets.
    The Sāṅkhya system describes evolution at cosmic and individual levels. It views reality as being constituted of puruṣa, consciousness that is all-pervasive, and prakṛti, which is the phenomenal world. Prakṛti is composed of three different strands (guṇas or characteristics) of sattva, rajas, and tamas, which are transparency, activity, and inactivity, respectively.
    Evolution begins by puruṣa and prakṛti creating mahat (Nature in its dynamic aspect). From mahat evolves buddhi (intelligence) and manas (mind). Buddhi and manas in the large scale are Nature’s intelligence and mind. From buddhi come individualized ego consciousness (ahaṅkāra) and the five tanmātras (subtle elements) of sound, touch, sight, taste, smell. From the manas evolve the five senses (hearing, touching, seeing, tasting, smelling), the five organs of action (with which to speak, grasp, move, procreate, evacuate), and the five gross elements (ākāśa, air, fire, water, earth).
    The evolution in Sāṅkhya is an ecological process determined completely by Nature. It differs from modern evolution theory in that it presupposes a universal consciousness. In reality, modern evolution also assigns intelligence to Nature in its drive to select certain forms over others as well as in the evolution of intelligence itself.
    The description of evolution of life is given in many texts such as the Mahābhārata. I present a quote from the Yoga Vāsiṣṭha on it:
    Iremember that once upon a time there was nothing on this earth, neither trees and plants, nor even mountains. For a period of eleven thousand [great] years the earth was covered by lava. In those days there was neither day nor night below the polar region: for in the rest of the earth neither the sun nor the moon shone. Only one half of the polar region was illumined. [Later] apart from the polar region the rest of the earth was covered with water. And then for a very long time the whole earth was covered with forests, except the polar region. Then there arose great mountains, but without any human inhabitants. For a period of ten thousand years the earth was covered with the corpses of the asuras.” [YV 6.1]
    The reverse sequence, of the end of the world, is also described in various texts. First, the sun expands in size incinerating everything on the earth (quite similar to modern accounts of the aging sun becoming a red giant). The specific sequence mentioned is that the fireball of the sun transforms the Pṛthivī atoms into Āpas atoms, which then together change into Tejas atoms and further into Vāyu atoms, and finally to sound energy that is an attribute of space, and so on (Mahābhārata, Śānti Parva Section 233). In our modern language, it means that as temperatures become high, matter breaks down becoming a sea of elements, then the protons break down into electrons, further into photons, and finally into neutrinos, and on to acoustic energy of space. At the end of this cycle the world is absorbed into Consciousness.
    Vivekananda was aware of this sequence which is why he asked Tesla to find the specific equation for transformation between mass and energy.
    Mind and Yoga
    We are in the midst of a worldwide Yoga revolution. For many, it is about health and well-being but that is only a portal that leads to the understanding of the self and its relationship with the body.
    Although the roots of Yoga lie in the Vedas, most read Patañjali’s Yoga-sūtra for a systematic exposition of the nature of the mind. The text is logical and it questions the naïve understanding of the world. According to it, there is a single reality and the multiplicity we see in it is a consequence of the projections of our different minds. Therefore to obtain knowledge one must experience reality in its most directness.
    The Vedic texts claim to be ātmavidyā, “science of self” or “consciousness science” and they also provide a framework to decode its narrative, establishing its central concern with consciousness.
    In the Vedic view, reality is unitary at the deepest level since otherwise there would be chaos. Since language is linear, whereas the unfolding of the universe takes place in a multitude of dimensions, language is limited in its ability to describe reality. Because of this limitation, reality can only be experienced and never described fully. All descriptions of the universe lead to logical paradox.
    Knowledge is of two kinds: the higher or unified and the lower or dual. The higher knowledge concerns the perceiving subject (consciousness), whereas the lower knowledge concerns objects. The higher knowledge can be arrived at through intuition and meditation on the paradoxes of the outer world. The lower knowledge is analytical and it represents standard sciences with its many branches. There is a complementarity between the higher and the lower, for each is necessary to define the other, and it mirrors the one between mind and body.
    The future of science
    I have gone through a random list of topics to show that Indian ideas and contributions have shaped science in fundamental ways. I hope to show now that they remain equally central to its future growth.
    We first note that in spite of its unprecedented success and prestige, science is facing major crises. The first of these crises is that of physics for it has found no evidence for dark matter and dark energy that together are believed to constitute 95% of the observable universe, with another 4.5% being intergalactic dust that doesn’t influence theory. How can we claim that we are near understanding reality if our theories are validated by only 0.5% of the observable universe?
    The second crisis is that neuroscientists have failed to find a neural correlate of consciousness. If there is no neural correlate, then does consciousness reside in a dimension that is different from our familiar space-time continuum? And how do mind and body interact with each other?
    The third crisis is that there is no clear answer to the question if machines will become conscious. The fourth crisis is related to the implications of biomedical advances such as cloning on our notions of self.
    It becomes clear that the three crises are actually interrelated when it is realized that consciousness is also an issue at the very foundations of physics. These questions also relate to the problem of free will.
    Researchers are divided on whether conscious machines will ever exist. Most computer scientists believe that consciousness is computable and that it will emerge in machines as technology develops. Bu there are others who say there’re things about human behavior that cannot be computed by a machine. Thus creativity and the sense of freedom people possess appear to be more than just an application of logic or calculations.
    Quantum views
    Quantum theory, which is the deepest theory of physics, provides another perspective. According to its orthodox Copenhagen Interpretation, consciousness and the physical world are complementary aspects of the same reality. Since it takes consciousness as a given and no attempt is made to derive it from physics, the Copenhagen Interpretation may be called the “big-C” view of consciousness, where it is a thing that exists by itself — although it requires brains to become real. This view was popular with the pioneers of quantum theory such as Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger.
    The opposing view is that consciousness emerges from biology, just as biology itself emerges from chemistry which, in turn, emerges from physics. We call this less expansive concept of consciousness “little-C.” It agrees with the neuroscientists’ view that the processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain.
    Philosophers of science believe that these modern quantum physics views of consciousness have parallels in ancient philosophy. Big-C is like the theory of mind in Vedanta — in which consciousness is the fundamental basis of reality and at the experienced level it complements the physical universe. The pioneers of quantum theory were aware of this linkage with Vedanta.
    Little-C, in contrast, is quite similar to Buddhism. Although the Buddha chose not to address the question of the nature of consciousness, his followers declared that mind and consciousness arise out of emptiness or nothingness.
    Big-C, anomalies, and scientific discovery
    Scientists question if consciousness is a computational process. More restrictively, scholars argue that the creative moment is not at the end of a deliberate computation. For instance, dreams or visions are supposed to have inspired Elias Howe‘s 1845 design of the modern sewing machine and August Kekulé’s discovery of the structure of benzene in 1862, and these may be considered to be examples of the anomalous workings of the mind.
    A dramatic piece of evidence in favor of big-C consciousness existing all on its own is the life of self-taught mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan, who died in 1920 at the age of 32. His notebook, which was lost and forgotten for about 50 years and published only in 1988, contains several thousand formulas — without proof in different areas of mathematics — that were well ahead of their time, and the methods by which he found the formulas remain elusive. Ramanujan himself claimed that the formulas were revealed to him by Goddess Nāmagiri while he was asleep. The idea of big-C provides an explanation for the anomalous scientific results from old Indian texts that were mentioned at the beginning of the essay.
    The concept of big-C consciousness raises the questions of how it is related to matter, and how matter and mind mutually influence each other. Consciousness alone cannot make physical changes to the world, but perhaps it can change the probabilities in the evolution of quantum processes. The act of observation can freeze and even influence atoms’ movements, as has been demonstrated in the laboratory. This may very well be an explanation of how matter and mind interact.
    With cognitive machines replacing humans at most tasks, the question of what selfhood means will become more central to our lives. It appears to me that the only way to find fulfilment in life will be through wisdom of ātmavidyā. Vedic science will bring humanity full circle back to the source of all experience, which is consciousness. It will also reveal unknown ways mind and body interact and this will have major implications for medicine.
    Indian sciences are universal and they have within them the power to inspire people to find their true potential and find meaning in life, as also having the potential to facilitate the next advances in both physical and biological sciences.
    Historians may quibble about whether a certain equation should be called Baudhāyana’s Theorem or Pythagoras Theorem, but in the larger scheme names do not matter. The direction of science is the more important thing and it is clear that the mystery of consciousness will be one of its major concerns. 

    Endless knot motif, Indus Script Hypertext meḍhi 'twist' meḍ 'iron', metalwork wealth catalogue

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    https://tinyurl.com/ycfsgwdv

    meḍhi 'plait, twist' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus reading:: meḍ 'iron'  (Mu.Ho.) मृदु mṛdu, mẽṛhẽt 'iron' (Samskrtam. Santali) med 'copper' (Slavic languages)  मेधा 'धन' Naigh. ii , 10; yajña. These metaphors explain why the endless knot motif adorns a copper plate inscription.
    (Samskrtam.Santali)Image result for copper plate endless knotmotif
    A new copper plate of Dhruva II of the Gujarat Rashtrakuta branch, datedsaka 806 (AS Altekar, Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXII, 1933-34, pp. 64-76). The endless knot motif signifies: meḍhi 'plait, twist' Rupaka, 'metaphor' or rebus reading: meḍ 'iron'  (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages)  मेधा धन Naigh. ii , 10; yajña. 

    Figures 1-4
    "Another interesting motif from a BMAC seal which can be followed through the centuries is the endless knot (Fig. 1)(After: Sarianidi, V. I., Bactrian Centre of Ancient Art, Mesopotamia, 12 / 1977, Fig. 59 / 18). It reappears on mediaeval metalwork (Bowl, Khorasan, early 13th century in: Melikian-Chirvani, A. S., Islamic Metalwork from the Iranian World, London, 1982, No. 26.), and together with the interlaced motif of the seal from Fig. 2 on a 14th century Italian painting depicting an Anatolian carpet (Erdmann, K., Der orientalische Knüpfteppich, Tübingen, 2. Aufl, 1960, Abb. 18). Additionally, it can be seen on a very important carpet from eastern Anatolia, now in the Vakiflar Museum in Istanbul(Balpinar, B.,Hirsch, U.,Vakiflar Museum Istanbul II: Teppiche - Carpets, Wesel, 1988, Pl. 62), as well as on many 19thcentury Lori- and Bakhtiari weavings (Opie, J., Tribal Rugs, London, 1992, Fig. 4.16) Another seal includes the kind of endless knot ornament (Sarianidi, V. I., Soviet Excavations in Bactria: The Bronze Age, Fig. 11 / 9, in: Ligabue, G., Salvatori, S., eds., Bactria An ancient oasis civilization from the sands of Afghanistan, Venice, 1990) that is part of the Chinese symbol of happiness (Opie, J., Tribal Rugs, London, 1992, Fig. 4.11), connects the medallions on a 12th century bronze kettle from Samarqand (von Gladis, A., Islamische Metallarbeiten des 9. bis 15. Jahrhunderts, Abb. 219, in: Kalter, J., Pavaloi, M., eds., Usbekistan, Stuttgart, 1995), on a group of East Anatolian carpets from the 15th century (Balpinar, B.,Hirsch, U.,Vakiflar Museum Istanbul II: Teppiche - Carpets, Wesel, 1988, Pl. 37), and on carpets in Timurid miniatures (Briggs, A., 1940, cited in: Pinner, R., Franses, M., Two Turkoman Carpets of the 15th century, in: Turkoman Studies I, London, 1980, Fig. 130)."
    http://www.turkotek.com/salon_00040/salon.html

    CEA Job description -- by an ex-CEA, Arvind Subramanian

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    Cute write-up. Congrats, Arvind Subramanian. I am disappointed that you forgot to include the most important job requisite of a CEA in Bharat. He should be immersed in the cultural history, itihāsa, ātmā, 'life principle, sensation' of Bhāratam. I suggest this because economics is not a mere abstraction but impacts on the lives of people brought up in a civilizational ethos and traditions. Kalyanaraman, Sarasvati Resarch Centre



    Image result for arvind subramanianParting reflections of a CEA


    The Office of the Chief Economic Adviser is a unique public institution — not just another cog, albeit technocratic, in the vast machinery of the government of the day.

    Written by Arvind Subramanian | Updated: July 25, 2018 12:00:24 am
    Tomorrow is my last day in office as the Chief Economic Adviser (CEA) to the Government of India, a job of enormous responsibility, opportunity, excitement and of course, prestige. I must not indulge in reflection that risks turning sentimental. I should probably follow T S Eliot in Little Gidding: “I am not eager to rehearse/ My thoughts and theory which you have forgotten./ These things have served their purpose: let them be.”
    But I am not detached enough to do so. And the truth is this is too poignant and fraught a moment — leaving the best job I have ever had and probably ever will — to not mark it with some reflection. Not as a retrospective, self-indulgent litany of my own achievements and shortcomings, but on the role of the CEA more generally, with prospective lessons for those who may come to occupy it in future.
    Every Indian economist who has even a shred of policy pretension aspires to this job. Some (many?) covet it ferociously. I was lucky enough for my dream to be fulfilled, an interloper appended to a lineage of illustriousness: from I G Patel, V K Ramaswami, Manmohan Singh, Ashok Mitra, Bimal Jalan, Shankar Acharya in the early years, to Kaushik Basu and Raghuram Rajan more recently.
    When I look at the board in my office room in North Block — squeezed between portraits of Tagore, Gandhi, and Nehru — listing the names of my predecessors, I am reminded of the Patek Philippe line “You never actually own a Patek Philippe. You merely look after it for the next generation.” Similarly, as the CEA, I came to realise that I was merely the custodian of a sacred tradition and responsible for upholding it honourably (and, at the same time, petrified of debasing it).
    The research of many brilliant scholars is increasingly highlighting the critical role of state capacity and public institutions in fostering long-run political and economic development. I firmly believe and would insist that the Office of CEA is one such public institution — along with the many others (RBI, EC, SEBI, TRAI etc.) that are traditionally accepted as such.
    And it is a unique institution. There are few vantage points in government that have such a broad perspective on the economy, and even fewer that combine proximity to decision-making (including but not restricted to the budget process) with high-frequency analysis and inputs, and yet with enough distance to require a more academic/policy perspective.
    One way to highlight the distinctiveness of the Office of CEA is to see that there are no comparable institutions elsewhere. It would be as if, in the US, the jobs of Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers (advisory in function) and of the Chief Economist of the US Government (a non-existent post) were combined and located in the US Treasury.
    A few consequences follow from this view for any CEA’s general attributes, specific expertise, and disposition.
    First, the CEA has and must have multiple roles: Providing input into policy; generating new ideas for discussion and eventual policy adoption; being a platform for, and elevating, the public discourse on economics and economic policy-making, especially in this post-truth era; communicating the government’s policies and other ideas to a broader public; mentoring junior colleagues across government; and building capacity within government, especially in the Indian Economic Service. And, in principle, there is no reason why any of the above should be restricted to the central government because during my tenure there was serious demand from chief ministers and finance ministers of several states for these services.
    That means the incumbent must have a capability commensurate with these roles. Ideally, of course, these capabilities should come close to meeting Keynes’ job description: “The master-economist must possess a rare combination of gifts. He must be mathematician, historian, statesman, philosopher — in some degree. He must understand symbols and speak in words. He must contemplate the particular in terms of the general and touch abstract and concrete in the same flight of thought. He must study the present in the light of the past for the purposes of the future. No part of man’s nature or his institutions must lie entirely outside his regard. He must be purposeful and disinterested in a simultaneous mood; as aloof and incorruptible as an artist, yet sometimes as near to earth as a politician.”
    To this impossibly demanding list of attributes, I would add two more from personal experience. Policy advisers must understand the psychology of the key decision-makers in government, not least because persuasion involves stoking vanities, avoiding ruffling egos, exploiting idiosyncracies, discerning biases and prejudices, and pressing the right buttons at the right moments. (Keynes himself demonstrated in his brilliant Economic Consequences of the Peace an uncanny ability to read the minds of the three key protagonists and their role in shaping the Treaty of Versailles). Hence, psychologising and schmoosing — deployed to making the case that good economics is good politics — are key parts of the CEA’s job description.
    Assembling teams is another key task for the CEAs. Whether writing comprehensive and ambitious Economic Surveys, working on the numerous policy issues, preparing high-frequency briefs, or understanding data better, the CEA has to form a core team built around the IES staff in the Ministry of Finance and then add to it, as appropriate, “outsiders” (such as bright young researchers from universities) and colleagues in other parts of government. The broader and more ambitious the remit of a CEA, the greater the need for team-building.
    In addition to broad attributes, since the CEA is supposed to be an expert, she/he must also possess specific expertise grounded in familiarity with all the relevant academic and policy research. Above all, expertise in macro-economics to discharge the bread-and-butter responsibilities of working in the Ministry of Finance, which in this globalised era necessarily means expertise in international macro-economics. In addition, that expertise should extend to macro-development economics (for example, trade, tax, fiscal, and financial policies) in order to handle the range of issues that the Ministry of Finance is inevitably involved in and that India will necessarily confront as a still-developing country.
    International macroeconomics in particular is hard. It is inherently general equilibrium in nature, involving at least five or six markets and their complex interactions: Goods (tradable and non-tradable), domestic money and domestic bonds, and their foreign counterparts. Proficiency in it requires academic knowledge, technical training and practice; it is not something that can be acquired quickly on the fly. A corollary is that being a good economist or financial analyst will not be qualification enough for being a CEA.
    A third consequence of being a public institution is that the Office of CEA must engender public trust. That requires reconciling the privilege of helping the government and being its spokesman with discharging certain fiduciary responsibilities to the country at large. In other words, the incumbent must strongly support the government without spinning on behalf of it, must seek to combine fealty to the government with fidelity to the larger good, and must focus on immediate policy agendas without losing sight of longer term consequences. Put in Mahabharata’s terms, a CEA must practise both loyalty and dharma, aspire to be both Karna and Arjuna.
    In turn, that means that CEAs, in addition to specific expertise, must possess a certain attitude and disposition of providing honest, disinterested advice and speaking truth to power in deliberations within government. They must advance good ideas and flush out bad ones in their capacity as intellectual sanitation workers (as the Nobel laureate Robert Solow put it). The fact that the CEA is part outsider — with outside options — is critically important to being such a counsellor. (Whether, to what extent and when, such truth-speaking — never on matters beyond economics — should spill into the public domain are much more controversial questions, admitting of genuinely divergent perspectives).
    I have listed the ideal CEA’s attributes. But let me hasten to add that that does not mean that I either possessed them or met the standards of an effective CEA. Indeed, I have probably fallen severely short in many respects which future CEAs could learn from.
    A final thought. This idea of the CEA as a unique public institution — rather than as just another cog, albeit technocratic, in the vast machinery of the government of the day — must be fully embraced by governments and finance ministers. I am grateful that this government and, especially Minister Arun Jaitley, did so enthusiastically.
    So, as the lights go out, the exit door beckons, and the succession gets underway, it is worth reflecting on this unique Indian institution of the Chief Economic Adviser. It seems worthy of preservation and nurturing.
    The writer is the soon-to-be former Chief Economic Adviser to the Government of India.

    'Possible origin of human speech revealed'. Neuronal basis for speech. Indus Script Cipher highlights pronunciation variants in Indian sprachbund, 'speech union'

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    https://tinyurl.com/yc6yzcaoI provide below some examples of semantics, highlighting pronunciation variants in Indian sprachbund (speech union)

    Hieroglyph: ibha, karibha, 'elephant': ibha m. ʻ elephant ʼ Mn. Pa. ibha -- m., Pk. ibha -- , iha -- , Si. iba Geiger EGS 22: rather ← Pa.(CDIAL 1587) karabhá m. ʻ camel ʼ MBh., ʻ young camel ʼ Pañcat., ʻ young elephant ʼ BhP. 2. kalabhá -- ʻ young elephant or camel ʼ Pañcat. [Poss. a non -- aryan kar -- ʻ elephant ʼ also in karḗṇu -- , karin -- EWA i 165] 1. Pk. karabha -- m., °bhī -- f., karaha -- m. ʻ camel ʼ, S. karahu°ho m., P. H. karhā m., Marw. karhau JRAS 1937, 116, OG. karahu m., OM. karahā m.; Si. karaba ʻ young elephant or camel ʼ.2. Pa. kalabha -- m. ʻ young elephant ʼ, Pk. kalabha -- m., °bhiā -- f., kalaha -- m.; Ku. kalṛo ʻ young calf ʼ; Or. kālhuṛi ʻ young bullock, heifer ʼ; Si. kalam̆bayā ʻ young elephant ʼ.Addenda: karabhá -- : OMarw. karaha ʻ camel ʼ. (CDIAL 2797) இபம்² ipam , n. < ibha. Elephant; யானை. திசையிபச் செவி (கலிங். புதுப். 331). ivakkunram'elephant mountain' (Tamil)
    Metaphor, rupaka or rebus (similar sounding metal wealth catalogue entry): Ta. ayil iron. Ma. ayir, ayiram any ore. Ka. aduru native metal. Tu. ajirda karba very hard iron. (DEDR 192) ib 'iron' (Santali)

    Hieroglyph: scorpion:vŕ̊ścika m. (vr̥ścana -- m. lex.) ʻ scorpion ʼ RV., ʻ cater- pillar covered with bristles ʼ lex. [Variety of form for ʻ scorpion ʼ in MIA. and NIA. due to taboo? <-> √vraśc?] Pa. vicchika -- m. ʻ scorpion ʼ, Pk. vicchia -- , viṁchia -- m., Sh.koh. bičh m. (< *vr̥ści -- ?), Ku. bichī, A. bisā (also ʻ hairy caterpillar ʼ: -- ī replaced by m. ending -- ā), B. Or. bichā, Mth. bīch, Bhoj. Aw.lakh. bīchī, H. poet. bīchī f., bīchā m., G. vīchīvĩchī m.; -- *vicchuma -- : Paš.lauṛ. uċúm, dar. učum, S. vichū̃ m., (with greater deformation) L.mult. vaṭhũhã, khet. vaṭṭhũha; -- Pk. vicchua -- , viṁchua -- m., L. vichū m., awāṇ. vicchū, P. bicchū m., Or. (Sambhalpur) bichu, Mth. bīchu, H. bicchūbīchū m., G. vīchu m.; -- Pk. viccu -- , °ua -- , viṁcua-- m., K. byucu m. (← Ind.), P.bhaṭ. biccū, WPah.bhal. biċċū m., cur. biccū, bhiḍ. biċċoṭū n. ʻ young scorpion ʼ, M. vīċũvĩċū m. (vĩċḍā m. ʻ large scorpion ʼ), vĩċvī°ċvīṇ°ċīṇ f., Ko. viccuviṁcuiṁcu. -- N. bacchiũ ʻ large hornet ʼ? (Scarcely < *vapsi -- ~ *vaspi -- ). vr̥ścikapattrikā -- .Addenda: vŕ̊ścika -- : Garh. bicchū, °chī ʻ scorpion ʼ, A. also bichā (phonet. -- s -- )CDIAL 12081) bicha 'scorpion' rebus:; bica 'haematite, ferrite ore' 

    Hieroglyph: boar: baḍhia = a castrated boar, a hog; rebus: baḍhi 'a caste who work both in iron and wood'  వడ్రంగి, వడ్లంగి, వడ్లవాడు (p. 1126) vaḍraṅgi, vaḍlaṅgi, vaḍlavāḍu or వడ్లబత్తుడు vaḍrangi. [Tel.] n. A carpenter. వడ్రంగము, వడ్లపని, వడ్రము or వడ్లంగితనము vaḍrangamu. n. The trade of a carpenter. వడ్లవానివృత్తి. వడ్రంగిపని. వడ్రంగిపిట్ట or వడ్లంగిపిట్ట vaḍrangi-piṭṭa. n. A woodpecker. దార్వాఘాటము. వడ్లకంకణము vaḍla-kankaṇamu. n. A curlew. ఉల్లంకులలో భేదము. వడ్లత or వడ్లది vaḍlata. n. A woman of the carpenter caste. vardhaki m. ʻ carpenter ʼ MBh. [√vardh] Pa. vaḍḍhaki -- m. ʻ carpenter, building mason ʼ; Pk. vaḍḍhaï -- m. ʻ carpenter ʼ, °aïa -- m. ʻ shoemaker ʼ; WPah. jaun. bāḍhōī ʻ carpenter ʼ, (Joshi) bāḍhi m., N. baṛhaïbaṛahi, A. bārai, B. bāṛaï°ṛui, Or. baṛhaï°ṛhāi, (Gaṛjād) bāṛhoi, Bi. baṛa, Bhoj. H. baṛhaī m., M. vāḍhāyā m., Si. vaḍu -- vā.(CDIAL 11375)

    baḍaga is a takṣa, divine tvaṣṭr̥ of R̥gveda, he is a yajña puruṣa as evidenced in Khajuraho monumental varāha sculpture.. He is the very embodiment of the Veda, Veda puruṣa.  त्वष्टृ m. a carpenter , maker of carriages (= त्/अष्टृAV. xii , 3 , 33; " creator of living beings " , the heavenly builder 

    Hieroglyph: फडा phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága &c. फडी phaḍī f (Dim. of फडा) The expanded hood of Coluber Nága &c. फडी फिंदारणें To expand its hood--the नाग. phaṭa n. ʻ expanded hood of snake ʼ MBh. 2. *phēṭṭa -- 2. [Cf. phuṭa -- m., °ṭā -- f., sphuṭa -- m. lex., °ṭā -- f. Pañcat. (Pk. phuḍā -- f.), sphaṭa -- m., °ṭā -- f., sphōṭā -- f. lex. and phaṇa -- 1. Conn. words in Drav. T. Burrow BSOAS xii 386]1. Pk. phaḍa -- m.n. ʻ snake's hood ʼ, °ḍā -- f., M. phaḍā m., °ḍī f.2. A. pheṭphẽṭ.(CDIAL 9040) phaṇa1 m. ʻ expanded hood of snake (esp. of cobra) ʼ MBh.(CDIAL 9042) फडा (p. 313phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága &c. Ta. patam cobra's hood. Ma. paṭam id. Ka. peḍe id. 
    Te. paḍaga id. Go. (S.) paṛge, (Mu.) baṛak, (Ma.) baṛki, (F-H.) biṛki hood of serpent (Voc. 2154). / Turner, CDIAL, no. 9040, Skt. (s)phaṭa-, sphaṭā- a serpent's expanded hood, Pkt. phaḍā- id. For IE etymology, see Burrow, The Problem of Shwa in Sanskrit, p. 45.(DEDR 47) 

    Rebus: phaḍa फड ‘manufactory, company, guild, public office’, keeper of all accounts, registers. फडपूस (p. 313) phaḍapūsa f (फड & पुसणें) Public or open inquiry. फडफरमाश or  (p. 313) phaḍapharamāśa or sa f ( H & P) Fruit, vegetables &c. furnished on occasions to Rajas and public officers, on the authority of their order upon the villages; any petty article or trifling work exacted from the Ryots by Government or a public officer. 

    Rebus 2: metals manufactory, retail shop, artificer's workshop: फड्या  phaḍyā m ( H) One who sells (grain &c.) in small quantities, a retail-dealer.  फडनीस फडनिविशी or सी phaḍaniviśī or sī & फडनिवीस Commonly फड- निशी & फडनीस.  phaḍanīsa m ( H) A public officer,--the keeper of the registers &c. By him were issued all grants, commissions, and orders; and to him were rendered all accounts from the other departments. He answers to Deputy auditor and accountant. Formerly the head Kárkún of a district-cutcherry who had charge of the accounts &c. was called फडनीस. फडझडती phaḍajhaḍatī f sometimes फडझाडणी f A clearing off of public business (of any business comprehended under the word फड q. v.): also clearing examination of any फड or place of public business. 2 fig. Scolding vehemently; paying off. v काढ, घे g. of o. 3 Search of or inquiry at the several फड q.v.; taking the accounts of the several फड (as to arrivals of goods, sales, rates &c.) फडकरी phaḍakarī m A man belonging to a company or band (of players, showmen &c.) 2 A superintendent or master of a फड or public place. See under फड. 3 A retail-dealer (esp. in grain). फड phaḍa m ( H) A place of public business or public resort; as a court of justice, an exchange, a mart, a counting-house, a custom-house, an auction-room: also, in an ill-sense, as खेळण्या- चा फड A gambling-house, नाचण्याचा फड A nachhouse, गाण्याचा or ख्यालीखुशालीचा फड A singingshop or merriment shop. The word expresses freely Gymnasium or arena, circus, club-room, debating-room, house or room or stand for idlers, newsmongers, gossips, scamps &c. 2 The spot to which field-produce is brought, that the crop may be ascertained and the tax fixed; the depot at which the Government-revenue in kind is delivered; a place in general where goods in quantity are exposed for inspection or sale. 3 Any office or place of extensive business or work,--as a factory, manufactory, arsenal, dock-yard, printing-office &c. 4 A plantation or field (as of ऊस, वांग्या, मिरच्या, खरबुजे &c.): also a standing crop of such produce. 5 fig. Full and vigorous operation or proceeding, the going on with high animation and bustle (of business in general). v चाल, पड, घाल, मांड. 6 A company, a troop, a band or set (as of actors, showmen, dancers &c.) 7 The stand of a great gun. फड पडणें g. of s. To be in full and active operation. 2 To come under brisk discussion. फड मारणें- राखणें-संभाळणें To save appearances, फड मारणें or संपादणें To cut a dash; to make a display (upon an occasion). फडाच्या मापानें With full tale; in flowing measure. फडास येणें To come before the public; to come under general discussion. పట్టెడ  A small anvil. దాగలి. Ta. paṭṭaṭai, paṭṭaṟai anvil, smithy, forge. Ka. paṭṭaḍe, paṭṭaḍi anvil, workshop. Te. paṭṭika, paṭṭeḍa anvil; paṭṭaḍa workshop. Cf. 86 Ta. aṭai (DEDR 3865) பட்டடை¹ paṭṭaṭai , n. prob. படு¹- + அடை¹-. 1. [T. paṭṭika, K. paṭṭaḍe.] Anvil; அடைகல். (பிங்.) சீரிடங்காணி னெறிதற்குப் பட்ட டை (குறள், 821). 2. [K. paṭṭaḍi.] Smithy, forge; கொல்லன் களரி. 3. Stock, heap, pile, as of straw, firewood or timber; குவியல். (W.)பட்டறை¹ paṭṭaṟai n. < பட்டடை¹. 1. See பட்டடை, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 14. 2. Machine; யந்திரம். 3. Rice-hulling machine; நெல்லுக் குத்தும் யந்திரம். Mod. 4. Factory; தொழிற்சாலை. Mod. 5. Beam of a house; வீட்டின் உத்திரம். 6. Wall of the required height from the flooring of a house; வீட்டின் தளத்திலிருந்து எழுப்ப வேண்டும் அளவில் எழுப்பிய சுவர். வீடுகளுக்குப் பட்டறை மட்டம் ஒன்பதடி உயரத்துக்குக் குறை யாமல் (சர்வா. சிற். 48).பட்டறை² paṭṭaṟai, n. < K. paṭṭale. 1. Community; சனக்கூட்டம். 2. Guild, as of workmen; தொழிலாளர் சமுதாயம்.கடைச்சற்காரன் kaṭaiccaṟ-kāraṉ, n. < id. +. Turner; கடைசல்வேலைசெய்வோன். (W.)கடைச்சற்பட்டை kaṭaiccaṟ-paṭṭai, n. < id. +. Turner's lathe; கடைச்சலுளியின் சுற் றுக்கட்டை. (C.E.M.)கடைசற்பட்டரை kaṭaicaṟ-paṭṭarain. < id. +. Turner's shop; கடைசல்வேலைசெய்யுஞ் சாலை. Loc.கொல்லன்பட்டரை kollaṉ-paṭṭarain. < id. +. Blacksmith's workshop, smithy; கொல்லன் உலைக்கூடம்.

    Posted at: Jul 23, 2018, 6:02 PM; last updated: Jul 23, 2018, 6:02 PM (IST)

    'Possible origin of human speech revealed'

    Related publication: Neuron
    Functional Networks for Social Communication in the Macaque Monkey
    Stephen Vincent Shepherd and Winrich A. Freiwald
    'Possible origin of human speech revealed'
    Photo: Thinkstock
    New York
    Scientists have shed new light on the underpinnings of human speech by identifying neural circuits in the brains of monkeys, which they say could represent a common evolutionary origin of social communication.
    According to a study published in the journal Neuron, these circuits are involved in face recognition, facial expression, and emotion. And they may very well have given rise to our singular capacity for speech.
    Working with rhesus macaque monkeys, the researchers from Rockefeller University in the US had previously identified neural networks responsible for recognising faces—networks that closely resemble ones found in the human brain.
    In the latest study, Winrich Freiwald and colleagues investigated the patterns of activation that occur within and between various networks to better understand how the brain coordinates the intricate task of social communication.
    They used a novel experimental setup to take Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans of the brains of monkeys as they watched video clips of other monkeys making communicative facial expressions.
    In some of the clips, the videotaped monkeys looked off to the side, mimicking a situation in which the subject monkeys were passively observing communication between other animals without participating in it.
    In others, the prerecorded animals appeared to be looking directly at the subject monkeys, simulating face-to-face social interaction.
    These differences in social context proved to be significant. When the monkeys in the clips made a friendly lip-smacking gesture, the subject monkeys responded in kind—but only when their prerecorded peers appeared to be making direct eye contact with them.
    Based on previous research, the scientists expected the face-perception regions of the monkeys' brains to simply feed information to a region associated with emotion, which would then stimulate the regions responsible for producing facial expressions.
    All of those areas were indeed activated. However, much to the researchers' surprise, they did not shuttle information to one another in straightforward, sequential fashion, researchers said.
    Videos that simulated social interaction through direct eye contact caused an unexpected third neural circuit to light up, they said.
    This suggests that specific areas of the animals' brains are sensitive to social context, and perform the specialised cognitive functions necessary for social communication.
    Producing facial expressions in response to the videotaped monkeys prompted an entirely different pattern of brain activation.
    Generating a friendly lipsmack, in particular, activated a region that resembles Broca's area, a portion of the human brain concerned with the production of speech, Freiwald said.
    This suggests that monkey facial expressions like lipsmacks might be evolutionary precursors to human speech—a possibility that some scientists had previously discounted on the grounds that such gestures were too simple or reflexive to pave the way for something as subtle and sophisticated as human verbal communication, he said. PTI

    https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/science-technology/-possible-origin-of-human-speech-revealed/625294.html

    Monkey studies reveal possible origin of human speech



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