A thought on NaMo's strategic summit with Xi Jinping. Kalidasa's first śloka in Kumarasambhavam: Between eastern and western oceans is Himalayas like a measuring stick of earth.China, India guardians of this treasure, Water reservoir of human life. जीवेम शरदः शतम्
See: A note on Himalayan glacial inventory Full text: https://www.the-cryosphere.net/8/2313/2014/tc-8-2313-2014.pdf H. Frey et al., 2014, Estimating the volume of glaciers in the Himalayan–Karakoram region using different methods in: The Cryosphere, 8, 2313–2333, 2014
The strategic summit between NaMo and Xi Jinping should be a celebration of the Ancient Maritime Tin Route which revolutionized the Metals Age of 5th millennium BCE and provides a framework for developing relations between China and India as guardians of the Himalayan Water Tower, which is the largest water tower of the globe servicing over 60% of world population.
Older Belt, Industrial Revolution, OBIR can also be called: Tin Belt Metals Age Revolution TBMAR
The hype about Ancient Silk Road should be reviewed in the context of another Ancient Route which existed two millennia earlier and constituted the Ancient Maritime Route along the Himalayan foothills and the Indian Ocean Rim -- a route which can be called Ancient Tin Route which was the engine for the world's first Industrial Revolution of the Metals Age of 5th millennium BCE.
India's deep roots in contacts with Ancient Far East has been well documented. by National Geographic and French Epigraphist George Coedes in a monumental work titled: Histoire Ancienne Des Etats Hindouisés D'extrême-Orient d'Extrême-Orient, 1944 (Trans. History of Hinduised States of the Ancient Far East).
Evidence for the Ancient Maritime Tin Route centred on India comes from the Indus Script Hypertexts used on Dong Son and Karen Bronze drums. These drums carried on the tin-bronze tympanums and body of the drums, exquisite pictorial metalwork catalogues proclaiming the metallurgical competence of artisans of the Ancient Far East.
Bronze Age sites of eastern Bha_rata and neighbouring areas: 1. Koldihwa; 2. Khairdih; 3. Chirand; 4. Mahisadal; 5. Pandu Rajar Dhibi; 6. Mehrgarh; 7. Harappa; 8. Mohenjo-daro; 9. Ahar; 10.Kayatha; 11. Navdatoli; 12. Inamgaon; 13. Non Pa Wai; 14. Nong Nor; 15. Ban Na Di and Ban Chiang; 16. Non Nok Tha; 17. Thanh Den; 18. Shizhaishan; 19. Ban Don Ta Phet [After Fig. 8.1 in: Charles Higham, 1996, The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia, Cambridge University Press].
Some Bronze Age sites, Far East. (After Fig. 2.2 in Higham, Charles, 1996, The bronze age of Southeast Asia, Cambridge Univ. Press
Stannifrous areas of the world (From RG Taylor, Geology of Tin Deposits, Amsterdam 1979, 6, fig. 2.1)
Metals Age of 5th millennium gained momentum with the source of tin in Himalayan river basins. Tin mixedwith copper created bronze and promoted the world's first industrial revoluion. This Tin Bronze Age was accompanied by the advances in zinc smelting and iron-steel making in the Ancient Far East including Ancient India.These metallurgical advances created an Ancient Maritime Tin Route -- along the Indian Ocean Rim and on the Himalayan waterways -- which predates Silk Road by 2 millennia.
This Tin Route is a celebration of the world's first industrial metals age revolution celebrated by the present made by Porut to Alexander of an Indian Wootz -- ukku, 'steel' sword. The celebration is recorded on a painting in Steel Authority of India Ltd. Institute, Ranchi.
This event of 4th cent. BCE explains the33% contribution made by India to world GDP.
A thought on NaMo's strategic summit with Xi Jinping. Kalidasa's first śloka in Kumarasambhavam: Between eastern and western oceans is Himalayas like a measuring stick of earth.China, India guardians of this treasure, Water reservoir of human life. जीवेम शरदः शतम्
See: A note on Himalayan glacial inventory Full text: https://www.the-cryosphere.net/8/2313/2014/tc-8-2313-2014.pdf H. Frey et al., 2014, Estimating the volume of glaciers in the Himalayan–Karakoram region using different methods in: The Cryosphere, 8, 2313–2333, 2014
Many hoards of coins of the Mauryan empire have been found.
The total number of coins of silver, copper, gold run into millions. The work in these mints of Mahajanapadas and Mauryan Empire are emphatically a continuum of the artisan traditions of Sarasvati Civilization which documented over 8000 Indus Script Inscriptions as metalwork catalogues accounting and classifying the wealth produced by the guilds of artificers and seafaring merchants of the Bronze-Iron or Metals Age from 5th millennium BCE.
The mints which produced these coins punched the early coins with 'devices or symbols' to proclaim the metallurgical competence and metalwork repertoire of the mint artisans. Each Indus Script hypertext used as a 'device' on the coins are read rebus in Meluhha, Bharatiya sprachbund 'speech union'.
This is a continuum of the situation seen on the earlier Magadha coins which also display metalwork catalogues on Magadha Janapada coins. A comprehensive list of symbols has been compiled by Theobald. In his 1890 monograph, Theobald lists 312 'symbols' deployed on punch-marked coins. He revises the list to 342 symbols in his 1901 monograph.
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W. Theobald, 1890, Notes on some of the symbols found on the punch-marked coins of Hindustan, and on their relationship to the archaic symbolism of other races and distant lands, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Bombay Branch (JASB), Part 1. History , Literature etc., Nos. III & IV, 1890, pp. 181 to 268, Plates VIII to XI
W. Theobald, 1901, A revision of the symbols on the ‘Karshapana’ Coinage, described in Vol. LIX, JASB, 1890, Part I, No. 3, and Descriptions of many additional symbols, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Bombay Branch (JASB), No. 2, 1901 (Read December, 1899).
See Plates VIII to XI of Theobald, 1890 listing symbols on punch-marked coins
Thus, the Indus Script Hypertexts constitute an accounting of the wealth of Magadha Janapada and the Mauryan Empire, providing a framework to analyze how wealth was produced through mint- and metalwork of the Bronze-Iron or Metals Age during 4th to 2nd centuries BCE.
Forty-two Punch-marked coin symbols are identified on Magadha coins, and referenced as PMS1 to PMS42 in the following rebus readings of these symbols as Indus Script Hypertexts:
PMS1 arka 'sun' arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc]Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624) rebus: arka 'gold' eraka 'moltencast'
arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc] Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624) அருக்கன் arukkaṉ, n. < arka. Sun; சூரி யன். அருக்க னணிநிறமுங் கண்டேன் (திவ். இயற். 3, 1).(Tamil) agasāle 'goldsmithy' (Kannada) అగసాలి [ agasāli ] or అగసాలెవాడు agasāli. n. A goldsmith. కంసాలివాడు. (Telugu) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Kannada) cf. eruvai = copper (Tamil) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.); erako molten cast (Tulu) Rebus: eraka = copper (Ka.) eruvai = copper (Ta.); ere - a dark-red colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). eraka, era, er-a = syn. erka, copper, weapons (Ka.) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Kannada) akka, aka (Tadbhava of arka) metal; akka metal (Te.) arka = copper (Skt.) erako molten cast (Tulu)
PMS2 Central dotted circle: dha 'strand' rebus: dhatu, dhav'mineral' PLUS vaṭṭa'round' together dhā̆vaḍ'smelter' PLUS Three ingots, three arrows: kolom 'three' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge'; Smithy for ingots: mũh, 'ingot' PLUS kolimi 'smithy'; Forge for equipment: kanda 'arrow' rebus: kanda 'equipment' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'forge'
PMS3 khandaka 'division' (Pali) rebus: khaṇḍa 'equipment' PMS4 kunda 'nave'
rebus: -kō̃da -कोँद । इष्टिकाभ्राष्ट्रः f. a brick-kiln. (Kashmiri) kõdār'turner' (Bengali). āra 'spoke' rebus: āra 'brass' eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'molten cast'.
PMS18 ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal'
PLUS dāmā ʻ peg to tie a buffalo' (Assamese) rebus: dhāu 'mineral ore'; kūṭa 'apeg, etc.'; kūṭi 'a hat turban peg or stand' (Kannada) Vikalpa: khut.i Nag. (Or. khut.i_) diminutive of khuṇṭa, a pegdriven into the ground, as for tying a goat (Mundari) khuṇṭi = pillar (Santali) Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'
PMS38daṭhi, daṭi'stalks of certain plants' Rebus: dhatu ‘mineral' Vikalpa: kāṇḍaकाण्डः m. the stalk or stem of a reed. Rebus:kāṇḍa‘tools, pots and pans and metal-ware’.
PMS39 skándhas<-> n. ʻbranching top of a treeʼRV.; H. kandh m. ʻtree trunk, thick branchʼ(CDIAL 13629, 13627) Rebus:kand 'fire-altar' khaṇḍa 'implements'. PMS40 kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'working in iron'
[quote]The Mauryan empire grew out of the Magadha janapada and kingdom. The empire was founded around 322 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya, a man of humble origins who usurped the Magadhan throne of the Nandas. The Magadhan kingdom was already large and Chandragupta expnded it further. The Seleucid emperor, Seleucos I, ceded to him all the Greek lands south of the Hindu Kush mountains. Thus his empire stretched through modern Pakistan into Afghanistan. Chandragupta is said to have given up the throne in order to become an ascetic. His son, Bindusara, continued the expansion of the empire, as did his grandson, Ashoka. However, after witnessing the aftermath of a particularly bloody battle during the Mauryan conquest of Kalinga in modern-day Orissa, Ashoka was overwhelmed with remorse and decided to abandon war altogether. He converted to Buddhism and started to follow a policy of non-violence, spreading the pacifist philosophy of the Buddha throughout his empire and also to other countries through emissaries sent out for that purpose. The Mauryan empire survived for some 50 years after the death of Ashoka, but was eventually overthrown when a general in the army, Pushyamitra Sunga, usurped the throne.
The approximate chronology of the Mauryan kings is as follows: Chandragupta (322-298 BCE) Bindusara (298-272 BCE) Ashoka (272-232 BCE) Dasaratha (232-224 BCE) Samprati (224-215 BCE) Salisuka (215-202 BCE) Devavarman (202-195 BCE) Satadhanvan (195-187 BCE) Brihadratha (187-185 BCE)
The Mauryan coinage consisted almost exclusively of silver karshapanas of roughly 3.4 gm, a series that continued the Magadha karshapana series. Almost all Mauryan coins have five punches, as did the Magadhan coins before them ... a sun, a "6-arm symbol" and three others. Some of the last coins in the series also had a punch on the reverse of the coin. Over time, the flans became smaller and thicker. The economy must have been very prosperous, as the coins seem to have been minted in the millions. Large hoards of Mauryan coins are found to this day and, as a result, the coins are quite inexpensive, especially considering their age. Unfortunately, we do not know what the punches signify, nor do we know exactly which coins were issued by which kings. Indeed, we are not even sure where the Magadhan series ends and the Mauryan series begins.[unquote]
In addition to some of the Punch-marked symbols used on Magadha coins, Silver karṣāpaṇa coins of Mauryan Empire display the following 27 additional Punch-marked symbols or variants (PMS 43 to PMS 72). All these symbols constitute Indus Script Hypertexts,metalwork catalogues:
PMS43 These appear to be three roofed working platforms constituting smithy/forge. kolom 'three' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge'
PMS44 Hare ariant of PMS 27.kharā 'hare' rebus: khār 'blacksmith' PLUS
kurīˊʻcalfʼ(Pr.)(CDIAL 3245) rebus:kuṭhi'smelter'Together, khār 'blacksmith' PLUS kuṭhi 'smelter'
PMS48 Variant of PMS 15. Tree + platform. kuṭi 'tree' rebus kuṭhi'smelter' PLUS மேடைmēṭai, n. [Telugu. mēḍa] 1. Platform, raised floor; தளமுயர்ந்தஇடப்பகுதி. 2. Artificial mound; செய்குன்று. (W.) 3. cf. mēṭa. Storey; terraced house or palace; மாடி. விண்ணார்நிலவுதவழ்மேடை (தாயு. பைங்கிளி. 54).మేడ (p. 1028) mēḍa mēḍa. [Tel.] n. A mansion or large house: an upper chamber, a storey, హర్మ్యము, సౌధము. मेंड (p. 390) mēṇḍa m ( H) Edge, margin, or border of a field, esp. as raised: also a ridge or raised edge more generally. (Marathi) Ta. meṭṭu mound, heap of earth; mēṭu height, eminence, hillock; muṭṭu rising ground, high ground, heap. Ma. mēṭu rising ground, hillock; māṭu hillock, raised ground; miṭṭāl rising ground, an alluvial bank; (Tiyya) maṭṭa hill. Ka. mēḍu height, rising ground, hillock; miṭṭu rising or high ground, hill; miṭṭe state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) muṭṭe heap (as of straw). Tu. miṭṭè prominent, protruding; muṭṭe heap. Te. meṭṭa raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meṭṭu mound; miṭṭa high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mēṭu, mēṭa, mēṭi stack of hay; (Inscr.) meṇṭa-cēnu dry field (cf. meṭṭu-nēla, meṭṭu-vari). Kol. (SR.) meṭṭā hill; (Kin.) meṭṭ, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. meṭṭ hill, mountain.Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) meṭṭa high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) maṭṭā, (Mu.) maṭṭa mountain; (M. L.) meṭāid., hill; (A. D. Ko.) meṭṭa, (Y. Ma. M.) meṭa hill; (SR.) meṭṭā hillock Konḍa meṭa id.
Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) meṭasand hill.(DEDR 5058). Rebus: meḍ‘iron’ (Ho.Munda)mẽṛhetiron(metal),meD'iron' (Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic)
PMS49 Variant of PMS3 khandaka 'division' (Pali) rebus: khaṇḍa 'equipment' PLUS infixed 'twist' hieroglyph: मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ
PMS50 This is a variant of the 'one-horned young bull + standard device' which occurs on thousand of Indus Script inscriptions. In ths PMS 50 variant, the young bull is displayed with two horns + standard device + a polar star. The rebus readings are:
सांगड sāṅgaḍa 'joinedparts' Rebus sã̄gah, saṅgrahḥ संग्रहः 'catalogue, list' . the parts joined are: kammata, kamaṭa 'portable furnace' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS kunda 'lathe' rebus: kō̃da 'kiln'. कोंद kōnda 'young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda 1. 'kiln';2. 'engraver, turner'.
PMS52khambhaṛā 'fish fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS ayo'fish' rebus: aya'iron'ayas'alloy metal' PLUS dula'two' rebus: dul'metal casting' PLUS as on PMS13 पोळ [pōḷa] 'zebu' Rebus: पोळ [pōḷa] 'magnetite, ferriteore'
PMS54 dhatu, dhav 'mineral' PLUS vaṭṭa 'round' together dhā̆vaḍ'smelter' PLUS मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper' (Munda. Slavic) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Munda). Rebus: medha 'yajna'.medhā 'dhanam'.
gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa fire-altar, equipment.PMS55 mr̤eka,melh 'goat' rebus: milakkhu, mleccha-mukha'copper' PLUS kuṭi'tree' rebus kuṭhi 'smelter' PLUS मेढ [ mēḍha ] Thepolar star (Marathi) Rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper' (Munda. Slavic) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Munda). Rebus: medha 'yajna'medhā 'dhanam'
PMS56 ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS variant of PMS8 dula 'pair' rebus; dul 'metal casting' PLUS
PMS59 kole.l 'temple' rebus: kole.l 'smithy, forge' PLUS मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper' (Munda. Slavic) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Munda). Rebus: medha 'yajna'.medhā 'dhanam'. PLUS ?frog Kur. mūxā frog. Malt. múqe id. mūkaka- frog (Skt.) (DEDR 5023) Rebus: mū̃h 'ingot'.Vikalpa: कमठ [ kamaṭha ] m S A tortoise or turtle.(Marathi) kamaṭha crab, tortoise (Gujarati); 'frog' (Skt.); rebus: kammaṭa 'mint' (Kannada)
PMS60 dha 'strand' rebus: dhatu, dhav 'mineral' PLUS vaṭṭa 'round' together dhā̆vaḍ'smelter' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS kuṭika— 'bent' MBh. Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) .PLUS as on PMS 29 కమ్మటము [ kammaṭamu ] Same as కమటము 'portable furnace'. కమ్మటీడు kammaṭīḍu. [Tel.] A man of the goldsmith caste Rebus: kammaṭa 'coinage, mint, coiner'
PMS61 B. kāṭhā ʻ measure of length ʼ; Or. kāṭha ʻ wood ʼ, °ṭhi ʻ splinter ʼ, kāṭhā ʻ measure of land of 320 square cubits ʼ; Mth. Bhoj. Aw. lakh. H. kāṭh m. ʻ wood ʼ, H. kāṭhī f. ʻ wood, sheath, saddle ʼ; G. kāṭh n. ʻ wood ʼ, °ṭhī f. ʻ stick, measure of 5 cubits ʼ; M. kāṭhī ʻ pole, horse's penis, measure of 5 cubits ʼ(CDIAL 3120) kāṭi'body stature Rebus: kāṭi 'fire-place,. trench'
PMS62 tulādhāra ʻ bearing a balance ʼ Yājñ., m. ʻ name of a merchant ʼ MBh., ʻ merchant ʼ lex. [tulāˊ -- , dhāra -- 1]Pa. tulādhāra -- m. ʻ jeweller ʼ; Si. tarahalā ʻ goldsmith ʼ(CDIAL 5887) tōlakam.n. ʻ a weight of gold or silver ʼ Rājat.,tōla-- m. lex. [√tul]Pk.tōla-- m.n. ʻ a weight ʼ; Sh. (Lor.)tolom. ʻ unit of value = 12 rupees ʼ; S.torom. ʻ weight (for weighing) ʼ, L.tolām. ʻ a partic. weight = one rupee ʼ (→ S.tolom. ʻ a partic. weight = 90 ratīs ʼ); P.tolām. ʻ a weight = 12 māṣas ʼ; Ku.tolm. ʻ weight, prestige ʼ,twālāʻ weight of one rupee ʼ, gng.tōlʻ weight ʼ; A. B.tolāʻ weight of one rupee ʼ, Or.toḷā, OAw. H.tolām. (→ N.tolāʻ 1/80 of a seer ʼ, G.tolom.), M.toḷām.tōláyatiʻ lifts, weights, considers ʼ MBh. [√tul]Pk.tōlēi,°laïʻ weights ʼ; Kt.tuŕe/tumʻ I weigh ʼ; Dm. Paš. Gaw. Kal. Phal.tōl-- ʻ to weigh, measure ʼ; Bshk.tol-- ʻ to weigh, think ʼ; Sh.gil.tolóĭki̯, koh.tolōnṷ, gur.tolyōmṷʻ to weigh, measure ʼ; K.tōlunʻ to weigh ʼ, S.toraṇu, L.tolaṇ, P.toḷnāKu.tolṇo; A.tolibaʻ to lift, bring up ( a child) ʼ; B.tolāʻ to weigh ʼ; Or.toḷibāʻ to raise, build, collect, pluck (fruit or flowers) ʼ; H.tolnāʻ to weigh ʼ (taulnāover -- sanskritized withauforo→ N.taulanuʻ to weigh ʼ), G.toḷvũ.tōlikā -- f. ʻ wall round a watch tower ʼ BhP. Addenda:tōláyati:Garh.tolṇu(ḷn?) ʻ to weigh ʼ rather <tōlya-- .tōlyaʻ to be weighed ʼ,taulya-- n. ʻ weight ʼ Hcat. [√tul]Pk.tolla-- n. ʻ weight ʼ; K.tōlm. ʻ weight ʼ, L.tōlm., P.tolm.; H.tolm. ʻ a standard weight ʼ; M.tol n. ʻ weight for weighing ʼ.Addenda:tōlya -- :WPah.kṭg.tōlm. ʻ weight, unit of weight ʼ, kṭg. (kc.)tolṇõʻ to weigh ʼ (rather than <tōláyati); J.tōlm. ʻ weight ʼ,tolṇuʻ to weigh ʼ; Garh.tolʻ weight ʼ.(CDIAL 5978 to 5980)
PMS63 Ironsmith, coppersmith. Variant of PMS5 karibha,ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' PLUS a variant of 'black ant' hieroglyph of Indus Script.
h131 4271Text
'ant' hieroglyph
Hieroglyph: చీమ [ cīma ] chīma. [Tel.] n. An ant. కొండచీమ. the forest ant. రెక్కలచీమ a winged ant. పారేచీమను వింటాడు he can hear an ant crawl, i.e., he is all alive.చీమదూరని అడవి a forest impervious even to an ant. చలిచీమ a black ant; పై పారేపక్షి కిందపారే చీమ (proverb) The bird above, the ant below, i.e., I had no chance with him. చీమంత of the size of an ant. చీమపులిchīma-puli. n. The ant lion, an ant-eater.
Rebus: †cīmara -- ʻ copper ʼ in cīmara -- kāra -- ʻ coppersmith ʼ in Saṁghāṭa -- sūtra Gilgit MS. 37 folio 85 verso, 3 (= zaṅs -- mkhan in Tibetan Pekin text Vol. 28 Japanesefacsimile 285 a 3 which in Mahāvyutpatti 3790 renders śaulbika -- BHS ii 533. But the Chinese version (Taishō issaikyō ed. text no. 423 p. 971 col. 3, line 2) has t'ie ʻ iron ʼ: H. W. Bailey 21.2.65). [The Kaf. and Dard. word for ʻ iron ʼ appears also in Bur. čhomār, čhumər. Turk. timur (NTS ii 250) may come from the same unknown source. Semant. cf. lōhá -- ]Ash. ċímä, ċimə ʻ iron ʼ (ċiməkára ʻ blacksmith ʼ), Kt. čimé;, Wg. čümāˊr, Pr. zíme, Dm. čimár(r), Paš.lauṛ. čimāˊr, Shum. čímar, Woṭ. Gaw. ċimár,Kal. čīmbar, Kho. čúmur, Bshk. čimer, Tor. čimu, Mai. sē̃war, Phal. čímar, Sh.gil. čimĕr (adj. čĭmārí), gur. čimăr m., jij. čimer, K. ċamuru m. (adj.ċamaruwu).(CDIAL 14496) చీముంత [ cīmunta ] chīmunta.. [Tel.] n. A metal vessel. చెంబు. 'bow and arrow' hieroglyph-multiplex.
kāmaṭhum = a bow; kāmaḍ, kāmaḍum = a chip of bamboo (Gujarati) rebus: kammaṭa 'mint' (Kannada) Ta. kampaṭṭamcoinage, coin.Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭamcoinage,mint.Ka. kammaṭaid.;kammaṭia coiner.(DEDR 1236) kaNDa 'arrow' rebus: kANDa 'pots and pans, implements'
'twist' hieroglyph PLUS (ligature) 'linear stroke' hieroglyph. meD 'twist, curl' rebus: meD 'iron, copper,metal' PLUS koD 'one' rebus: koD 'workshop' dhAv 'strand' rebus: dhAv 'ore, element, dhAtu'
Together, the inscription on Harappa tablet h131 reads: meD koD 'metals ores workshop or smelter/smithy' PLUS meD kANDa 'metal (iron) implements' PLUS cīmara'copper' kammaṭa
'mint,coiner, coinage'.
PMS64 Variant of PMS13 पोळ [pōḷa] 'zebu' Rebus: पोळ [pōḷa] 'magnetite, ferriteore' PLUS मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper' (Munda. Slavic) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Munda). Rebus: medha 'yajna'.medhā 'dhanam'.
PMS67 As on PMS 29 కమ్మటము [ kammaṭamu ] Same as కమటము 'portable furnace'. కమ్మటీడు kammaṭīḍu. [Tel.] A man of the goldsmith caste Rebus: kammaṭa 'coinage, mint, coiner'PLUS मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper' (Munda. Slavic) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Munda). Rebus: medha 'yajna'.medhā 'dhanam'
PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'
PMS68 koda'one' rebus: kod'workshop' PLUS ḍhāḷ = a slope; the inclination of a plane (G.) Rebus: ḍhāḷako = a large metal ingot (Gujarati) PLUS as on PMS 29 కమ్మటము [ kammaṭamu ] Same as కమటము 'portable furnace'. కమ్మటీడు kammaṭīḍu. [Tel.] A man of the goldsmith caste Rebus: kammaṭa 'coinage, mint, coiner'
PMS70 As on PMS3 khandaka 'division' (Pali) rebus: khaṇḍa 'equipment' PLUS kharā 'hare' rebus: khār 'blacksmith'. Thus,blacksmith with forge (to make) metal equipment.
PMS71 mũh, 'ingot' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus, ingot smithy. PLUS sal 'splinter (two)' rebus: sal 'workshop'.
Silver karṣāpaṇa coins of Mauryan Empire ca. 4th - 2nd centuries BCE: 25 coins are listed with distinct sets of Indus Script hypertext clusters.
All the Indus Script hypertexts which include one or more of hypertexts PMS1 to PMS72 (Punch-marked symbols) are proved to be metalwork catalogues signified in Meluhha (Bharatiya sprachbund 'speech union').
Weight: 3.19 gm., Dim: 16 x 17 mm. Ref: GH 477. Weight: 3.43 gm., Dim: 15 x 14 mm. Ref: GH 506.
Weight: 3.14 gm., Dim: 13 x 13 mm. Ref: GH 509. Weight: 3.01 gm., Dim: 15 x 14 mm. Ref: GH 510. Weight: 3.15 gm., Dim: 12 x 12 mm. Ref: GH 512.
Weight: 3.38 gm., Dim: 13 x 15 mm. Ref: GH 516. Weight: 3.35 gm., Dim: 13 x 14 mm. Ref: GH 519. Weight: 3.06 gm., Dim: 16 x 15 mm. Ref: GH 524. Weight: 3.38 gm., Dim: 16 x 9 mm. Ref: GH 530. Weight: 3.43 gm., Dim: 11 x 15 mm. Ref: GH 534. Weight: 3.22 gm., Dim: 13 x 17 mm. Ref: GH 543. Weight: 3.36 gm., Dim: 13 x 12 mm. Ref: GH 549. Weight: 3.08 gm., Dim: 14 x 17 mm. Ref: GH 550. Weight: 3.29 gm., Dim: 13 x 13 mm. Ref: GH 552. Weight: 3.37 gm., Dim: 11 x 16 mm. Ref: GH 555. Weight: 3.46 gm., Dim: 13 x 16 mm. Ref: GH 561. Weight: 3.42 gm., Dim: 16 x 15 mm. Ref: GH 566. Weight: 3.28 gm., Dim: 15 x 14 mm. Ref: GH 568. Weight: 2.90 gm., Dim: 14 x 13 mm. Ref: GH 570. Weight: 3.25 gm., Dim: 12 x 16 mm. Ref: GH 573. Weight: 3.38 gm., Dim: 16 x 15 mm. Ref: GH 574. Weight: 2.99 gm., Dim: 15 x 14 mm. Ref: GH 575. Weight: 3.27 gm., Dim: 11 x 14 mm. Ref: GH 582. Weight: 2.96 gm., Dim: 10 x 15 mm. Ref: GH 591. Weight: 3.24 gm., Dim: 12 x 15 mm. Ref: GH 595. http://coinindia.com/galleries-maurya.html
https://tinyurl.com/ydawf9d7 A remarkable feature to note on thousands of ancient Indian coins is the continued use of Indus Script Hypertexts even after the invention of Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī scripts. While the Brāhmī and Kharoṣṭhī syllabic scripts were used to write down the namesof theissuing rulers, the Indus Script Hypertexts continue to be used to proclaim the metallurgical competence and metallurgical repertoire of ancient Indian mints. This simply means that the Indus Script Cipher which was used to proclaim metalwork catalogues continued from Sarasvati Civilization days of 4th millennium BCE into the historical periods and in the Common Era. हूण Hunnic Kingdom, khār खार् 'blacksmiths' ?, silver drachm, c. 5th century CE Diademed bust of king right, wearing fabtastic winged crown, Tamgha at left, Brāhmī legend at right: Sri Vishvarazukare ? / Fire altar flanked by attendants Weight: 2.91 gm., Diam: 29 mm. Ref: MAC ---
"The Golden Age of the Guptas lasted some 150 years. In the fifth century, Hunnic tribes from the northwest started to pose a serious military challenge to the empire. Kumaragupta and later his son Skandagupta were able to initially repulse these invaders, but eventually the Huns were able to establish a major presence in the northwest of India... It shows a king's bust right in the Sasanian style, wearing a fantastic winged crown that features a sun and moon at the front, a bull's head behind that and a panther head on top, apart from the eagle wings on the sides. We do not know who this king is and the legend on the coin has never been read. This coin is the first one to have a fully legible legend. The letter forms are very complex, but I believe the legend reads Sri Vishvarazukare. The reverse of the coin features a traditional Sasanian style Zoroastrian fire altar, flanked by two attendants."
The -kare suffix in the name:signifies: khār खार् 'blacksmith'. cf. कर्मार m. an artisan , mechanic , artificer; a blacksmith &c RV. x , 72 , 2AV. iii , 5 , 6VS. Mn. iv , 215 &c; karmāˊra m. ʻ blacksmith ʼ RV. [EWA i 176 < stem *karmar -- ~ karman -- , but perh. with ODBL 668 ← Drav. cf. Tam. karumā ʻ smith, smelter ʼ whence meaning ʻ smith ʼ was transferred also to karmakāra -- ]Pa. kammāra -- m. ʻ worker in metal ʼ; Pk. kammāra -- , °aya -- m. ʻ blacksmith ʼ, A. kamār, B. kāmār; Or. kamāra ʻ blacksmith, caste of non -- Aryans, caste of fishermen ʼ; Mth. kamār ʻ blacksmith ʼ, Si. kam̆burā.
Mth. kamarsārī; -- Bi. kamarsāyar?(CDIAL 2898, 2899)khār 1खार् । लोहकारःm. (sg. abl.khāra 1खार; the pl. dat. of this word iskhāran 1खारन्, which is to be distinguished fromkhāran 2,q.v., s.v.), ablacksmith, an iron worker (cf.bandūka-khār,p. 111b,l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as inWahab khār,Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17).khāra-bastaखार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविकाf. the skin bellows of a blacksmith.-büṭhü-ब&above;ठू&below; । लोहकारभित्तिःf. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth.-bāy-बाय् । लोहकारपत्नीf. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34).-dŏkuru-द्वकुरु&below; । लोहकारायोघनःm. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer.-gȧji-ग&above;जि&below;or-güjü-ग&above;जू&below; । लोहकारचुल्लिःf. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth.-hāl-हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुःf. (sg. dat.-höjü-हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf.hāl 5. -kūrü-कूरू&below; । लोहकारकन्याf. a blacksmith's daughter.-koṭu-क&above;टु&below; । लोहकारपुत्रःm. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession.-küṭü-क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्याf. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste.-më˘ʦü 1-म्य&above;च&dotbelow;ू&below; । लोहकारमृत्तिकाf. (for2,see[khāra 3] ), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore.-nĕcyuwu-न्यचिवु&below; । लोहकारात्मजःm. a blacksmith's son.-nay-नय् । लोहकारनालिकाf. (forkhāranay 2,see[khārun] ), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting.-ʦañĕ-च्&dotbelow;ञ । लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराःf.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces.-wānवान् ।लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh-वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas-वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil.(Kashmiri)
I suggest that these 'tamgha' are also Indus Script Hypertexts which signify a portable furnace and a pellet as hieroglyphs; these are rebus signifiers of 'mint' and 'silver'. కమటముkamaṭamu kamaṭamu. [Tel.] n. A portable furnace for melting the precious metals. అగసాలెవాని కుంపటి. "చ కమటము కట్లెసంచియొరగల్లును గత్తెర సుత్తె చీర్ణముల్ ధమనియుస్రావణంబు మొలత్రాసును బట్టెడ నీరుకారు సా నము పటుకారు మూస బలునాణె పరీక్షల మచ్చులాదిగా నమరగభద్రకారక సమాహ్వయు డొక్కరుడుండు నప్పురిన్"హంస. ii. కమ్మటముkammaṭamu Same as కమటము. కమ్మటీడు kammaṭīḍu. [Tel.] A man of the goldsmith caste. Rebus: Ta.kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma.kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner (DEDR 1236)
The small pebbles on the crucible signify: गोटा [ gōṭā ] m A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 3 fig. A grain of rice in the ear. Ex. पावसानें भाताचे गोटे झडले. An overripe and rattling cocoanut: also such dry kernel detached from the shell. 5 A narrow fillet of brocade.गोटाळ [ gōṭāḷa ] a (गोटा) Abounding in pebbles--ground.गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone. Used in trials of strength among the Athletæ. 4 A stone in temples described at length under उचला 5 fig. A term for a round, fleshy, well-filled body.
Rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A lump of silver: as obtained by melting down lace or fringe.
Hieroglyphs: गोटा [ gōṭā ] m A roundish stone or pebble Rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A lump of silver: as obtained by melting down lace or fringe.
kola 'tiger', Rebus: kolhe'smelter'; kol 'working in iron'
ḍhangra 'bull' Rebus: ḍhangar 'blacksmith'
kuṭhi 'tree' Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter',
Sign 391 195 āra. Spoke of a wheel. See ஆரக்கால். ஆரஞ் சூழ்ந்த வயில்வாய் நேமியொடு (சிறுபாண். 253). Rebus: āram Brass; பித்தளை. (அக. நி.). Two spoked wheels: dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS kunda 'naveofwheel' rebus: kō̃da 'fire-altar' (Kashmiri) payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद । परिपाककन्दुः f. a kiln (a potter's kiln (Kashmiri). Thus, the hypertext proclaims brass metal casting kiln.
kuṭhi 'tree' Rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter',
kambha'pillar' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint,coiner, coinage'; flanked by two anthropomorphic depiction of bulls personified as 'men': ḍhangra 'bull' Rebus: ḍhangar 'blacksmith' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul'metal casting'. Thus, metalcaster smiths.
हूण king Khingila, Khingala installed the pratimā of Mahā Vināyaka in Gardez, Afghanistan. This divine representation is an Indus Script Hypertext.
Mahāvināyaka of Gardez, Afghanistan. A 5th century marble Ganesha found in Gardez, Afghanistan, now at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, Kabul. The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image of Mahāvināyaka" was consecrated by the Shahi King Khingala.(Dhavalikar, M. K., "Gaņeśa: Myth and Reality", in: Robert L. Brown 1991, Ganesh, studies of an Asian God, State University of New York Press, pp. 50,63).
फड (p. 313) phaḍa m ( H) A place of public business or public resort; as a court of justice, an exchange, a mart, a counting-house, a custom-house, an auction-room: also, in an ill-sense, as खेळण्या- चाफड A gambling-house, नाचण्याचाफड A nach house, गाण्याचा or ख्यालीखुशालीचाफड A singing shop or merriment shop. The word expresses freely Gymnasium or arena, circus, club-room, debating-room, house or room or stand for idlers, newsmongers, gossips, scamps &c. 2 The spot to which field-produce is brought, that the crop may be ascertained and the tax fixed; the depot at which the Government-revenue in kind is delivered; a place in general where goods in quantity are exposed for inspection or sale. 3 Any office or place of extensive business or work, as a factory, manufactory, arsenal, dock-yard, printing-office &c. 4 A plantation or field (as of ऊस, वांग्या, मिरच्या, खरबुजे &c.): also a standing crop of such produce. 5 fig. Full and vigorous operation or proceeding, the going on with high animation and bustle (of business in general). v चाल, पड, घाल, मांड. 6 A company, a troop, a band or set (as of actors, showmen, dancers &c.) 7 The stand of a great gun. फडपडणें g. of s. To be in full and active operation. 2 To come under brisk discussion. फडमारणें- राखणें-संभाळणें To save appearances, फडमारणें or संपादणें To cut a dash; to make a display (upon an occasion). फडाच्यामापानें With full tale; in flowing measure. फडासयेणें To come before the public; to come under general discussion.
Two iconographic representations of Gaṇeśa which predate any pratimā found in Bhārat are reported from China (dated to ca. 500 CE).
1. In Sri Lanka, the oldest image of Ganesh is found in the Kantak Chaitya in Mihintale dated to 1st century BCE.
2. Mahāvināyaka of Gardez, Afghanistan is dated to 5th century CE.
3. A painting of the elephant-headed deity is found in Cave 285 at Tun-huang, a chamber excavated in the Northern Wei dynasty but with some decorations dating the image to the T’ang dynasty.
4. A stone sculpture of the deity is found at Kung-hsien. The inscription on the image.datesit to 531 CE. Gaṇeśa of Kung-hsien is a two-armed seated figure, holds a lotus, the inscription described Gaṇeśa as the ‘‘Spirit King of Elephants’’.
The Chinese finds are reported in: Alice Getty, 1936, Ganesa, A monograph on the elephant-faced God, 1936, repr. Ed., Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1971), p.67, p.68.
Butsuzō-zu-i 仏像図彙, “Collected Illustrations of Buddhist Images.” Published 1690 (Genroku 元禄 3).
“The theme of aiding the demonic spirits in order to control them and to stop the hindrances they create is continued in the works of a mid-eighth century Chinese disciple of Amoghavajra. Han-kuang pointed out that Vināyaka had many forms, the embracing figures, Ganapati, and the elephant-headed king. The Chinese Tantric master taught that the elephant-headed king is a symbol of the great power Vināyaka possesses, but just as an elephant can be tamed by the keeper, so Vināyaka can be tamed by certain rituals.” (Lewis Lancaster, 1991, Gaṇeśa in CHina: Methods of transforming the demonic, in: Robert L. Brown 1991, Ganesh, studies of an Asian God, State University of New York Press, p.284).
Gaṇeśa -- Prah Kenes (Khmer), Phra Phikanet (Thailand) -- from 1239 CE found at Bara belonging to Sangasari period is seen protected from the rear by a kīrtimukha face on the back of its head; skulls adorn the base of pratimā http://staging.heritage-india.com/blog/ganeshaaroundtheworld/
"Kangi-ten (deva of bliss): This is the dual image known in Japanese as Kangi-ten. It shows two elephant-headed figures embracing their hands clasped behind each other’s back. This type of Ganesha-form came to Japan originally from China. This is a secret esoteric form of the god (Ganesha) Kangi-ten derived from the Tantric cult based on the Yoga doctrine of the union of the Individual with the Universal spirit." Another form Another form in Japan, Vajra Vinayaka or Kakuzencho, has three heads with three eyes, holds a sword, radish, sceptre and modak in his four hands. http://staging.heritage-india.com/blog/ganeshaaroundtheworld/
Gaṇeśa is invoked in the R̥gveda (RV 2.23.1) as leader of gaņa, the retinue of Śiva. (Wilson, H. H. Ŗgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | RV 2.23.1; "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages.")
Two verses in texts provide a description of the iconographic features of Gaṇeśa: 1. Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1) ( "tát karāţāya vidmahe | hastimukhāya dhîmahi | tán no dántî pracodáyāt||") and 2. Taittirīya Āraṇyaka(10.1) ("tát púruṣâya vidmahe vakratuṇḍāya dhîmahi| tán no dántî pracodáyāt||")
In these texts, two iconographic features recognized are: hastimukha 'elephant face' and vakratuṇḍa 'curved tusk'. A third iconographic feature recognized is that Gaṇeśa is surrounded by Maruts as attested in R̥gveda: RV 10.112.9 (10092) ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages". त्रि tri-धातुः an epithet of Gaṇeśa; -तुम् 1 the triple world. -2 the aggregate of the 3 minerals or humours. (Apte lexicon) त्रि--धातु [p= 458,3] mfn. consisting of 3 parts , triple , threefold (used like Lat. triplex to denote excessive) RV. S3Br. v , 5 , 5 , 6; m. (scil. पुरोड्/आश) N. of an oblation TS. ii , 3 , 6. 1 ( -त्व्/अ n.abstr.); n. the triple world RV.; n. the aggregate of the 3 minerals or of the 3 humours W.; m. गणे*श L. hēramb हेरम्बः [हे शिवे रम्बति रम्ब्-अच् अलुक् समा˚ Tv.] 1 N. of Gaṇeśa; जेता हेरम्बभृङ्गिप्रमुखगणचमूचक्रिणस्तारकारेः Mv. 2.17; हे हेरम्ब, किमम्ब, रोदिषि कथं, कर्णौ लुठत्यग्निभूः Subhāṣ. लुठत् [p= 904,1] mfn. rolling , falling down W.; flowing , trickling (?) ib.
RV_2,023.01a gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnām upamaśravastamam | RV_2,023.01c jyeṣṭharājam brahmaṇām brahmaṇas pata ā naḥ śṛṇvann ūtibhiḥ sīda sādanam || RV_2,023.02a devāś cit te asurya pracetaso bṛhaspate yajñiyam bhāgam ānaśuḥ | RV_2,023.02c usrā iva sūryo jyotiṣā maho viśveṣām ij janitā brahmaṇām asi || RV_2,023.03a ā vibādhyā parirāpas tamāṃsi ca jyotiṣmantaṃ ratham ṛtasya tiṣṭhasi | RV_2,023.03c bṛhaspate bhīmam amitradambhanaṃ rakṣohaṇaṃ gotrabhidaṃ svarvidam || RV_2,023.04a sunītibhir nayasi trāyase janaṃ yas tubhyaṃ dāśān na tam aṃho aśnavat | RV_2,023.04c brahmadviṣas tapano manyumīr asi bṛhaspate mahi tat te mahitvanam || RV_2,023.05a na tam aṃho na duritaṃ kutaś cana nārātayas titirur na dvayāvinaḥ | RV_2,023.05c viśvā id asmād dhvaraso vi bādhase yaṃ sugopā rakṣasi brahmaṇas pate || RV_2,023.06a tvaṃ no gopāḥ pathikṛd vicakṣaṇas tava vratāya matibhir jarāmahe | RV_2,023.06c bṛhaspate yo no abhi hvaro dadhe svā tam marmartu ducchunā harasvatī || RV_2,023.07a uta vā yo no marcayād anāgaso 'rātīvā martaḥ sānuko vṛkaḥ | RV_2,023.07c bṛhaspate apa taṃ vartayā pathaḥ sugaṃ no asyai devavītaye kṛdhi || RV_2,023.08a trātāraṃ tvā tanūnāṃ havāmahe 'vaspartar adhivaktāram asmayum | RV_2,023.08c bṛhaspate devanido ni barhaya mā durevā uttaraṃ sumnam un naśan || RV_2,023.09a tvayā vayaṃ suvṛdhā brahmaṇas pate spārhā vasu manuṣyā dadīmahi | RV_2,023.09c yā no dūre taḷito yā arātayo 'bhi santi jambhayā tā anapnasaḥ || RV_2,023.10a tvayā vayam uttamaṃ dhīmahe vayo bṛhaspate papriṇā sasninā yujā | RV_2,023.10c mā no duḥśaṃso abhidipsur īśata pra suśaṃsā matibhis tāriṣīmahi || RV_2,023.11a anānudo vṛṣabho jagmir āhavaṃ niṣṭaptā śatrum pṛtanāsu sāsahiḥ | RV_2,023.11c asi satya ṛṇayā brahmaṇas pata ugrasya cid damitā vīḷuharṣiṇaḥ || RV_2,023.12a adevena manasā yo riṣaṇyati śāsām ugro manyamāno jighāṃsati | RV_2,023.12c bṛhaspate mā praṇak tasya no vadho ni karma manyuṃ durevasya śardhataḥ || RV_2,023.13a bhareṣu havyo namasopasadyo gantā vājeṣu sanitā dhanaṃ-dhanam | RV_2,023.13c viśvā id aryo abhidipsvo mṛdho bṛhaspatir vi vavarhā rathāṃ iva || RV_2,023.14a tejiṣṭhayā tapanī rakṣasas tapa ye tvā nide dadhire dṛṣṭavīryam | RV_2,023.14c āvis tat kṛṣva yad asat ta ukthyam bṛhaspate vi parirāpo ardaya || RV_2,023.15a bṛhaspate ati yad aryo arhād dyumad vibhāti kratumaj janeṣu | RV_2,023.15c yad dīdayac chavasa ṛtaprajāta tad asmāsu draviṇaṃ dhehi citram || RV_2,023.16a mā na stenebhyo ye abhi druhas pade nirāmiṇo ripavo 'nneṣu jāgṛdhuḥ | RV_2,023.16c ā devānām ohate vi vrayo hṛdi bṛhaspate na paraḥ sāmno viduḥ || RV_2,023.17a viśvebhyo hi tvā bhuvanebhyas pari tvaṣṭājanat sāmnaḥ-sāmnaḥ kaviḥ | RV_2,023.17c sa ṛṇacid ṛṇayā brahmaṇas patir druho hantā maha ṛtasya dhartari || RV_2,023.18a tava śriye vy ajihīta parvato gavāṃ gotram udasṛjo yad aṅgiraḥ | RV_2,023.18c indreṇa yujā tamasā parīvṛtam bṛhaspate nir apām aubjo arṇavam || RV_2,023.19a brahmaṇas pate tvam asya yantā sūktasya bodhi tanayaṃ ca jinva | RV_2,023.19c viśvaṃ tad bhadraṃ yad avanti devā bṛhad vadema vidathe suvīrāḥ ||
Griffith translation: RV 2.23
Brahmanaspati. 23 1. WE call thee, Lord and Leader of the heavenly hosts, the wise among the wise, the famousest of all, The King supreme of prayers, O Brahmanaspati: hear us with help; sit down in place of sacrifice. 2 Brhaspati, God immortal! verily the Gods have gained from thee, the wise, a share in holy rites. As with great light the Sun brings forth the rays of morn, so thou alone art Father of all sacred prayer. 3 When thou hast chased away revilers and the gloom, thou mountest the refulgent car of sacrifice; The awful car, Brhaspati, that quells the foe, slays demons, cleaves the stall of kine, and finds the light. 4 Thou leadest with good guidance and preservest men; distress overtakes not him who offers gifts to thee. Him who hates prayer thou punishest, Brhaspati, quelling his wrath: herein is thy great mightiness. 5 No sorrow, no distress from any side, no foes, no creatures doubletongued- have overcome the man, Thou drivest all seductive fiends away from him whom, careful guard, thou keepest Brahmanaspati. 6 Thou art our keeper, wise, preparer of our paths: we, for thy service, sing to thee with hymns of praise. Brhaspati, whoever lays a snare for us, him may his evil fate, precipitate, destroy. 7 Him, too, who threatens us without offence of ours, the evilminded, arrogant, rapacious man, Him turn thou from our path away, Brhaspati: give us fair access to this banquet of the Gods. 8 Thee as protector of our bodies we invoke, thee, saviour, as the comforter who loveth us. Strike, O Brhaspati, the Gods revilers down, and let not the unrighteous come to highest bliss. 9 Through thee, kind prosperer, O Brahmanaspati, may we obtain the wealth of Men which all desire: And all our enemies, who near or far away prevail against us, crush, and leave them destitute. 10 With thee as our own rich and liberal ally may we, Brhaspati, gain highest power of life. Let not the guileful wicked man be lord of us: still may we prosper, singing goodly hymns of praise. 11 Strong, never yielding, hastening to the battlecry-, consumer of the foe, victorious in the strife, Thou art sins' true avenger, Brahmanaspati, who tamest even the fierce, the wildly passionate. 12 Whoso with mind ungodly seeks to do us harm, who, deeming him a man of might mid lords, would slay, Let not his deadly blow reach us, Brhaspati; may we humiliate the strong illdoers-' wrath. 13 The mover mid the spoil, the winner of all wealth, to be invoked in fight and reverently adored, Brhaspati hath overthrown like cars of war all wicked enemies who fain would injure us. 14 Burn up the demons with thy fiercest flaming brand, those who have scorned thee in thy manifested might. Show forth that power that shall deserve the hymn of praise: destroy the evil speakers, O Brhaspati. 15 Brhaspati, that which the foe deserves not which shines among the folk effectual, splendid, That, Son of Law I which is with might refulgentthat- treasure wonderful bestow thou on us. 16 Give us not up to those who, foes in ambuscade, are greedy for the wealth of him who sits at ease, Who cherish in their heart abandonment of Gods. Brhaspati, no further rest shall they obtain. 17 For Tvastar, he who knows each sacred song, brought thee to life, preeminent over all the things that be. Guiltscourger-, guiltavenger- is Brhaspati, who slays the spoiler and upholds the mighty Law. 18 The mountain, for thy glory, cleft itself apart when, Angiras! thou openedst the stall of kine. Thou, O Brhaspati, with Indra for ally didst hurl down waterfloods- which gloom had compassed round. 19 O Brahmanaspati, be thou controller of this our hymn and prosper thou our children. All that the Gods regard with love is blessed. Loud may we speak, with heroes, in assembly.
A dancing Tibetan Gaṇeśa.
Candi-Sukuh Gaṇeśa is shown in a dance-step, in the context of smelting, forging of sword by Bhima and by the bellows-blower Arjuna.
Forge scene stele. Forging of a keris or kris (the iconic Javanese dagger) and other weapons. The blade of the keris represents the khaNDa. Fire is a purifier, so the blade being forged is also symbolic of the purification process central theme of the consecration of gangga sudhi specified in the inscription on the 1.82 m. tall, 5 ft. dia. lingga hieroglyph, the deity of Candi Sukuh.
Posted at: Jul 8, 2016, 1:02 AM; last updated: Jul 8, 2016, 1:02 AM (IST)
Villagers in Jind stumble upon Vedic-era wall, bricks
Experts visit the pond at Intal Kalan village of Jind district on thursday. TRIBUNE PHOTO
N Kalia
Intal Kalan (Jind), July 7 Residents found an ancient structure while digging a pond in Intal Kalan village of district. A few days ago, the residents had started cleaning of the pond located outside the village with the help of a JCB machine. While cleaning, they noticed some wall-like structure beneath the ground. On further digging, they found a long wall in the pond. The villagers also recovered large-size bricks from the site. On getting information, Jind-based historian Prof BB Kaushik, who visited the site, said: “The structure looks different from the Harappan-era and it is clear from the size of the bricks recovered from the site. The bricks are of 38cmX22cmX6.5cm dimensions, while Harappan bricks were smaller in size.” “The site seems to be older than the Harappan period and it looks like that it belongs to the later Vedic period,” he said, adding that the government should protect and conserve the site. Dharamveer Sharma, a former official of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), said: “The site appears to be an ashram in the Vedic period where saints used to perform yajna.” He also supported the fact that the site was not related to the Harappan period and could be older than that of the period around 1,800 BC. Sharma said that he had noticed signs of three fingers on some bricks which could have some religious belief during the Vedic period. Sharma said the state government and the ASI to explore the site and start excavation to know the right chronology of the site. Ramesh Kumar, a former sarpanch of the village, said: “Every year, people, especially from southern states, visit our village to perform some rituals near the pond. It is still not clear why they visit our village and how they come to know about it.” Deputy Commissioner Vinay Singh said the administration would approach the ASI and the other departments concerned to bring out the facts of ancient site. He said: “I will also send a team of officials to the village to know more about the place. If anything having historical importance has been recovered then the administration will preserve it.”
The monograph is organized in the following sections:
Section 1. Archaeometallurgy & Indus Script Hypertextof śyena cast in silvre gilded in gold foil, 2nd m. BCE. This proclaims Gaṇḍabheruṇḍa, thunderbolt smith hero
Section 2. R̥gveda śyena, devatāsuparṇātmā brahma
Section 3. Archaeology of श्येनचिति śyenacitidiscovered in Purola & numismatics of śyena, svastika
Section 1. Archaeometallurgy & Indus Script Hypertext of śyena cast in silver gilded in gold foil, 2nd m. BCE. This proclaims Gaṇḍabheruṇḍa, thunderbolt smith hero
The shaft-hole axhead is conclusive proof of the Indus Script hypertext signified by the double-headed eagle ligatured to the body of a standing human, with wingsemerging from his shoulders. This hypertext is accompanied with two other hypertexts: winged tiger with feline paws and boar. All three Indus Script hypertexts are read rebus: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS śyēná m. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV.Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ.(CDIAL 12674) Rebus: آهن ګرāhan gar 'smith,blacksmith' PLUS kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' PLUS kambha 'wing' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant (Hemacandra Desinamamamala). thus, three professionals are proclaimed in three hypertexts: blacksmith, iron smelter, worker-in wood-and iron -merchant.
Rebus 1: aśáni f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ RV., °nī -- f. ŚBr. [Cf. áśan -- m. ʻ sling -- stone ʼ RV.]Pa. asanī -- f. ʻ thunderbolt, lightning ʼ, asana -- n. ʻ stone ʼ; Pk. asaṇi -- m.f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; Ash. ašĩˊ ʻ hail ʼ, Wg. ašē˜ˊ, Pr. īšĩ, Bashg. "azhir", Dm. ašin, Paš. ášen, Shum. äˊšin, Gaw. išín, Bshk. ašun, Savi išin, Phal. ã̄šun, L. (Jukes) ahin, awāṇ. &circmacrepsilon;n (both with n, not ṇ), P. āhiṇ, f., āhaṇ, aihaṇ m.f., WPah. bhad. ã̄ṇ, bhal. ´tildemacrepsilon;hiṇi f., N. asino, pl. °nā; Si. sena, heṇa ʻ thunderbolt ʼ Geiger GS 34, but the expected form would be *ā̤n; -- Sh. aĩyĕˊr f. ʻ hail ʼ (X ?). -- For ʻ stone ʼ > ʻ hailstone ʼ cf. upala -- and A. xil s.v. śilāˊ -- .Addenda: aśáni -- : Sh. aĩyĕˊr (Lor. aĩyār → Bur. *lhyer ʻ hail ʼ BurLg iii 17) poss. < *aśari -- from heteroclite n/r stem (cf. áśman -- : aśmará -- ʻ made of stone ʼ).(CDIAL 910) vájra m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ RV., ʻ diamond ʼ ṢaḍvBr. [√*vaj]Pa. vajira -- m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ, m.n. ʻ diamond ʼ, Pk. vajja -- , vayara -- , vaïra -- ; Sh. (Lor.) b*lc̣, pl. °c̣e m. ʻ thunderbolt, meteorite, lightning ʼ (< *baJ̣?); B. bāj ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; Si. vidu ʻ Indra's thunderbolt (or < vidyút-- ?), diamond ʼ, vadura, viduru.(CDIAL 11204) vajrāśani m. ʻ Indra's thunderbolt ʼ R. [vájra -- , aśáni -- ]Aw. bajāsani m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ prob. ← Sk.(CDIAL 11207)
Rebus 2: P آهنāhan, s.m. (9th) Iron. Sing. and Pl. آهن ګرāhan gar, s.m. (5th) A smith, a blacksmith. Pl. آهن ګرانāhan-garān. آهن رباāhan-rubā, s.f. (6th) The magnet or loadstone. (E.) Sing. and Pl.); (W.) Pl. آهن رباويāhan-rubāwī. See اوسپنه. (Pashto) ahan-gār अहन्-गार् (= ) m. a blacksmith (H. xii, 16) (Kashmiri) āhanआहन् interj. of respect (Gr.Gr. 11) and adv. of assent, employed in the following compounds:-<-> āhanōआहनो । आमिति adv. yes, used when addressing a male of equal or lower rank; it is an expression of doubtful assent. āhanūआहनू । आमि/?/ adv. yes, addressed to a junior male of rank equal to the speaker. -bā-बा । अस्ति भोः adv. yes, addressed to an equal or superior male; āhanuvआहनुव् । आमिति adv. yes, addressed to a male equal or inferior in rank. āhaniyआहनिय् । आमिति adv. yes, addressed to a woman inferior or equal in rank.(Kashmiri)
On this artifact, eagle, sēṇa, کار کنده kār-kunda are Indus Script hypertexts,signify āhan gar, b'lacksmith', maker of asaṇi,vajrāśani thunderbolt weapon, manager of kiln. The pair of eagle-heads signify dula 'pair' rebus: dul'metal casting'. Thus,metal casting blacksmith. The winged tiger: kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron'kolhe 'smelter' PLUS kambha 'wing' rebus: kammata 'mint'. baḍhia 'a castrated boar, a hog'(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant. Thus, the hypertexts on the silver gold foil shaft-hole axe constitute metalwork catalogues.
Shaft-hole axhead with a double-headed eagle ligatured to a human body, boar,and winged tiger, late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BCE Central Asia (Bactria-Margiana)Silver, gold foil; 5 7/8 in. (15 cm) “Western Central Asia, now known as Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and northern Afghanistan, has yielded objects attesting to a highly developed civilization in the late third and early second millennium B.C. Artifacts from the region indicate that there were contacts with Iran to the southwest. Tools and weapons, especially axes, comprise a large portion of the metal objects from this region. This shaft-hole axhead is a masterpiece of three-dimensional and relief sculpture. Expertly cast in silver and gilded with gold foil, it depicts a bird-headed hero grappling with a wild boar and a winged dragon. The idea of the heroic bird-headed creature probably came from western Iran, where it is first documented on a cylinder seal impression. The hero's muscular body is human except for the bird talons that replace the hands and feet. He is represented twice, once on each side of the ax, and consequently appears to have two heads. On one side, he grasps the boar by the belly and on the other, by the tusks. The posture of the boar is contorted so that its bristly back forms the shape of the blade. With his other talon, the bird-headed hero grasps the winged dragon by the neck. The dragon, probably originating in Mesopotamia or Iran, is represented with folded wings, a feline body, and the talons of a bird of prey.”
baḍhia 'a castrated boar, a hog'(Santali) বরাহ barāha 'boar' Rebus: baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant (Hemacandra Desinamamamala).
"Eagle Statue" from Iran's ancient Jiroft civilization which dates back to 5,000 BCE
Sculpted from mottled green stone in the form of an eagle
5,000 yr-old Jiroft Board Games - World’s Oldest Backgammons! قدیمی ترین تخته نرد های جهان در جیرفت As archaeologist and expert of Louvre Museum Jean Perrot noted in the Persian Journal article, the lay-out of the "holes" on the "eagle" boards discovered in Jiroft, Kerman - IRAN is highly suggestive of the twenty squares game boards excavated by Woolley in Sumer, the so-called "Royal Game of Ur."...
Ancient Hellenistic Thracian pin with Swastika Symbol (Pelasgian-Illyrian-Albanian). Unprovenanced. Source: http://www.ufo-contact.com/ancient-swastika/hellenistic-thracian-pin Two Indus Script Hypertexts are proclaimed on this metallic pin: śyena PLUS svastika. These texts signify: śyena 'eagle' rebus: آهن ګرāhan gar 'smith,blacksmith' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal caster'; thus, metalcaster blaksmith PLUS working with sattuva 'svastika hieroglyph' rebus: sattuva,jasta 'zinc, pewter'.
Significance of association of eagle with svastika
Indus Script hypertexts document wealth accounting ledgers, recording production of zinc metal in Sarasvati Civilization. Zinc is a mineral resource, a major source of wealth because zinc alloyed with copper to produce brass metalware, pots and pans and equipment. The hieroglyph used is svastika (Over 60 inscriptions with svastika hieroglyph have been recorded in Indus Script Corpora).
Supplementary Plate Figure 2 of H. W. Codrington's Ceylon Coins and Currency (1924), records an 'Elephant & Svastika' coin discovered in Ruhuna, Sri Lanka (a province in which the heritage site of Katharagama is located).
An enlargement of Figure 2 of Codrington's Plate is presented below to show the symbols used on the coin (obverse and reverse). All the symbols used are Indus Script hieroglyphs.
The objective of this monograph is to focus on one symbol which is a hypertext composition of both 'nandipāda' and 'śrīvatsa'.
This hypertext may be seen to the left of the svastika and mountain-range symbols on the reverse of the coin. This hypertext is a combination of three Indus Script hieroglyphs: 1. dotted circle 2. hillock and 3. two fish-fins.
kuṭhi a sacred, divine tree, kuṭi 'temple' rebus kuṭhi 'a furnace for smelting iron ore'
goṭā 'round pebble' Rebus gō̃ṭu an ornamental appendage to the border of a cloth, fringe' गोटी gōṭī f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone. Used in trials of strength among the Athletæ. 4 A stone in temples described at length under उचला 5 fig. A term for a round, fleshy, well-filled body. 6 A lump of silver: as obtained by melting down lace or fringe.goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore' khoṭa 'ingot, wedge'.
khareḍo = a currycomb (G.) Rebus: kharādī ' turner, a person who fashions or shapes objects on a lathe' (Gujarati) करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) खरड kharaḍa f (खरडणें) A hurriedly written or drawn piece; a scrawl; a mere tracing or rude sketch. खरडा (p. 113) kharaḍā m (खरडणें) Scrapings (as from a culinary utensil). 2 Bruised or coarsely broken peppercorns &c.: a mass of bruised मेथ्या &c. 3 also खरडें n A scrawl; a memorandum-scrap; a foul, blotted, interlined piece of writing. 4 also खरडें n A rude sketch; a rough draught; a foul copy; a waste-book; a day-book; a note-book. 5 A spotted and rough and ill-shaped pearl: also the roughness or knobbiness of such pearls. 6 A variety of musk-melon. 7 Heat in stomach and bowels during small-pox, measles &c. 8 A leopard. 9 C Small but full heads of rice. 10 Grass so short as to require grubbing or rubbing up. 11 A medicament consisting of levigated or pounded (nutmeg, or anise-seed, or मुरडशेंगा &c.) fried in clarified butter. It is given to check diarrhœa. 12 Reduced state, i. e. such scantiness as to demand scraping. v लाग, पड. Ex. पाण्याचा ख0 लागला or पडला The water (of the well &c.) is so scanty that it must be scraped up (with a नरेटी &c.) धान्याला ख0 लागला; पैक्याला ख0 लागला. खरडें घासणें To fag at the desk; to drive the quill. 2 (With implication of indifference.) To write: answering to To pen it; to scribble away खरड्या kharaḍyā a (खरडणें) That writes or shaves rudely and roughly; a mere quill-driver; a very scraper. करड्याची अवटी karaḍyācī avaṭī f An implement of the goldsmith. A stamp for forming the bars or raised lines called करडा. It is channeled or grooved with (or without) little cavities. करडा karaḍā m The arrangement of bars or embossed lines (plain or fretted with little knobs) raised upon a तार of gold by pressing and driving it upon the अवटी or grooved stamp. Such तार is used for the ornament बुगडी, for the hilt of a पट्टा or other sword &c. Applied also to any similar barform or line-form arrangement (pectination) whether embossed or indented; as the edging of a rupee &c.
Svastika glyph: sattva 'svastika' glyph సత్తుతపెల a vessel made of pewter त्रपुधातुविशेषनिर्मितम् Glosses for zinc are: sattu (Tamil), satta, sattva (Kannada) jasth जसथ् त्रपुm. (sg. dat. jastas ज्तस), zinc, spelter; pewter; zasath ् ज़स््थ् ्or zasuth ज़सुथ ्। रप m. (sg. dat. zastas ु ज़्तस),् zinc, spelter, pewter (cf. Hindī jast). jastuvu; । रपू्भवः adj. (f. jastüvü), made of zinc or pewter.(Kashmiri). Hence the hieroglyph: svastika repeated five times on a Harappa epigraph (h182). Five svastika are thus read: taṭṭal sattva Rebus: zinc (for) brass (or pewter).
The Meluhha gloss for 'five' is: taṭṭal Homonym is: ṭhaṭṭha brass (i.e. alloy of copper + zinc) *ṭhaṭṭha1 ʻbrassʼ. [Onom. from noise of hammering brass?]N. ṭhaṭṭar ʻ an alloy of copper and bell metal ʼ. *ṭhaṭṭhakāra ʻ brass worker ʼ. 1.Pk. ṭhaṭṭhāra -- m., K. ṭhö̃ṭhur m., S. ṭhã̄ṭhāro m., P. ṭhaṭhiār, °rā m.2. P. ludh. ṭhaṭherā m., Ku. ṭhaṭhero m., N. ṭhaṭero, Bi. ṭhaṭherā, Mth. ṭhaṭheri, H.ṭhaṭherā m.(CDIAL 5491, 5493).
karã̄ n.' pl. wristlets, bangles' Rebus: khār 'blacksmith, iron worker'.
dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting'
karṇaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karṇI 'supercargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.' rebus:karṇika 'scribe, account'. कर्णिका'steersman, helmsman' (seafaring merchant)
What has been documented in Indus Script Corpora is validated by the archaeometallurgical enquiries of Zawar mines by Paul Craddock. Though the evidence of industrial production is dated to period from 14th century, ancient texts of ca. 1st cent. CE, document the distillation processes for zinc. (pace Prafulla Chandra Ray, History of Hindu Chemistry, Calcutta, Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works Ltd., 1903).
Two remarkable features of the set of 75 ancient Pāratarāja coins brilliantly chonicled by Pankaj Tandon are the following.
(1) The svastika hieroglyph is vividly presented together with the coin legends which display portraits of kings and their titles/names.
(2) In addition to the use of svastika hieroglyph which is an Indus Script hypertext, the inscriptions are in either Brāhmī or Kharoṣṭhī. Pankaj Tandon demonstrates that the use of Brāhmī script preced the use of Kharoṣṭhī.script. Pankaj Tandon demonstrates that Kozana is the last king to issue any coins with Brāhmī legends, switching then to Kharoshthi. This switch occurred ca. 200 CE.
I do not know if Pāratarāja are associated with the dynasties of Parthians, but it ic clear that Parthians were in control of Sindh, as noted by Periplus. It is possible that the Parthian rulers were in control of Paratan region referred to in the context of Parata or Parada dynasties.
It is possible that Parata or Parada who signified their mint coins with svastika Indus Script hieroglyph were traders in zinc from Zawar mines, not far from Sind region.
Pāratarāja issued copper & silver coins in three scripts: Indus Script, Brāhmī script (on silver coins), Kharoṣṭhī script (on copper coins). The language of the legends is Prakrit. The Indus Script hyperext used is: sattva 'svastika hieroglyph'.
In an excellent numismatic historical research document, Pankaj Tandon presents a catalogue of 75 ancient coins and reconstructs the chronology of Parata/Parada kings as follows:
Yolamira, c. 125-150
Bagamira, c. 150
Arjuna, c. 150-165
Hvaramira, c. 165-175
Mirahvara, c. 175-185
Miratakhma, c. 185-200
Kozana, c. 200-220
Bhimarjuna, c. 220-230
Koziya, c. 230-265
Datavharna, c. 265-285
Datayola II, c. 280-300
“Despite these strong indications of a connection to Parthia, there are also indications of powerful Indian influences on the P ratas. The language of the coin legends is Prakrit and the script used was either Br hm or Kharoshth. Although Yolamira assumes the title Shahi on his dedicatory inscription of Tor Dherai, the term used on the coins is Raja. The use of the swastika as what appears to be a dynastic emblem also suggests an Indian influence as do the use of patronymics. The Tor Dherai potsherds document Yolamira’s patronage of a Buddhist vihara. Finally, two of the kings’ names are Indian: Arjuna and Bhimarjuna. Perhaps Arjuna’s mother was Indian and Bhimarjuna may have been Arjuna’s grandson...Given that the tribe had migrated through the Parthian kingdom over the previous centuries, it is likely that in the first century its primary influence was from Parthia, as Strabo had indicated for an earlier period.38 It is perhaps not surprising then that it was only in the second century, when Parthia was engaged in almost incessant civil war, and the Indo-Parthian kingdom had also gone into decline, that the P ratas were strong and independent enough to commence issuing their own coinage. Their rise may also be related to the burgeoning Roman trade in the first and second centuries. The P ratas must have controlled the Bolan pass and thereby the overland route from the coast to Arachosia. They may also have controlled the production of some key exports. ”(pp.36-37). (Pankaj Tandon, 2012, The location and kings of Pāradān in: Studia Iranica, 41, 2012, pp. 25 to 56). I suggest that the svastika used on the coins is not a dynastic emblem but a signifier of suvatta 'svastika hieroglyph' rebus: sattva, jasta, 'zinc' mineral in Indus Script hypertext tradition.
Coin 1: Yolamira, silver drachm, early type
c. 125-150 CE Weight:3.72 gm., Diam:16 mm. Diademed bust right, dotted border / Swastika right, Brahmi legend around: (at 8h) Yolamirasa Bagarevaputasa Pāratarāja (ja retrograde) (Of Yolamira, son of Bagareva, Pārata King)
The names Yolamira and Bagareva betray the Iranian origin of this dynasty. The suffix Mira refers to the Iranian deity Mithra. Yolamirameans "Warrior Mithra." Bagareva means "rich God."
Coin 15: Kozana, silver drachm (reduced weight standard) c. 200-225 CE Weight: 2.23 gm., Diam:15 mm. Diademed, crowned bust left, dotted border / Swastika right, Kharoshthi legend around: (at 11h, counterclockwise) Kozanasa Bagavharnaputrasa Pāratarājasa (Of Kozana son of Bagavharna, Pārata King)
Kozana was the first Pāratarāja king to issue coins with the legends in Kharoshthi, like on this coin. Most authors had presumed that the Kharoshthi legend coins must have come before the Brahmi legend coins, as it was Brahmi that replaced Kharoshthi everywhere else in India. But it can be shown that Kozana's coins came after the Brahmi legend coins. His are the only Kharoshthi legend coins in silver and he follows the style of Miratakhma's late coins, with the bust left and the tiara crown (seen even better on the next coin).
Coin 16: Kozana, silver hemidrachm (reduced weight standard) c. 200-225 CE Weight: 1.04 gm., Diam:12-13 mm. Diademed, crowned bust left, dotted border / Swastika right, Kharoshthi legend around: (at 10h, counterclockwise) Kozanasa Bagavharnaputrasa Pāratarājasa (Of Kozana son of Bagavharna, Pārata King)
Coin 24: Datayola II, copper tetradrachm (reduced weight standard)
c. 280-300 CE Weight: 7.72 gm., Diam: 20 mm. Diademed bust of king left/ Swastika right, Kharoshthi legend around: (counterclockwise) Datayolasa Datavharnaputrasa Pāratarājasa (Of Datayola, son of Datarvharna, Pārata King)
Coin 70 (649.34) Copper didrachm Obv: Standing king Left, legend R: Datayola, (same die as 69) Rev: Swastika Left, legend around: @1h: Datayolasa Datarvharna- putrasa Pāratarāja 3.40 gm, 17 mm
Coin 37 (Senior) Silver hemidrachm
Obv: Diademed bust Right Rev: Swastika Right, legend around: @11h: Kozanasa (Bagavhar)na- putrasa Pāratarāja (no sa) 1.67 gm, 13 mm
Early issue with Brāhmī legend
Coin 38 (94.04) Silver drachm
Obv: Diademed bust Right Rev: Swastika Right, legend around: @1h: Kozanasa Bagavharnaputrasa Pāratarājasa 3.47 gm, 14-16 mm
() "ThePeriplus of the Erythraean Seais a surviving 1st century guide to the routes commonly being used for navigating the Arabian Sea. It describes the presence of Parthian kings fighting with each other in the area of Sindh, a region traditionally known at that time as "Scythia" due to the previous rule of the Indo-Scythians there:
"This river (Indus) has seven mouths, very shallow and marshy, so that they are not navigable, except the one in the middle; at which by the shore, is the market-town, Barbaricum. Before it there lies a small island, and inland behind it is the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara; it is subject to Parthian princes who are constantly driving each other out." Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap "
This is an Indus Script hypertext. ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' (Rigveda) khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' Rebus: kammaṭi a coiner (Ka.); kampaṭṭam coinage, coin, mint (Ta.) kammaṭa = mint, gold furnace (Te.) kamaṭa = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Telugu) PLUS gōṭā m A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone Rebus: khoTa 'ingot' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS dala 'petal' Rebus: ḍhāḷako = a large ingot (G.) ḍhāḷakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (G.)
Whenśrivatsa (child of Lakshmi, wealth) hypertext is ligatured to a mountain-range, the reading is a semantic determinative: dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' at work in an ancient mint, as in Takshasila. Such a hypertext occurs together with another hieroglyph: sattva 'svastika' rebus: jasta 'zinc' -- an important mineral additive to copper, to create alloys of brass -- implements, pots and pans, for which Bhāratam of ancient times was world-renowned.
Taxila (local coinage). Circa 185-168 BC. A Karshapana (24mm, 9.42 g, 4h). Plant and hill with hollow cross and standard Rev Srivatsa and hill above Nandipada and SwastikaHoard of mostlyMaurya Empirecoins. “Coins provide not only evidence of art and economy, but also a wisdom for understanding the history and politics of a nation. As a means of communication, they speak to the political and religious ideologies that underpinned a ruler's or state's claim to power.Coinage ofIndia, issued byImperial dynastiesandMiddle kingdomsbegan anywhere between 6th century BCE to 1st millennium BCE, and consisted mainly ofcopperandsilvercoins in its initial stage.[1]Scholars remain divided over the origins of Indian coinage. Cowry shellswas first used in India as commodity money.[3]In recent discoveries punched mark 'Mudras' (Coins) of stone have been found in lost city ofDwaraka, which is said to be existed at least 5,000 years ago.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinage_of_India
Taxila coin with wheel and Buddhist symbols. Wheel/pacaladamma type. Wheel; above, crescent above triple-arched hill / Swastika flanked by nandipadas; Kharosthi legend below. 185-168 BCE
śyena 'eagle' rebus: آهن ګرāhan gar 'smith,blacksmith' is also signified on an elamite axhead:
Elamite bird (eagle?) with spread wings on an axe-head from Tepe Yahya (Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C. and D.T. Potts. 2001. Excavations at Tepe Yahya, Iran, 1967-1975: The Third Millennium. Cambridge: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, p.216)Ceremonial axe head made of chlorite, with eagle design from Tepe Yahya Per. IVB (Kohl 2001: 216, fig. 9.6). (Potts 2001: Figure 9.6).
Eagle is Indus Script hypertext. panja 'talon (of eagle)' rebus: panja 'kiln'; dula pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS eagle, श्येन sēṇa, کار کندهkār-kundaare Indus Script metalwork wealth मेधा 'yajña, धन' hypertexts, signify ahan-gārअहन्-गार् (= ) m. a blacksmith (H. xii, 16).(Kashmiri) آهن ګرāhan gar, 'blacksmith' (Pashto), maker ofasaṇi, vajrāśanithunderbolt weapon, manager of kiln.
I suggest that āhan gar, 'blacksmith', maker ofasaṇi, vajrāśani 'Indra's thunderbolt' is signified on the extraordinary iconography of a double-headed eagle ligatured to a human body on an Ashur seal impression dated to 14th cent. BCE. The smith is the maker of vajra, thunderbolt, the hard alloy, adamantine glue. A remarkable alloying process involved the use of zinc to alloy with copper to harden it into brass. Thus, there is a celebration of both eagle and svastika as extraordinary hieroglyphs with extraordinary significance during the Bronze-Metals Age. The association of eagle with svastika is exemplified by a hellenistic, thracian pin which shows a double-headed eagle bearing a svastika on its chest. vajrāśani 'Indra's thunderbolt' suggests a possible expression vajrāhan gar 'vajra, 'adamantine-glue'-maker blacksmith':. वज्र mn. " the hard or mighty one " , a thunderbolt (esp. that of इन्द्र , said to have been formed out of the bones of the ऋषिदधीच or दधीचि [q.v.] , and shaped like a circular discus , or in later times regarded as having the form of two transverse bolts crossing each other thus x ; sometimes also applied to similar weapons used by various gods or superhuman beings , or to any mythical weapon destructive of spells or charms , also to मन्यु , " wrath " RV. or [with अपाम्] to a jet of water AV. &c ; also applied to a thunderbolt in general or to the lightning evolved from the centrifugal energy of the circular thunderbolt of इन्द्र when launched at a foe ; in Northern Buddhist countries it is shaped like a dumb-bell and called Dorje ; »MWB. 201 ; 322&c ) RV. &c; m. a kind of hard mortar or cement (कल्क) VarBr2S. (cf.-लेप)(Monier-Williams) A narrative comparable to the narrativeon the silver axhead is provided by a cylinder seal impression of ANE 14th cent.BCE.
Seal impression from Ashur; seal of an Assyrian king of the 14th century BCE (Collon, Dominique. 1987 First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Illustration 276) The narrative on the seal impression shows a double-headed winged eagle with a humanoid body. A 'cross' hieroglyph signifying a fire-altar flanks the anthropomorphic representation. gaṇḍa 'four' Rebus: kaṇḍa 'furnace, fire-altar'.
"The Hittite walled city of Alaca Hüyük was important as a ceremonial center during to the 14th-13th centuries BCE (Alexander, Robert L., 1989 A Great Queen on the Sphinx Piers at Alaca Hüyük. Anatolian Studies 39:151-158. ). The double-headed eagle is prominently displayed on the eastern section of the Sphinx Gate grasping two prey animals, likely hares...Recognizing that much of Mesopotamian culture transmitted northwest from the southeast (Sumer) over time, and that the use of the double-headed eagle followed the same route, the relationships of the objects are generally understood, even if the meanings behind the iconography are not." (Jesse C. Chariton, 2011, https://www.uwlax.edu/urc/jur-online/PDF/2011/chariton.ARC.pdf
The sacred double-headed temple has a temple in Sirkap, Takṣaśila. The double-headed eagle is an Indus Script hypertext to signify kār-kunda, 'manager of kiln',āhan gar, 'blacksmith', maker of asaṇi, vajrāśani 'Indra's thunderbolt' signified by श्येन 'm. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man)' RV. &c. It is veneration of the thunderbolt maker, blacksmith, āhan gar -- an expression derived fromश्येन 'hawk' 1) attested in R̥gveda. .श्येन is name of a ऋषि (having the patr.आग्नेय and author of RV. x , 188; and 2) double eagles celebrated in Rāmāyaṇa: सम्-पाति m.N. of a fabulous bird (the eldest son of अरुण or गरुड and brother of जटायु) MBh. R. &c and जटायुm.N. of the king of vultures (son of अरुण and श्येनीMBh. ; son of गरुडR. ; younger brother of सम्पाति ; promising his aid to राम , out of regard for his father दश-रथ , but defeated and mortally wounded by रावण on attempting to rescue सीता) MBh. i , 2634 ; iii , 16043ff. and 16242ffR. i , iii f.
A Steatite vessel, 16 cm. square, from Tepe Yahya
Harappa seal h166A, h166B. Vats, 1940, Excavations in Harappa, Vol. II, Calcutta: Pl. XCI. 255
फडा (p. 313) phaḍā f (फटा S) The hood of Coluber Nága &c. Ta. patam cobra's hood. Ma.paṭam id. Ka.peḍe id. Te.paḍaga id. Go. (S.) paṛge, (Mu.) baṛak, (Ma.) baṛki, (F-H.) biṛkihood of serpent (Voc. 2154). / Turner, CDIAL, no. 9040, Skt. (s)phaṭa-, sphaṭā- a serpent's expanded hood, Pkt. phaḍā- id. For IE etymology, see Burrow, The Problem of Shwa in Sanskrit, p. 45.(DEDR 47) Rebus: phaḍaफड ‘manufactory, company, guild, public office’, keeper of all accounts, registers. dhanga 'mountain range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'
Ta. eruvai a kind of kite whose head is white and whose body is brown; eagle. Ma. eruva eagle, kite.(DEDR 818). Rebus: eruvai ‘copper’ (Tamil).
kanda.’fire-altar’.khamba ‘wing’ rebus: kammaTa ‘mint’.gaṇḍa ‘four’ Rebus: khaṇḍa ‘metal implements. Together with cognate ancu ‘iron’ the message is: native metal implements mint. श्येन [p= 1095,2]m. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man) RV. &c; firewood laid in the shape of an eagle Śulbas. (Monier-Williams) śyēnám. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV. Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ.(CDIAL 12674) Rebus: sena 'thunderbolt' (Sinhala):
aśáni f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ RV., °nī -- f. ŚBr. [Cf. áśan -- m. ʻ sling -- stone ʼ RV.] Pa. asanī -- f. ʻ thunderbolt, lightning ʼ, asana -- n. ʻ stone ʼ; Pk. asaṇi -- m.f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; Ash. ašĩˊ ʻ hail ʼ, Wg. ašē˜ˊ, Pr. īšĩ, Bashg. "azhir", Dm. ašin, Paš. ášen, Shum. äˊšin, Gaw. išín, Bshk. ašun, Savi išin, Phal. ã̄šun, L. (Jukes) ahin, awāṇ. &circmacrepsilon;n (both with n, not ṇ), P. āhiṇ, f., āhaṇ, aihaṇ m.f., WPah. bhad. ã̄ṇ, hiṇi f., N. asino, pl. °nā; Si. sena, heṇa ʻ thunderbolt ʼ Geiger GS 34, but the expected form would be *ā̤n; -- Sh. aĩyĕˊr f. ʻ hail ʼ (X ?). -- For ʻ stone ʼ > ʻ hailstone ʼ cf. upala -- and A. xil s.v.śilāˊ -- . (CDIAL 910) vajrāśani m. ʻ Indra's thunderbolt ʼ R. [vájra -- , aśáni -- ]Aw. bajāsani m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ prob. ← Sk.(CDIAL 11207)karibha, ibha'elephant' rebus: karba, ib'iron' PLUS śyena 'eagle' rebus: آهن ګرāhan gar 'smith,blacksmith'.
Sculptural frieze. stūpa of Sanchi, second half of 2nd century BCE (Kramrisch,1954, pic13)
Sanchi. Winged composite animal: tiger, eagle. The last two letters to the right of this inscription in Brahmi form the word "danam" (donation). This hypothesis permitted the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837. The Indus Script hypertext of the composite animal:
Hierogoyph: hawk: śyēná m. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV. Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ.(CDIAL 12674) Rebus: sena 'thunderbolt' (Sinhala) Hieroglyph: wings: *skambha2 ʻ shoulder -- blade, wing, plumage ʼ. [Cf. *skapa -- s.v. *khavaka -- ] S. khambhu, °bho m. ʻ plumage ʼ, khambhuṛi f. ʻ wing ʼ; L. khabbh m., mult. khambh m. ʻ shoulder -- blade, wing, feather ʼ, khet. khamb ʻ wing ʼ, mult. khambhaṛā m. ʻ fin ʼ; P. khambh m. ʻ wing, feather ʼ; G. khā̆m f., khabhɔ m. ʻ shoulder ʼ.(CDIAL 13640) Rebus: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner. (DEDR 1236) Hieroglyph: tiger, feline paw: kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' PLUS panja 'feline paw' rebus: panja'kiln, furnace, smelter'. Thus, the hypertext reads: kol panja sena kammaṭa'iron smelter thunderbolt mint.
Miraculous crossing of theGanges by the Buddha when he left Rajagriha to visit Vaisali (partial remain). (John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, p. 38. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918), p.73).
The eagle hypertext appears in association with 'twisted' rope or snake hieroglyphs.
Two seals from Gonur 1 in thee Murghab delta; dark brown stone ((Sarianidi 1981 b: 232-233, Fig. 7, 8) eagle engraved on one face.
m0451Am0451BText 3235
Field symbol 1: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'zebu, bos indicus taurus' rebus: पोळा [ pōḷā ] 'magnetite, ferrite ore: Fe3O4'
Field symbol 2: śyēná m. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV. Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ.(CDIAL 12674)
seṇa 'falcon' rebus: seṇa, aśani 'thunderbolt', āhan gar 'blacksmith' PLUS kambha 'wing' rebus: kammaṭa'mint, coiner, coinage[Metwork catalogues: ferrite ore, blacksmith mint] Alternate titles: sēnāpati m. ʻ leader of an army ʼ AitBr. [sḗnā -- , páti -- ]Pa. sēnāpati -- , °ika -- m. ʻ general ʼ, Pk. sēṇāvaï -- m.; M. śeṇvaī, °vī, śeṇai m. ʻ a class of Brahmans ʼ, Ko. śeṇvi; Si. senevi ʻgeneralʼ.(CDIAL 13589) Vikalpa:eruvai ‘eagle’ rebus: eruvai ‘copper’
Rebus: senā ʻ chisel:
Ka. cāṇa, cāna, cēṇa a small chisel. Tu. cēṇů, cēnů awl, chisel. Te. sēnamu id.(DEDR 2445) chēdana ʻ cutting ʼ, n. ʻ act of cutting ʼ MBh., ʻ instru- ment for cutting ʼ lex. [√chid]Pa. chēdana -- n. ʻ cutting ʼ, °naka -- m. ʻ one who cuts ʼ; Pk. chēaṇa -- n. ʻ cutting, a tool ʼ; K. ċhyunu m. ʻ goldsmith's chisel ʼ; S. cheṇī f. ʻ smith's cold chisel ʼ; L. awāṇ. che_ṇī ʻ chisel ʼ; P. chaiṇī f. ʻ cold chisel ʼ, ludh. chainī f.; WPah. bhal. chiṇi f. ʻ iron wedge for splitting wood ʼ; Ku. chīṇo ʻ iron crowbar ʼ, gng. cheṇi ʻ a tool ʼ; N. chinu, cheni ʻ chisel ʼ; A. senā ʻ chisel, instrument for letting blood ʼ; B. cheni ʻ wedge ʼ; Or. cheṇā ʻ scraping a log with an adze, iron pick ʼ, cheṇī ʻ cold chisel, punch ʼ, Bi. Bhoj. Aw. lakh. chēnī; H. chenī f. ʻ chisel for notching millstones ʼ; G. cheṇī, chīṇī f. ʻ chisel ʼ; Si. sevana ʻ separation ʼ. -- Influenced by verbal forms from MIA. *chēā̆vaï s.v. chēdayati: S. chevaṇī f. ʻ potter's cutting string ʼ; N. chewani ʻ chisel ʼ, H. chewnī f.(CDIAL 5066) Ka. cīraṇa, cīrṇa, jīrṇa a small chisel, esp. used in cutting metals. Te. cīraṇamu a small chisel. / Cf. Mar. cirṇẽ id. (DEDR 2627)चिरणेंciraṇēṃ n A tool of carpenters, a small chisel. (Marathi)
சேனன் cēaṉaṉ,n. <sēnā. An ancient title; ஒரு பழைய பட்டப்பெயர். சந்துசேனனு மிந்துசேன னுந் தருமசேனனும் (தேவா. 859, 4).சேன் cēṉ,n. See சேனன். புரவிச்சே னென் றியாவரும் புகழப்பட்டார் (சீவக. 1681).
Text 3235
loa 'ficus glomerata' Rebus: loha 'copper, iron'. PLUS karṇī‘ears’ rebus: karṇī 'supercargo, scribe' [supercargo in charge of copper, iron ores]
kuṭila ‘bent’ CDIAL 3230 kuṭi— in cmpd. ‘curve’, kuṭika— ‘bent’ MBh. Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass' Old English ār 'brass, copper, bronze' Old Norse eir 'brass, copper', German ehern 'brassy, bronzen'. kastīra n. ʻ tin ʼ lex. 2. *kastilla -- .1. H. kathīr m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; G. kathīr n. ʻ pewter ʼ.2. H. (Bhoj.?) kathīl, °lā m. ʻ tin, pewter ʼ; M. kathīl n. ʻ tin ʼ, kathlẽ n. ʻ large tin vessel ʼ(CDIAL 2984) कौटिलिकः kauṭilikḥकौटिलिकः 1 A hunter.-2 A blacksmith PLUS dula ‘duplicated’ rebus: dul ‘metal casting’. Thus, bronze castings. [bronze castings]
khaṇḍa 'division'. rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' PLUS dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' [metal implement castings]
dhāḷ 'slanted stroke' rebus: dhāḷako 'ingot' PLUS खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). khaṇḍa 'implements'. Thus, ingots and implements [ingots, implements]
ayo, aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' (Rigveda) PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.PLUS sal ‘splinter’ rebus: sal ‘workshop’ [alloy metal mint workshop]
Thus, the Mohenjodaro tablet is a metalwork catalogue of: 1.ferrite ore; 2.blacksmith mint, army general.
Ali Hakemi in Shahdad. Hakemi, Ali, 1997, Shahdad, archaeological excavations of a bronze age center in Iran, Reports and Memoirs, Vol. XXVII, IsMEO, Rome. 766 pp.“The shaft is set on a 135 mm high pyramidal base. The thin metal plate is a square with curved sides set in a 21 mm wide frame. On the plate there is a figure of a goddess sitting on a chair and facing forward. The goddess has a long face, long hair and round eyes. Her left hand is extended as if to take a gift…a square garden divided into ten squares. In the center of each square there is a small circle. Beside this garden there is a row of two date palm trees…Under this scene the figure of a bull flanked by two lions is shown…The sun appears between the heads of the goddess and, one of the women and it is surrounded by a row of chain decorative motives.” (p.271, p.649). The inscriptional evidence discovered at this site which is on the crossroads of ancient bronze age civilizations attests to the possibility of Meluhha settlements in Shahdad, Tepe Yahya and other Elam/Susa region sites. The evolution of bronze age necessitated a writing system -- the answer was provided by Indus writing using hieroglyphs and rebus method of rendering Meluhha (mleccha) words of Indian sprachbund.
Shown are the glyphs of 1. zebu and 2. tigers which are also glyphs on Indus writing which I decode as related respectively to 1. blacksmithy on unsmelted metal (Adar Dhangar, zebu) 2. working with alloys (kol, tiger) !!! The tree is a smelter furnace (kuTi). The endless-knot motif is iron (meD, knot, iron).
Two possible rebus readings: 1. pajhaṛ ‘kite’. Rebus: pasra ‘smithy, forge’ (Santali) 2. śyēná m. ʻhawk, falcon, eagleʼ RV.Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻhawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻkiteʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻfalcon, eagle, kiteʼ. (CDIAL 12674) Rebus: Senaka a carter ThA 271 (=sākaṭika of Th 2, 443) (Pali) sēnāpati m. ʻ leader of an army ʼ AitBr. [sḗnā -- , páti -- ] Pa. sēnāpati -- , °ika -- m. ʻgeneralʼ, Pk. sēṇāvaï -- m.; M. śeṇvaī, °vī, śeṇai m. ʻa class of Brahmansʼ, Ko. śeṇvi; Si. senevi ʻgeneralʼ (CDIAL 13589).
Three pots are shown of three sizes in the context of kneeling adorants seated in front of the person seated on a stool. meṇḍā 'kneeling position' (Gondi) Rebus: meḍ 'iron' (Munda)
eruvai 'kite' Rebus:eruvai 'copper'
dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal'
arya 'lion' (Akkadian) Rebus: Ara 'brass'
kul, kOla 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'working in iron'
poLa 'zebu' Rebus: poLa 'magnetite'
kōla = woman (Nahali) Rebus: kol ‘furnace, forge’ (Kuwi) kol ‘alloy of five
metals, pañcaloha’ (Tamil) kol ‘working in iron’ (Tamil) kaṇḍō a stool. Malt. Kanḍo stool, seat. (DEDR 1179) Rebus: kaṇḍ = a furnace,
altar (Santali) If the date palmdenotes tamar (Hebrew language), ‘palmtree, date palm’ the rebus reading would be: tam(b)ra, ‘copper’ (Pkt.)
kuṭi ‘tree’. Rebus: kuṭhi ‘smelter’ (Santali). The two trees are shown ligatured to
a rectangle with ten square divisions and a dot in each square. The dot may
denote an ingot in a furnace mould.
Hieroglyph: BHSk. gaṇḍa -- m. ʻ piece, part ʼ(CDIAL 3791)
Hieroglyph: Paš. lauṛ. khaṇḍā ʻ cultivated field ʼ, °ḍī ʻ small do. ʼ (→ Par. kheṇ ʻ field ʼ IIFL i 265); Gaw. khaṇḍa ʻ hill pasture ʼ (see also bel.)(CDIAL 3792)
Rebus: khaṇḍa 'implements'
Santali glosses
Glyph of rectangle with divisions: baṭai = to divide, share (Santali) [Note the
glyphs of nine rectangles divided.] Rebus: bhaṭa = an oven, kiln, furnace
(Santali)
ḍāḷ= a branch of a tree (G.) Rebus: ḍhāḷako = a large ingot (G.) ḍhāḷakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (G.)
Three sets of entwined 'glyphs (like twisted ropes) are shown around the entire narrative of the Shahdad standard.
Twisted rope as hieroglyph:
Rebus: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn.Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ)(CDIAL 6773).
Fig. 9 Fragment of an Iranian Chlorite Vase. 2500-2400 BCE
Decorated with the lion headed eagle (Imdugud) found in the temple of Ishtar during the 1933 - 1934 fieldwork by Parrot. Dated 2500 - 2400 BCE. Louvre Museum collection AO 17553.
'Twisted rope' which is identified as an Indus Script hieroglyph is signified on the following 14 artifacts of Ancient Near East, dated from ca. 2400 to 1650 BCE:
sena 'kite' rebus: sena 'chisel'; eruvai 'kite' dula 'pair' eraka 'wing' Rebus: eruvai dul 'copper cast metal' eraka 'moltencast' PLUS dhāu 'strand of rope' Rebus: dhāv 'red ore' (ferrite) ti-dhāu 'three strands' Rebus: ti-dhāv 'three ferrite ores: magnetite, hematite, laterite'.
Double-headed eagle on a stamp seal from the Assyrian trading colony of Hattuŝa (Bittel, Kurt. 1970 Hattusha: The Capital of the Hittites. New York: Oxford University Press.Plate 7)
A stranded rope as a hieroglyph signifies dhAtu rebus metal, mineral, ore. This occurs on Ancient Near East objects with hieroglyphs such as votive bas-relief of Dudu, priest of Ningirsu in the time of Entemena, prince of Lagash C. 2400 BCE Tello (ancient Girsu), eagle and stranded rope from Bogazhkoy. Indus Script decipherment of these hieroglyph-multiplexes confirms the underlying Prakritam as an Indo-European language and Indus Script Corpora is emphatically catalogus catalogorum of metalwork of the Bronze Age in Ancient Near East.
Twisted rope as hieroglyph on a plaque.
Dudu plaque. Votive bas-relief of Dudu, priest of Ningirsu in the time of Entemena, prince of Lagash, ca. 2400 BCE Tello (ancient Girsu)
Bituminous stone
H. 25 cm; W. 23 cm; Th. 8 cm
De Sarzec excavations, 1881 , 1881
AO 2354
Alternative hieroglyph: मेढा [ mēḍhā ] 'a curl or snarl; twist in thread' (Marathi) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) eruvai 'eagle' Rebus: eruvai 'copper'. kōḍe, kōḍiya. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. Rebus: koḍ artisan’s workshop (Kuwi) kunda ‘turner’ kundār turner (Assamese) मेढा [ mēḍhā ] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl.(Marathi)(CDIAL 10312).L. meṛh f. ʻrope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floorʼ(CDIAL 10317) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)
I suggest that the hieroglyphs on the Dudu plaque are: eagle, pair of lions, twisted rope, calf
Hieroglyph: eruvai 'kite' Rebus: eruvai 'copper'
Hieroglyph: arye 'lion' (Akkadian) Rebus: Ara 'brass'
Hieroglyph: dām m. ʻ young ungelt ox ʼ: damya ʻ tameable ʼ, m. ʻ young bullock to be tamed ʼ Mn. [~ *dāmiya -- . -- √dam]Pa. damma -- ʻ to be tamed (esp. of a young bullock) ʼ; Pk. damma -- ʻ to be tamed ʼ; S. ḍ̠amu ʻ tamed ʼ; -- ext. -- ḍa -- : A. damrā ʻ young bull ʼ, dāmuri ʻ calf ʼ; B.dāmṛā ʻ castrated bullock ʼ; Or. dāmaṛī ʻ heifer ʼ, dāmaṛiā ʻ bullcalf, young castrated bullock ʼ, dāmuṛ, °ṛi ʻ young bullock ʼ.Addenda: damya -- : WPah.kṭg. dām m. ʻ young ungelt ox ʼ.(CDIAL 6184). This is a phonetic determinative of the 'twisted rope' hieroglyph: dhāī˜ f.dāˊman1ʻ rope ʼ (Rigveda)
Dudu, sanga priest of Ningirsu, dedicatory plaque with image of Anzud (Imdugud)
Hieroglyph: endless knot motif
After Fig. 52, p.85 in Prudence Hopper opcit. Plaque with male figures, serpents and quadruped. Bitumen compound. H. 9 7/8 in (25 cm); w. 8 ½ in. (21.5 cm); d. 3 3/8 in. (8.5 cm). ca. 2600-2500 BCE. Acropole, temple of Ninhursag Sb 2724. The scene is described: “Two beardless, long-haired, nude male figures, their heads in profile and their bodies in three-quarter view, face the center of the composition…upper centre, where two intertwined serpents with their tails in their mouths appear above the upraised hands. At the base of the plaque, between the feet of the two figures, a small calf or lamb strides to the right. An irregular oblong cavity or break was made in the centre of the scene at a later date.”
The hieroglyphs on this plaque are: kid and endless-knot motif (or three strands of rope twisted).
Hieroglyph: 'kid': करडूं or करडें (p. 137) [ karaḍū or ṅkaraḍēṃ ] n A kid. कराडूं (p. 137) [ karāḍūṃ ] n (Commonly करडूं) A kid. Rebus: करडा (p. 137) [ karaḍā ] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c.(Marathi)
I suggest that the center of the composition is NOT set of intertwined serpents, but an endless knot motif signifying a coiled rope being twisted from three strands of fibre.
m1406 Seal using three-stranded rope: dhAtu Rebus: iron ore.
Hieroglyph: धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g.त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c ; cf.त्रिविष्टि- , सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773)
Rebus: M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ;(CDIAL 6773) धातु primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral, ore (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh. &c element of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]) (Monier-Williams. Samskritam). Dāma (nt.) [Sk. dāman to dyati to bind (Gr. di/dhmi), *dē, as in Gr. de/sma (rope), dia/dhma (diadem), u(po/dhma (sandal)] a bond, fetter, rope; chain, wreath, garland S iv.163 (read dāmena for damena), 282, (id.); A iii.393 (dāmena baddho); Sn 28 (=vacchakānaŋ bandhanatthāya katā ganthitā nandhipasayuttā rajjubandhanavisesā); Vism 108. Usually -- ˚, viz. anoja -- puppha˚ J i.9; vi.227; olambaka˚ VvA 32; kusuma˚ J iii.394; gandha˚ J i.178; VvA 173, 198; puppha˚ Ji.397; VvA 198; mālā˚ J ii.104; rajata˚ J i.50; iii.184; iv.91; rattapuppha˚ J iii.30; sumana˚ J iv.455. (Pali) दामन् n. [दो-मनिन्] 1 A string, thread, fillet, rope. -2 A chaplet, a garland in general; आद्ये बद्धा विरहदिवसे या शिखा दाम हित्वा Me.93; कनकचम्पकदामगौरीम् Ch. P.1; Śi.4.5. -3 A line, streak (as of lightning); वुद्युद्- दाम्ना हेमराजीव विन्ध्यम् M.3.2; Me.27. -4 A large bandage. -5 Ved. A gift. -6 A portion, share. -7 A girdle. -Comp. -अञ्चलम्, -अञ्जनम् a foot-rope for horses, &c.; सस्रुः सरोषपरिचारकवार्यमाणा दामाञ्चलस्खलितलोलपदं तुरङ्गाः Śi.5.61. -उदरः an epithet of Kṛiṣṇa. dāmanī दामनी A foot-rope. dāmā दामा A string, cord. धामन् dhāman A fetter. dāˊman1 ʻ rope ʼ RV. 2. *dāmana -- ,dāmanī -- f. ʻ long rope to which calves are tethered ʼ Hariv. 3. *dāmara -- . [*dāmara -- is der. fr. n/r n. stem. -- √dā2]1. Pa. dāma -- , inst. °mēna n. ʻ rope, fetter, garland ʼ, Pk. dāma -- n.; Wg. dām ʻ rope, thread, bandage ʼ; Tir. dām ʻ rope ʼ; Paš.lauṛ. dām ʻ thick thread ʼ, gul. dūm ʻ net snare ʼ (IIFL iii 3, 54 ← Ind. or Pers.); Shum. dām ʻ rope ʼ; Sh.gil. (Lor.) dōmo ʻ twine, short bit of goat's hair cord ʼ, gur. dōm m. ʻ thread ʼ (→ Ḍ. dōṅ ʻ thread ʼ); K. gu -- dômu m. ʻ cow's tethering rope ʼ; P. dã̄u, dāvã̄ m. ʻ hobble for a horse ʼ; WPah.bhad. daũ n. ʻ rope to tie cattle ʼ, bhal. daõ m., jaun. dã̄w; A. dāmā ʻ peg to tie a buffalo -- calf to ʼ; B. dām, dāmā ʻ cord ʼ; Or. duã̄ ʻ tether ʼ, dāĩ ʻ long tether to which many beasts are tied ʼ; H. dām m.f. ʻ rope, string, fetter ʼ, dāmā m. ʻ id., garland ʼ; G. dām n. ʻ tether ʼ, M. dāvẽ n.; Si. dama ʻ chain, rope ʼ, (SigGr) dam ʻ garland ʼ. -- Ext. in Paš.dar. damaṭāˊ, °ṭīˊ, nir. weg. damaṭék ʻ rope ʼ, Shum.ḍamaṭik, Woṭ. damṓṛ m., Sv. dåmoṛīˊ; -- with -- ll -- : N. dāmlo ʻ tether for cow ʼ, dã̄wali, dāũli, dāmli ʻ bird -- trap of string ʼ, dã̄wal, dāmal ʻ coeval ʼ (< ʻ tied together ʼ?); M. dã̄vlī f. ʻ small tie -- rope ʼ.
2. Pk. dāvaṇa -- n., dāmaṇī -- f. ʻ tethering rope ʼ; S. ḍ̠āvaṇu, ḍ̠āṇu m. ʻ forefeet shackles ʼ, ḍ̠āviṇī, ḍ̠āṇī f. ʻ guard to support nose -- ring ʼ; L. ḍã̄vaṇ m., ḍã̄vaṇī, ḍāuṇī(Ju. ḍ̠ -- ) f. ʻ hobble ʼ, dāuṇī f. ʻ strip at foot of bed, triple cord of silk worn by women on head ʼ, awāṇ. dāvuṇ ʻ picket rope ʼ; P. dāuṇ, dauṇ, ludh. daun f. m. ʻ string for bedstead, hobble for horse ʼ, dāuṇī f. ʻ gold ornament worn on woman's forehead ʼ; Ku. dauṇo m., °ṇī f. ʻ peg for tying cattle to ʼ, gng. dɔ̃ṛ ʻ place for keeping cattle, bedding for cattle ʼ; A. dan ʻ long cord on which a net or screen is stretched, thong ʼ, danā ʻ bridle ʼ; B. dāmni ʻ rope ʼ; Or. daaṇa ʻ string at the fringe of a casting net on which pebbles are strung ʼ, dāuṇi ʻ rope for tying bullocks together when threshing ʼ; H. dāwan m. ʻ girdle ʼ, dāwanī f. ʻ rope ʼ, dã̄wanī f. ʻ a woman's orna<-> ment ʼ; G. dāmaṇ, ḍā° n. ʻ tether, hobble ʼ, dāmṇũ n. ʻ thin rope, string ʼ, dāmṇī f. ʻ rope, woman's head -- ornament ʼ; M. dāvaṇ f. ʻ picket -- rope ʼ. -- Words denoting the act of driving animals to tread out corn are poss. nomina actionis from *dāmayati2.
3. L. ḍãvarāvaṇ, (Ju.) ḍ̠ã̄v° ʻ to hobble ʼ; A. dāmri ʻ long rope for tying several buffalo -- calves together ʼ, Or. daũ̈rā, daürā ʻ rope ʼ; Bi. daũrī ʻ rope to which threshing bullocks are tied, the act of treading out the grain ʼ, Mth. dã̄mar, daũraṛ ʻ rope to which the bullocks are tied ʼ; H. dã̄wrī f. ʻ id., rope, string ʼ, dãwrī f. ʻ the act of driving bullocks round to tread out the corn ʼ. -- X *dhāgga<-> q.v.*dāmayati2; *dāmakara -- , *dāmadhāra -- ; uddāma -- , prōddāma -- ; *antadāmanī -- , *galadāman -- , *galadāmana -- , *gōḍḍadāman -- , *gōḍḍadāmana -- , *gōḍḍadāmara -- .dāmán -- 2 m. (f.?) ʻ gift ʼ RV. [√dā1]. See dāˊtu -- .*dāmana -- ʻ rope ʼ see dāˊman -- 1.Addenda: dāˊman -- 1. 1. Brj. dã̄u m. ʻ tying ʼ.3. *dāmara -- : Brj. dã̄wrī f. ʻ rope ʼ.(CDIAL 6283)
Fig. 1 First cylinder seal-impressed jar from Taip 1, Turkmenistan Fig. 2 Hematite cylinder seal of Old Syria ca. 1820-1730 BCE Fig. 3 Hematite seal. Old Syria. ca. 1720-1650 BCE Fig. 4 Cylinder seal modern impression. Mitanni. 2nd millennium BCE Fig. 5 Cylinder seal modern impression. Old Syria. ca. 1720-1650 BCE Fig. 6 Cylinder seal. Mitanni. 2nd millennium BCE Fig. 7 Stone cylinder seal. Old Syria ca. 1720-1650 BCE Fig. 8 Hematite cylinder seal. Old Syria. ca. early 2nd millennium BCE Fig. 9 Fragment of an Iranian Chlorite Vase. 2500-2400 BCE
Fig.10 Shahdad standard. ca. 2400 BCE Line drawing Fig.11 Cylinder seal. 2 seated lions. Twisted rope. Louvre AO7296Fig.12 Cylinder seal. Sumerian. 18th cent. BCE. Louvre AO 22366Fig.13 Bogazkoy Seal impression ca. 18th cent. BCE Fig.14 Dudu plaque.Votive bas-relief of Dudu, priest of Ningirsu in the time of Entemena, prince of Lagash, ca. 2400 BCE Tello (ancient Girsu)
The orthography of the 'twisted rope' is characterised by an endless twist, sometimes signified with three strands of the rope.
Meluhha rebus-metonymy Indus Script cipher on all the 14 seals/artifacts is:
Hieroglyph:ti-dhAtu'three strands' Rebus: ti-dhAtu 'three red stone ores: magnetite, hematite, laterite'.
The three ores are:poLa'magnetite',bica'hematite',goTa'laterite'. The hieroglyphs signifying these mineral ores are:poLa'zebu',bica'scorpion'goTa'round object or seed'.
Some associated hieroglyphs on the 14 seals/artifacts are:
Hieroglyph: poLa 'zebu' Rebus: poLa 'magnetite' (Fig.1)
Hieroglyph: dula 'pair' Rebus: dul 'cast metal'. (Fig.3)
The semantic elaboration ofdhāv 'a red stone ore' is identified in the gloss: dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelters'. There is a place-name in Karnataka called dhā̆rvā̆ḍ
The suffix -vā̆ḍ in the place-name is also explained in the context of ‘rope’ hieroglyph:vaṭa2ʻ string ʼ lex. [Prob. ← Drav. Tam.vaṭam, Kan.vaṭi,vaṭara, &c. DED 4268] vaṭa-string, rope, tie;vaṭāraka-, vaṭākara-, varāṭaka- cord, string(DEDR 5220).
Dhā̆rvā̆ḍ is an ancient major trading down dealing -- even today -- with iron ore and mineral-belt of Sahyadri mountain ranges in western Karnataka. The word dhāv is derived fromdhātu which has two meanings: 'strand of rope' (Rigveda)(hieroglyph) and 'mineral' (metalwork ciphertext of Indian sprachbund.)
I suggest that Shahdad which has a standard of ca. 2400 BCE with the 'twisted rope' hieroglyph -- and hence dealing with ferrote ores (magnetite, hematite, laterite) -- should be recognized as a twin iron-ore town of Dhā̆rvā̆ḍ It is hypothesised that further archaeometallurgical researchers into ancient iron ore mines of Dhā̆rvā̆ḍ region are likely to show possible with an archaeological settlement of Sarasvati_Sindhu civilization: Daimabad from where a seal was discovered showing the most-frequently used Indus Script hieroglyph: rim of jar.
Daimabad seal. Rim of jar hieroglyph. karNI 'rim of jar' Rebus: karNI 'supercargo', karNIka 'scribe'.
dhāī wisp of fibers added to a rope (Sindhi) Rebus: dhātu 'mineral ore' (Samskritam) dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻa partic. soft red stoneʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(Marathi)
Fig. 1 First cylinder seal-impressed jar from Taip 1, Turkmenistan
(Photo: Kohl 1984: Pl. 15c; drawings after Collon 1987: nos. 600, 599. (After Fig. 5 Eric Olijdam, 2008, A possible central Asian origin for seal-impressed jar from the 'Temple Tower' at Failaka, in: Eric Olijdam and Richard H. Spoor, eds., 2008, Intercultural relations between south and southwest Asia, Studies in commemoration of ECL During Caspers (1934-1996), Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 7 [eds. D. Kennet & St J. Simpson], BAR International Series 1826 pp. 268-287). https://www.academia.edu/403945/A_Possible_Central_Asian_Origin_for_the_Seal-Impressed_Jar_from_the_Temple_Tower_at_Failaka
Decipherment of Indus Script hieroglyphs:
Hieroglyphs on the cylinder impression of the jar are: zebu, stalk (tree?), one-horned young bull (?), twisted rope, birds in flight, mountain-range
dhāī wisp of fibers added to a rope (Sindhi) Rebus: dhātu 'mineral ore' (Samskritam) dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻa partic. soft red stoneʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(Marathi)
poLa 'zebu' Rebus: poLa 'magnetite ore'
kōḍe, kōḍiya. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. Rebus: koḍ artisan’s workshop (Kuwi) kunda ‘turner’ kundār turner (Assamese)
kolmo 'rice plant' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'
eruvai 'eagle' Rebus: eruvai 'copper (red)'
dAng 'mountain-range' Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'
Thus, the storage jar contents are the message conveyed by the hieroglyph-multiplex: copper smithy workshop magnetite ore, iron castings. Fig. 2 Hematite cylinder seal of Old Syria ca. 1820-1730 BCE
Period: Old Syrian
Date: ca. 1820–1730 B.C.E
Geography: Syria
Medium: Hematite
Dimensions: H. 1 1/16 in. (2.7 cm); Diam. 1/2 in. (1.2 cm)
Classification: Stone-Cylinder Seals
Credit Line: Gift of Nanette B. Kelekian, in memory of Charles Dikran and Beatrice Kelekian, 1999
Accession Number: 1999.325.142 Metmuseum
Fig. 3 Hematite seal. Old Syria. ca. 1720-1650 BCE
Period: Old Syrian
Date: ca. 1720–1650 B.C.E
Geography: Syria
Medium: Hematite
Dimensions: H. 15/16 in. (2.4 cm); Diam. 3/8 in. (1 cm)
Classification: Stone-Cylinder Seals
Credit Line: Gift of Nanette B. Kelekian, in memory of Charles Dikran and Beatrice Kelekian, 1999
Accession Number: 1999.325.155 Metmuseum
Fig. 4 Cylinder seal modern impression. Mitanni. 2nd millennium BCE
Dimensions: H, 1 1/8 in. (2.9 cm); Diam. 7/16 in. (1.1 cm)
Classification: Stone-Cylinder Seals
Credit Line: Gift of Nanette B. Kelekian, in memory of Charles Dikran and Beatrice Kelekian, 1999
Accession Number: 1999.325.147 Metmuseum
Fig. 6 Cylinder seal. Mitanni. 2nd millennium BCE
Period: Mitanni
Date: ca. late 2nd millennium B.C.E
Geography: Mesopotamia or Syria
Culture: Mitanni
Medium: Hematite
Dimensions: H. 1 in. (2.6 cm); Diam. 1/2 in. (1.2 cm)
Classification: Stone-Cylinder Seals
Credit Line: Gift of Nanette B. Kelekian, in memory of Charles Dikran and Beatrice Kelekian, 1999
Accession Number: 1999.325.190 Metmuseum
Fig. 7 Stone cylinder seal. Old Syria ca. 1720-1650 BCE
Period: Old Syrian
Date: ca. 1720–1650 B.C.
Geography: Syria
Medium: Stone
Dimensions: H. 1.9 cm x Diam. 1.1 cm
Classification: Stone-Cylinder Seals
Credit Line: Bequest of W. Gedney Beatty, 1941
Accession Number: 41.160.189 Metmuseum
Fig. 8 Hematite cylinder seal. Old Syria. ca. early 2nd millennium BCE
Period: Old Syrian
Date: ca. early 2nd millennium B.C.E
Geography: Syria
Medium: Hematite
Dimensions: H. 11/16 in. (1.7 cm); Diam. 5/16 in. (0.8 cm)
Classification: Stone-Cylinder Seals
Credit Line: Gift of Nanette B. Kelekian, in memory of Charles Dikran and Beatrice Kelekian, 1999
Accession Number: 1999.325.161 Metmuseum
Section 2. R̥gveda śyena, devatāsuparṇātmā brahma śyena is ब्रह्मन्, 'hymn, sacred word', fetches Soma whih is ātmā principle & sensation of yajña; hence suparṇātmā brahma is devatā of r̥ca-s RV 4.26.4-7. This monograph demonstrates that this extraordinary R̥gveda śyena metaphor, is paralled/replicated in stunning śyenaIndus Script Orthography hypertexts and śyenaarchaeo-metallurgical artifacts.
ब्रह्मन् n. (lit. " growth " , " expansion " , " evolution " , " development "" swelling of the spirit or soul " , fr. √2. बृह्) pious effusion or utterance , outpouring of the heart in worshipping the gods , prayer RV. AV. VS. TS.; (exceptionally treated as m.) the ब्रह्म or one self-existent impersonal Spirit , the one universal Soul (or one divine essence and source from which all created things emanate or with which they are identified and to which they return) , the Self-existent , the Absolute , the Eternal (not generally an object of worship but rather of meditation and-knowledge ; also with ज्य्/एष्ठ , प्रथम-ज्/अ , स्वय्/अम्-भु , अ-मूर्त , पर , परतर , परम , महत् , सनातन , शाश्वत ; and = परमा*त्मन् , आत्मन् , अध्यात्म , प्रधान , क्षेत्र-ज्ञ , तत्त्व) AV. S3Br. Mn. MBh. &c ( IW. 9 , 83 &c )
śyena is ब्रह्मन्, 'hymn, sacred word' is the metaphor for knowledge because, in the explanation of the metaphor, śyena pierces through the metallic fortresses and brings Soma. A synonym of śyena is supraṇa, 'ray' (नैघण्टुक , commented on by यास्क). Soma is amśu, 'ray, sunbeam'. Thus, the r̥ca-s, 'prayers' RV 4.26.4-7 addressed to śyena invoke devatāsuparṇātmā brahma. आत्मन् isthe highest personal principle of life, ब्रह्म (cf.परमा*त्मन्) AV. x , 8 , 44VS. xxxii , 11S3Br. xiv , &c (Monier-Williams). Thus, the expression suparṇātmā brahma is a semantic reinforcement of the knowledge (highest personal principle of life) system signified by śyena. आत्मन् is the principle of life and sensation, hencesuparṇātmā brahma is semantically elaborated as a metaphor signifying the sacred hymn addressed to the ray of knowledge. śyena is a ray of light, which signifies the carrier of Soma, the carrier of the principle of life and sensation related to Soma.
1. I WAS aforetime Manu, I was Surya: I am the sage Kaksivan, holy singer. Kutsa the son of Arjuni I master. I am the sapient Usana behold me. 2 I have bestowed the earth upon the Arya, and rain upon the man who brings oblation. I guided forth the loudlyroaring- waters, and the Gods moved according to my pleasure. 3 In the wild joy of Soma I demolished Sambaras' forts, ninety and nine—, together; And, utterly, the hundredth habitation, when helping DivodasaAtithigva. 4 Before all birds be ranked this Bird, O Maruts; supreme of falcons be this fleetwinged- Falcon, Because, strong- pinioned, with no car to bear him, he brought to Manu the Godloved oblation. 5 When the Bird brought it, hence in rapid motion sent on the wide path fleet as thought he hurried. Swift he returned with sweetness of the Soma, and hence the Falcon hath acquired his glory. 6 Bearing the stalk, the Falcon speeding onward, Bird bringing from afar the draught that gladdens, Friend of the Gods, brought, grasping fast, the Soma which be bad taken from yon loftiest heaven. 7 The Falcon took and brought the Soma, bearing thousand libations with him, yea, ten thousand. The Bold One left Malignities behind him, wise, in wild joy of Soma, left the foolish.
Translation of Sayana/Wilson: RV 4.26
4.026.01 I have been Manu and Su_rya; I am the wise r.s.i: Kaks.i_vat; I have befriended Kutsa, the son of Arjuni; I am the far-seeing Us'ana_s; so behold me. [Attributed to Va_madeva: the sage uttered the verse and the following two verses, while yet in the womb, knowledge of truth being generated in him, and enabling him to identify himself with universal existence; through the eye of supreme truth I am everything, parama_rtha dr.s.t.ya_ kr.tsnam aham asmityarthah, we have, thus, the statement of the pantheistic basis for Veda_nta]. 4.026.02 I gave the earth to the venerable (Manu); I have bestowed rain upon the mortal who presents (oblations); I have let forth the sounding waters; the gods obey my will. [To the venerable Manu: the text has only a_ryaya; Ma_nave is added]. 4.026.03 Exhilarated (by the Soma beverage) I have destroyed the ninety and nine cities of S'ambara, the hundredth I gave to be occupied by Divoda_sa when I protected him, Atithigva, at his sacrifice. 4.026.04 May this bird, Maruts, be pre-eminent over (other) hawks, since with a wheelless car the swift-winged bore the Soma, accepted by the gods, to Manu. [With a wheelless car: acakraya_ vadhaya_ = cakrarahitena rathena, with a car without wheels; the text has havyam, this is a metonymy for the Soma, which is said to have been brought from heaven by the ga_yatri_, in the form of a hawk; by the hawk, we are to understand the supreme spirit, parabrahma]. 4.026.05 When the bird, intimidating (its guardians), carried off from hence (the Soma) it was at large; (flying) swift as thought along the vast path (of the firmament), it went rapidly with the sweet Soma, and the hawks thence acquired the celebrity in this world. 4.026.06 The straight-flying hawk, conveying the Soma from afar; the bird, attended by the gods, brought, resolute of purpose, the adorable exhilarating Soma, having taken it from that lofty heaven. 4.026.07 Having taken it, the hawk brought the Soma with him to a thousand and ten thousand sacrifices, and this being provided, the performer of many (great) deeds, the unbewildered (Indra) destroyed, in the exhilaration of the Soma, (his) bewildered foes.
See:
R̥gveda ākhyāna ofśyena by Gautama, son of Rāhugaṇa who migrated to Karatoya, Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. Soma and the Eagle (Agni as śyena 'thunderbolt' ) -- Maurice Bloomfield (1892) https://tinyurl.com/ycpf85x2
Griffith translation RV 4.27: 1 begins with a soliloquy of perhaps Soma referring to Soma's confinement in a hundred iron fortresses which are smothered by the mighty, powerful śyena.
As I lay within the womb, considered all generations of these Gods in order. A hundred iron fortresses confined me but forth I flew with rapid speed a Falcon.2 Not at his own free pleasure did he bear me: he conquered with his strength and manly courage. Straightway the Bold One left the fiends behind him and passed the winds as he grew yet more mighty.3 When with loud cry from heaven down sped the Falcon, thence hasting like the wind he bore theBold One.Then, wildly raging in his mind, the archer Krsanu aimed and loosed the string to strike him.
RV references to the strong bird: 1-32-14; 1-33-2; 1-118-11; 1-163-1; 1-165-2; 2-42-2; 4-38-5; RV references to Suparṇa: 1-164-20; 2-42-2; 4-26-4; 8-100-8;10-48-3. The messages conveyed by these R̥gvedar̥ca-s are explanatory texts of the profundity ofśyena metaphor. In RV 4.26.4 the falcon is compared to a wheelless car. Sāyaṇa notes that the text which has havyam is a reference to Soma brought from heaven by Gāyatrī: With a wheelless car: acakrayā vadhayā = cakrarahitena rathena, with a car without wheels; the text has havyam, this is a metonymy for the Soma, which is said to have been brought from heaven by the gāyatrī, in the form of a hawk; by the hawk, we are to understand the supreme spirit, parabrahma RV 10.48.3 refers to Tvaṣṭr̥ who has forged a metal weapon, metal vajra in the expression vajram atakṣad āyasam (for the falcon to break through the metal forts). In RV 8.100.8 the falcon is said to burst asunder the metal city, iron fort and brought Soma to Indra, the thunderer. The expression āyasīm is explained: āyasīm = metal, hiran.mayīm, golden; an allusion to the cities of the demons as made of metal on earth, silver in the firmament and gold in heaven (Aitareya Bra_hman.a 1.23)].
RV 8.100.8 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 8.100.08 Suparn.a, rushing swift as thought, passed through the metal city; then having gone to heaven he brought the Soma to the thunderer. [He brought the Soma to the thunderer: Legend : Ga_yatri_ as a bird fetched Soma from heaven. a_yasi_m = metal, hiran.mayi_m, golden; an allusion to the cities of the demons as made of metal on earth, silver in the firmament and gold in heaven (Aitareya Bra_hman.a 1.23)]. Griffith RV 8.89.8 8 Onrushing- with the speed of thought within the iron fort he pressed: The Falcon went to heaven and brought the Soma to the Thunderer. śyena is associated with the attributes of 'might, vigour', 'speed of flight''mighty wings' in the following r̥ca-s:
Sāyaṇa/Wilson: RV 1.032.14 When fear entered, Indra, into your heart when about to slay Ahi, what other destroyer of him did you look for, that, alarmed, you did traverse ninety and nine streams like a (swift) hawk? [When fear entered Indra: his fear was the uncertainty whether he should destroy Vr.tra or not]. Griffith: 14 Whom sawest thou to avenge the Dragon, Indra, that fear possessed thy heart when thou hadst slain him;That, like a hawk affrighted through the regions, thou crossedst nineandninety— flowing rivers?
Sāyaṇa/Wilson: RV 1.33.2:1.033.02 I fly, like a hawk to its cherished nest, to that Indra who is to be invoked by his worshipper in battle, glorifying with excellent hymns, him who is invincible and the giver of wealth.
Griffith: RV 1.33.2 I fly to him invisible Wealthgiver- as flies the falcon to his cherished eyrie, With fairest hymns of praise adoring Indra, whom those who laud him must invoke in battle.
RV 1.118.11 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 1.118.11 Come to us, auspicious Na_satyas, with the fresh velocity of a hawk; bearing an oblation, I invoke you, As'vins, at the rising of the ever constant dawn.
Griffith: 11 Come unto us combined in love, Nasatyas come with the fresh swift vigour of the falcon. Bearing oblations I invoke you, Asvins, at the first break of everlasting morning.
RV 1.163.1 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 1.163.01 Your great birth, O Horse, is to be glorified; whether first springing from the firmament or from the water inasmuchas you have neighed (auspiciously), for you have the wings of the falcon and the limbs of the deer. [Spring from the firmament: samudra_d uta va_ puri_s.a_t = antariks.a, the firmament, and udaka, water; samudra = the sun].
Griffith: 1. WHAT time, first springing into life, thou neighedst, proceeding from the sea or upper waters, Limbsof the deer hadst thou, and eagle pinions. OSteed, thy birth is nigh and must be lauded.
RV 1.164.20 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 1.164.20 Two birds associated together, and mutual friends, take refuge in the same tree; one of them eats the sweet fig; the other abstaining from food, merely looks on. [Two birds associated together: the vital and supreme spirit, jiva_tma_ and parama_tma_, are here alluded to using the metaphor of the two birds; eats the sweet fig: pippalam sva_du atti: the vital spirit enjoys the rewards of acts. dvau dvau pratis.t.hitau sukr.tau dharmakarta_rau: two species of souls to be intended as abiding in one body (Nirukta 14.30)].
Griffith: 20 Two Birds with fair wings, knit with bonds of friendship, in the same sheltering tree have
found a refuge.One of the twain eats the sweet Figtrees-' fruitage; the other eating not regardeth only.
RV 1.165.2 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 1.165.02 Of whose oblations do the youthful (Maruts) approve; who attracts them to his (own) sacrifice (from the rites of others); with what powerful praise may we propitiate (them), wandering like kites in the mid-air?
Griffith: 2 Whose prayers have they, the Youthful Ones, accepted? Who to his sacrifice hath turned theMaruts? We will delay them on their journey sweeping, with what high spirit!, through the air like eagles.
RV 2.42 Sāyaṇa/Wilson:
2.042.01 Crying repeatedly, and foretelling what will come to pass, (the kapin~jala) gives (due) direction to its voice, as a helmsman (guides) a boat; be ominous, bird, of good fortune, and may no calamity whatever befall you from any quarter. [Kapin~jala: The Anukraman.ika_ has kanimataru_pindro devata_; kapin~jala = francoline partridge]. 2.042.02 May no kite, no eagle, kill you; may no archer armed with arrows, reach you; crying repeatedly, in the region of the Pita_, be ominous of good fortune; proclaimer of good luck, speak to us on this occasion. [In the region of the pita_: the south; the cry of the birds on the south is a good omen, cf. next hymn]. 2.042.03 Bird, who are ominous of good fortune, the proclaimer of good luck, cry from the south of our dwellings; may no thief, no evil-doer prevail agains tus; that blessed with excellent descendants we may worthily praise you at this sacrifice.
Griffith: 1. TELLING his race aloud with cries repeated, he sends his voice out as his boat a steersman.
O Bird, be ominous of happy fortune from no side may calamity befall thee. 2 Let not the falcon kill thee, nor the eagle let not the arrowbearing- archer reach thee. Still crying in the region of the Fathers, speak here auspicious, bearing joyful tidings. 3 Bringing good tidings, Bird of happy omen, call thou out loudly southward of our dwellings, So that no thief, no sinner may oppress us. Loud may we speak, with heroes, in assembly.
RV 4.26.4 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 4.026.04 May this bird, Maruts, be pre-eminent over (other) hawks, since with a wheelless car the swift-winged bore the Soma, accepted by the gods, to Manu. [With a wheelless car: acakraya_ vadhaya_ = cakrarahitena rathena, with a car without wheels; the text has havyam, this is a metonymy for the Soma, which is said to have been brought from heaven by the ga_yatri_, in the form of a hawk; by the hawk, we are to understand the supreme spirit, parabrahma].
Griffith:4 Before all birds be ranked this Bird, O Maruts; supreme of falcons be this fleetwinged- Falcon,Because, strong- pinioned, with no car to bear him, he brought to Manu the Godloved oblation.
RV 4.38.5 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 4.038.05 Whom men call after in battles, as after a thief carrying off a garment, or as (after) a hungry hawk pouncing (upon his prey); they call after him, hastening to obtain food, or a herd of cattle. [They call after him: s'ravasca_ccha_ pas'umacca yu_tham = annam ki_rttim va_ pas'umad yu_tham ca accha_ abhilaks.ya gacchantam enam anukros'anti, they call after him, that is Dadhikra_, going, having in view either food or fame, or a herd consisting of cattle].
Griffith: 5 Loudly the folk cry after him in battles, as it were a thief who steals away a garment;Speeding to glory, or a herd of cattle, even as a hungry falcon swooping downward.
RV 8.100.8 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 8.100.08 Suparn.a, rushing swift as thought, passed through the metal city; then having gone to heaven he brought the Soma to the thunderer. [He brought the Soma to the thunderer: Legend : Ga_yatri_ as a bird fetched Soma from heaven. a_yasi_m = metal, hiran.mayi_m, golden; an allusion to the cities of the demons as made of metal on earth, silver in the firmament and gold in heaven (Aitareya Bra_hman.a 1.23)].
RV 10.48.3 Sāyaṇa/Wilson: 10.048.03 For me Tvas.t.a_ fabricated the metal thunderbolt; in me the gods have concentrated pious acts; my lustre is insurmountable, like that of the Sun; men acknowledge me as lord in consequence of what I have done, and of what I shall do. [My lustre is the Sun: my army is hard to overcome, like the sun's lustre; ani_ka = lit., face]. Griffith: 3 For me hath Tvastar forged the iron thunderbolt: in me the Gods have centred intellectual power. My sheen is like the Suns' insufferably bright: men honour me as Lord for past and future deeds.
Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 12-2-3-7 praises eagle as Maha Suparna, i.e. Great Eagle.
The semantic explanation provided in theR̥gveda for the metaphor śyena is breath-taking in its splendour.
The devatā of r̥ca-s RV 4.26.4-7 is śyena; the metaphor of śyena is elaborated as: suparṇātmā brahma as the brahma, supreme principle of life and sensation applicable to the celestial sphere 'having beautiful rays'. Thus, śyena is a metaphor for the flight of the eagle -- of Gayatī metre, the mother of the four Vedas --bringing Soma to the mortals. The divinity associated with the metaphor explains the Double-eagle temple of Sirkap stupa, on the river bank opposite to the city of Taxila. In reference to the life-activities of the people of the times, śyena is āhan gar, a metal caster blacksmith who works with copper and alloying minerals like zinc to harden the metal alloy of brass.सु--पर्ण m. any large bird of prey (as a vulture , eagle ; also applicable to the sun or moon as " having beautiful rays " , and to सोम and clouds ; du. " sun and moon ")(RV)सु--पर्णी f. a partic. personification (mentioned together with कद्रू , sometimes identified with वाच् and regarded as the mother of metres) TS. Ka1t2h. S3Br.
1. O JATAVEDAS, keen and swift, we Gotamas with sacred song exalt thee for thy glories' sake. 2 Thee, as thou art, desiring wealth Gotama worships with his song: We laud thee for thy glories' sake. 3 As such, like Angiras we call on thee best winner of the spoil: We laud thee for thy glories' sake. 4 Thee, best of Vrtraslayers-, thee who shakest off our Dasyu foes: We laud thee for thy glories' sake. 5 A pleasant song to Agni we, sons of Rahugana, have sung: We laud thee for thy glories' sake.
Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa provides a detailed account of the movement of people (Videgha Mā thava, Gotama Rahugaṇa) from River Sarasvati to River Sadānīra which is Karatoya river, now a tributary of Brahmaputra.
"The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa contains reminiscences of the days when the country of Videha was not as yet Brahmanised. Thus Book I. relates a legend in which three stages in the eastward migration of the Aryans can be clearly distinguished. Mathava, the king of Videgha (the older form of Videha), whose family priest was Gotama Rahugana, was at one time on the Sarasvati. Agni Vaiçvanara (here typical of Brahmanical culture) thence went burning along this earth towards the east, followed by Mathava and his priest, till he came to the river Sadanira ..., which flows from the northern mountain, and which he did not burn over. This river Brahmans did not cross in former times, thinking "it has not been burnt over by Agni Vaiçvanara." At that time the land to the eastward was very uncultivated and marshy, but now many Brahmans are there, and it is highly cultivated, for the Brahmans have caused Agni to taste it through sacrifices. Mathava the Videgha then said to Agni, "Where am I to abide?""To the east of this river be thy abode," he replied." (Arthus A. Macdonnell, 1900, A history of Sanskrit literature,New Yorki,D. Appleton and Company)
Section 3. Archaeology of श्येनचिति śyenaciti discovered in Purola & numismatics of śyena, svastika
See: श्येन चिति syenaciti vedi discovered in Purola, Uttarakhand and links with pola 'magnetite', polad, faulad 'steel', on Vedic River Sarasvati Basin http://tinyurl.com/zyt3de7
Location of Kuninda Kingdom. One of the first kings of the Kuninda was Amoghbhuti, who ruled in the mountainous valley of the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers (in today's Uttarakhand and southern Himachal in northern India).
Silver drachm. Amogabhuti
Obverse
Deer standing right, Goddess (Lakshmi) standing at right, holding long-stemmed lotus, srivatsa and rectangular vase above, Brahmi legend around
Reverse
Chaitya, or crescented six-arched hill with nandipada above, swastika and standard at left, railed tree at right, river below, Kharoshthi legend around
Date
c. 2nd century BCE
Weight
2.14 gm.
Diameter
18 mm.
Die axis
12 o'clock
Reference
MAC 4445
Comments
From the Dr. Kurt Aterman collection.
A coin from Kulinda (*wiki*), 2nd-1st c. BCE, displays a swastika among Buddhist symbols
Silver coin of the Kuninda Kingdom, c. 1st century BCE. Obv: Deer standing right, crowned by two cobras, attended by Lakshmi holding a lotus flower. Legend in Prakrit (Brahmi script, from left to right): Rajnah Kunindasya Amoghabhutisya maharajasya ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas"). Rev:Stupa surmounted by the Buddhist symbol triratna, and surrounded by a swastika, a "Y" symbol, and a tree in railing. Legend in Kharoshti script, from righ to left: Rana Kunidasa Amoghabhutisa Maharajasa, ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas"). Coin of the Kunindas. ObvShiva standing with battle-axe trident in right hand and leopard skin in left hand. Legend Bhagavato Chatreswara Mahatana. Rev Deer with symbols. Shiva with trident, Kuninda, 2nd century CE.
Finds at Purola include Painted Gray Ware dated to ca. 1000 BCE. 24x18 m. vedika discovered in Purola, ca. 2nd cent. BC to 1st cent. CE. Laid out in the east-west direction. "Researchers also uncovered a square central chamber measuring 60 x 60 cm. in the middle of the altar. Excavation of this pit yielded five red-ware miniature bowls containing ash, charcoal, sandy clay and copper coins of the Kuninda period. But the most important discovery was an impressed gold-leaf showing a human figure in flowing apparel. Along with this was found a circular gold pendant and a small piece of a -chain. A lot of charcoal and charred bones were also recovered from the chamber." https://www.facebook.com/ouruki/posts/720924017918479
24x18 m. vedika discovered in Purola, ca. 2nd cent. BC to 1st cent. CE. Laid out in the east-west direction. "Researchers also uncovered a square central chamber measuring 60 x 60 cm. in the middle of the altar. Excavation of this pit yielded five red-ware miniature bowls containing ash, charcoal, sandy clay and copper coins of the Kuninda period. But the most important discovery was an impressed gold-leaf showing a human figure in flowing apparel. Along with this was found a circular gold pendant and a small piece of a -chain. A lot of charcoal and charred bones were also recovered from the chamber." https://www.facebook.com/ouruki/posts/720924017918479
श्येन [p= 1095,2]m. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man) RV. &c; firewood laid in the shape of an eagle S3ulbas. (Samskritam)
Syena-citi: A Monument of Uttarkashi The first layer of one kind of śyenaciti or falcon altar described in the Śulbasūtras, made of 200 bricks of six shapes or sizes, all of them adding up to a specified total area.
PUROLA, District Uttarkashi
The ancient site at Purola is located on the left bank of river Kamal in District Uttarkashi. The excavation carried out by Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna University, Srinagar Garhwal. The site yielded the remains of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) from the earliest level along with other associated materials include terracotta figurines, beads, potter-stamp and the dental and femur portions of domesticated horse (Equas Cabalus Linn). The most important finding from the site is a brick alter identified as Syena chitti by the excavator. The structure is in the shape of a flying eagle Garuda, head facing east with outstretched wings having a square chamber in the middle yielded the remains of pottery assignable to circa first century B.C. to second century AD along with copper coin of Kuninda , bone pieces and a thin gold leaf impressed with a human figure identified as Agni have also been recovered from the central chamber.
Hieroglyph: పోలడు (p. 0825) [ pōlaḍu ] , పోలిగాడు or దూడలపోలడుpōlaḍu. [Tel.] n. An eagle. పసులపోలిగాడు the bird called the Black Drongo. Dicrurus ater. (F.B.I.)
Allograph: पोळ [ pōḷa ] m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident
and discus, and set at large.
Rebus:Russian gloss, bulat is cognate pola 'magnetite' iron in Asuri (Meluhha). Magnetite is the most magnetic of all the naturally occurring igneous and metamorphic rocks with black or brownish-black with a metallic luster. These magnetite ore stones could have been identified as pola iron by Meluhha speakers. Kannada gloss pola meaning 'point of the compass' may link with the characteristic of magnetite iron used to create a compass.pŏlāduwu made of steel; pŏlād प्वलाद् or phōlād फोलाद् मृदुलोहविशेषः ] m. steel (Gr.M.; Rām. 431, 635, phōlād). pŏlödi pōlödi phōlödi लोहविशेषमयः adj. c.g. of steel, steel (Kashmiri) urukku what is melted, fused metal, steel.(Malayalam); ukk 'steel' (Telugu)(DEDR 661) This is cognate with famed 'wootz'steel. "Polad, Faulad" for steel in late Indian languages is traceable to Pokkhalavat, Polahvad. Pokkhalavat is the name of Pushkalavati, capital of Gandhara famed for iron and steel products.
Allograph: పొల [ pola ] or పొలసు pola. పొలుసు [ polusu ][Telugu] A scale of a fish. చేపమీది పొలుసు. Tu. poḍasů scales of fish. Te. pola, polasu, polusu id. Kui plōkosi id. (DEDR 4480). పొలుపు [ polupu ] or పొల్పు polupu. [Telugu] Firmness,స్థైర్యము. "పొలుపుమీరిన నెలవంకిబొమలు జూచి, రమణదళుకొత్తుబింబాధరంబుజూచి." Rukmang. i. 158
I am unable to access an image showing the picture of a human figure impressed on a thin gold leaf at Purola. Perhaps, the human figure is comparable to the image of the 'archer' shown on Kalibangan terracotta cake. If so, the image may also be inferred as kamAThiyo 'archer' rebus: kammaTa 'coiner, mint'. Perhaps, the processing done in the fire-altar related to some metallic alloys to create Kuninda type coins.
श्येन m. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man) RV. &c; firewood laid in the shape of an eagle S3ulbas. (Samskritam)
Syena-citi: A Monument of Uttarkashi The first layer of one kind of śyenaciti or falcon altar described in the Śulbasūtras, made of 200 bricks of six shapes or sizes, all of them adding up to a specified total area.
"Purola A 12 km drive from Lakhamandal leads to Nowgaon from where a bifurcation through an iron bridge leaves the Yamuna river behind. The landscapes changes and pine adorned grassy valley appears. Purola, fed by the Kamal river, is undoubtedly the biggest terraced rice field valley in the entire state of Uttarakhand. The rice fields, primarily producing the rare red rice, stretch in an area more than 10 km dissected by the Kamal river. Purola is a fast developing market from where a passage leads to the ancient ASI site dating back to 2ndcentury B.C. The Yagya Vedica (burnt brick alter) is unique in its kind resembling a floating Garuda. During excavation a good number of Sunga-Kushana period (2ndcentury B.C.- 2ndcentury A.D.) red wares and coins belonging to the Kuninda rulers were discovered. Purola valley is the biggest divide between the Yamuna and the Tons Valley."
This map shows the trek route from Naugaon to Har-ki-dun the glacier point closes to Rupin, Supin gaciers which yielded the ancient Vedic River Sarasvati. The route is from Naugaon-Purol-Jermola-Mori-Netwar-Saur-Taluka-Sema-Osla-Harkidun (Valley of the Divinities).
"Faience button seal (H99-3814/8756-01) with swastika motif found on the floor of Room 202 (Trench 43)" in Harappa, 2000-01; svastika designs are found in other early civilizations elsewhere in the world as well
Obverse: Bull standing left with taurine on left and swastika above right
Reverse: Railed tree on left with hollow cross to right and 4-orbed 'Ujjain' symbol above
Ref: Wilfried Pieper, Ancient Indian Coins Revisited, 968
This is an early uninscribed post-Mauryan cast copper coin.
Ancient Erich city c. 2nd century BCE. PB unit (19 mm, 4.01 g) (Could be a variant of Erikina or Eran, MP)Sanskrit: ऐरिकिण, as mentioned in the inscription of Samudragupta) or Erikina (as mentioned in the inscription of Toramana).eraka 'copper'. The divinity in Swamimalai is called eraka subrahmanya. This is the place where viśvakarma continue to use cire perdue techniques to make pancaloha pratimā..
Obverse: Brahmi legend Erikacha with horizontally placed railed trees above and below; Ujjain symbol to right
Reverse: Ujjain symbol and swastika, circular standard in a railing, tree-in-railing
Ref: Similar to Pieper 514, but different symbol arrangement
"Swastika on ancient Indian coins...Fig. 230 shows an ancient (Hindu?) coin reportedby Waring, who cites Cunningham as authority for its having been found at Ujain. The design consists of a cross with independent circles on the outer end of each of the four arms, the circles being large enough to intersect each other. The field of each of these circles bears a Swastika of normal form."(Wilson, pp. 133-134) Wilson presents 12 coins on Plate 9 showing variants of 'svastika' as punches on ancient punch-marked and other coins.H37 Lead 6.37 gm 32x17 mm from Akurugoda
This Inscribed Lead token found in Akurugoda is Plate Specimen A.3. illustrated in 1999 book: Ruhuna. An Ancient Civilisation Re-visited. Numismatic and Archaeological evidence on Inland and Maritime trade.
Kingdom of Anuradhapura King Devanplyatisa (r. BC 307-267) AE RoundFull Unit 32 mm x 13.00 grams Obverse: Bo-tree, Railed Swastika, Dhajaya symbol, Elephant right.[Chaitya] all within a double boarder with Lines and dots. Reverse: Railed Swastika. Chaitya and Nandipada, all within a double boarder with Lines and dots. Ref: HW Codrington Ceylon, Coins and Currency (1924) Pl. I #7
Tree and swastika coin from Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Sf# 2846, Period G: 350 BC–AD 150 (from Coningham 2006).
Lion and Railed Svastika coins found in Jaffna , Anuradhapura in the centre, in Ruhuna in the South of the Island and also in the east coast at Kulmunai.
Codrington published a single coins from D PE Peiries collection from Kantarodi as paragraph 15 in Ceylon-Coins and Currency . 1924
15. Obv : Mane-less lion, tail curved over back, standing to r. upon (.?) caitya. To right variation of symbol No.1 . All in Line circle. Rev.: Railed swastika revolving to r; apparently traces of letters to r. Rectangular. Size : 0.47 x 0.55 in. Weight : 25.6 gr. Thick. Pl. 11. From Kantarodai Pieris, XIV, 9.
15 j. Coin of Raja Wickremasinghe- From Anuradhapura.
Obv : lion, standing to r. Traces of letters around lion.All in Line circle.
Rev.: Railed swastika revolving to right
Size : 13mm. Weight :0.83 grams.
Cave inscriptions In Inscription of Ceylon Volume I – S Paranavitane.
N0 835 :-This is found on Rock Inscriptions of kings identified as King Sada-tissa at Dambulla Inscription.
No 406 :- On Gamini-Tissa and Mijhi- Maharaja at Henannegala.
No 563:On Inscription of Royal Prince and Princess at Kottadamuhela identified with Queen Viharamaha devi. Ms Chandrika Jayasinghe published a coins from the British Museum of a lady Standing on a Boat of the Obverse with a Railed Swastika on the reverse.In our history a lady on a boat can only be connected to Vihare Maha Devi , the mother of our hero King Dutugemunu.
No 1018:-1027 – of a Maharaja-Gamani Abayasa– at Gallena Vihare.
The word, satuvu (Kannada) signifies strength, the signifier is satuvu, 'zinc; svastika hieroglyph'. सत्--त्व n. (ifc.f(आ).) being , existence , entity , reality (ईश्वर-स्° , " the existence of a Supreme Being ")(तैत्तिरीय-संहिता &c); spiritual essence , spirit , mind मुण्डक-उपनिषद्, याज्ञवल्क्य,MBh. BhP.
PMS48 Variant of PMS 15. Tree + platform. kuṭi 'tree' rebus kuṭhi'smelter' PLUS மேடைmēṭai, n. [Telugu. mēḍa] 1. Platform, raised floor; தளமுயர்ந்தஇடப்பகுதி. 2. Artificial mound; செய்குன்று. (W.) 3. cf. mēṭa. Storey; terraced house or palace; மாடி. விண்ணார்நிலவுதவழ்மேடை (தாயு. பைங்கிளி. 54).మేడ (p. 1028) mēḍa mēḍa. [Tel.] n. A mansion or large house: an upper chamber, a storey, హర్మ్యము, సౌధము. मेंड (p. 390) mēṇḍa m ( H) Edge, margin, or border of a field, esp. as raised: also a ridge or raised edge more generally. (Marathi) Ta. meṭṭu mound, heap of earth; mēṭu height, eminence, hillock; muṭṭu rising ground, high ground, heap. Ma. mēṭu rising ground, hillock; māṭu hillock, raised ground; miṭṭāl rising ground, an alluvial bank; (Tiyya) maṭṭa hill. Ka. mēḍu height, rising ground, hillock; miṭṭu rising or high ground, hill; miṭṭe state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) muṭṭe heap (as of straw). Tu. miṭṭè prominent, protruding; muṭṭe heap. Te. meṭṭa raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meṭṭu mound; miṭṭa high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mēṭu, mēṭa, mēṭi stack of hay; (Inscr.) meṇṭa-cēnu dry field (cf. meṭṭu-nēla, meṭṭu-vari). Kol. (SR.) meṭṭā hill; (Kin.) meṭṭ, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. meṭṭ hill, mountain.Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) meṭṭa high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) maṭṭā, (Mu.) maṭṭa mountain; (M. L.) meṭāid., hill; (A. D. Ko.) meṭṭa, (Y. Ma. M.) meṭa hill; (SR.) meṭṭā hillock Konḍa meṭa id.
Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) meṭasand hill.(DEDR 5058). Rebus: meḍ‘iron’ (Ho.Munda)mẽṛhetiron(metal),meD'iron' (Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic)
Sign 148 sattva 'svastika' glyph సత్తుతపెల a vessel made of pewter त्रपुधातुविशेषनिर्मितम् Glosses for zinc are: sattu (Tamil), satta, sattva (Kannada) jasth जसथ् त्रपुm. (sg. dat. jastas ज्तस), zinc, spelter; pewter; zasath ् ज़स््थ् ्or zasuth ज़सुथ ्। रप m. (sg. dat. zastas ु ज़्तस),् zinc, spelter, pewter (cf. Hindī jast). jastuvu; । रपू्भवः adj. (f. jastüvü), made of zinc or pewter.(Kashmiri).
dula 'pair' rebus: dul ''metal casting' ayo ''fis' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy mtal' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish' fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' . Thus, metalcasting, alloy metals mint.
गोटा [ gōṭā ] m A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 3 fig. A grain of rice in the ear. Ex. पावसानें भाताचे गोटे झडले. An overripe and rattling cocoanut: also such dry kernel detached from the shell. 5 A narrow fillet of brocade.गोटाळ [ gōṭāḷa ] a (गोटा) Abounding in pebbles--ground.गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone. Used in trials of strength among the Athletæ. 4 A stone in temples described at length under उचला 5 fig. A term for a round, fleshy, well-filled body.
Rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A lump of silver: as obtained by melting down lace or fringe.
Ujjain, ca. 200 BCE, Copper, 1.81g, Multi-symbols with Swastika to left. Association of 'svastika' hieroglyph with 'dotted circle' indicates that the scribe intends to show that 'svastika' signifying zinc is a metal out of a smelter, kanda 'fire-altar'.
Saurashatra (Gujarat), ca. 100 BCE, Copper, 5.83g, Double Swastika with Nandi-pad arms
The svastika hieroglyph on Saurashtra (ca. 100 BCE) coin shows a variant with a 'twist' hieroglyph ligatured to each of the four arms of the svastika glyph.
This is an orthographic determinant of the nature of the object denoted by svastika, spelter, zinc ore. The tagged 'twist' glyph denotes:meḍ 'twist' rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper, metal'. Thus, zinc/spelter is identified as a metallic ore and signified as such on this hieroglyph variant on Saurashtra coin of ca. 100 BCE.
A corollary result of this exposition is that the so-called ‘nandipada’ symbol of historical period epigraphs has to be explained as ‘twist’ hieroglyph: meḍ 'twist' rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper, metal'.
Roman eagle discovered in London Aldgate area Assyrian Eagle Genie, 883 BCE Eagle-shaped fire-altar. Soma, atirātra. yajña.
4.026.01 I have been Manu and Su_rya; I am the wise r.s.i: Kaks.i_vat; I have befriended Kutsa, the son of Arjuni; I am the far-seeing Us'ana_s; so behold me. [Attributed to Va_madeva: the sage uttered the verse and the following two verses, while yet in the womb, knowledge of truth being generated in him, and enabling him to identify himself with universal existence; through the eye of supreme truth I am everything, parama_rtha dr.s.t.ya_ kr.tsnam aham asmityarthah, we have, thus, the statement of the pantheistic basis for Veda_nta]. 4.026.02 I gave the earth to the venerable (Manu); I have bestowed rain upon the mortal who presents (oblations); I have let forth the sounding waters; the gods obey my will. [To the venerable Manu: the text has only a_ryaya; Ma_nave is added]. 4.026.03 Exhilarated (by the Soma beverage) I have destroyed the ninety and nine cities of S'ambara, the hundredth I gave to be occupied by Divoda_sa when I protected him, Atithigva, at his sacrifice. 4.026.04 May this bird, Maruts, be pre-eminent over (other) hawks, since with a wheelless car the swift-winged bore the Soma, accepted by the gods, to Manu. [With a wheelless car: acakraya_ vadhaya_ = cakrarahitena rathena, with a car without wheels; the text has havyam, this is a metonymy for the Soma, which is said to have been brought from heaven by the ga_yatri_, in the form of a hawk; by the hawk, we are to understand the supreme spirit, parabrahma]. 4.026.05 When the bird, intimidating (its guardians), carried off from hence (the Soma) it was at large; (flying) swift as thought along the vast path (of the firmament), it went rapidly with the sweet Soma, and the hawks thence acquired the celebrity in this world. 4.026.06 The straight-flying hawk, conveying the Soma from afar; the bird, attended by the gods, brought, resolute of purpose, the adorable exhilarating Soma, having taken it from that lofty heaven. 4.026.07 Having taken it, the hawk brought the Soma with him to a thousand and ten thousand sacrifices, and this being provided, the performer of many (great) deeds, the unbewildered (Indra) destroyed, in the exhilaration of the Soma, (his) bewildered foes. 4.027.01 Being still in the germ, I have known all the births of these divinities in their order; a hundred bodies of metal confined me, but as a hawk I came forth with speed. [i.e., until the sage comprehended the differences between the body and soul, and learned that soul was unconfined, he was subject to repeated births; but in this stage he acquired divine knowledge, and burst through the bonds with the force and celeriy of a hawk from its nest; va_madeva s'yena ru_pam a_stha_ya garbha_d yogena nihsr.tah = Va_madeva, having assumed the form of a hawk, came forth from the womb by the power of Yoga (Ni_timan~jari)]. 4.027.02 That embryo did not beguile me into satisfaction, but by the keen energy (of divine wisdom), I triumphed over it; the impeller of all, the sustainer of many, abandoned the foes (of knowledge), and, expanding, passed beyond the winds (of worldly troubles). [The impeller of all: the parama_tma_, or supreme spirit; beyond the winds: the vital airs, or life, the cause of worldly existence, which is pain]. 4.027.03 When the hawk screamed (with exultation) on his descent from heaven, and (the guardians of the Soma) perceived that the Soma was (carried away) by it then, the archer of Kr.s'a_nu, pursuing with the speed of thought, and stringing his bow, let fly an arrow against it. 4.027.04 The straight-flying hawk carried off the Soma from above the vast heaven, as (the As'vins carried off) Bhujyu from the region of Indra, and a falling feather from the middle of the bird dropped from him wounded in the conflict. [antah parn.am tan madhye sthitam; one nail of the left foot and the shaft was broken by the collision, the fragments of the nail became the quills of the fretful porcupine, those of the arrow, water-snakes, flying foxes, and worms]. 4.027.05 Now may Maghavan accept the pure nutitious (sacrificial) food in a white pitcher, mixed with milk and curds, offered by the priests; the upper part of the sweet (beverage) to drink for his exhilaration; may the hero accept (it) to drink for (his) exhilaration. Translation of RV 4.26 and 4.27 by Griffith: 1. I WAS aforetime Manu, I was Surya: I am the sage Kaksivan, holy singer. Kutsa the son of Arjuni I master. I am the sapient Usana behold me. 2 I have bestowed the earth upon the Arya, and rain upon the man who brings oblation. I guided forth the loudlyroaring- waters, and the Gods moved according to my pleasure. 3 In the wild joy of Soma I demolished Sambaras' forts, ninetyandnine—, together; And, utterly, the hundredth habitation, when helping DivodasaAtithigva. 4 Before all birds be ranked this Bird, O Maruts; supreme of falcons be this fleetwinged- Falcon, Because, strong- pinioned, with no car to bear him, he brought to Manu the Godloved oblation. 5 When the Bird brought it, hence in rapid motion sent on the wide path fleet as thought he hurried. Swift he returned with sweetness of the Soma, and hence the Falcon hath acquired his glory. 6 Bearing the stalk, the Falcon speeding onward, Bird bringing from afar the draught that gladdens, Friend of the Gods, brought, grasping fast, the Soma which be bad taken from yon loftiest heaven. 7 The Falcon took and brought the Soma, bearing thousand libations with him, yea, ten thousand. The Bold One left Malignities behind him, wise, in wild joy of Soma, left the foolish. 1. I, As I lay within the womb, considered all generations of these Gods in order. A hundred iron fortresses confined me but forth I flew with rapid speed a Falcon. 2 Not at his own free pleasure did he bear me: he conquered with his strength and manly courage. Straightway the Bold One left the fiends behind him and passed the winds as he grew yet more mighty. 3 When with loud cry from heaven down sped the Falcon, thence hasting like the wind he bore the Bold One. Then, wildly raging in his mind, the archer Krsanu aimed and loosed the string to strike him. 4 The Falcon bore him from heavens' lofty summit as the swift car of Indras' Friend bore Bhujyu. Then downward hither fell a flying feather of the Bird hasting forward in his journey. 5 And now let Maghavan accept the beaker, white, filled with milk, filled with the shining liquid; The best of sweet meath which the priests have offered: that Indra to his joy may drink, the Hero, that he may take and drink it to his rapture.
a I place thee in the going of the waters; I place thee in the rising of the waters; I place thee in the ashes of the waters; I place thee in the light of the waters; I place thee in the movement of the waters. b Sit on the billows as thy place of rest; sit on the ocean as thy place of rest; sit on the stream as thy place of rest; sit in the abode of the waters; sit on the seat of the waters. c I place thee in the seat of the waters; I place thee in the dwelling of the waters; I place thee in the dust of the waters; I place thee in the womb of the waters; I place thee in the stronghold of the waters. d The metro the Gayatri; the metre the Tristubh; the metro the Jagati; the metre the Anustubh; the metre the Pankti.
iv. 3. 2.
a This one in front the existent; his, the existent s breath; spring born of the breath; the Gayatri born of the spring; from the Gayatri the GayatriSaman(); from the Gayatra the Upansu (cup); from the Upansu the TrivrtStoma(); from the Trivrt the Rathantara; from the RathantaraVasistha, the Rsi; with thee taken by Prajapati, I take breath for offspring. b This one on the right, the all worker; his, the all worker s, mind; summer born of mind; the Tristubh born of summer; from the Tristubh the AidaSaman(); from the Aida the Antaryama (cup); from the Antaryama the fifteenfold Stoma(); from the fifteenfold the Brhat; from the BrhatBharadvaja, the Rsi; with thee taken by Prajapati, I take mind for offspring [1]. c This one behind, the all extending; his, the all extending s, eye; the rains born of the eye; the Jagati born of the rains; from the Jagati the RksamaSaman(); from the Rksama the Sukra (cup); from the Sukra the seventeenfold Stoma(); from the seventeenfold the Vairupa; from the VairupaVisvamitra, the Rsi; with thee taken by Prajapati, I take the eye for my offspring. d This one on the left, the light; his, the light s, ear; the autumn born of the ear; the Anustubh connected with the autumn; from the Anustubh the SvaraSaman(); from the Svara the Manthin (cup); from the Manthin the twenty onefold Stoma(); from the twenty onefold the Vairaja; from the VairajaJamadagni, the Rsi; with thee taken by Prajapati [2], I take the ear for offspring. c This one above, thought; his, thought s, speech; the winter born of speech; the Pankti born of winter; from the Pankti that which has finales; from that which has finales the Agrayana (cup); from the Agrayana the twenty sevenfold and the thirty threefold Stomas(); from the twenty sevenfold and the thirty threefold the Sakvara and Raivata; from the Sakvara and RaivataVisvakarman, the Rsi; with thee taken by Prajapati, I take speech for offspring.
iv. 3. 3.
a The east of the quarters; the spring of the seasons; Agni the deity; holy power the wealth; the Trivrt the Stoma, and it forming the path of the fifteenfold Stoma(); the eighteen month old calf the strength; the Krta of throws of dice; the east wind the wind; Sanaga the Rsi. b The south of the quarters; the summer of the seasons; Indra the deity; the kingly power the wealth; the fifteenfold the Stoma, and it forming the path of the seventeenfold Stoma(); the two year old the strength; the Treta of throws; the south wind the wind; Sanatana, the Rsi. c The west of the quarters; the rains of the seasons; the All gods the deity; the peasants [1] the wealth; the seventeenfold the Stoma, and it forming the path of the twenty onefold Stoma(); the three year old the strength; the Dvapara of throws; the west wind the wind; Ahabuna the Rsi. d The north of the quarters; the autumn of the seasons; Mitra and Varuna the deity; prosperity the wealth; the twenty onefold the Stoma; and it forming a path of the twenty sevenfold Stoma(); the four year old the strength; the Askanda of throws; the north wind the wind; Pratna the Rsi. e The zenith of the quarters; the winter and the cool season of the seasons; Brhaspati the deity; radiance the wealth; the twenty sevenfold the Stoma, and it forming a path of the thirty threefold; the draught ox the strength; the Abhibhu of throws; the wind all through the wind; Suparna the Rsi. f Fathers, grandfathers, near and far, may they protect us, may they help us, in this holy power, this lordly power, this prayer, this Purohita ship, this rite, this invocation of the gods.
iv. 8. 4.
a Firm is thy dwelling, thy place of birth, firm art thou Settle thou duly in thy firm place of birth; Banner of the fire in the pan, May the two Asvins, the leeches, set thee here first in the east. b In thine own skill sit thou whose sire is skill, As the great earth bountiful among the gods, Be of kindly approach and come with thy body, Kindly as a father to his son; May the two Asvins, the leeches, set thee here. c Nesting, rich in wealth, strength bestowing, Increase for us wealth, abundant, rich in heroes [1], Driving away hostility and enmity, Granting the lord of the sacrifice a share in increase of wealth, Do thou bestow the heaven as increase to the sacrificer; May the two Asvins, the leeches, set thee here. d Thou art the dust of Agni, the leader of the gods; May the All gods favour thee as such; With Stomas for thy back, rich in ghee, sit thou here, And win to us by sacrifice riches with offspring. May the two Asvins, the leeches, set thee here! e Thou art the head of sky, the navel of earth, the holder apart of the quarters, the lady paramount of the worlds [2], the wave, the drop of the waters thou art; Visvakarman is thy seer; may the two Asvins, the leeches, set thee here. f In unison with the seasons, in unison with the ordainers, in unison with the Vasus, in unison with the Rudras, in unison with the Adityas, in unison with the All gods, in unison with the gods, in unison with the gods establishing strength, to AgniVaisvanara, thee; may the two Asvins, the leeches, set thee here. g Protect my expiration; protect my inspiration; protect my cross breathing; make my eye to shine widely; make my ear to hear. h Make thick the waters; quicken the plants; protect bipeds; help quadrupeds; from the sky make rain to start.
iv. 3. 5.
a (Thou art) the calf of eighteen months in strength, the Tristubh metre; the two year old in strength, the Viraj metre; the two and a half year old in strength, the Gayatri metre; the three year old in strength, the Usnih metre; the four year old in strength, the Anustubh metre; the draught ox in strength, the Brhati metre; the bull in strength, the Satobrhati metre; the bullock in strength, the Kakubh metre; the milch cow in strength, the Jagatimetre; the beast of burden in strength, the Pankti metre; the goat in strength, the spacious metre; the ram in strength, the slow metre; the tiger in strength, the unassailable metre; the lion in strength, the covering metre; the support in strength, the overlord metre; the lordly power in strength, the delight giving metre; the all creating in strength, the supreme lord metro; the head in strength, the Prajapati metre.
iv. 3. 6.
a O Indra and Agni, do ye two make firm The brick that quaketh not; And let it with its back repel The sky and earth and atmosphere. b Let Visvakarman place thee in the ridge of the atmosphere, encompassing, expanding, resplendent, possessing the sun, thee that dost illumine the sky, the earth, the broad atmosphere, support the atmosphere, make firm the atmosphere, harm not the atmosphere; for every expiration, inspiration, cross breathing, out breathing, support, movement; let Vayu protect thee with great prosperity, with a covering [1] most healing; with that deity do thou sit firm in the manner of Angiras. c Thou art the queen, the eastern quarter; thou art the ruling, the southern quarter; thou art the sovereign, the western quarter; thou art the self ruling, the northern quarter; thou art the lady paramount, the great quarter. d Protect my life; protect my expiration; protect my inspiration; protect my cross breathing; protect my eye; protect my ear; quicken my mind; strengthen my voice; protect my breath; accord me light.
iv. 3. 7.
a (Thou art) Ma metre, Prama metre, Pratima metre, Asrivis metre, Pankti metre, Usnih metre, Brhati metre, Anustubh metre, Viraj metre, Gayatrimetre, Tristubh metre, Jagati metre. (Thou art) earth metre, atmosphere metro, sky metre, seasons metre, Naksatras metre, mind metre, speech metre, ploughing metre, gold metre, cow metre, female goat metre, horse metre. (Thou art) Agni, the deity [1], Vata, the deity, Surya, the deity, Candramas, the deity, the Vasus, the deity, the Rudras, the deity, the Adityas, the deity, the All gods, the deity, the Maruts, the deity, Brhaspati, the deity, Indra, the deity, Varuna, the deity. b The head thou art, ruling; thou art the firm, the supporting; thou art the prop, the restrainer; for food thee; for strength thee; for ploughing thee: for safety thee! (Thou art) the prop, ruling; thou art the firm, the supporting; thou art the holder, the sustainer; for life thee; for radiance thee; for force thee; for might thee!
iv. 3. 8.
(Thou art) the swift, the triple Stoma(); the shining, the fifteenfold the sky, the seventeenfold; speed, the eighteenfold; fervour, the nineteen. fold; attack, the twentyfold; support, the twenty onefold; radiance, the twenty twofold; maintenance, the twenty threefold; the womb, the twenty fourfold; the embryo, the twenty fivefold; might, the twenty sevenfold; inspiration, the thirty onefold; support, the thirty threefold; the surface of the tawny one, the thirty fourfold; the vault, the thirty six fold; the revolving, the forty eightfold; the support, the fourfold Stoma.
iv. 3. 9.
a Thou art the portion of Agni, the overlordship of consecration, the holy power saved, the threefold Stoma. b Thou art the portion of Indra, the overlordship of Visnu, the lordly power saved, the fifteenfold Stoma. c Thou art the portion of them that gaze on men, the overlordship of Dhatr, the birthplace saved, the seventeenfold Stoma. d Thou art the portion of Mitra, the overlordship of Varuna, the rain from the sky, the winds saved, the twenty onefold Stoma. e Thou art the portion of Aditi, the overlordship of Pusan, force saved, the twenty sevenfold Stoma. f Thou art the portion of the Vasus [1], the overlordship of the Rudras, the quadruped saved, the twenty fourfold Stoma. g Thou art the portion of the Adityas, the overlordship of the Maruts, offspring saved, the twenty fivefold Stoma. h Thou art the portion of the god Savitr, the overlordship of Brhaspati, all the quarters saved, the fourfold Stoma. i Thou art the portion of the Yavas, the overlordship of the Ayavas, offspring saved, the forty fourfold Stoma. k Thou art the portion of the Rbhus, the overlordship, of the All gods, being calmed and saved, the thirty threefold Stoma.
iv. 3. 10.
They praised with one, creatures were established, Prajapati was overlord. They praised with three, the holy power: was created, the lord of holy power was overlord. They praised with fire, beings were created, the lord of beings was the overlord. They praised with seven, the seven seers were created, Dhatr was the overlord. They praised with nine, the fathers were created, Aditi was the overlady. They praised with eleven, the seasons were created, the seasonal one was the overlord. They praised with thirteen, the months were created, the year was the overlord [1]. They praised with fifteen, the lordly class was created, Indra was the overlord. They praised with seventeen, cattle were created, Brhaspati was the overlord. They praised with nineteen, the Sudra and the Arya were created, day and night were the overlords. They praised with twenty one, the whole hooved cattle were created, Varuna was the overlord. They praised with twenty three, small cattle were created, Pusan was the overlord. They praised with twenty five, wild cattle were created, Vayu was the overlord. They praised with twenty seven, sky and earth [2] went apart, the Vasus, Rudras, and Adityas followed their example, theirs was the overlordship. They praised with twenty nine, trees were created, Soma was the overlord. They praised with thirty one, creatures were created, the Yavas and the Ayavas had the overlordship. They praised with thirty three, creatures came to rest, Prajapati was the overlord and chief.
iv. 3. 11.
a This is she that first dawned; Within this (earth) she hath entered and moveth; The new made bride as mother beareth the mothers; Threegreatnesses attend her. b Charming, the dawns, adorned, Moving along a common birthplace, Wives of the sun, they move, wise ones, Making a banner of light, unaging, rich in seed. c Three have followed the path of holy order, Three cauldrons have come with the light, Offspring one guardeth, strength one [1], Another the law of the pious guardeth. d The fourth hath become that of four Stomas, Becoming the two wings of the sacrifice, O Rsis; Yoking the Gayatri, Tristubh, Jagati, and Anustubh, the Brhat, The hymn, they have borne forward this heaven. e By five the creator disposed this (world), What time he produced sisters of them, five by five, By their mingling go five strengths Clad in various forms. f Thirty sisters go to the appointed place, Putting on the same badge [2], The sages spread out the seasons, the knowing ones With the metres in their midst, go about in brilliance. g The shining one putteth on clouds, The ways of the sun, the night divine; The beasts of many forms that are born Look around on the lap of their mother. h The Ekastaka, undergoing penance, Hath borne a child, the great Indra; Therewith the gods overpowered the Asuras; Slayer of Asuras he became in his might. i Ye have made me, who am not younger, the younger; Speaking the truth I desire this; May I [3] enjoy his lovingkindness as do ye; May not one of you supplant another. k He hath enjoyed my lovingkindness, the all knower; He hath found a support, for he hath won the shallow; May I enjoy his lovingkindness as do ye May not one of you supplant another. l On the five dawns follow the five milkings, On the cow with five names the five seasons; The five quarters are established by the fifteenfold Stoma(), With equal heads over the one world [4]. M She who first shone forth is the child of holy order; One supporteth the might of the waters; One moveth in the places of the sun, And one in those of the heat; Savitr governeth one. n She who first shone forth Hath become a cow with Yams; Do thou, rich in milk, milk for us Season after season. O She of bright bulls hath come with the cloud, the light, She of all forms, the motley, whose banner is fire; Accomplishing thy common task, Bringing old age, thou hast come, O unaging dawn. P Lady, of seasons the first, she hath come hither, Leading the days, and bearer of offspring; Though one, O Usas, in many places dost thou shine forth Unaging thou dost make to age all else. iv. 3.12. a O Agni, drive away those foes of ours that are born; Drive away those too that are unborn, O all knower; Shine out for us in kindliness and without anger, In thy protection may I be with threefold protection and victorious. b O Agni, drive away those foes of ours that are born with force; Drive away those that are unborn, O all knower; Favour us in kindliness, May we (enjoy thy protection); drive away our foes. c (Thou art) the forty fourfold Stoma, radiance the wealth. d (Thou art) the sixteenfold Stoma, force the wealth. e Thou art the dust of earth [1], called Apsas. f (Thou art) the course metre; the space metre; the health bringing metre; the overpowering metre; the covering metre; the mind metre; the expanse metre; the river metre; the sea metro; the water metre; the uniting metro; the separating metre; the Brhat metro; the Rathantara metre; the collecting metre; the parting metre; the voices metre; the radiant metro; the Sastubh metre; the Anustubh metre; the Kakubh metre; the Trikakubh metre; the poetic metre; the water metre [2]; the Padapankti metre, the Aksarapahkti metre, the Vistarapankti metre: the razor with strop metre; the enveloping metre; the side metre; the course metre; the space metre; the strength metre; the maker of strength metre; the expansive metre; the conflict metre; the covering metre; the difficult of access metre; the slow metre; the Ankanka metre.
iv. 3. 13.
a May Agni slay the foe, Eager for wealth, joyfully, Kindled, pure as offered. b Thou Soma art very lord, Thou art king, and slayer of foes; Thou art favouring strength. c Favouring is thy look, O fair faced Agni, That art dread and extending, pleasant (is it); Thy radiance they cover not with the darkness; The defiling leave no stain in thy body. d Favouring is thy face, O mighty Agni; Even by the side of the sun it is bright [1], Radiant to behold it is seen even by night, Pleasant to the sight is food in thy form. e With his countenance the kindly one Will sacrifice to the gods for us, most skilled to win prosperity by sacrifice; Guardian undeceived and protector of us, O Agni, shine forth with radiance and with wealth. f Prosperity for us from sky, O Agni, from earth, With full life do thou procure, O god, for worship; That splendid thing, O sky born, which we ask, Do thou bestow upon us that radiant wealth. g As thou, O Hotr, in man s worship [2], O son of strength, shalt sacrifice with offerings, Verily do thou to day, gladly, offer sacrifice To the glad gods together assembled. h I praise Agni, domestic priest, God of the sacrifice and priest, The Hotr, best bestower of jewels. i Thou art strong, O Soma, and bright, Thou art strong, O god, and strong thy rule, Strong laws dost thou establish. k O Maruts, that burn, this offering (is yours) Do ye rejoice in it, For your aid, ye destroyers of the foe. I The man of evil heart, O bright ones, O Maruts, Who is fain to smite us contrary to right [3], In the noose of destruction may he be caught, Slay him with your most burning heat. m The Maruts, of the year, fair singers, With wide abodes, in troops among men, May they from us unloosen the bonds of tribulation, Those that burn, delighting, granting delight, n Delight the eager gods, O thou most young, Knowing the seasons, O lord of the season, do thou sacrifice here; With the priests divine, O Agni, Thou art the best sacrificer of Hotrs. o O Agni, whatever to day, O offering Hotr of the people, O pure [4] and radiant one, thou dost enjoy, for thou art the sacrificer, Rightly shalt thou sacrifice, since thou hast grown in might, Carry the oblations that are thine to day, O thou most young. p By Agni may one win wealth And abundance, day by day, Glory full of heroes. q Enricher, slayer of disease, Wealth finder, prospering prosperity, O Soma, be a good friend to us. r Come hither, O ye that tend the house, Depart not, O Maruts, Freeing us from tribulation. s For in autumns gone by We have paid worship, O Maruts, With the means [5] of mortal men. t Your greatness surgeth forth from the depths, Make known your names, O active ones; O Maruts, accept the thousandth share of the house, Of the householder s offering. u Him to whom, the strong, the youthful maiden, Rich in oblation, bearing ghee, approacheth night and morning, To him his own devotion (approacheth) seeking wealth. v O Agni, these most acceptable oblations, Immortal one, bear for the divine worship; Let them accept our fragrant (offerings). w The playful horde of the Maruts, Sporting, resplendent on the chariot [6], O Kanvas, do ye celebrate. x The Maruts, speeding like steeds, Disport themselves like youths gazing at a spectacle, Standing in the home like beauteous younglings, Bestowing milk, like playful calves. y At their advance the earth moves as if trembling, When they yoke (their teams) for their journeys, for brilliance; Playing, resounding, with flaming weapons, They display their own greatness, the shakers. z What time on the steeps ye pile the moving one, Like birds, O Maruts, on whatever path [7], The clouds spill their water on your chariots; Do ye sprinkle for the praiser ghee of honey hue. aa Agni with invocations They ever invoke, lord of the people, Bearer of the oblation, dear to many. bb For him they ever praise, The god with ladle dripping ghee, Agni to bear the oblation. cc O Indra and Agni, the spaces of sky. dd Pierce Vrtra. ee Indra from all sides. ff Indra men. gg O Visvakarman, waxing great with the oblation. hh O Visvakarman, with the oblation as strengthening.
Two-headed eagle surrounded by a twisted cord.From Kültepe-Kanis, 18th c. B.C. (Museum Ankara).
As Hans J. Nissen notes the framework for late emergence of a writing system for language: “The main reason we cannot read these early texts is the fact that writing initially was nothing more than a means, more comprehensive than those employed before, of recording the details of economic transactions. Seals and clay counters (small clay artifacts in geometric shapes that represented numbers or quantities) had been used since the sixth millennium. In order to reconstruct specific transactions, seals were relied upon to identify the participants, and token, or counters, identified the amounts and numbers of the commodities involved. Shortly before the appearance of script, attempts were made to expand the range of information to be recorded by using sealed clay balls impressed by cylinder seals and containing counters, but only writinf offered the possibility of noting all items deemed necessary. Yet even the writing system was predicated on common knowledge, since only abbreviated pieces of the total body of information were written down. Obviously, writing represented an answer to the urgent needs of the economic administration and not a desire to write religious, historical, or literary texts. Thus, there was no incentive to render the spoken language. In fact, this need was felt only six hundred or seven hundred years later (i.e. after complete restructuring the central area of the city of Uruk period III (about 3000 BCE), when the system was organized to allow for the full representation of language. Of the approximately fifteen hundred clay tablets and fragments that can be ascribed to the time of Level IVa, all except a few pieces contain information pertaining to a central economic administration, which seems to have had its seat in E-anna...The few nonadministrative texts recovered mentioned lists of signs or sign combinations that belong to the same semantic family, such as names of trees, animals, and places...Like writing, seals undoubtedly were part of the economic system. Cylinder seals bear easily recognizable images of a wider range of elaborate themes and variations than the earlier stamp seals with their limited surfaces. These variations allowed more and more people to be equipped with individual seal patterns. Thus, we can assume that cylinder seals developed as a response to an increase in the numbers of people involved in economic transactions.” (Nissen, Hans J., Uruk and Formation of the City in: Joan Aruz, 2003, Art of the First Cities: the third millennium BCE from the Mediterranean to the Indus, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art)pp. 11-14).
Drawing of a Babylonian seal impression; 3rd millennium BCE (Wittkower, Rudolf. 1939 Eagle and Serpent: A Study in the Migration of Symbols. Journal of the Warburg Institute 2(4): 293-325, Plate 49d Eagle nd hooded snakes).
"The Legend of Gandabherunda
Lord Vishnu assumed avatar of Narasimha (half man-half beast) to slay demon Hiranyakashipu. But this avatar became so omnipotent that the benevolent gods began to fear of total destruction. Hence they prayed Lord Shiva. Śiva then assumed the form of Sharabha, (a mythical bird) and tamed Narasimha. (man-lion). Vishnu then transformed himself into Gandabherunda and faced Sharabha. Gandabherunda thus came to be known as symbol of immense power. Later this mighty mythical bird was adopted as an emblem by several rulers." https://web.archive.org/web/20140202000034/http://www.kamat.com/jyotsna/blog/blog.php?BlogID=1149
"Bherundesvara Pillar
Bherundeshvara Pillar – This is the most striking object standing in the village of Balligavi. You will find this pillar, on a cross-road, where it stands in its full majesty. This huge pillar, about 9 m high, has its base enclosed by a small structure. It is raised over a two-tiered platform of about 3 m height. Now known as Garudha-khamba, this pillar was originally erected to support a life-like statue of Ganda-Berunda.
Ganda-Berunda
This pillar was erected by maha-mandalesvara Chamunda-rayarasa in 1047 CE, when he was ruling over Banavasi-12000, Santalige-300 and Hayve-500. Chamnuda-rayarasa was under the service of the Kalyana Chalukya king Somesvara I. The inscription mentions that this pillar was erected in front of god Jagadekamallesvara. God Jagadekamallesvara would have been setup by the Chamunda-rayarasa as he was also known by the title Jagadhekamalla. No remains of this temple survive except this singular pillar standing tall...The statue of Ganda-Berunda is no more on the top of the pillar. It is kept inside the enclosure on which this pillar is standing. It is kept inside a locked gate. Ganda-Berunda represents a mythological bird, having half-bird and half-human body."
The earliest recorded twin-headed bird clutching two hares in its talons is found at the Hittite temple in Turkey dating back to 14th century B.C.E. (Figure 8).
Figure 8: Sphinx gate, Hittite temple, Alaca Hoyuk, Turkey. The unique form of the Gandaberunda led to kingdoms like Chalukyan, Hoysalas, Keladi Nayakas, and the Kadambas and of course the Wadiyars using the motif in crests and seals. Vijayanagar king Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–1542) was perhaps the first to use the Gandaberunda image on gold pagodas (gadyana) (Figure 7).
Russian imperial eagle, Saint Petersburg "The double-headed eagle motif appears to have its ultimate origin in theAncient Near East, especially inHittite iconography. It re-appeared during theHigh Middle Ages, from circa the 10th or 11th century, and was notably used by theByzantine Empire, but 11th or 12th century representations have also been found originating fromIslamic Spain,Franceand the Serbian principality ofRaška. From the 13th century onward, it became even more widespread, and was used by theSeljuk Sultanate of Rumand theMamluk Sultanatewithin the Islamic world, and by theHoly Roman Empire,SerbiaandRussiawithin the Christian world. Used during thelate Byzantine Empireas a dynastic emblem of thePalaiologoi, it was adopted during the late Medieval toEarly Modern periodin theHoly Roman Empireon one hand, and inOrthodoxprincipalitiesSerbiaandRussiaon the other, representing anaugmentationof the (single-headed)eagleorAquilaassociated with theRoman Empire...Use of the double-headed eagle in Hittite imagery has been interpreted as "royal insignia".(Collins, Billie Jean. 2010 "Animal Mastery in Hittite Art and Texts" in The Master of Animals in Old World Iconography, ed. Derek B. Counts and Bettina Arnold, pp. 59-74. Main Series, Number 24, Archaeolingua Foundation, Budapest.)A monumental Hittite relief of a double-headed eagle grasping two hares is found at the eastern pier of the Sphinx Gate at Alaca Hüyük.(Jesse D. Chariton, The Mesopotamian Origins of the Hittite Double-Headed Eagle, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse Journal of Undergraduate Research XIV (2011)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-headed_eagle
Hittite stamp seal (Von der Osten, Hans Henning. 1926 The Snake Symbol and the Hittite Twist. American Journal of Archaeology 30(4): 405-417. Figure 26)
Rock sanctuary of Yazilikaya, 13th c B.C.
The central scene of the shrine of Yazilikaya Chamber A, with the double-headed eagle supporting two goddesses (perhaps daughter and granddaughter of storm god Teshub) (Akurgal, Ekrem. 1973 Ancient Civilizations and Ruins of Turkey. Istanbul, Haset Kitabevi.Figure 151)
Stone slab with Double-Headed Eagle
Bulgarian (Stara Zagora), 10th-11th century
Red schist 72.5 Í 110 cm. Nasionalen Arkheologicheski Muzei, Sofia Inv. nr.B: 854. [3]
Double headed bird
at Sirkap Stupa (1st century BCE-1st century CE)
Nandi mandapam of Thanjavur Brihadiśvara temple,consecrated 1010.
GandabherundaDetail from Garudasthambha temple pillar,Konkani Math, Goa (13th century ?)
Two ½ pagoda coins from Vijayanagar showing a Gandabherunda and elephants.From the time of king Achytaraya (1529-1542).
Gandabherunda with lions and elephants. Keladi Temple from the time of Shivappa Nayaka (reigned 1645–1660) (Karn.).
After the Vijayanagar rule, Nayakas of Madura and Keladi, continued the usage. Mysore Wodeyars also followed, omitting the lions and elephants.
Gandabherunda is in the emblem of Karnataka State (India). Also it is the emblem of Ternate Sultanate (Indonesia).
Seal: Rider spearing a dragon. L.: GRAND PRINCE IOAN BY GOD’S GRACE SOVEREIGN OF ALL RUS.
Counter-seal: Crowned two-headed eagle. L.: AND GRAND PRINCE OF VLAD[IMIR], AND MOSC[OW], AND NOV[GOROD], AND PSK[OV] AND TVE[R], AND UGO[RA], AND VIAT[KA], AND PER[M], AND BOL[GAR].Date:1497 [18]
This piece is from the time of the Macedonian Empire in Bulgaria (976-1018) or from the time of Byzantine occupation (971-976 & 1018-1185) and may be the emblem of rank of the Bulgarian tsar/basileus in (the former prefecture) Illyricum
After Ivan III all Russian tsars have used the two-headed eagle as their emblem. For the last time it was used as an interim emblem after 1992.
[3] Lit.:Evans, Helen C. & William D. Wixom. Eds. The Glory of Byzantium. Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era A.D. 843-1261. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1997. Pp.326-327.
[18]) Alef, Gustav: The adoption of the muscovite two-headed eagle: a discordant view. In: Speculum, A Journal of Mediaeval Studies. Vol. XLI, Jan. 1966, pp. 1-21. P. 1. Polynina, Irina & Nicolai Rakmanov: The Regalia of the Russian Empire. Moscow, 1994. ISBN 5-900743-04-2. p. 17 n° 6.
The eastern pier of the Sphinx Gate at Alaca Hüyük, showing the double-headed eagle grasping two hares (Alexander, Robert L. 1986 The Sculpture and Sculptors of Yazilikaya. University of Delaware Press, Newark. Plate XXXIXa)
"AlacahöyükorAlaca Höyük(sometimes also spelled asAlacahüyük,Aladja-Hoyuk,Euyuk, orEvuk) is the site of aNeolithicandHittitesettlement and is an importantarchaeological site. It is situated inAlaca,Çorum Province,Turkey, northeast ofBoğazkale(formerly and more familiarlyBoğazköy), where the ancient capital cityHattusaof theHittite Empirewas situated...The mound (Turkishhöyük) at Alacahöyük was a scene of settlement in a continuous sequence of development from theChalcolithicAge, when earliest copper tools appeared alongside the use of stone tools. During theEarly Bronze Age, the mound was the center of a flourishingHattianculture. It has been continuously occupied ever since, until today's modern settlement in the form of a small village. The standing and distinguishing remains at Alacahöyük, however, such as the "Sphinx Gate", date from theHittiteperiod that followed the Hatti, from the fourteenth century BCE. Thirteenshaft-grave"Royal Tombs" (EBII, ca. 2350-2150 BC) in Alacahöyük contained the dead infetal positionfacing south. They were richly adorned with goldfibulae, diadems, and belt buckles and repoussé gold-leaf figures..According toTrevor Bryce, ″There is a theory that the occupants of the tombs were not from the native Hattian population of central Anatolia, but wereKurganimmigrants from the region ofMaikopin southern Russia, who spoke anIndo-European languageand perhaps became rulers of the local Hattian population.″ (Trevor Bryce, The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge, 2013 p. 21)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaca_Hoyuk
The right wing of the stereobate of the Shrine of Double-Headed Eagle, in Block F in Sirkap.
The sculptures are, from left to right, a Greek-style gabled temple,
an Indian-style Chaitya-like facade surmounted with a double-headed bird,
and an Indian-style Torana-like gate.
Each partitioning pilaster has a Greek Corinthian capital.
There are no other objects that show the character of Gandharan art more plainly,
the encounter and mixture of cultures of the East and West.
A medic and a graduate of the University of Cambridge, England,involved in inter-disciplinary research for the inculcation of a scientific rigour in the outdatedfields of humanities: putting "science" into social sciences.
Early Steppe population does not have the Y-chromosome marker that is present in a large proportion of Indians even today: Indians had migrated to Steppe, and not the other way around*.
NOTE: This is an overview counter to both the lay-press hype, which was unnecessary and unethical (please see below), and the context and setting of the methodologies used in the so-called scientific study by Reich and Co of Harvard and his compatriots. A detailed technical and scientific evidence-based (from previous published peer-reviewed work) will be published here and/ or in the appropriate scientific and academic forums.*For a deeper technical prelude (and updates) please watch Dr Priyadarshi’s current blog – The Aryan Invasion Issues.
SEPOYS OF HARVARD’S THIRD REICH GALORE
The Christian British colonialists did not rule India by having a huge army of a Christian British White soldiers, but an army made almost entirely of Indian sepoys. One would have imagined that with the 1947 transfer of power that the sepoys would have reformed themselves and converted the transfer of power from Britain to India into a real independence.
From Nehru to the academic foot soldiers, everybody became a sepoy, again. Recently, the recruitment appears to have only widened and deepened, perhaps in preparation for the 2019 elections war. Now the war is fought in the academia, in the media and the wider perception engineering arena of the PR world, the intellectual Kurukshetra. (Malhotra 2018)
Many people would criticise this author for such a polemical start for an article that is written to counter the professional work of (the so-called) scientists and academicians. That criticism is not valid as these sepoys have started behaving increasingly unethically. It has already been pointed out that the hype that the lay press created was unethical given the paper is pre-peer-review and has only been submitted to an open-peer-review platform, bioRxiv (pronounced ‘bio archive’). Of course, the sepoy authors and their Western White masters (publicly called collaborators to give a false semblance of equality) have now gone further. They have directly “leaked” their data to the lay press and in addition given open interviews where they have spouted false, or at least non-peer-reviewed, pre-submission-based conclusions. This is completely out-of-the-way from the standard ethical practice and leads one to rightfully believe that this is pure propaganda and just a hit job, not science. Is 2019 elections in their mind? Have these sepoys been knowingly bought, or inadvertently collaborating? Why stoop so low?Even one is made to wonder if Cambridge Analytica is involved? (Murali KV 2018)
CONCLUSIONS CHANGE EVEN AFTER PEER-REVIEW AND PUBLICATION
It is important to note here that the conclusions of a scientific paper is many a times changed even after it has been published. For example, a pro-Aryan-invasion “scientist” from Calcutta claimed that the phenomenon of caste-by-birth formed during the Gupta era. (Basu, Sarkar-Roy, and Majumder 2016) However, using the exact same data from the Calcutta scientist’s genetic data a reanalysis was published in the same journal altering the conclusions completely, and showing that the caste-by-birth formed only during the Islamic era. (Vadivelu 2016)
So the gloating in the lay press, posting tweets with links to pre-peer-review copies of articles, with pre-submission pre-peer-review conclusions based on what appears to be a faulty analysis now makes one question, “Can these ‘scientists’ be even trusted with the raw data they produce, that too from very valuable ancient heritage / the nation’s biological intellectual property (IP)?”
It also raises very interesting issues to think – how come within hours of these pre-peer-review articles being posted a whole multi-thousand worded article, with slides and elaborate graphics, gets posted on a lay press online portal and that too by an author who has no scientific background? Who gives them the data beforehand?
It is common practice for large journals to provide ‘previews’ and short write-ups (such as press notes, releases, etc.) to the lay press, before publication, of scientific papers of public interest by their respective PR desks. However, it is not known of any ethical scientist or journal to do that before peer-review, and immediately after submission, or even prior to that. Do you smell anything fishy?
NOW LET US GET TO THE SCIENCE
Note: This is based on the assumption that these “scientists” data can be trusted. It is indeed worrying after taking note of the above issues, the repeated ethical infarctions exhibited by these “scientists,” and what had been written before. (Murali KV 2018; Shukla and Venkataraman 2018; Chavda 2018)
Though this author places the validity of linguistics at a very low ranking, one should note the ridiculousness of the claims that “Indo-European” (IE) languages came from the Steppe or Central Asia. The region claimed is almost completely devoid of IE languages, but is filled with speakers of what was previously called the Altaic family. Please see the map below.
Did the Steppe people take a flight to Haryana? The coloured regions do not speak the so-called Indo-European languages
It has already been pointed out by writers in Swarajya Magazine that the Brahmins of the South India do not have any excess Steppe genetic component in their DNA in the words of the authors of the “scientific” paper themselves. In fact, by their own data and analysis, 43 percent of people who appear to have an excess of Steppe genetic component are non-Brahmins and non-Bumihars. If the Brahmins are the outsiders who brought the Indo-European languages to India from the Steppe or Central Asia, where did the Brahmins of the South India come from who have no excess Steppe DNA ancestry compared to the rest of the population? If they imported Sanskrit along with their arrival why not all Brahmins in the North, South, East, Central and West India admittedly have the excess Steppe contribution, but only some.
Clearly this belies that there is an association, and causation, between Sanskrit and so-called Steppe ancestry in their own flawed analysis of their own data. These kind of absurdities, if qualified as good science (because it comes from Harvard and team), then anything goes as science to say the least. It is likely they cannot differentiate correlation vs causation.
By these authors own criteria and classification of the data, as revealed in one tiny part of the pre-peer-review article, namely Figure 2E, the early Steppe_EMBA samples have no R or R1a Y-chromosome DNA markers. But they suddenly appear in later samples, Steppe_MLBA and Steppe_LBA, indicating these arrive to the Steppe from somewhere else. This clearly contradicts their own fancy hypotheses. Previously it is known that the predominant Indian R1a, R1a-Z93, is different from the European R1a. So we also need to know the type of R1a these Steppe samples appear to have in the latter periods. (Priyadarshi 2014, 2011)
About a week ago, an Indian scientist who has recently (2016–17) been awarded a visiting fellowship at the Harvard Medical School (where the new age race-theorist Third Reich is a faculty), and with access to ancient Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) bone samples with the ancient DNA in them, has claimed the following in an interview with the Open Magazine before the data has been submitted, peer-reviewed and published, “While Rai and Shinde are tight-lipped about what the DNA samples extracted from the Indus Valley remains show, Rai does reveal that the R1a genetic marker is missing in the sample. This is a significant revelation. R1a is believed to have originated sometime between 22,000 and 25,000 years ago.”
During the last ice age (about 18,000 years ago), the northern latitudes were all severely cold and bone dry and humans went extinct. This ice age (last glacial maximum, LGM) ended about 13,000 years ago.
So if R1a originated in 22,000 and 25,000 years ago, and has survived the ice age, it could have survived only in the tropical Africa, India and South East Asia. It is well known that the R1a lineages are found only in India and Eurasia north and west of India. It is present in East Africa from migration from India. So, if these scientists widen their horizons, look beyond propaganda and study other specialities of science, they will see the facts right. (Priyadarshi 2014, 2011)
If it is missing in the IVC samples and is also missing in early Steppe samples, it must have got to both the places from somewhere else. Kindly note that this is assuming that the current samples from IVC is not skewed by sampling. What is sampling and how it is relevant will be explained below. We know from previously published peer-reviewed scientific research that the South Indian populations are (both the caste groups and long-isolated tribes) rich in R1a Y-chromosome DNA markers. (Priyadarshi 2014, 2011)
This brings a huge evidence-based hypothesis to the table – is it the South Indians who migrated to IVC and the Steppe about 3500–4000 years ago?*This will explain the relatively smaller proportion of the so-called South Indian DNA (the hypothesised, Ancestral South Indian [ASI] and Ancient Ancestral South Indian [AASI]) in Northwest India, about 20 per cent depending on the study and source data. (Kivisild et al. 2003; Sharma et al. 2009)
Perhaps, to deliberately hide the South Indian ancestry from Steppe and elsewhere, did they use the Andamanese population’s (Onge) DNA as the control? The Andamanese population is known to have separated from India 40,000 years ago without any admixture thereafter. The further away in time and geography a control population is, the DNA analysis will more likely show no or only a very distant relationship.
With over 90 authors involved in the paper, if so many defects are identifiable even before the complete data is available, which is usually available as supplementary data on publication, should not one consider a deliberate attempt at painting a certain picture (a.k.a. propaganda)? Remember, all this is assuming that the data itself has not been tampered with. Usually, one gives the benefit of doubt to the scientists, but these “scientists” as they say in the legal circles have “not come with clean hands.” (Baker 2016)
More skeletons might come out of the closet if the data (assuming they are reliable) are reanalysed. For now, let us assume the best, but keep our eyes and ears open.
To be continued…
Note: 1. The views expressed here are those of the author and do not necessarily represent or reflect the views of PGurus.
Let us start our discussion from the most significant paragraph of the article:
“Third, between 3100-2200 BCE we observe an outlier at the BMAC site of Gonur, as well as two outliers from the eastern Iranian site of Shahr-i-Sokhta, all with an ancestry profile similar to 41 ancient individuals from northern Pakistan who lived approximately a millennium later in the isolated Swat region of the northern Indus Valley (1200-800 BCE). These individuals had between 14-42% of their ancestry related to the AASI and the rest related to early Iranian agriculturalists and West_Siberian_HG. Like contemporary and earlier samples from Iran/Turan we find no evidence of Steppe-pastoralist-related ancestry in these samples. In contrast to all other Iran/Turan samples, we find that these individuals also had negligible Anatolian agriculturalist-related admixture, suggesting that they might be migrants from a population further east along the cline of decreasing Anatolian agriculturalist ancestry.” (Narasimhan 2018 bioRxiv: page 9 lines 276 to 285).
This paragraph provides us with two crucial pieces of information:
The Gonur and Shahr-i-Sokhta samples dated from 3100 BC to 2200 BC had no evidence of the Steppe-pastoralist-related ancestry in them.
These Gonur and Shahr-i-Sokhta people had the same ancestry profile as the 41 ancient individuals from northern Pakistan living between 1200 BC and 800 BC.
Impression from these two findings: This gives the most parsimonious impression that the ancestry or the genetic profile of the people from North Pakistan, Indus-Harappa proper and the Greater Indus Valley which included the regions up to east Iran and southern Turkmenistan had a genetic continuum in space and time, and they all were the same people.
These people (Gunur, Shahr-i-Sokhta, Swat etc North Pakistan, henceforth calledGSP) had negligible ancestry from Anatolia.
These people (GSP) had not arrived from steppe-pastoralist culture of the Late Bronze Age.
Impression from points 3 and 4 : There was no arrival from either the Neolithic Anatolian farmers, nor had been any arrivals from the steppe-pastoralist cultural location, prior to or up to 800 BC.
Now let us look at the definition of the word AASI used in the quoted paragraph. It is ““Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI)-related”: a hypothesized South Asian Hunter-Gatherer lineage related deeply to present-day indigenous Andaman Islanders” (Narasimhan bioRxiv lines 204-205). This means that the Indians (both North and South) had a hunter-gatherer population whose ancestry was exactly the same as the present day Andaman islanders before 8thmillennium BC, the time of arrival of Neolithic in India. It also by implication means that Andaman Islanders and the Hunter-Gatherer Ancient Indians had not diverged genetically or evolved at all in spite of having been separated genetically and spatially for 30,000 to 60,000 years. Another important thing to understand here is that this new name AASI means the same thing as the ASI coined by Reich (2010). In other words, Narasimhan assumes that the Andaman Islanders like people (ASI) had occupied the whole of India, and were not restricted to the south India, and hence they have been given a new name AASI replacing the older name ASI.
However this assumption cannot be supported on the basis of received information so far. We know from the data supplied by the Narasimhan article as well as earlier articles by various authors that the Y-DNA haplogroup of the Andaman Islanders had stayed the same–the oldest Asian ones—D1 and C2. On the other hand people who had stayed in the mainland India had developed newer haplogroups like F*, C5, H1 etc in their Y-DNA profile, and these newer Y-DNAs have largely replaced the oldest lineages D1 and C2 in the mainland India by this time. Hence the identification of the pre-Neolithic Indians by modern Andaman Islanders gene is essentially flawed, and is fraught with the dander of misleading the entire study towards wrong conclusions.
Now we should examine another statement regarding the GSP population: “These individuals had between 14-42% of their ancestry related to the AASI and the rest related to early Iranian agriculturalists andWest_Siberian_HG.” (lines 279 to 281).
This statement at least confirms that the early Iranian agriculturists were genetically related to the GPS (Bronze Age Gonur, Shahr-i-Sokhta, North Pakistan) people. Although Narasimhan et al assume that the Zagros Iranian agriculturists (ZIA) were ancestral to the GPS, there is another possibility that that the GPS and ZIA had descended from a common ancestor who was located more likely in Pakistan than in the Zagros.
The latter possibility is supported by stouter evidence. It has been noted that there was a genetic discontinuity, a break in the cline, between the Zagros people and the Anatolian farmers of the 7thmillennium BC (Lazaridis 2016; Broushaki 2016). Such break is produced always by either a new arrival of a population, or an insurmountable long time geographical barrier between two adjacent populations. Broushaki had studied the Wezmeh sample from another Zagros cave. Broushaki also noted,
“We sequenced Early Neolithic genomes from the Zagros region of Iran (eastern Fertile Crescent), where some of the earliest evidence for farming is found, and identify a previously uncharacterized population that is neither ancestral to the first European farmers nor has contributed significantly to the ancestry of modern Europeans. These people are estimated to have separated from Early Neolithic farmers in Anatolia some 46-77,000 years ago and show affinities to modern day Pakistani and Afghan populations, but particularly to Iranian Zoroastrians.” (Abstract). Thus, the Wezmeh DNA seems to be a part of wider Indo-Iranian ancient pool, having maximum concentration in Pakistan as in this picture.”
This effectively proves the arrival of the Neolithic Zagros farmers from the northwest Indian Neolithic, and the continuation of the same people in Pakistan/ Northwest India since the early Neolithic days.
More will follow in coming days. Please place your queries.
Every few months a new genetic study crops up and there is a slew of articles that proclaim the debate on the “Peopling of India” is settled. As discussed in the previous blog, a migration of few people in a long series of migrations should not merit such attention. But this specific migration of Vedic Aryans is the foundation on which the policy and politics of Idea of India survives. Hence it is understandable that genetic studies on the “Peopling of India” gathers so much attention.
So this round of articles in media were triggered by a research paper in pre-print named the Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia. This research has analyzed ancient DNA, which is the DNA extracted from human remains from archaeological finds, along with contemporary samples to answer the questions related to genetic make up of South and Central Asians. The only representative ancient sample for South Asia happens to come from the Swat Valley and these too are relatively not that ancient. RakhiGarhi a pre Indus Valley settlement from where Ancient DNA samples, dated to 4600 years ago (~2600 BCE), have been collected, is not part of the study. For a moment let us ignore this and look at the important conclusions from this study on Genomic Formation,
A mixture of AASI, Indus_Periphery, and Steppe_MLBA fits South Asians.
Reject BMAC as a primary source of ancestry in South Asians. Instead of being a source for South Asia, the BMAC received admixture from South Asia.
A distinctive ancestry type— 14%-42% AASI ancestry between 3100-2200 BCE in ancient DNA samples from Gonur in BMAC and Eastern Iran
BMAC had little if any Steppe pastoralist ancestry of the type that is ubiquitous in South Asia today.
By 1600 BCE in Kazakh Steppe, there were numerous individuals with admixture from Turan, providing genetic evidence of northward movement into the Steppe. Around this time southward movement from Steppe also noticed.
Much of the formation of both the ASI and ANI occurred in the 2nd millennium BCE around the decline of the IVC.
The ASI were not a clade with the earlier hunter-gatherer populations of South Asia (AASI), but harbored significant amounts of ancestry related to early Iranian agriculturalists,likely transmitted though the IVC.
The picture above maps approximately the areas described in the paper as well as some locations of interest. The Brown Starsindicate places where AASI were found in ancient samples. The Orange stars are those places where Iranian farmer ancestry was found suggesting a northward migration into Steppes. This picture would also be useful in understanding the discussion to follow. (The image can be opened in a new tab to view it more clearly).
The coverage in the media started with this article in Quint “How we, the Indians, came to be” authored by Tony Joseph. Emphasis of Tony’s article is on ancestry of custodians of Vedas, nee Brahmins, and that of ASI Dravidian population. So the focus of this article also is on these two topics.
The conventional academic view of the “Peopling of India” places so much emphasis on Aryan Invasion/Migration. Before discussing the alternative viewpoints, it would be instructive to look at whether the scholars who believed in these race theories continued to stick on to their beliefs during later part of their lives. It is Max Mueller who is credited with the introducing of the term Aryan Race in English language. Later on he was the one who unequivocally condemned the use of Arya as a Racial term. Here is the relevant excerpt from the book Biographies of Words And The Home of The Aryas
Since Vedas were supposed to be the Aryan import into India, the dating of Vedas was contested even during Max Muellers time. Yielding to those critics, Max Mueller acknowledged that “whether the Vedic hymns were composed 1000 or 2000 or 3000 years BC, no power on earth will ever determine“. Even during his time he had accepted 3000 BCE as a probable date of Vedas based on Babylonian finds.
It is surprising that neither the words “the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought” nor the acceptance of the dating of Vedas to an earlier period by Max Mueller seem to have been acknowledged in research papers.
There are other scholars who have tried to arrive at timelines for Vedas using methods, like linguistics, archaeology, astronomical codes embedded in Vedas, archaeo-astronomy and so on. One such scholar, who has been using linguistics and archaeological finds to date RigVeda is Shrikant G Talageri. Apart from writing a few books on this subject, he also maintains a blog and actively responds to people who ask questions. Each of his books and articles also mentions the arguments put forward by his critics and his explanations there of.
Talageri’s works would be used as the reference to answer questions on Vedic civilization. Genetic studies on diverse Indian population groups forms the basis for discussing Vedic Brahmin ancestry and ASI ancestry.
Following are some of Shrikant G Talageri‘s conclusions which are discussed in his bookRigveda and the Avesta: Final Evidence. These are also discussed in part 2 and part 3 of a series of articles titled the “The Recorded History of the Indo-European Migrations”
The RigVedic period can be classified into Early, Middle and Late Rigvedic periods based on linguistic analysis, geographical, details of objects mentioned etc.
Geographical data in the Rigveda shows the Vedic Aryans long settled in the area to the east of the Sarasvati.
Early Rigvedic period which were composed in areas of northern India which show no acquaintance with more western areas.
Proto Iranians long settled in what is now Northern Pakistan.
Dating of the Mitanni kingdom in northern Iraq/Syria to at least 1460-1330 BCE and even earlier dating of the Kassite conquestof Mesopotamia by at least 1677 BCE.
Indo Aryan elements in the Mittani and Kassite records are cultural elements found in later RigVedic Periods
There were many tribes mentioned in the RigVeda of which Puru tribe is associated with Vedic Indo Aryans and has contributed to one of the Proto IE dialects.
The Anu and Druhyu tribes were to the west of Purus and are candidates for the 10 other Proto IE dialects.
Yadu-s, Turvasu-s and Iksvaku-s were the tribes towards South and East of Puru’s
There were two waves of emigrations. The first one is of Druhyu-s from what is North Pakistan today to what is Afghanistan today which had commenced during Pre RigVeda period.
The second is the Anu from what is Kashmir and adjoining areas to the west expanded into erstwhile Druhyu territories within the Rigvedic period.
The Geography of Vedic civilization
Aryan Invasion/Migration theory postulates that emigrants from South Russia, settled down in Central Asia, where they developed a joint culture. Later, they separated from each other, and migrated into Middle east and South Asia respectively, where Rigveda and the Avesta, both representing the separate developments of the earlier culture developed
Image of Indo Aryan Migration By Joshua Jonathan – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0
A picture is worth a thousand words and the animated gif above pictorially represents the Indo Aryan migrations. What is interesting is that BMAC is that path in the migration from Steppes where the Mittani and, Vedic split happened, which then led to subsequent expansions.
Talageri in his books and articles places the geographical position of the Early Vedic Civilization to the east of Saraswati River, with westward migrations of the tribes over the period RigVeda was composed. He also acknowledges the presence of proto-Iranians in areas that constitute what is Northern Pakistan today.
Interestingly the research paper states that the BMAC is not a source for South Asia but received admixture from South Asia. This means that there was an outward migration from South Asia to BMAC, which is inline with what Talageri seems to imply. One other observation is that Steppe_MLBA (Steppe Middle Late Bronze Age 2000-1400 BCE) which was carried by people from Steppe to South Asia seems to have bypassed BMAC. Both these findings refute the possibility of BMAC being the cradle for earliest Vedic civilization.
The Dating of Vedas & Migrations
Talageri has conservatively dated the RigVedas to a period between 3000 BCE to 2000 BCE. The basis is the firm dating of Mittani records. The RigVeda dates are estimated from this base date. This dating of the RigVeda coincides with the time when Indus Valley civilization was flourishing. As per Talageri The RigVedic people were in Northwestern India a point of time when all the 12 branches of Indo European languages were in contiguous locations. The geography and timeline of the Vedic civilization is summarized in the below mentioned quote of Talageri.
It is in this Early Period of the Rigveda, in the early third millennium BCE at the most conservative estimate, that the testimony of the geographical data in the Rigveda shows the Vedic Aryans long settled in the area to the east of the Sarasvatī, and the proto Iranians (let alone certain other Indo-European groups identified by us in the last chapter, and in our earlier books) long settled in the central parts of the Land of the Seven Rivers in present-day northern Pakistan.
These time-space correlates, at reasonably conservative estimates, place the joint IndoIranians exactly in, and all over, the area of the Harappan civilization, exactly in the period of the heyday of that civilization. These time-space correlates are based on solid chronological evidence from West Asia, and massive textual evidence from the Rigveda and the Avesta,
Interestingly, the research paper has found outliers in Turan and Eastern Iran with significant AASI component dated to 3100-2200 BCE and has considered them as Indus_Valley_Periphery samples. According to the research paper Indus_Valley_Periphery is one of the prime contributors to the ANI and ASI populations and that the admixture which resulted in these populations also happened about 2000 BCE. AASI being purely South Asian in origin, presence of such ancestry in Turan signifies an outward migrationfrom South Asia intoTuran and Eastern Iran.
A recent research by IIT Kharagpur has concluded that Indus Valley civilization experienced an unprecedented drought of 900 years(from about 2350 BCE to 1450 BCE). If the Aryan migration is dated to 1500 BCE, the importance of river Saraswati and Sapta-Sindhu references in RigVeda cannot be justified as this area would have been dry by that time. Even in 2000 BCE this area was approximately in the middle of the 900 year drought. The presence of proto-Iranians in northern Pakistan and migration of Anu-s and Druhyu-s can explain the presence of Indus_Valley_Periphery in Turan
So with the Vedic civilization being in the same time period as IVC and being co-located in the IVC area, the possibility of a infusion of Vedic civilization from outside does not seem logical.
Any civilization is not just about humans alone. It is also about crops, animals and other objects. It would be instructive to study references of these in RigVeda and compare it with genetic studies of animals and plants. As it is a fairly wide and independent topic by itself, I intend to analyze this in a subsequent article.
The Steppe_MLBA mystery
Tony concludes, based on Genomic formation research paper, that ASI can be seen as a mixture of Iranian Agriculurists and South Asian hunter gatherers, which seems to imply that Steppe_MLBA portion is absent in ASI. As per researchers Steppe_MLBA (2000 to 1400 BCE) rather than Steppe EMBA is considered as one of the components of the Indian population because Haplogroup R1a which is of the Z93 subtype common in South Asia today was of high frequency in Steppe_MLBA (68%), but rare in Steppe_EMBA. Research paper also indicates that North Indian Brahmins have an elevated ratio of Steppe_MLBA to Indus_Periphery related ancestry.
An interesting study of the origins of the R1a haplogroup with many samples from India along with samples from other regions, had come up with data that the R1a* had local origins and was well represented across caste groups. Hence ASI to have no contribution from Steppe_MLBA does not seem plausible. Admixture and diversity analysis to determine the relative contribution of the hybrid population, which found Central Asian and Indian Brahmin R1a as source population as the best fit for contributions to the European R1a component(Model 3).
In another research paper investigating a rare R1a1 Y-haplogroup L657 found in Goud Saraswat Brahmins the researchers show that the parental Z93 L342.2 subclade in which LPKSTR occurs originated in West Asia and that “LPKSTR individuals migrated toward the southeast by a Bolan Pass route distinct from the traditionally presumed route of Brahmin ingress into the Indian subcontinent. The proposed migration route is supported by archeological, toponymic, numismatic, linguistic, iconographic, and literary data.”
In a book named The Last Prabhu by Bernardo D’Souza, the author took a genetic test to trace his ancestry. He has a Saraswat Brahmin Christian lineage He has traced the migration of his ancestors from Mesapotamia to Saraswati river and then to Kashmir and then eventually to Konkan. Family Tree DNA placed him in J2b2 haplogroup. Incidentally J2 is found higher in Maratha males than in other Brahmin communities. Even within Goa, haplogroup H and L are found, albeit rarely, in persons with Brahmin ancestry. Surprisingly, these haplogroups are associated with early migrants to India about 30,000 ya.
In an study, conducted on Tribal and Caste population of Tamil Nadu, the genetic diversity as well as presence of R1a across castes and tribes is discussed. The study also concludes that the population differentiation predated the caste system. Here is a relevant quote from this study.
Coalescence analysis suggested that the social stratification was established 4–6 Kya and there was little admixture during the last 3 Kya, implying a minimal genetic impact of the Varna (caste) system from the historically-documented Brahmin migrations into the area. In contrast, the overall Y-chromosomal patterns, the time depth of population diversifications and the period of differentiation were best explained by the emergence of agricultural technology in South Asia. These results highlight the utility of detailed local genetic studies within India, without prior assumptions about the importance of Varna rank status for population grouping, to obtain new insights into the relative influences of past demographic events for the population structure of the whole of modern India.
In summary, Z93 is so enigmatic that various researches throw up various regions as their purported origin. In the case of D’Souza it turns out that Z93 is not even present. Even assuming that Z93 is exclusive to North Indian Brahmins, the question would be how caste barriers were broken to accommodate Brahmins from other areas. Also interesting is how Saraswat Brahmins hailing from a small geographical area like Goa have such variety in their genetic make up. In light of these, it would too early to conclude on the migrations and their definitive impact on the social structure.
The Alternate Scenario
Just for a moment if we consider that Steppe_MLBA originated in India, then the suggestion that European R1a component came from Central Asian and Indian Brahmin component makes sense. The admixture into BMAC also can be explained. Further the dates that Shrikant Talegiri comes up with based on linguistic analysis for migration also fits into the timeframe of Steppe_MLBA. It can also explain the Northward migration from Turan to Steppes that happened about the same time as the southward migration of people carrying Steppe_MLBA as mentioned in the research paper.
The Rakhigarhi surprise?
Dr.Niraj Rai was part of the team involved with analysis of DNA of Rakhigarhi samples. His name also figures in the research paper that Tony cites. Jagaran has published that Dr.Niraj Rai has told them that DNA of the human remains from Rakhigarhi matches with North Indian Brahmins and that these results are about to be published. It also claims that the spread of Indo European languages happened from India.
Assuming that Rakhigarhi results get published and is similar to what is mentioned in Jagaran article, it has potential to significantly influence the discussion on whether people from Steppes stepped into India and changed its culture for ever.
Beginning of Conclusion
The debate on how India was populated and the answer to questions on how the culture evolved is being widely studied. However the academic scholars continue to cling on to long challenged theories. There is an effort to gerrymander conclusions from new studies into a pre-established architecture. As far as India is concerned, leading scientists feel that contemporary samples used does not quiet reflect the genetic diversity of India. We still do not have an ancient IVC sample in any of the studies. The studies on “Peopling of India” is an evolving field. To claim that the puzzles in the population of India is settled is nothing but fantasy.
References:
The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture The Indo Aryan Migration debate – Edwin Bryant
Biographies of Words and The Home of the Aryas – F. Max Mueller
Rigveda and Avesta: Final Evidence – Shrikant Talageri
Preview and Review of the book The Last Prabhu – Bernardo D Souza
Desmond D. Mascarenhas, Anupuma Raina, Christopher E. Aston, and Dharambir K. Sanghera, “Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage,” BioMed Research International, vol. 2015, Article ID 651415, 16 pages, 2015. doi:10.1155/2015/651415
Indian economic thoughts predate those of Plato, Aristotle: Satish Deodhar
Full text: https://web.iima.ac.in/assets/snippets/workingpaperpdf/1974759004.pdf Abstract The history of economic thought begins with salutations to Greek writings of Aristotle and Plato. While the fourth century BCE Greek writings may have been the fount of modern economic thought that emerged in Europe starting 18th century CE, there has been a general unawareness of the economic thinking that emanated from the Indian subcontinent. Pre-classical thoughts that had appeared in Vedas dating a millennium prior to the Greek writings had culminated in their comprehensive coverage in the treatise Arthashastra by Kautilya in the fourth century BCE. In this context, the paper outlines various ancient Indian texts and the economic thoughts expressed therein, delves on the reasons why they have gone unnoticed, brings to the fore the economic policies laid down by Kautilya, shows how these policies exemplify pragmatic application of the modern economic principles, and brings out in bold relief, the contribution of this Pre-Classical literature in the history of economic thought.
Ahmedabad, Apr 29 (PTI) The history of economic thoughts begins with paying tributes to 4th century BCE Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle, but the history of Indian economic thoughts goes back to the Vedas composed at least a millennium before their writings, a research by an IIM professor has stated.
The research paper published by Professor Satish Deodhar (Economics Area) of Indian Institute of Management (IIM)-Ahmedabad also says while the 4th century BCE Greek writings are considered to be the fount of modern economic thoughts that emerged in Europe in 18th century CE, there has been a general lack of awareness about the economic thinking that emanated from ancient Indian texts.
The paper published recently refers to various ancient Indian texts and the economic thoughts expressed therein as it looks into the reasons why they have gone unnoticed.
The senior professor blames foreign invasions and the British rule for "scant attention" paid to the history of Indian economic thoughts.
The pre-classical economic thoughts that appeared in the Vedas dating a millennium prior to the Greek writings culminated in their comprehensive coverage in the treatise Arthashastra by Kautilya in the 4th century BCE, but have remained largely unnoticed, the research paper states.
Though the outwardly thoughts of Indian philosophy were translated and were available to the entire world after the British came, the economic thoughts somehow remain hidden, it says.
"The history of economic thoughts begins with salutations to Greek writings of Aristotle and Plato. The fourth century BCE Greek writings are considered to be the fount of modern economic thought that emerged in Europe starting 18th century CE," the paper says.
The Indian ancient economic thoughts has its origins in the Vedic age, it adds.
"The history of Indian economic thoughts goes back to Vedas which were first composed at least three millennia ago. The expressions of early economic thoughts were grounded in the socio-cultural and material environment that existed then," the paper says quoting texts from the Rig Veda and various other Indian scriptures.
Professor Deodhar says though disjoint and scattered in different texts, these thoughts were profound and did get collated and improvised over centuries.
"The treatise on political economy, Arthashastra, written by Kautaliya in fourth century BCE, came out of the crucible of the Vedic and other secular texts," he says.
The paper gives minute details of economics principles laid down in the Arthashastra.
?The continuity of thoughts, however, was lost probably after the Golden Age of the Gupta dynasty in the sixth century CE , and further escaped into oblivion from the times of external invasions and colonial rule," it says.
Discovery of many of the ancient texts, their translations into English and their exposure, both to domestic and foreign researchers, began only in the early twentieth century, if further says.
"In fact, the Arthashastra was discovered only in the early part of the 20th century, in the possession of a pundit from Tanjavur, Tamil Nadu, a region that was left mostly unharmed by the Muslim conquests. It was transcribed and published in English in 1915 by Dr. R. Shamasastri of the Mysore Oriental Library, and, it took several more decades before it became known to rest of the world," it says.
"However, the colonial preconceptions about ?backwardness? of Indian society resulted in focus of academic research mainly on the otherworldly nature of the Indian tradition," the paper says.
"The hangover continued after Independence, where economist such as R J Krishna, pejoratively referred to India?s slow GDP growth rate as the Hindu Rate of Growth?.
"In fact, having copied the command-and-control model of the Soviet Union, the slow growth rate was the Socialist Rate of Growth.
"A corollary of these developments was that only scant attention was paid to the history of economic thought that emerged in the Indian subcontinent," the paper says.
If the Sanskrit grammarian Panini came up with nomenclature for compound interest circa 700 BCE, it was Kautilya who understood the relation between interest rates and risk and uncertainty, it says.
"In contrast, the western world had looked down upon interest as usury until a millennium after Kautilya?s treatise," it says.
The paper quotes numerous verses on economics from ancient Indian texts. It also quotes various verses on how poverty was considered as a bad state to be in.
The research paper further says that the original varna system which degenerated into present caste system, was invented for division of labour.
Clearly, the division of people among four varnas -- Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishaya, and Shudra i.e . knowledge seeker, warrior, tradesman, and artisan/cultivator -- was based on guna-karma (aptitude driven vocation) and not birth,? the research paper said quoting various verses from ancient texts.
"In contrast to varnas, the endogamous jati system prevalent in India was not ordained by the Indian sacred texts," it says.
The intent of the paper is to present and give recognition to the economic thought that had emerged in ancient Indian literature, professor Deodhar said.
"While otherworldly features of Indian tradition may be unique, what I have presented is the literature that shows importance given to material conditions and the economic incentives," he further said.
"Had this literature been accessible to the occidental thought during the middle ages and the mercantilist period, classical economics might have evolved much earlier,? the study says in conclusion.
https://tinyurl.com/ybzkl4h8 --mərəγō saēnō, Sēnmurw, anzu, Hom bird are Indus Script intimations of vajra, thunderbolt maker āhangar,'blacksmith', amśu, Soma, ancu'iron' (Tocharian) Hieroglyph: माक्षिकmfn. (fr. मक्षिका) coming from or belonging to a bee (मार्कण्डेय-पुराण) Rebus: माक्षिक n. a kind of honey-like mineral substance or pyrites MBh. This is an addendum to: Archaeology ofśyenaciti, śyena in R̥gveda, Indus Script, Gaṇḍabheruṇḍa archaeo-metallurgy https://tinyurl.com/y8kpde9a
The shaft-hole axhead is conclusive proof of the Indus Script hypertext signified by the double-headed eagle ligatured to the body of a standing human, with wingsemerging from his shoulders. This hypertext is accompanied with two other hypertexts: winged tiger with feline paws and boar. All three Indus Script hypertexts are read rebus: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS śyēná m. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV.Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ.(CDIAL 12674) Rebus: آهن ګرāhan gar 'smith,blacksmith' (Pashto. Kashmiri) PLUS kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' PLUS kambha 'wing' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' PLUS baḍhi 'worker in wood and iron' (Santali) bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea'merchant' (Santali) vāḍhī, 'one who helps a merchant (Hemacandra Desinamamamala). thus, three professionals are proclaimed in three hypertexts: blacksmith, iron smelter, worker-in wood-and iron -merchant. The expression āhan gar 'blacksmith' is derived from:aśáni f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ RV., °nī -- f. ŚBr. [Cf. áśan -- m. ʻ sling -- stone ʼ RV.] Pa. asanī -- f. ʻ thunderbolt, lightning ʼ, asana -- n. ʻ stone ʼ; Pk. asaṇi -- m.f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; Ash. ašĩˊ ʻ hail ʼ, Wg. ašē˜ˊ, Pr. īšĩ, Bashg. "azhir", Dm. ašin, Paš. ášen, Shum. äˊšin, Gaw. išín, Bshk. ašun, Savi išin, Phal. ã̄šun, L. (Jukes) ahin, awāṇ. &circmacrepsilon;n (both with n, not ṇ), P. āhiṇ, f., āhaṇ, aihaṇ m.f., WPah. bhad. ã̄ṇ, bhal. ´tildemacrepsilon;hiṇi f., N. asino, pl. °nā; Si. sena, heṇa ʻ thunderbolt ʼ Geiger GS 34, but the expected form would be *ā̤n; -- Sh. aĩyĕˊr f. ʻ hail ʼ (X ?). -- For ʻ stone ʼ > ʻ hailstone ʼ cf. upala -- and A. xil s.v. śilāˊ -- .(CDIAL 910) vajrāśani m. ʻ Indra's thunderbolt ʼ R. [vájra -- , aśáni -- ]Aw. bajāsani m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ prob. ← Sk.(CDIAL 11207) vájra m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ RV., ʻ diamond ʼ ṢaḍvBr. [√*vaj]Pa. vajira -- m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ, m.n. ʻ diamond ʼ, Pk. vajja -- , vayara -- , vaïra -- ; Sh. (Lor.) b*lc̣, pl. °c̣e m. ʻ thunderbolt, meteorite, lightning ʼ (< *baJ̣?); B. bāj ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; Si. vidu ʻ Indra's thunderbolt (or < vidyút-- ?), diamond ʼ, vadura, viduru.(CDIAL 11204)
"SIMORḠ(Persian), Sēnmurw (Pahlavi), Sīna-Mrū (Pāzand), a fabulous, mythical bird. The name (which is a Middle Persian word) derives from Avestanmərəγō saēnō‘the bird Saēna’, originally a raptor, either eagle or falcon, as can be deduced from the etymologically identical Sanskritśyená (श्येन) "raptor, eagle, bird of prey". Saēna is also attested as a personal name which is derived from the bird name. In the Avestan Yašt 14.41 Vərəθraγna, the deity of victory, wrapsxᵛarnah, fortune, round the house of the worshipper, for wealth in cattle, like the great bird Saēna, and as the watery clouds cover the great mountains, which means that Saēna will bring rain." Haans-Peter Schmidt Simorg, 2002, Encyclopaedia Iranicahttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/simorg Sim-Ring, Simmargl, Seam, Seam, Sam, Semargl, Simurg ("mərəγō saēnō" avvest, later renamed "Sēnmurw" and Persian "Simorgh", Taj "Simur" - "the bird from the top of the tree / mountains ") is a fantastic creature from Iranian mythology, the king of all birds. Also found in the mythologies of the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and the Bashkirs.
The image of Simurg has various interpretations. More often, he is perceived as a faithful bird of justice and happiness, but in some myths he is a watchman sitting on the top of a mountain that separates the otherworldly world. The image of Simurg was probably borrowed by eastern Slavs in the form of the god Simargra. Perhaps Simurg itself is symbolically depicted on the coat of arms of Ukraine in the form of a falcon. The myth of Simurg spread among the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. For example, in Uzbeks, this bird is called Semurga, Kazakhs are Kaz. Samurik, from the Tatars - Semrug, and in Bashkir mythology - Samrau.https://vk.com/page-46239656_47102771 "The Persian word sīmurğ (سیمرغ) derives from Middle Persiansēnmurw(and earlier sēnmuruγ), also attested in Pazend texts as sīna-mrū...The word was lent to Armenian as siramarg (սիրամարգ) ‘peacock’...Other suggested etymologies include Pahlavi sin murgh ("eagle bird") and Avestan saeno merego ("eagle")...The relationship between the simurgh and Hōm is extremely close. Like the simurgh, Hōm is represented as a bird, a messenger, and the essence of purity that can heal any illness or wound. Hōm – appointed as the first priest – is the essence of divinity, a property it shares with the simurgh. The Hōm is in addition the vehicle of farr(ah) (MP: khwarrah, Avestan: khvarenah, kavaēm kharēno) ("divine glory" or "fortune"). Farrah in turn represents the divine mandate that was the foundation of a king's authority...It appears as a bird resting on the head or shoulder of would-be kings and clerics, indicating Ormuzd's acceptance of that individual as his divine representative on Earth. For the commoner, Bahram wraps fortune/glory "around the house of the worshipper, for wealth in cattle, like the great bird Saena, and as the watery clouds cover the great mountains" (Yasht 14.41, cf. the rains of Tishtrya above). Like the simurgh, farrah is also associated with the waters of Vourukasha (Yasht 19.51,.56–57)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simurgh "ABARSĒN, Middle Persian form of the Avestan name Upāiri.saēna, designating the Hindu Kush mountains (Average. iškata; Mid. Pers. kōf, gar) of central and eastern Afghanistan. Yašt 19.3 lists it as one of the ranges envisaged as spurs of the High Harā (see Alborz), which, as the mythical world-encircling range, is the source of the mountains. The divine Hōm is said in Yasna 10.11 to have been carried to the Upāiri.saēna range by birds (the Pahlavi version says “Powers” in the shape of birds). Thus already appears an association between the mountains and a bird motif. This is already implicit in their name, “Above the eagle[’s flight].” (Cf. similar Avestan compounds, upairiazəma-, “above-ground,” and upairi.dahyu-, “above the country.”) A parallel Sanskrit form occurs in the “Upariśyena heaven” of the Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa. (See J. Wackernagel, “Altindische und Mittelindische Miszellen,” BSOS 8, 1935-37, p. 830; he corrects Bartholomae’s attribution, in AirWb., col. 398, of the long vowel in upāiri- to vṛddhi). The archaic character of the name is indicated by the apparently “realistic” sense of saēna as an actual bird, which can not mount to a heroic height such as might be appropriate to the sēnmurw (q.v.) and other mythical birds of Zoroastrian tradition. (Saēna/OInd. śyena will be discussed under sēnmurw. For literature, see M. Mayrhofer, Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen III/22, Wiesbaden, 1970, p. 385. See also Mēnōg ī xrad 62.37-39; Bundahišn 24.24ff./p. 154 on the mythical birds)." C. J. Brunner, “Abarsen,” Encyclopædia Iranica, I/1, pp. 68-69 http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abarsen
The speculative symbolism of Rigveda Sukta 1.164 detailed by Willard Johnson and Jan EM Houben is resolved by archaeometallurgy. The riddle of three birds of Rigveda relates to ancu ‘iron’ [Tocharian; amśu, 'Soma' (R̥gveda)]), patanga ‘quicksilver, mercury’ and mākṣikā ‘pyrites’ – all deployed in metalwork by Bhāratam Janam, ‘metalcaster folk’ a term used as self-designation by Rishi Vis’vamitra Gathina in Rigveda.
“The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula FeS2. This mineral's metallic luster and pale brass-yellow hue give it a superficial resemblance to gold, hence the well-known nickname of fool's gold. The color has also led to the nicknames brass, brazzle, and Brazil, primarily used to refer to pyrite found in coal.(Julia A. Jackson, James Mehl and Klaus Neuendorf, Glossary of Geology, American Geological Institute (2005) p. 82; Albert H. Fay, A Glossary of the Mining and Mineral Industry, United States Bureau of Mines (1920) pp. 103–104.) …The name pyrite is derived from the Greek πυρίτης (pyritēs), "of fire" or "in fire".. Pyrite is sometimes found in association with small quantities of gold. Gold and arsenic occur as a coupled substitution in the pyrite structure.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite
The thunderbolt pattern with an eagle is seen on a coin from Olympia, Greece, 432-c.421 A remarkable parallel is seen between rebus-metonymy layered cipher of Indus Script Corpora and riddles in the Rigveda. Indus Script Corpora is a compendium of metalwork catalogues. Rigveda riddles related to three birds are also rebus-metonymy layered riddles of archaeometallurgy involved in processing Soma, ams’u, ‘electrum’.
See notes on speculative symbolism: Johnson, Willard, 1976, On the RG Vedic riddle of the two birds in the fig tree (RV 1.164.20-22), and the discovery of the Vedic speculative symposium, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 96, No. 2 (Apr-Jun. 1976), pp. 248-258.
The imagery of the thunderstone or thunderbolt is linked to the metaphor of an eagle carrying away the tablets of destiny in Mesapotamian legends. This Anzu bird ligatured to a tiger is cognate Vedic śyēna. In Meluhha hieroglyphs, an abiding hieroglyph is that of a tiger. The tiger denotes a smithy, forge and smelter: kola 'tiger' Rebus: kol 'working in iron'; kolhe 'smelters'; kolami 'smithy, forge'. The gloss Anzu is a rendering of Tocharian word Ancu, 'iron' (Rigveda ams'u, 'soma, electrum'):
यथोत कृत्व्ये धनेंशुम् गोष्वगस्त्यम् यथा वाजेषु सोभरिम् (RV 8.5.26)Trans. 8.005.26 And in like manner as (you protected) Ams'u when wealth was to be bestowed, and Agastya when his cattle (were to be recovered), and Sobhari when food (was to be supplied to him).
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/05/contributions-of-bharatam-janam-to.html Contributions of Bhāratam Janam to Archaeometallurgy: Reinterpreting Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177). This article includes a detailed unraveling of the riddles in Rigveda Sukta 1.164 as relatable to Pravargya by Jan EM Houben. (The ritual pragmatics of a Vedic hymn: The 'riddle hymn' and the Pravargya ritual by Jan EM Houben, 2000, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (4), pp. 499-536.) Jan EM Houben indicates the possibility that the riddle in Rigveda Sukta 1.164 is explained as a metaphor of three birds, one of which is Suparna (garumat); the second a bird eating a sweet fig in a tree. The third bird is Patanga. The author of RV 10.177 is Rishi Patanga Prajapati and RV 10.177 is the same as RV 1.164.31. I suggest that the three birds in the Sukta RV 1.164 referred to by Houben are: śyēna, patanga, mākṣikā:
śyēna is suprana (garutmat), falcon
mākṣikā is the pippalam sva_du atti: 'the flying bee which eats the sweet fig' (RV 1.164.20)
patanga is the third bird, flying insect (RV 10.177) The three flying birds (insects) are rebus-metonymy renderings as hieroglyphs signifying metalwork catalogues in archaeometallurgical transactions of Bhāratam Janam, 'metalcaster folk'
patanga, mercury or quicksilver in transmuting metal (Soma, ams'u);
mākṣikā, pyrites (which are to be oxidised to attain purified pavamAna Soma, electrum as gold-silver compound);
śyēna, anzu, ams'u (electrum ore filaments in the pyrites).
Three flying birds are abiding metaphors in Rigveda.
The glosses are: śyēna, patanga, mākṣikā. The three glosses are rebus-metonymy renderings of sena 'thunderbolt'; patanga 'mercury'; mākṣikā 'pyrites' -- three references to metalwork catalogs of Bhāratam Janam, 'lit. metalcaster folk'. A variant phonetic form of mākṣikā is makha 'fly, bee, swarm of bees' (Sindhi). The rebus-metonymy for this gloss is: makha 'the sun'. Mahavira pot is a symbol of Makha, the Sun (S'Br. 14.1.1.10).
In Vedic texts, Divinity Indra is lightning, his weapon is vajra, thunderbolt. The name "thunderbolt" or "thunderstone" -- vajrāśani (Ramayana) --has also been traditionally applied to the fossilised rostra of belemnoids. The origin of these bullet-shaped stones was not understood, and thus a mythological explanation of stones created where a lightning struck has arisen. (Vendetti, Jan (2006). "The Cephalopoda: Squids, octopuses, nautilus, and ammonites", UC Berkeley) In Malay and Sumatra they are used to sharpen the kris, are considered very lucky objects, and are credited with being touchstones for gold.
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2015/05/contributions-of-bharatam-janam-to.html Contributions of Bhāratam Janam to Archaeometallurgy: Reinterpreting Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177) The metaphor of the 'thunderbolt' is depicted as Anzu bird [cognate:asaṇi'thunderbolt' (Prakritam)] carrying away the tablets of destiny in Mesopotamian legends. A phonemic variant śyēna, 'falcon' gets deified, immortalised as a śyēnaciti 'falcon-shaped fire-altar' in Vedic tradition in Bharatam. This is mərəγō saēnō ‘the bird Saēna’ in Avestan. (See article on Simorg in Encyclopaedia Iranica, annexed. The cognate expression in Samskritam is śyēna mriga).
Bhāratam Janam, 'lit. metalcaster folk'
Hieroglyph: Ku. balad m. ʻ ox ʼ, gng. bald, N. (Tarai) barad, id. Rebus: L. bhāraṇ ʻ to spread or bring out from a kiln ʼ; M. bhārṇẽ, bhāḷṇẽ ʻ to make strong by charms (weapons, rice, water), enchant, fascinate (CDIAL 9463) Ash. barī ʻ blacksmith, artisan (CDIAL 9464).
Rebus: baran, bharat ‘mixed alloys’ (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin) (Punjabi) bharana id. (Bengali) bharan or toul was created by adding some brass or zinc into pure bronze. bharata = casting metals in moulds (Bengali) भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c. भरताचें भांडें (p. 603) [ bharatācē mbhāṇḍēṃ ] n A vessel made of the metal भरत. 2 See भरिताचें भांडें.भरती (p. 603) [ bharatī ] a Composed of the metal भरत.(Marathi. Molesworth)
माक्षिकn. a kind of honey-like mineral substance or pyrites MBh.
माक्षिक [p= 805,2]mfn. (fr. मक्षिका) coming from or belonging to a bee Ma1rkP.n. (scil. मधु) honey Var. Sus3r. mákṣā f., mákṣ -- m. f. ʻ fly ʼ RV., mákṣikā -- f. ʻ fly, bee ʼ RV., makṣika -- m. Mn.Pa. makkhikā -- f. ʻ fly ʼ, Pk. makkhiā -- f., macchī -- , °chiā -- f.; Gy. hung. makh ʻ fly ʼ, wel. makhī f., gr. makí f., pol. mačin, germ. mačlin, pal. mắki ʻ mosquito ʼ, măkīˊla ʻ sandfly ʼ, măkīˊli ʻ house -- fly ʼ; Ash. mačī˜ˊ ʻ bee ʼ; Paš.dar. mēček ʻ bee ʼ, weg. mečīˊk ʻ mosquito ʼ, ar. mučək, mučag ʻ fly ʼ; Mai. māc̣hī ʻ fly ʼ; Sh.gil. măṣīˊ f., (Lor.) m*lc̣ī ʻ fly ʼ (→ Ḍ. m*lc̣hi f.), gur. măc̣hīˊ ʻ fly ʼ (ʻ bee ʼ in gur. măc̣hi̯kraṇ, koh. măc̣hi -- gŭn ʻ beehive ʼ); K. mȧchi f. ʻ fly, bee, dark spot ʼ; S. makha, makhi f. ʻ fly, bee, swarm of bees, sight of gun ʼ, makho m. ʻ a kind of large fly ʼ; L. (Ju.) makhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, khet. makkīˊ; P. makkh f. ʻ horsefly, gnat, any stinging fly ʼ, m. ʻ flies ʼ, makkhī f. ʻ fly ʼ; WPah.rudh.makkhī ʻ bee ʼ, jaun. mākwā ʻ fly ʼ; Ku. mākho ʻ fly ʼ, gng. mã̄kh, N. mākho, A. mākhi, B. Or. māchi, Bi. māchī, Mth. māchī, mã̄chī, makhī (← H.?), Bhoj. māchī; OAw. mākhī, lakh. māchī ʻ fly ʼ, ma -- mākhī ʻ bee ʼ (mádhu -- ); H. māchī, mākhī, makkhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, makkhā m. ʻ large fly, gadfly ʼ; G. mākh, mākhī f. ʻ fly ʼ, mākhɔ m. ʻ large fly ʼ; M. mās f. ʻ swarm of flies ʼ, n. ʻ flies in general ʼ, māśī f. ʻ fly ʼ, Ko. māsu, māśi; Si. balu -- mäkka, st. -- mäki -- ʻ flea ʼ, mässa, st. mäsi -- ʻ fly ʼ; Md. mehi ʻ fly ʼ.S.kcch. makh f. ʻ fly ʼ; WPah.kṭg. mákkhɔ, máṅkhɔ m. ʻ fly, large fly ʼ, mákkhi (kc. makhe) f. ʻ fly, bee ʼ, máṅkhi f., J. mākhī f.pl., Garh. mākhi. (CDIAL 9696) *makṣātara ʻ rather like a fly or bee ʼ. [mákṣā -- ]Sh. (Lor.) m*lc̣hari ʻ wasp, hornet ʼ: more prob. same as m*lc̣hari ʻ bee ʼ < *mākṣikakara -- .(CDIAL 9699) *makṣikākula ʻ swarm of flies ʼ. [Cf. mākṣakulika -- . -- mákṣā -- , kúla -- ]P. makheāl m. ʻ beehive ʼ; Ku. makhyol ʻ swarm of flies ʼ.(CDIAL 9700) माशी (p. 649) [ māśī ] f (मक्षिका S) A fly मासूक (p. 649) [ māsūka ] n R (Commonly माशी) A fly. मधुमक्षिका (p. 629) [ madhumakṣikā ] f (S) pop. मधुमाशी f The honey-fly, a bee. मधुमक्षिकान्यायेंकरून (By the rule or law of the bees.) With selection, by picking and culling, by gathering from all quarters.(Marathi. Molesworth)
मखतूल [ makhatūla ] m Twisted silk.मकतूल [ makatūla ] m (Usually मखतूल) Twisted silk.
मख [ makha ] m (Commonly मोख) Kernel &c.
मखर [ makhara ] n A car or chair of state in which idols or Bráhmans are seated on great occasions and worshiped. 2 A gaily dressed up frame in which a girl under menstruation for the first time sits and receives certain honors.
मख 1 [p= 772,1] mfn. (prob. connected with √1. मह् or √ मंह्) jocund , cheerful , sprightly , vigorous , active , restless (said of the मरुत्s and other gods) RV. Br.m. a feast , festival , any occasion of joy or festivity RV. S3a1n3khGr2. m. a sacrifice , sacrificial oblation S3Br. &c ( Naigh. iii , 17)m. (prob.) N. of a mythical being (esp. in मखस्य शिरः , " मख's head ") RV. VS. S3Br. (cf. also comp.)
máhas2 n. ʻ delight in praise ʼ VS., ʻ festival, worship ʼ Pañcar., ʻ sacrifice ʼ lex., mahá -- m. ʻ festival, sacrifice ʼ MBh. [In later MIA. collides with makhá -- m. ʻ sacrifice ʼ ŚBr. -- √maṁh?]
Pa. maha -- n.m. ʻ festival ʼ; Pk. maha -- m. ʻ festival, sacrifice ʼ; OG. maha ʻ festival ʼ; Si. maha ʻ sacrifice ʼ. mahā -- in cmpds. ʻ great ʼ. [mah -- ] †indramaha (CDIAL 9937) máhas1 n. ʻ greatness, glory ʼ RV., ʻ splendour, light ʼ Inscr. [máh -- ] Pa. maha -- n.m. ʻ greatness ʼ; -- Si. maha ʻ light, brilliance ʼ (ES 66) ← Sk.? (CDIAL 9936)
Golden eagle.
<gOruDO>(P),,<gOruRO>(P) {N} ``^eagle, any big ^bird''. *Mu.<gaRur>, Ho<goruR>, H.<gArURA> `large species of heron, eagle', Sk.<gArUDA>. %11781. #11691.(Munda etyma) garuḍá m. ʻ a mythical bird ʼ Mn. Pa. garuḷa -- m., Pk. garuḍa -- , °ula -- m.; P. garaṛ m. ʻ the bird Ardea argala ʼ; N. garul ʻ eagle ʼ, Bhoj. gaṛur; OAw. garura ʻ blue jay ʼ; H. garuṛ m. ʻ hornbill ʼ, garul ʻ a large vulture ʼ; Si. guruḷā ʻ bird ʼ (kurullā infl. by Tam.?). -- Kal. rumb. gōrvḗlik ʻ kite ʼ?? (CDIAL 4041) gāruḍa ʻ relating to Garuḍa ʼ MBh., n. ʻ spell against poison ʼ lex. 2. ʻ emerald (used as an antidote) ʼ Kālid. [garuḍá -- ] 1. Pk. gāruḍa -- , °ula -- ʻ good as antidote to snakepoison ʼ, m. ʻ charm against snake -- poison ʼ, n. ʻ science of using such charms ʼ; H. gāṛrū, gārṛū m. ʻ charm against snake -- poison ʼ; M. gāruḍ n. ʻ juggling ʼ. 2. M. gāroḷā ʻ cat -- eyed, of the colour of cat's eyes ʼ.(CDIAL 4138)
G. garāḍ, °ḍɔ m. ʻ pit, ditch ʼ (< *graḍḍa -- < *garda -- ?);*gaḍḍa1 ʻ hole, pit ʼ. [G. < *garda -- ? -- Cf. *gaḍḍ -- 1 and list s.v. kartá -- 1] Pk. gaḍḍa -- m. ʻ hole ʼ; WPah. bhal. cur. gaḍḍ f., paṅ. gaḍḍṛī, pāḍ. gaḍōṛ ʻ river, stream ʼ; N. gaṛ -- tir ʻ bank of a river ʼ; A. gārā ʻ deep hole ʼ; B. gāṛ, °ṛā ʻ hollow, pit ʼ; Or.gāṛa ʻ hole, cave ʼ, gāṛiā ʻ pond ʼ; Mth. gāṛi ʻ piercing ʼ; H. gāṛā m. ʻ hole ʼ; Si. gaḍaya ʻ ditch ʼ. -- Cf. S. giḍ̠i f. ʻ hole in the ground for fire during Muharram ʼ. -- X khānĭ̄ -- : K. gān m. ʻ underground room ʼ; S. (LM 323) gāṇ f. ʻ mine, hole for keeping water ʼ; L. gāṇ m. ʻ small embanked field within a field to keep water in ʼ; G. gāṇ f. ʻ mine, cellar ʼ; M. gāṇ f. ʻ cavity containing water on a raised piece of land ʼ (LM 323 < gáhana -- ).WPah.kṭg. gāṛ ʻ hole (e.g. after a knot in wood) ʼ.(CDIAL 3981)
Pa. cēna frost, ice. Kuwi (Mah.) hennā hoar-frost. (DEDR 2823)
Si. sena, heṇa ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; aśáni f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ RV., °nī -- f. ŚBr. [Cf. áśan -- m. ʻ sling -- stone ʼ RV.]Pa. asanī -- f. ʻ thunderbolt, lightning ʼ, asana -- n. ʻ stone ʼ; Pk. asaṇi -- m.f. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ; Ash. ašĩˊ ʻ hail ʼ, Wg. ašē˜ˊ, Pr. īšĩ, Bashg. "azhir", Dm. ašin, Paš. ášen, Shum.äˊšin, Gaw. išín, Bshk. ašun, Savi išin, Phal. ã̄šun, L. (Jukes) ahin, awāṇ. &circmacrepsilon;n (both with n, not ṇ), P. āhiṇ, f., āhaṇ, aihaṇ m.f., WPah. bhad. ã̄ṇ, bhal. ´tildemacrepsilon; hiṇi f., N. asino, pl. °nā; Si. sena, heṇa ʻ thunderbolt ʼ Geiger GS 34, but the expected form would be *ā̤n; -- Sh. aĩyĕˊr f. ʻ hail ʼ (X ?). -- For ʻ stone ʼ > ʻ hailstone ʼ cf. upala -- and A. xil s.v. śilāˊ -- Sh. aĩyĕˊr (Lor. aĩyār → Bur. *lhyer ʻ hail ʼ BurLg iii 17) poss. < *aśari -- from heteroclite n/r stem (cf. áśman -- : aśmará -- ʻ made of stone ʼ).(CDIAL 910) vajrāśani m. ʻ Indra's thunderbolt ʼ R. [vájra -- , aśáni -- ]Aw. bajāsani m. ʻ thunderbolt ʼ prob. ← Sk. (CDIAL 11207)
श्येन firewood laid in the shape of an eagle S3ulbas
श्येना f. a female hawk L. श्येन [p= 1095,2] m. a hawk , falcon , eagle , any bird of prey (esp. the eagle that brings down सोम to man) RV. &c mfn. eagle-like AitBr.mfn. coming from an eagle (as " eagle's flesh ") , Kr2ishn2aj. ?? (prob. w.r. for श्यैन). śyēná m. ʻ hawk, falcon, eagle ʼ RV. Pa. sēna -- , °aka -- m. ʻ hawk ʼ, Pk. sēṇa -- m.; WPah.bhad. śeṇ ʻ kite ʼ; A. xen ʻ falcon, hawk ʼ, Or. seṇā, H. sen, sẽ m., M. śen m., śenī f. (< MIA. *senna -- ); Si. sen ʻ falcon, eagle, kite ʼ. (CDIAL 12674) शेन [ śēna ] m (श्येन S) A hawk. शेनी f (श्येनी S) A female hawk.श्येन [ śyēna ] m S A hawk. श्येनी f S A female hawk. (Marathi)
Alabaster votive relief of Ur-Nanshe, king of Lagash, showing Anzû as a lion-headed eagle, ca. 2550–2500 BC; found at Tell Telloh the ancient city of Girsu, (Louvre)
Ninurta with his thunderbolts pursues Anzû stealing the Tablets of Destiny from Enlil's sanctuary (Austen Henry Layard Monuments of Nineveh, 2nd Series, 1853)
Geo-Coordinates-Lat. 30° 52’54” N Long. 77° 05’33” E
Notification No& Date;2742/-/16-09/1996
The ancient site at Purola is located on the left bank of river Kamal. The excavation yielded the remains of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) from the earliest level alongwith other associated materials include terracotta figurines, beads, potter-stamp, the dental and femur portions of domesticated horse (Equas Cabalus Linn). The most important finding from the site is a brick alter identified as Syenachiti by the excavator. The structure is in the shape of a flying eagle Garuda, head facing east with outstretched wings. In the center of the structure is the chiti is a square chamber yielded remains of pottery assignable to circa first century B.C. to second century AD. In addition copper coin of Kuninda and other material i.e. ash, bone pieces etc and a thin gold leaf impressed with a human figure tentatively identified as Agni have also been recovered from the central chamber.
Note: Many ancient metallic coins (called Kuninda copper coins) were discovered at Purola. cf. Devendra Handa, 2007, Tribal coins of ancient India, ISBN: 8173053170, Aryan Books International.
"In the Visnu Purana, the domain of Kunindas is especially defined as the Kulindopatyaka, i.e., the bounding foothills demarcating the Kuninda territory (NSWH, p. 71)...According to Ptolemy (McCrindle's Ptolemy, p. 110), the country of the Kulindrine, Kulindas, was located somewhere in the mountainous region around the sources of Vipasha (the Beas), the Shatadru (the Satluj), the Yamuna and the Ganga...Kulindas emerged as a powerful warrior community...upgrade them as the vratya kshatriya...(Manusmriti, 10.20.22)"(Omacanda Handa, 2004, Naga cults and traditions in the western Himalaya, Indus publishing, p.76.)
In Dyuta parva (Sabhaparva, Mahabharata) Duryodhana said: "I describe that large mass of wealth consisting of various kinds of tribute presented to Yudhishthira by the kings of the earth. They that dwell by the side of the river Sailoda flowing between the mountains of Mer and Mandara and enjoy the delicious shade of topes of the Kichaka bamboo, viz., the Khashas, Ekasanas, the Arhas, the Pradaras, the Dirghavenus, the Paradas, the Kulindas, the Tanganas, and the other Tanganas, brought as tribute heaps of gold measured in dronas (jars) and raised from underneath the earth by ants and therefore called after these creatures." [cf. Section LI, Kisari Mohan Ganguli's translation (1883-1896)].
The Kuninda warrior clan is mentioned in ancient texts under the different forms of its name: Kauninda, Kulinda, and Kaulinda. Their coins have been found mostly in the Himalayan foothills, between the Rivers Sutlej and Yamuna. The Kuninda were therefore neighbors of the Kuluta and Trigarta clans.
Their coins have the figure of Bhagwan Shiva holding a trident, with the legend: Bhagwatah Chatresvara-Mahatmanah, translating to Bhagwan Shiva, tutelary deity of Ahichhatra, the Kuninda capital. On the obverse the coins portray a deer, six-arched hill, and a tree-in-railing.
These coins are made of copper, silver, and bronze, and are found from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. This suggests that the Kuninda gained independence from both the Indo-Greek and Kushan invaders. A Raja named Amoghabhuti features prominently in the later coins, which bear a striking resemblance to the coinage of the Yaudheya clan. It seems that the Kunindas in alliance with the latter ejected the Kushans in the 3rd century CE.
By the 5th century the clan-state of the Kuninda disappeared, or more accurately, broke-up into tiny fragments under the families of Ranas and Thakkuras just as their neighbors the Kuluta. The region of Simla Hills, down to the 20th century, was littered with tiny entities ruled by such petty chieftains, which were grouped by the British Empire into the Simla Hill States.
Silver coin of the Kuninda Kingdom, c. 1st century BCE. Obv: Deer standing right, crowned by two cobras, attended by Lakshmi holding a lotus flower. Legend in Prakrit (Brahmi script, from left to right): Rajnah Kunindasya Amoghabhutisya maharajasya ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas"). Rev: Stupa surmounted by the Buddhist symbol triratna, and surrounded by a swastika, a "Y" symbol, and a tree in railing. Legend in Kharoshti script, from righ to left: Rana Kunidasa Amoghabhutisa Maharajasa, ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas"). NB: Note the svastika, tree and mountain glyphs; these are Indus script hieroglyphs on the coin, attesting to the survival of the writing system in metallurgical contexts -- in this case, in the context of a mint. Note on Kuninda. IGNCA Newsletter, 2003 Vol. III (May - June)
First layer of vakrapakṣa śyena altar. The wings are made from 60 bricks of type 'a', and the body, head and tail from 50 type 'b', 6 of type 'c' and 24 type 'd' bricks. Each subsequent layer was laid out using different patterns of bricks with the total number of bricks equalling 200.
"Sênmurw (Pahlavi), Sîna-Mrû (Pâzand), a fabulous, mythical bird. The name derives from Avestan mərəγô saênô 'the bird Saêna', originally a raptor, either eagle or falcon, as can be deduced from the etymologically identical Sanskrit śyena."
Senmurv on the tomb of Abbess Theodote, Pavia early 8th c. "Griffin-like . Simurgh (Persian: سیمرغ), also spelled simorgh, simurg, simoorg or simourv, also known as Angha (Persian: عنقا), is the modern Persian name for a fabulous, benevolent, mythical flying creature. The figure can be found in all periods of Greater Iranian art and literature, and is evident also in the iconography of medieval Armenia, the Byzantine empire , and other regions that were within the sphere of Persian cultural influence. Through cultural assimilation the Simurgh was introduced to the Arabic-speaking world, where the concept was conflated with other Arabic mythical birds such as the Ghoghnus, a bird having some mythical relation with the date palm, and further developed as the Rukh (the origin of the English word "Roc")." http://www.flickr.com/photos/27305838@N04/4830444236/
Sassanid silk twill textile of a simurgh in a beaded surround, 6-7th c. CE
"The simurgh was considered to purify the land and waters and hence bestow fertility. The creature represented the union between the earth and the sky, serving as mediator and messenger between the two. The simurgh roosted in Gaokerena, the Hōm (Avestan: Haoma) Tree of Life, which stands in the middle of the world sea Vourukhasa. The plant is potent medicine, is called all-healing, and the seeds of all plants are deposited on it. When the simurgh took flight, the leaves of the tree of life shook making all the seeds of every plant to fall out. These seeds floated around the world on the winds of Vayu-Vata and the rains of Tishtrya, in cosmology taking root to become every type of plant that ever lived, and curing all the illnesses of mankind. The relationship between the simurgh and Hōm is extremely close. Like the simurgh, Hōm is represented as a bird, a messenger and as the essence of purity that can heal any illness or wound. Hōm - appointed as the first priest - is the essence of divinity, a property it shares with the simurgh. The Hōm is in addition the vehicle of farr(ah) (MP: khwarrah, Avestan: khvarenah, kavaēm kharēno) "[divine] glory" or "fortune". Farrah in turn represents the divine mandate that was the foundation of a king's authority."Sogdian Samarqand in the 7th century AD Archaeology in the landscapes of ancient Sogd has furnished us with a great amount of works of art, mainly from the early Middle Ages. Of highest value are the wall paintings from a palace hall (object 23, room 1) of the Sogdian ruler Varxuman at Samarqand (Afrasiab site)... The western wall is the most important one in room 23/1 due to its position opposite the entrance. This feature seems to be common in Sogdian architectural layouts both of private main halls and palace throne rooms. Who is figure no. 4 of the western wall? (page II) The following proposal for an identification of figure 4 is certainly only an attempt. As we have seen, group A2 of delegates seems to belong to nations of the west. A second hint comes from the clothes of figure 4. The delicate ornamentation depicts fabulous beasts known as "Senmurvs". Look below:
Left: The Senmurvs are set into an overall pattern of curved rhomboids.
Right: Close-up of the garment of figure 4 Originally more than hundred human figures must have been depicted on the walls of our room. Many of these persons are dressed with richly ornamented and multicoloured clothes. But it seems noteworthy that the Senmurv is, in contrary to other patterns, only to meet with figure 4 on the western wall. The reason for that must be the symbolic nature of the Senmurv. Speaking of this creature we concentrate only on the "dog-peackock" as depicted on the Afrasiab murals. Doubtless it originates from Iranian symbolism. The most spectacular examples can be seen on the late Sasanian rock reliefs of Taq-e Bustan (Iran):
Left: Senmurvs as pattern on the caftan of a Sasanian king, Taq-e Bustan, Great Ivan, left wall.
Right: Senmurv in medaillon on the clothes of the heavy-armoured rider, Taq-e Bustan, Geat Ivan. Comparing these images with the Senmurvs from Afrasiab we notice a striking similarity. Apparently the Senmurv in Sasanian iconography was a symbol with intimate connection to kingship. Images concentrate on representations of royal persons and on royal silverware. Only in post-Sasanian times, when dynastic restrictions were lost, the Senmurv spread wide as a merely ornamental motif on Near and Middle Eastern textiles, metalwork, and so on. Concerning the Afrasiab murals we have a general date within the limits of the Sasanian dynasty (i.e., before 652), as we have tried to explain on another page. Therefore, if the Senmurv (i.e., the "dog-peacock"!) was a Sasanian royal emblem, his appearance on the Afrasiab murals should point to the same symbolic value. In other words: The "owner" of the symbol should represent a Sasanian king. http://www.orientarch.uni-halle.de/ca/afras/text/w4b.htm
Wall panel with a Senmurv. Iran, Chal Tarhan. 7th-8th c. Stucco.Inv. Nr. 6642. Image of a quite similar panel which is in better condition that came from the same site, see British Museum, inv. no. ME 1973.7-25.3.
Sassanid silver plate of a simurgh (Sēnmurw), 7-8th c. CE. An exquisite and beautifully gilded Sassanid silver plate. The central creature within it is usually identified as the senmurw of Zoroastrian mythology which features the head of a snarling dog, the paws of a lion and the tail of a peacock. This object is today displayed in the Persian Empire collection of the British Museum. Peacock-dragon or peacock-griffin?
British Museum. Department: Middle East Registration number: 1922,0308.1 BM/Big number: 124095. Date 7thC-8thC (?) Description Gilded silver plate with low foot-rim and centering mark on the underside; single line engraved around the outside of the rim, with a second engraved line defining the interior; hammered and lathe-turned, then decorated; interior shows a senmurw (a legendary dog-headed bird) facing left, a leaf hanging from its mouth; neck and lower portion of the wing are punched with an imbricated design; the breast is enriched with a foliated motif; the tail feathers are conventionally rendered by punching, the lowest portion concealed by a bold scroll in relief; below the tail, a branch of foliage projects into the field; the foliate border is composed of overlapping leaves, on each of which are punched three divergent stems surmounted by berries in groups of three. Old corrosion attack on part of the underside. Condition of gilding suggests that this is re-gilding. Dimensions : Diameter: 18.8 centimetres (rim)Diameter: 6.8 centimetres (interior, foot-ring)Diameter: 7.3 centimetres (exterior, foot-ring)Height: 3.8 centimetres Volume: 450 millilitresWeight: 541.5 grammes. Hammered gilt silver plate with a low circular foot ring measuring 7.3 cm. across at the base; centering mark and extensive traces of old corrosion attack on the underside; single line engraved around the outside of the rim, with a second engraved line defining the interior. The plate was made by hammering, and decorated through a combination of chasing and punching, with thick gilding over the background. Early published references to the raised portion being embossed separately and added with solder are incorrect, and only the foot ring is soldered on. XRF analysis indicates that the body has a composition of 92% silver, 6.9% copper and 0.45% gold, and the foot has a slightly different composition of 93.4% silver, 5.4% copper and 0.5% gold. The decoration is limited to the interior and shows a composite animal with a dog's head, short erect mane, vertical tufted ears and lion's paws, facing left with a foliate spray dangling from its open mouth like a lolling tongue; a ruff-like circle of hair or fur frames its face; the neck, muscular shoulders and lower tail feathers are punched with an imbricated or overlapping wave design resembling feathers or scales; the breast is enriched with a foliated motif; a pair of wings with forward curling tips rise vertically from behind the shoulders, with a broad rounded peacock-like tail behind decorated with a bold foliate scroll and conventionally rendered by punching; below the tail, a second branch of foliage projects into the field. The foliate border is composed of overlapping leaves, on which are punched three divergent stems surmounted by berries in groups of three. This plate is said to have been obtained in India prior to 1922 when it was purchased in London by the National Art Collections Fund on behalf of the British Museum. It is usually attributed to the 7th, 8th or early 9th century, thus is post-Sasanian, Umayyad or early Abbasid in political terms. Initially described as a hippocamp, peacock-dragon or peacock-griffin, most scholars follow Trever's (1938) identification of this as a senmurw (New Persian simurgh), or Avestan Saena bird (cf. also Schmidt 1980). The iconographic features of a senmurw include the head of a snarling dog, the paws of a lion and the tail of a peacock, with the addition of the plant motifs on the tail or hanging out of the mouth being allusions to its role in regenerating plants. This bird is described in Pahlavi literature as nesting "on the tree without evil and of many seeds" (Menog-i Xrad 61.37-42), and scattering them in the rainy season to encourage future growth (Bundahišn XVI.4). For this reason it was believed to bestow khwarnah (glory and good fortune), and particularly that of the Kayanids, the legendary ancestors of the Sasanians. This motif is first attested in a datable Sasanian context on the rock-cut grotto of Khusrau II (r. 591-628) at Taq-i Bustan, when it appears within embroidered roundels decorating the royal gown. The same motif recurs within a repeating pattern of conjoined pearl roundels depicted on silks from the reliquary of St Lupus and a tomb at Mochtchevaja Balka in the north Caucasus, a press-moulded glass inlay and vessel appliqué in the Corning Museum of Glass, metalwork, Sogdian murals, and the late Umayyad palace façade at Mshatta (e.g. Harper et al. 1978: 136, no. 60; Trever & Lukonin 1987: 115, pl. 73, no. 26; Overlaet ed. 1993: 270, 275-77, nos 119, 127-28). However, there are significant differences of detail between all of these, and a little caution is necessary before making definite attributions of iconography, date or provenance. Many of the features are also repeated on the depiction of a horned quadruped depicted on a 7th century plate in the Hermitage (Trever & Lukonin 1987: 117-18, pl. 106, no. 36); most recently, Jens Kröger has reiterated the possibility of an early Abbasid date for the present plate, and observed that the distinctive decoration on the tail resembles the split palmette motifs on early Abbasid and Fatimid rock crystal. Source: http://tinyurl.com/7wbzcxgThe heroic theft: myths from Rgveda and the Ancient Near East - David M. Knipe (1967).
The Heroic Theft: Myths from Ṛgveda IV and the Ancient near East
Author(s): David M. Knipe
Source:History of Religions,Vol. 6, No. 4 (May, 1967), pp. 328-360
https://tinyurl.com/ydcdmunz The monograph interprets Vālakhilya as kharva and traces the iconographic traditions which mirror the metaphors of RV 8.49 to 8.59 which constitute 11 Vālakhilya Suktas in the text used by Sayana/Wilson These are numbered RV 8.93 to 8.103 in the text used by Griffith. Both translations are presented together with the text.
Worship of Śivalinga by Gandharvas - Śunga Period - Bhuteśwar - ACCN 3625 - Government Museum - Mathura 2013-02-24 6098.JPG
Sculptural frieze. Association of kharva, 'dwarfs' with smelter and śivalinga. Bhuteśvar. Mathura Museum.
Dancing gaṇa-s. Badami caves. I suggest that this is an iconographic representation of Vālakhilya, kharva 'dwarfs'. The dance takes place in a नाचण्याचा फड A nachhouse; a phaḍa or paṭṭaḍa signifies a 'metals manufactory'. Vināyaka shown with the dancers signifies karibha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib'iron. Mahāvināyaka is adorned with phaḍa 'cobrahoo' rebus: phaḍa or paṭṭaḍa 'metals manufactory'. वालखिल्यn. (also written बाल्° , of doubtful derivation) N. of a collection of 11 (accord. to some only 6 or 8) hymns of the ऋग्-वेद (commonly inserted after viii , 48 , but numbered separately as a supplement by some editors ; they are also called वालखिल्याः , with or scillicet -- namely (introducing a word to be supplied or an explanation of an ambiguity).--मन्त्राः , or ऋचः , and दशती वालखिल्यका)(ब्राह्मण); (°ल्य्/अ) pl.N. of a class of ऋषिs of the size of a thumb (sixty thousand were produced from ब्रह्मा's body and surround the chariot of the sun)(तैत्तिरीय-आरण्यक; MBh.) Rebus: वालखिल्याf.N. of a partic. kind of brick (शतपथ-ब्राह्मण). Six Sukta-s of the 11 Vālakhilya are dedicated to Indra, and one each to the Asvins, the Viśvadevas and Indra-Varuṇa. 8.55 and 8.56 praise "Praskaṇva's Gift", the reward given to the r̥ṣi by Dasyave-vrka "the wolf of the Dasyus", a hero who in alliance with the Kaṇvas has won a victory over the Dasyus. "After the yagna Vālakhilya’s prasad (food offering) was given to Vinata, one of the two wives of Kaśyapa. She gave birth to two children Aruna and the most powerful golden-hued eagle, Garuda. Long after this Garuda flew to Indraloka to get Amrita and defeated Indra. The Second wife of Kaśyapa Kadru gave birth to the Nagas or the Snake race. Garuda on his way back sat on the tree where Vālakhilyas were doing penance. The tree broke into many branches, but Garuda lifted all the ascetics with the branch and put them in a safe place. The Rig Veda says that they sprang from the hairs of Prajāpati Brahma. They are the guards of the Chariot of the Sun. They are also called the Kharvas. The Viṣṇu Purāṇa describes them as pious, chaste and resplendent as the rays of the sun." https://www.speakingtree.in/blog/valakhilyas-60-000-thumbsized-ascetics-protect-humanity Synonym of Vālakhilya: kharva, खर्वmfn. (cf./अ- , त्रि-) mutilated , crippled , injured , imperfect (तैत्तिरीय-संहिता ii , 5 , 1 , 7); low , dwarfish; one of the nine nidhi, 'treasures' of Kubera. खर्व (-र्ब)a. [खर्व्-अच्] 1 Mutilated, crippled, imperfect; Yv. Ts.2.5.1.7. -2 Dwarfish, low, short in stature. -र्वः, -र्वम् A large number (1,,,). -3 N. of one of the treasures of Kubera. -Comp. -इतरa. not small, great; प्रमुदितहृदः सर्वे खर्वेतरस्मयसंगताः Śiva. B.22.71. -शाखa. dwarfish, small, short.(Apte) Rebus: karba iron' (Tulu) "Vālakhilya (वालखिल्य).—The name of a saṃhitā imparted by Bāṣkali to Bālāyani and others. A class of seers, 60,000 in number, born of Kratu: advised Citraratha, who fell to the ground to gather Kauśika's bones to throw them into the Sarasvatī and get redemption; They go in front of the Sun from his rise to his setting, singing his glory; live on air; sages by tapas; authors of certain saṃhitas; live in Brahmaloka; Ṛṣis by tapas...Sage Kaśyapa was engaged in performing a sacrifice with a desire to get a valorous child. The Vālakhilya group of sages, whose height was not more than a human thumb, were making herculean efforts to carry a twig of a fig tree to the sacrifice. Indra, the chief of gods, laughed at this comical scene. Enraged at this mockery of Indra, Vālakhilya sages started another sacrifice with the intention of producing another character equal to Indra. Afraid of their ambition, Indra went and begged Kaśyapa to sooth the anger of Vālakhilya ascetics. Accordingly, Kaśyapa pacified the sages. In return, they offered him the fruits of the sacrifice.." https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/valakhilya
8.049.01 I would praise to you the bounteous Indra as is fit, the wealth-abounding Maghavan, who loves to help with thousandfold treasure those who praise him. 8.049.02 He rushes on boldly like a weapon with a hundred edges, he smites the enemies of his worshipper; the gifts of him who feeds many, swell like the streams of a mountain. 8.049.03 The expressed exhilarate Soma, O Indra, lover of hymns, fills you for bounty, O hero, O thunderer, as the waters flow to their accustomed lake. 8.049.04 Drink the incomparable, helpful, swelling Soma, the sweet of the Soma, that in your exultation you may pour out treasure for us, just as the mill-stone pours out meal. [dhr.s.ad = dr.s.ad]. 8.049.05 Come quickly to our praise--urged on by the Soma-pressers like a horse-- which the kine make sweet, for you, O Indra, of independent mighty; there are gifts (for you) among the Kan.va's. [stomam = somam]. 8.049.06 We have approached you with homage like a mighty hero, the pre-eminent one, of imperishable wealth; O Indra, thunderer, our prayers flow forth as an abundant fountain pours out its streams. 8.049.07 Whether you are now present at a sacrifice, or whether you are abroad on the earth, come from thence with your swift steeds to our sacrifice, O you of lofty counsel, come, strong one, with the strong (steeds). 8.049.08 Agile and swift are your steeds, overpowering like the winds; with which you encircle the race of Manus, with which he whole heaven becomes visible. [Or, with which you encircle all...] 8.049.09 O Indra, we long for such a bounty of yours, rich in kine; (help us), Maghavan, as you did help Medhya_tithi with wealth, as you did help Ni_pa_tithi. 8.049.10 As you, Mahavan, did give abundant kine and gold to Kan.va and Trasadasyu, to Paktha and Das'avraja; as you did give them to Gos'arya and R.jis'van.
1. TO you will I sing Indras' praise who gives good gifts as well we know; The praise of Maghavan who, rich in treasure, aids his singers with wealth thousandfold. 2 As with a hundred hosts, he rushes boldly on, and for the offerer slays his foes. As from a mountain flow the waterbrooks-, thus flow his gifts who feedeth many a one. 3 The drops effused, the gladdening draughts, O Indra, Lover of the Son As waters seek the lake where they are wont to rest, fill thee, for bounty, Thunderer. 4 The matchless draught that strengthens and gives eloquence, the sweetest of the meath drink thou, That in thy joy thou maysi scatter thy gifts over us, plenteously, even as the dust. 5 Come quickly to our laud, urged on by Somapressers- like a horse- Laud, Godlike Indra, which milchkine- make sweet for thee: with Kanvas' sons are gifts for thee. 6 With homage have we sought thee as a Hero, strong, preeminent, with unfailing wealth. O Thunderer, as a plenteous spring pours forth its stream, so, Indra, flow our songs to thee. 7 If now thou art at sacrifice, or if thou art upon the earth, Come thence, highthoughted-! to our sacrifice with the Swift, come, Mighty with the Mighty Ones. 8 The active, fleetfoot-, tawny Coursers that are thine are swift to victory, like the Wind, Wherewith thou goest round to visit Manus' seed, wherewith all heaven is visible. 9 Indra, from thee so great we crave prosperity in wealth of kine, As, Maghavan, thou favouredst Medhyatithi, and, in the fight, Nipatithi. 10 As, Maghavan, to Kanva, Trasadasyu, and to Paktha and Dasavraja; As, Indra, to Gosarya and Rjisvan, thou vouchsafedst wealth in kine and gold.
8.050.01 I would praise the far-famed, the bounteous S'akra, for the sake of his protection, who gives desirable wealth by thousands to the presser of the Soma and the offerer of hymns. 8.050.02 Invincible are his hundred-edged weapons, he mighty arrows of Indra; he pours forth blessings on his liberal worshippers like a mountain rich in springs, when the effused Soma has exhilarated him. 8.050.03 When the effused Soma-drops have exhilarated the beloved one, my oblation is offered abundantly like the waters, O gracious Indra-- it is like the kine to the worshipper. 8.050.04 The prayers which consecrate the Soma flow forth to the incomparable one who calls you for his favour, the Soma-drops which invoke you, O gracious one, have set you in the midst of the hymns. 8.050.05 He rushes hurrying like a horse to the Soma offered in our festival, which the hymns make sweet to you, O you that love sweet viands, you approve the summons to the satisfying Soma. [Paura may be a proper name; you approve the summons to (the house of) Paura]. 8.050.06 Praise the mighty hero, wide-grasping, spoil-harrying, who has control over vast treasure; you, O thunderer ever pour forth wealth to the worshipper like an abundan fountain. 8.050.07 Whether you are in the far distance or in the earth or in heaven, O Indra, god of lofty counsel, yoke your steeds, come here, lofty one, with the lofty. 8.050.08 Your harmless steeds which draw your chariot, which surpass the strength of the wind, with which you silence the enemy of man and with which you go round the sky. [Or, of Manus, dasyum manus.ah]. 8.050.09 May we once more know you as such, O gracious hero, as when you did aid Etas'a in the decisive battle, or Vas'a against Das'avraja. 8.050.10 As you were willing to give, O Maghavan, to Kan.va in the sacrificial feast, or to Di_rghani_tha the friend of the house, as you were willing to give, O slinger, to Gos'arya, so give to me a herd of kine shining like gold.
1. SAKRA I praise, to win his aid, farfamed-, exceeding bountiful, Who gives, as it were in thousands, precious wealth to him who sheds the juice and worships him. 2 Arrows with hundred points, unconquerable, are this Indras' ndghty- arms in war. He streams on liberal worshippers like a hill with springs, when juices poured have gladdened him. 3 What time the flowing Somadrops- have gladdened with their taste the Friend, Like water, gracious Lord! were my libations made, like milchkine- to the worshipper. 4 To him the peerless, who is calling you to give you aid, forth flow the drops of pleasant meath. The Somadrops- which call on thee, O gracious Lord, have brought thee to our hymn of praise. 5 He rushes hurrying like a steed to Soma that adorns our rite, Which hymns make sweet to thee, lover of pleasant food. The call to Paura thou dost love. 6 Praise the strong, grasping Hero, winner of the spoil, ruling supreme oer mighty wealth. Like a full spring, O Thunderer, from thy store hast thou poured on the worshipper evermore. 7 Now whether thou be far away, or in the heavens, or on the earth, O Indra, mighty- thoughted, harnessing thy Bays, come Lofty with the Lofty Ones. 8 The Bays who draw thy chariot, Steeds who injure none, surpass the winds' impetuous strength- With whom thou silencest the enemy of man, with whon; thou goest round the sky. 9 O gracious Hero, may we learn anew to know thee as thou art: As in decisive fight thou holpest Etasa, or Vasa gainst' Dasavraja, 10 As, Maghavan, to Kanva at the sacred feast, to Dirghanitha thine homefriend-, As to Gosarya thou, Stonedarter-, gavest wealth, give me a goldbright- stall of kine.
8.051.01 As you did drink, O Indra, the effused Soma beside Manu, the descendant of Sam.varan.a, by Ni_pa_tithi and Medhya_tithi, by Pus.t.igu and S'rus.t.igu, O Maghavan (so do you drink it here). 8.051.02 The descendant of Pr.s.advana entertained the aged Praskan.va who lay rejected (by his kindred); aided by you the seer Dasyave-vr.ka desired to obtain thousands of cows. 8.051.03 Sing that Indra with the new hymn who has no lack of praises, who is wise and the inspirer of seers, who is as it were eager to enjoy. 8.051.04 He to whom they sang the seven-headed hymn with its three parts in the highest region, he has made all these worlds tremble, and has thus brought forth his power. [i.e. sun by seven divine singers in heaven]. 8.051.05 We invoke that Indra who gives us wealth; for we know his new favour; may we obtain a stall rich in cows. 8.051.06 He whom you help, O gracious one, to give, obtains abundance of wealth; bringing the Soma we invoke you, Indra, Maghavan, you that love hymns. 8.051.07 Never are you niggardly, Indra, and give not to the worshipper; but your godlike gifts, O Maghavan, are poured forth more and more. 8.051.08 He who overpowered Krivi by his might and silences Sus.n.a with his weapons, when he spread abroad yonder sky and propped it up, then first the dweller on earth was born. 8.051.09 That wealth, which every A_rya here covets and every miserly Da_sa, is sent direct to yo, the pious Rus'ama Paviru. 8.051.10 The zealous seers have sung a hymn, sweet with Soma and dropping ghi_; wealth and manly strength hav espread themselves among us, and so too the expressed Soma drops.
1. As with Manu Samvarani, Indra, thou drankest Soma juice, And, Maghavan, with Nipatithi, Medhyatithi, with Pustigu and Srustigu, 2 The' son of Prsadvana was Praskanivas' host, who lay decrepit and forlorn. Aided by thee the Rsi Dasyavevrka- strove to obtain thousands of kine. 3 Call hither with thy newest song Indra who lacks not hymns of praise, Him who observes and knows, inspirer of the sage, him who seems eager to enjoy. 4 He unto whom they sang the sevenheaded- hymn, threeparted-, in the loftiest place, He sent his thunder down on all these living things, and so displayed heroic might. 5 We invocate that Indra who bestoweth precious things on us. Now do we know his newest favour; may we gain a stable that is full of kine. 6 He whom thou aidest, gracious Lord, to give again, obtains great wealth to nourish him. We with our Soma ready, Lover of the Song! call, Indra Maghavan, on thee. 7 Never art thou fruitless, Indra Never dost thou desert the worshipper But now, O Maghavan, thy bounty as a God is poured forth ever more and more. 8 He who hath. overtaken Krvi with his might, and silenced Susna with deathbolts, When he supported yonder heaven and spread it out, then first the son of earth was born. 9 Good Lord of wealth is he to whom all Aryas, Dasas here belong. Directly unto thee, the pious Rusama Paviru, is that wealth brought nigh. 10 In zealous haste the singers have sung forth a song distilling oil and rich in sweets. Riches have spread among us and heroic strength, with us are flowing Somadrops-.
8.052.01 As you, S'akra, did drink the effused Soma from Manu Vivasvat, as you did accept the hymn from Trita, so do you gladden yourself with A_yu. 8.052.02 You did enjoy, Indra, the effused drink with Pr.s.adhra, Medhya and Ma_taris'van, just as you did drink the Soma with Das'as'ipra, Das'on.ya, Syumaras'mi, and R.junas. 8.052.03 (It is Indra) who has appropriated the hymns for himself, who has bravely drunk the Soma, for whom Vis.n.u strode the three steps according to the ordinances of Mitra. 8.052.04 O S'atakratu, you who are bountiful to him whose praises and oblations you delight in, we, desiring wealth, invoke you, as the milkers call a cow which bears abundant milk. 8.052.05 He who gives to us is our father, the mighty, the strong, he who acts as the sovereign, may he, the strong rich Maghavan, give us kine and horses, even without our asking for it. 8.052.06 He to whom you give a present that he may obtain abundance of wealth; we, desiring wealth, invoke with our praises Indra S'atakratu, the lord of wealth. 8.052.07 Never are you heedless, you guard both races, (gods and men); O fourth A_ditya, to you belongs the Indra invocation, the ambrosia has risen to heaven. [i.e. with Varun.a, Mitra and Aryaman]. 8.052.08 (As you hear) the worshipper who you favour, O Indra, Maghavan, liberal one, you that love hymns, so, gracious one, hear our hymns and our invocation of praise, like Kan.va's. 8.052.09 The old hymn has been sun, you have uttered the prayer to Indra; they have shouted many br.hati_ verses of the rite, many hymns of the worshipper have they poured forth. 8.052.10 Indra has heaped together vast stores of wealth, the two worlds and the sun; the bright pure Soma-drink mixed with milk, has exhilarated Indra.
1. As, Sakra, thou with Manu called Vivasvan drankest Soma juice, As, Indra, thou didst love the hymn by Tritas' side, so dost thou joy with Ayu now. 2 As thou with Matarisvan, Medhya, Prsadhra, hast cheered thee Indra, with pressed juice, Drunk Soma with Rjunas, Syumarasmi, by Dasonyas' Dasasipras' side. 3 it is he who made the lauds his own and boldly drank the Soma juice, He to whom Visnu came striding his three wide steps, as Mitras' statutes ordered it. 4 In whose laud thou didst joy, Indra, at the great deed, O Satakratu, Mighty One! Seeking renown we call thee as the milkers call the cow who yields abundant milk. 5 He is our Sire who gives to us, Great, Mighty, ruling as he wills. Unsought, may he the Strong, Rich, Lord of ample wealth, give us of horses and of kine. 6 He to whom thou, Good Lord, givest that he may give increases wealth that nourishes. Eager for wealth we call on Indra, Lord of wealth, on Satakratu with our lauds. 7 Never art thou neglectful: thou guardest both races with thy care. The call on Indra, fourth Aditya! is thine own. Amrta is stablished in the heavens. 8 The offercr whom thou, Indra, Lover of the Song, liberal Maghavan, favourest, As at the call of Kanva so, O gracious Lord, hear, thou our songs and eulogy. 9 Sung is the song of ancient time: to Indra have ye said the prayer. They have sung many a Brhati of sacrifice, poured forth the worshippers' many thoughts. 10 Indra hath tossed together mighty stores of wealth, and both the worlds, yea, and the Sun. Pure, brightlyshining-, mingled with the milk, the draughts of Soma have made Indra glad.
8.053.01 We come to you, O Maghavan Indra, the highest of Maghavans, the strong of bulls, the mightiest breakere of forts, the provider of kine, the lord of wealth. 8.053.02 You who, waxing in might day by day, did destroy A_yu, Kutsa, and Atithigva, we invoke you, S'atakratu, with your bay horses, rousing you by our offerings. 8.053.03 Let the stones our forth the Soma for us all, the Soma-drops which have been pressed by men afar or near. 8.053.04 Smite all our enemies and drive them away, may we all obtain their wealth; even amont the S'i_s.t.as are you exhilarating Soma-stalks, where you fill yourself with the Soma. 8.053.05 Indra, come very near with your firmly-wise protections; come, O most healthful, with your mos healthful aid, come, good kinsma, with your good kinsmen. 8.053.06 Make rich in children that chief of all me, who is victorious in battle and a strong protector; proper thoroughly with your powers your singers who cintinually purify their minds. 8.053.07 May we be in battle as one who is the sure to gain your protection; we worship you with invocations and prayers wen we obtain our desire. 8.053.08 With your help, O lord of bay steeds, I always go into prayer and into battle, seeking spoil; it is you whom I insist upon, when I go, longing for horses and kine, at the head of plunders. [mati_na_m = mathi_na_m, in the beginning of my prayers].
1. As highest of the Maghavans, preeminent among the Bulls, Best breakerdown- of forts, kinewinner-, Lord of wealth, we seek thee, Indra Maghavan. 2 Thou who subduedst Ayu, Kutsa, Atithigva, waxing daily in thy might, As such, rousing thy power, we invocate thee now, thee Satakratu, Lord of Bays. 3 The pressingstones- shall pour for us the essence of the meath of all, Drops that have been pressed out afar among the folk, and those that have been pressed near us. 4 Repel all enmities and keep thern far away: let all win treasure for their own. Even among Sistas are the stalks that make thee glad, where thou with Soma satest thee. 5 Come, Indra, very near to us with aids of firmlybased- resolve; Come, most auspicious, with thy most auspicious help, good Kinsman, with good kinsmen, come! 6 Bless thou with progeny the chief of men, the lord of heroes, victor in the fray. Aid with thy powers the men who sing thee lauds and keep their spirits ever pure and bright. 7 May we be such in battle as are surest to obtain thy grace: With holy offerings and invocations of the Gods, we mean, that we may win the spoil. 8 Thine, Lord of Bays, am I. Prayer longeth for the spoil. Still with thy help I seek the fight. So, at the raiders' head, I, craving steeds and kine, unite myself with thee alone.
8.054.01 The singers with their hymns, O Indra, this might of yours; singing loudly, they have brought you sacred viands dropping with Soma; the offerers have drawn near with their prayers. [Or, the Pauras]. 8.054.02 They have drawn near Indra with holy rites for his protection, they in whose libations you rejoice; as you did rejoice in Samvara and Kr.s'a, so now, Indra, do you rejoice in us. 8.054.03 You gods, come all with one accord to us; let the Vasus and Rudras come for our protection, let the Maruts hear our call. 8.054.04 May Pu_s.an, Vis.n.u, Sarsvati_, and the seven rivers, favour my call; may the waters, the wind, the mountains, the trees, the earth, hear my call. 8.054.05 With yours own special gift, O Indra, best of Maghavans, be you our boon-companion for good, our liberal benefactor, O slayer of Vr.tra. 8.054.06 O lord of battle, lord of men, mighty in action, do you guide us in the conflict; far-famed are those who obtain their desires by sacrificial feasts, by invocations, and by entertaining the gods. 8.054.07 Our prayers abide in the true one, in Indra is the life of men; draw near to us, Maghavan, for our protection; milk for the streaming drink. 8.054.08 O Indra, we would worship you with hymns; O S'atakratu, you are ours; pour down upon Pras'kan.va great, solid, inexhaustible, exuberant abundance.
1. INDRA, the poets with. their hymns extol this hero might of thine: They strengthened, loud in song, thy power that droppeth oil. With hymns the Pauras came to thee. 2 Through piety they came to Indra for his aid, they whose libations give theejoy. As thou with, Krsa and Samvarta hast rejoiced, so, Indra, be thou glad with us. 3 Agreeing in your spirit, all ye Deities, come nigh to us. Vasus and Rudras shall come near to give us aid, and Maruts listen to our call. 4 May Pusan, Visnu, and Sarasvati befriend, and the Seven Streams, this call of mine: May Waters, Wind, the Mountains, and the ForestLord-, and Earth give ear unto my cry. 5 Indra, with thine own bounteous gift, most liberal of the Mighty Ones, Be our boon benefactor, Vrtraslayer-, be our feastcompanion- for our weal. 6 Leader of heroes, Lord of battle, lead thou us to combat, thou Most Sapient One. High fame is theirs who win by invocations, feasts and entertainment of the Gods. 7 Our hopes rest on the Faithful One: in Indra is the peoples' life. O Maghavan, come nigh that thou mayst give us aid: make plenteous food stream forth for us. 8 Thee would we worship, Indra, with our songs of praise: O Satakratu, be thou ours. Pour down upon PrasKanva bounty vast and firm, exuberant, that shall never fail.
8.055.01 Great indeed is Indra's might; I have beheld it; your gift approaches, O Dasyaave vr.ka [O foe to the Dasyu]. 8.055.02 A hundred white oxen shine like stars in the heaven, by their size they have almost held up the heavens. 8.055.03 A hundred bamboos, a hundred dogs, a hundred dressed hides, a hundred bunches of balbaja grass, and four hundred red mares are mine. 8.055.04 May youu have the gods propitious to you, O descendants of Kan.va, living through youth on youth; step out vigorously like steed. 8.055.05 Let them praise the seven-yoked team, great is the strength of that which is not yet full-grown; the dark-brown mares have rushed along the paths so that no eye can follow them.
1. GREAT, verily, is Indras' might. I have beheld, and hither comes Thy bounty, Dasyavevrka-! 2 A hundred oxen white of hue are shining like the stars in heaven, So tall, they seem to prop the sky. 3 Bamboos a hundred, a hundred dogs, a hundred skins of beasts welltanned-, A hundred tufts of Balbaja, four hundred redhued- mares are mine. 4 Blest by the Gods, Kinvayanas! be ye who spread through life on life: Like horses have ye stridden forth. 5 Then men extolled the team of seven not yet fullgrown-, its fame is great. The dark mares rushed along the paths, so that no eye could follow them.
8.056.01 Your inexhaustible gift has appeared, O Dasyave vr.ka, its fullness is in extent like the sky. 8.056.02 Dasyave-vr.ka, the son of Putakrata, has given to me ten thousand from his own store. 8.056.03 A hundred asses a hundred woolly sheep, a hundred slaves, beside garlands. 8.056.04 There too has been brought for Putakrata a well-adorned mare, which is not one of the common horses of the herd. 8.056.05 The shining Agni has appeared, the bearer of the oblation, with his chariot; Agni has gleamed forth brilliantly with his bright flame as Sura, he has gleamed forth in heaven as Su_rya.
1. THY bounty, Dasyavevrka-, exhaustless hath displayed itself: Its fulness is as broad as heaven. 2 Ten thousand Dasyavevrka-, the son of Putakrata, hath From his own wealth bestowed on me. 3 A hundred asses hath he given, a hundred head of fleecy sheep, A hundred slaves, and wreaths besides. 4 There also was a mare led forth, picked out for Putakratas' sake, Not of the horses of the herd. 5 ObservantAgni hath appeared, oblationbearer- with his car. Agni with his resplendent flame hath shone on high as shines the Sun, hath shone like Surya in theheavens.
8.057.01 You have come quickly, you two gods, with your car, endowed with ancient might, O sacred As'vins, truthful ones, with your powers, drink this third libation. 8.057.02 The three-and-thirty truthful gods saw you before the truthful one; O As'vins, gleaming with fire, drink the Soma, enjoying our offering, our libation. [i.e. before the Sun; the dawns are compared to truthful active women; cf. RV. 1.79.1]. 8.057.03 That work of yours, O As'vins, is worthy of wonder, the bull of the heavens, the firmament and the earth; and your thousand blessings in battle, for all these come here to drink. [i.e. the Sun, which they may be said to reveal, as they come with the earliest dawn]. 8.057.04 O sacred ones, this your portion has been placed for you, O truthful ones, come to these your praises; drink among us the sweet Soma, succour your worshipper with your powers.
1. ENDOWED, O Gods, with your primeval wisdom, come quickly with your chariot, O ye Holy. Come with your mighty powers, O ye Nasatyas; come hither, drink ye this the third libation. 2 The truthful Deities, the ThreeandThirty—, saw you approach before the EverTruthful-. Accepting this our worship and libation, O Asvins bright with fire, drink ye the Soma. 3 Asvins, that work of yours deserves our wonder, the Bull of heaven and earth and airs' mid region; Yea, and your thousand promises in battle, to- all of these come near and drink beside us. 4 Here is your portion laid for you, ye Holy: come to these songs of ours, O ye Nasatyas. Drink among us the Soma full of sweetness, and with your powers assist the man who worships.
8.058.01 He whom the wise priests bring, when they arrange the offering in many ways, who was employed as a learned bra_hman.a, what is the offerer's knowledge regarding him? 8.058.02 Agni is one, though kindled in various ways; one is the Sun, pre-eminent over all; one Dawn illumines this all; one is that which has become this all. 8.058.03 The brilliant chariot, diffusing splendour, rolling lightly on its three wheels, offering an easy seat, and full of many gifts, at whose yoking the Dawn was born, rich in marvellous treasures, I invoke that your chariot (O As'vins), come you here to drink.
1. HE whom the priests in sundry ways arranging the sacrifice, of one accord, bring hither, Who was appointed as a learned Brahman, what- is the sacrificers' knowledge of him? 2 Kindled in many a spot, still One is Agni; Silrya is One though high over all he shineth. Illumining this All, still One is usas. That which is One hath into All developed. 3 The chariot bright and radiant, treasureladen-, threewheeled-, with easy seat, and lightly rolling, Which She of Wondrous Wealth was born to harness, this car of yours I call. Drink what remaineth.
8.059.01 These your offered portions stream forth, O Indra and Varun.a, to your honour in the oblations; at every sacrifice you hasten to the oblations, when you help the offerer who presses out the Soma. 8.059.02 The plants and the waters were efficacious, they have attained their power, O indra and Varun.a, you who have gone beyond the path of the firmament, no godless man is worth being called your enemy. 8.059.03 True, O Indra and Varun.a, is that saying of Kr.sa's, 'the seven sacred voices distil a stream of honey', for their sake help the worshipper, O you lords of splendour, who reverence you devoutly in his thoughts. [RV. 9.103.3, 'the Soma streams through the sheep's wool round the honey-dropping vessel, the seven voices of the sacred bards shout to it']. 8.059.04 The seven sister-streams of the Soma, in the hot the offering, pour forth ghi_-dripping streams of yours, O Indra Varun.a, provide for and help the offerer. 8.059.05 To our great happiness we hae declared to these two brilliant ones the true might of Indra; O indra and Varun.a, lords of splendour, help us, the offerers of ghi_, with the company of thrice seven. [cf. use of the same phrase in: RV. 1.133.6: O irresistible one, you destroy not men with the warriors, with the thrice seven warriors]. 8.059.06 O Indra and Varun.a, I have seen what you formerly gave to the seers, wisdom, power of song, and fame, and the places which the wise have prepared for themselves, as they spread the web of the sacrifice with holy austerities. 8.059.07 O Indra and Varun.a, give to the offerers cheerfulness without levity, and abundance of wealth; give to us offspring, food, prosperity; prolong our lives to length of days.
1. IN offerings poured to you, O IndraVaruna-, these shares of yours stream forth to glorify your state. Ye haste to the libations at each sacrifice when ye assist the worshipper who sheds the juice. 2 The waters and the plants, O IndraVaruna-, had efficacious vigour, and attained to might: Ye who have gone beyond the path of middle air, no godless man is worthy to be called your foe. 3 True is your Krsas' word, Indra and Varuna: The seven holy voices pour a wave of meath. For their sake, Lords of splendour! aid the pious man who, unbewildered, keeps you ever in his thoughts. 4 Dropping oil, sweet with Soma, pouring forth their stream, are the Seven Sisters in the seat of sacrifice. These, dropping oil, are yours, O IndraVaruna-: with these enrich with gifts and help the worshipper. 5 To our great happiness have we ascribed to these Two Bright Ones truthfulness, great strength, and majesty. O Lords of splendour, aid us through the ThreetimesSeven—, as we pour holy oil, O IndraVaruna-. 6 What ye in time of old Indra and Varuna, gave Rsis revelation, thought, and power of song, And places which the wise made, weaving sacrifice, these through my spirits' fervid glow have I beheld., 7 O IndraVaruna-, grant to the worshippers cheerfulness void of pride, and wealth to nourish them.
Khilani(Sanskrit: खिलानि, Khilāni) are a collection of 98 r̥ca-s ofR̥gveda, recorded in the Bāṣkala, but not in the Śākalaśākha. The Khilāni hymns include the Śrī Sūkta, as well as as the Kuntāpa hymns for the Mahāvrata ceremony, the New Year's festival of the early Kuru Kingdom. हरिःॐHarih Om
Meaning: 1.1: (Harih Om. O Jatavedo, Invoke for me that Lakshmi) Who is of Golden Complexion, Beautiful and Adorned with Gold and Silver Garlands. (Gold represents Sun or the Fire of Tapas; Silver represents Moon or the Bliss and Beauty of Pure Sattva.) 1.2: Who is like the Moon with a Golden Aura, Who is Lakshmi, the Embodiment of Sri; O Jatavedo, please Invoke for Me that Lakshmi.(Moon represents the Bliss and Beauty of Pure Sattva and the Golden Aura represents the Fire of Tapas.) ... वैनतेयसोमंपिबसोमंपिबतुवृत्रहा । सोमंधनस्यसोमिनोमह्यंददातुसोमिनः ॥२१॥Vainateya Somam Piba Somam Pibatu Vr̥trahā | Somam Dhanasya Somino Mahyam Dadātu Sominah ||21|| Meaning: 21.1: (Harih Om, Salutations to Mother Lakshmi) Those who carry Sri Vishnu in their Heart (like Garuda, the son of Vinata carries Him on his back) always drink Soma (the Divine Bliss within); Let all Drink that Soma by Destroying their inner Enemies of desires (thus gaining nearness to Sri Vishnu). 21.2: That Soma originates from Sri Who is the embodiment of Soma (the Divine Bliss); O Mother, please Give that Soma to Me too, You Who are the possessor of that Soma.
Medha Sukta (Rigveda Khila 4.8.1-9) The Angirases (have given) me intelligence. The seven sages have given me intelligence and Indra and Agni (have given me) intelligence. May the disposer give me intelligence. ||1|| May King Varuna (bestow) intelligence on me. May goddess Sarasvati (bestow) intelligence on me. May the two gods Asvina having garlands of lotuses bestow intelligence on me. ||2|| The intelligence which (rests) among Apsarases, the mind which (stays) in the Gandharvas, the intelligence which is divine as well as human, may that enter me here. ||3|| What I have learnt (from the teacher) may be gratified, what I am learning (-of that I) should have potency. I listen to the knowledge in me which is already heard. May I be in the company of the vow. May we be united with Brahman. ||4|| O wise man! My body (and) my speech is full of sweet. I milk it. I have grown. This is Surya, (you) be the axle pin of the Brahman. Do not discard my knowledge. ||5|| May be goddess Medha, throbbing in my mind, liked by the Gandharva, gladdening for us. Proclaim Medha for me, proclaim glory for me. Being active and practicing (religion), may I be possessed of Medha. ||6|| I have gone to the invulnerable lord of the assembly the dear one coveted by Indra, to Medha, the conquerer. ||7|| May I be possessed of Medha, having good thoughts, having a good face, having a mind full of shraddha, having thoughts about shraddha, having good intentions, possessing great fame, retainer (of the knowledge), prominent speaker in the application of this (mantra) with a desire for the lord. ||8|| Medha, upon who the hosts of gods and manes wait, with that Medha, O Agni, make me possessed of intelligence today. ||9|| Reference: The Khila Suktas of the Rgveda: A Study; Usha R. Bhise; Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute; Poona; 1995
The Khila Verses of the Rgveda Based on the edition by J. Scheftelowitz: Die Apokryphen des R̥gveda (Khilani) Breslau 1906 (Indische Forschungen ; 1)
Input by Muneo Tokunaga, March 1995. om.namo.viṣṇave / atha khileṣu sūkta.pratīka.ādy uktam.prayojanam.. śatarcy.ādīnām.adhidaivatā.lakṣaṇāni ca /.(.Khila I Introd..). kṛtiḥ.prakṛtir.ākṛtir.vikṛtis.saṃkṛtir.abhikṛtir.utkṛtir.ity.aśīty.akṣara.ādīni.catur.uttarāṇy.eva.yajūṃṣi.saṃkhyā.anuvartana.ādi.tulyam.ṛṣīṇām.ca.tulyānām.gotram.anādeśe.khilāny.antaram.mantra.uktāany.eva.saṃkhyā.ādīni.sambhavet //.(.Khila I Introd..).
IV. Adhyāya .(.Anukramaṇī.). om.<.ā.yasminn.>.ekā.ānuṣṭubham.tu.<.tad.ā.rātri.>.catuṣkam.ādyā.bṛhaty.<.arvāñcam.>.ekā.triṣṭum.<.namas.te.>.catuṣkam.aśmākhāno.vaidyutam.antye.triṣṭubhau.<.yām.>.catvāriṃśat.pratyan.kṛtyā.nāśanam.āśīḥ.pāṅky.antam.<.āyuṣyam.>.daśa.dākṣāyaṇāya.ekarcās.sanakas.sanakās.sanātanas.sanandanas.sahasaṃjñās.sumas.(p.109).suśrīs.suvāk.sarvo.hiraṇya.ātma.stutiḥ.pañcamy.aṣṭamī.navamyau.triṣṭubhas.saptamī.śakvarī.<.bhūmis.>.sapta.prājāpatyā.lākṣā.lākṣā.stavo.-- <.medhā.>.nava.medhā.mānavī.mādhāvī.caturthy.ādir.mahā.bṛhatī.paṅktir.virāḍ.jagatī.gāyatrī.triṣṭub.<.ā.sūs.>.sapta.ātharvaṇas.subheṣaja.āgneyaḥ.prakṛtīḥ.kṛtir.ākṛtir.vikṛtis.saṃkṛtir.abhikṛtir.utkṛtir.<.venas.>.tṛcam.veno.bhāva.vṛttam.tu.<.yena.>.sapta.ūnā.mānavaś.śiva.saṃkalpo.mānasam.<.yāsām>.dve.anuṣṭup.paṅktī.<.nejameṣa.>.tṛcam.prājāpatyo.nejameṣo.<.anīkavantam.>.ekā.//
https://tinyurl.com/y8cdwdps Three unique seals of Indus Script are deciphered. All three are metalwork catalogues with unique orthography of Indus Script Cipher and deployment of sāṅgaḍa 'joined animal parts' to signify samgaha 'catalogue'. Thanks to for the exquisite pictures on Twitter of Indus Script seals.
Harappan Chimeric beasts merged with horned deity. What could it indicate?
Indus Script Hypertexts:
sāṅgāḍī 'joined parts' ; सांगड sāṅgaḍa (Marathi) iRbus,samgara 'living in the same house, guild'; saṁgaha 'catalogues' of metalwork wealth on Indus Script cipher
pāṭroṛo 'feeding trough' (Sindhi) rebus: பத்தர்² pattar, n. < T. battuḍu. A guild or title of goldsmiths.பத்தர்pattar, n. perh. vartaka. Merchants; வியாபாரிகள். (W.)
kola 'tiger' rebus: kol'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter'krammara'look back' rebus: kamar'blacksmith'. Thus, kol pasar'tiger open mouth' rebus: kol pasar iron smelter trader's shop'
Horned, bull-ligatured man: ḍhaṅgaru, ḍhiṅgaru m. ʻlean emaciated beastʼ(Sindhi) Rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith' (Maithili) PLUS kōḍu'horn' Rebus: koḍ 'workshop'.
कोंद kōnda 'young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'engraver, turner'. kō̃da 'kiln, furnace' (Kashmiri) kundakara m. ʻ turner ʼ W. [Cf. *cundakāra -- : kunda -- 1, kará -- 1] A. kundār, B. kũdār, °ri, Or. kundāru; H. kũderā m. ʻ one who works a lathe, one who scrapes ʼ, °rī f., kũdernā ʻ to scrape, plane, round on a lathe ʼ.(CDIAL 3297). Ta. kuntaṉam interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (< Te.). Ka. kundaṇa setting a precious stone in fine gold; fine gold; kundana fine gold.Tu. kundaṇa pure gold. Te. kundanamu fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold. (DEDR 1725).
ranku 'antelope' rebus: ranku 'tin'
barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: bharata'alloy of copper, pewter, tin' (Marathi) भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c.(Marathi).भरताचें भांडें (p. 603) [ bharatācē mbhāṇḍēṃ] n A vessel made of the metal भरत. 2 See भरिताचें भांडें.भरती (p. 603) [ bharatī ] a Composed of the metal भरत. (Molesworth Marathi)
This remarkable hypertext shows three linear strokes ||| with circumscript of split parenthesis (which signifies bun ingot shape) mounted on a platform.mũh, muhã 'ingot' or muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'.PLUS மேடை mēṭai ,n. [Telugu.mēḍa] 1. Platform, raised floor; தளமுயர்ந்த இடப்பகுதி. 2. Artificial mound; செய்குன்று. (W.) 3. cf.mēṭa. Storey; terraced house or palace; மாடி. விண்ணார் நிலவுதவழ் மேடை (தாயு. பைங்கிளி. 54).మేడ (p. 1028) mēḍa mēḍa. [Tel.] n. A mansion or large house: an upper chamber, a storey, హర్మ్యము, సౌధము. मेंड (p. 390) mēṇḍa m ( H) Edge, margin, or border of a field, esp. as raised: also a ridge or raised edge more generally. (Marathi) Ta. meṭṭu mound, heap of earth; mēṭu height, eminence, hillock; muṭṭu rising ground, high ground, heap. Ma. mēṭu rising ground, hillock; māṭu hillock, raised ground; miṭṭāl rising ground, an alluvial bank; (Tiyya) maṭṭa hill. Ka. mēḍu height, rising ground, hillock; miṭṭu rising or high ground, hill; miṭṭe state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) muṭṭe heap (as of straw). Tu. miṭṭè prominent, protruding; muṭṭe heap.
Te. meṭṭa raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meṭṭu mound; miṭṭa high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mēṭu, mēṭa, mēṭi stack of hay; (Inscr.) meṇṭa-cēnu dry field (cf. meṭṭu-nēla, meṭṭu-vari). Kol. (SR.) meṭṭā hill; (Kin.) meṭṭ, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. meṭṭ hill, mountain.Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) meṭṭa high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) maṭṭā, (Mu.) maṭṭa mountain; (M. L.) meṭāid., hill; (A. D. Ko.) meṭṭa, (Y. Ma. M.) meṭa hill; (SR.) meṭṭā hillock Konḍa meṭa id. Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) meṭa sand hill.(DEDR 5058). Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.Munda)mẽṛhet iron (metal), meD 'iron' (Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic)
Text of inscription:(4+3 short linear strokes)
kanda kanka 'rim of jar' कार्णिक 'relating to the ear' rebus: kanda kanka 'fire-trench account, karṇika 'scribe, account' karṇī'supercargo',कर्णिक helmsman'.
Note: Hieroglyph: कर्ण [p= 256,2] the handle or ear of a vessel RV. viii , 72 , 12 Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa ix (कात्यायन-श्रौत-सूत्र)&c Rebus: कर्ण the helm or rudder of a ship R. कर्णी f. of °ण ifc. (e.g. अयस्-क्° and पयस्-क्°) Pa1n2. 8-3 , 46" N. of कंस's mother " , in comp. Rebus: karṇī, 'Supercargo responsible for cargo of a merchant vessel'. koḍa'sluice'; Rebus: koḍ 'artisan's workshop (Kuwi)
Four + three short linear strokes: gaṇḍa'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'equipment' PLUS kolom'three' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge' ayo'fish' rebus: aya'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS khambhaṛā'fish fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage' dhayavaḍa'flag' rebus: dhā̆vaḍ 'iron smelter'. Sign 347 is duplicated Sign 162: dula 'duplicated,, pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolami 'smithy, forge. Vikalpa: pajhaṛ = to sprout from a root (Santali); Rebus: pasra ‘smithy, forge’ (Santali). The hypertext Sign 347 reads: dul kolami 'metal casting smithy, forge' muka 'ladle' (Tamil)(DEDR 4887) Rebus:mū̃h 'ingot' (Santali).PLUS Sign 328 baṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: baṭa 'iron' bhaṭa 'furnace'. The hypertext reads: mū̃h bhaṭa 'ingot furnace'
mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali) kaula mengro ‘blacksmith’ (Gypsy) mleccha-mukha (Skt.) = milakkhu ‘copper’ (Pali) The Sanskrit loss mleccha-mukha should literally mean: copper-ingot absorbing the Santali gloss, mũh, as a suffix.A comparable glyptic representation is provided in a Gadd seal found in an interaction area of the Persian Gulf. Gadd notes that the ‘water-carrier’ seal is is an unmistakable example of an 'hieroglyphic' seal. Seal impression, Ur (Upenn; U.16747); [After Edith Porada, 1971, Remarks on seals found in the Gulf States. Artibus Asiae 33 (4): 331-7: pl.9, fig.5]; water carrier with a skin (or pot?) hung on each end of the yoke across his shoulders and another one below the crook of his left arm; the vessel on the right end of his yoke is over a receptacle for the water; a star on either side of the head (denoting supernatural?). The whole object is enclosed by 'parenthesis' marks. The parenthesis is perhaps a way of splitting of the ellipse (Hunter, G.R., JRAS, 1932, 476). meḍha 'polar star' Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) PLUSkuṭi ‘water-carrier’ (Telugu); Rebus: kuṭhi ‘smelter furnace’ (Santali) kuṛī f. ‘fireplace’ (H.); krvṛI f. ‘granary (WPah.); kuṛī, kuṛo house, building’(Ku.)(CDIAL 3232) kuṭi ‘hut made of boughs’ (Skt.) guḍi temple (Telugu) The unique shape of iron ingots formed by kolhe smelters is an equilateral lozenge-shaped lump, a little pointed at each of four ends.
Three types of birds are unambiguous hieroglyphs in Indus Script Corpora: 1. quail or duck; 2. aquatic bird or crane; 3. black drongo. The third category, black drongo, is sometimes associated with 'fish' hieroglyph to convey a hypertext message through compound sign clusters, Sign 63, Sign 64. The function of split parenthesis in these signs is a hieroglyphic cipher to signify an ingot. mũh 'face' (Hindi)rebus:mũhe 'ingot' (Santali)mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali). kharva is a dwarf; kharva is a nidhi of Kubera. karba'iron' (Tulu). A little pointed at each end, the ingot is oval in shape and is split into two parenthesis as on Signs 63 and 64.
I suggest that the Signs 63 and 64 are hypertexts with three hieroglyph components:
vartaka = a duck (Skt.) batak = a duck (Gujarati) vartikā quail (Rigveda) baṭṭai quail (Nepalese) vártikā f. ʻ quail ʼ RV. 2. vārtika -- m. lex. 3. var- takā -- f. lex. (eastern form ac. to Kātyāyana: S. Lévi JA 1912, 498), °ka -- m. Car., vārtāka -- m. lex. [Cf.vartīra -- m. Suśr., °tira -- lex., *vartakara -- ] 1. Ash. uwŕe/ ʻ partridge ʼ NTS ii 246 (connexion denied NTS v 340), Paš.snj. waṭīˊ; K. hāra -- wüṭü f. ʻ species of waterfowl ʼ (hāra -- < śāˊra -- ).
2. Kho. barti ʻ quail, partridge ʼ BelvalkarVol 88.3. Pa. vaṭṭakā -- f., °ka -- in cmpds. ʻ quail ʼ, Pk. vaṭṭaya -- m., N. baṭṭāi (< vārtāka -- ?), A. batā -- sarāi, B. batui, baṭuyā; Si. vaṭuvā ʻ snipe, sandpiper ʼ (ext. of *vaṭu < vartakā -- ). -- With unexpl. bh -- : Or. bhāṭoi, °ṭui ʻ the grey quail Cotarnix communis ʼ, (dial.) bhāroi, °rui (< early MIA. *vāṭāka -- < vārtāka -- : cf. vāṭī -- f. ʻ a kind of bird ʼ Car.).Addenda: vartikā -- [Dial. a ~ ā < IE. non -- apophonic o (cf. Gk. o)/rtuc and early EMIA. vāṭī -- f. ʻ a kind of bird ʼ Car. < *vārtī -- ) (CDIAL 11361)
Rebus: *varta2 ʻ circular object ʼ or more prob. ʻ something made of metal ʼ, cf. vartaka -- 2 n. ʻ bell -- metal, brass ʼ lex. and vartalōha -- . [√vr̥t?] Pk. vaṭṭa -- m.n., °aya -- m. ʻ cup ʼ; Ash. waṭāˊk ʻ cup, plate ʼ; K. waṭukh, dat. °ṭakas m. ʻ cup, bowl ʼ; S. vaṭo m. ʻ metal drinking cup ʼ; N. bāṭā, ʻ round copper or brass vessel ʼ; A. bāṭi ʻ cup ʼ; B. bāṭā ʻ box for betel ʼ; Or. baṭā ʻ metal pot for betel ʼ, bāṭi ʻ cup, saucer ʼ; Mth. baṭṭā ʻ large metal cup ʼ, bāṭī ʻ small do. ʼ, H. baṭṛī f.; G. M. vāṭī f. ʻ vessel ʼ.*aṅkavarta -- , *kajjalavarta -- , *kalaśavarta -- , *kṣāṇavartaka -- , *cūrṇavarta -- , parṇavartikā -- , *hiṅgulavarta -- .Addenda: *varta -- 2: Md. vař ʻ circle ʼ (vař -- han̆du ʻ full moon ʼ).(CDIAL 11347)
वर्तक a [p= 925,2] n. a sort of brass or steel वर्तः (Usually at the end of comp.) Living, liveli- hood; as in कल्यवर्त q. v. -Comp. -जन्मन् m. a cloud. -तीक्ष्णम्, -लोहम् bell-metal, a kind of brass.
See:
Hypertext mint (for) brass/steel/hard alloy ingots signified by pōlaḍu, 'black drongo' vartikā 'quail, duck', karaḍa 'aquatic bird' http://tinyurl.com/knx3hgg
Retracing their steps to an empty plot between two buildings they found two stones standing side by side. Relics from a forgotten time, the stones, which date back approximately to the 7th-9th century CE, depict a person of importance – possibly a local chieftain – flanked by two women. The inscriptions, in early Kannada script, detail how he protected his cattle and also depict a battle scene in great detail.
Since then, Uday Kumar and Vinay Kumar have found close to 30 stones inscribed with varied messages, as they uncover a forgotten history across Bengaluru.
Where it all began
It all started when Uday Kumar, 50, a mechanical engineer, attended a talk in early 2017 by astrophysicist Dr Shylaja BS, who is the former director of JN Planetarium, Bengaluru, where she spoke about records of celestial events in inscription stones. For researchers, these inscriptions are valuable data points for the study of the variation of the earth’s rotation period.
Uday Kumar had unsuccessfully tried to trace the roots of his neighbourhood – Rajajinagar, in west Bengaluru – prior to attending the talk. “He had heard of the village Kethmaranahalli and someone had told him of the existence of an inscription stone talking about a lake,” said Vinay Kumar, 33, an aerospace engineer. “He went searching for it but to no avail.”
The talk made him even more interested in continuing his search and as it happened, Uday Kumar stumbled upon Epigraphia Carnatica, a book written in 1894 by BL Rice, the former director of the Mysore Archaeological Department. It documents nearly 9,000 inscriptions from lithic surfaces and copper plates found in and around the Old Mysore region. He discussed it with Vinay Kumar, his cycling buddy, whose curiosity was piqued. The two decided to retrace Rice’s path in Bengaluru to see what remained of the stones he had documented. “[The book] has been our guiding light,” said Vinay Kumar. “And we have used modern tools like social media, digital maps, cameras, 3D scanners and 3D printers to document and narrate stories about the stones.”
The stone at Dasarahalli was in a pathetic condition and one in Kodigehalli had a paint mark on it. “These stones are original records of our local history and culture,” said Vinay Kumar. “They are an unbroken link to our past, giving us insights into development of our languages – particularly Kannada – cities, lakes, temples, common areas etc.” They grew determined to do something about it.
Not an easy job
Locating stones based on Rice’s description of the location is difficult because Bengaluru and its surroundings have undergone a sea change. Names of places have changed and some of the landmarks do not exist anymore. To get around this problem, the duo narrows the search down first to a larger area – for example, Dasarahalli. They then locate the oldest inhabitants and see if they have any stories to share about the neighbourhood. “Very often the elders point to an old tree and talk of some temple or lake around which they have seen inscription stones,” said Vinay Kumar.
Once the stone is located, they photograph and video the location, and then clean the area and the stone, using detergent and hoses. “We then try to decipher the inscription using flour tracing, water, and lighting techniques like Reflectance Transformation Imaging,” said Vinay Kumar. The stones range from 750 CE to the 18th century CE and talk of land grants, tax waivers, linguistic plurality, governance practices, solar eclipses, trade and commerce.
One of the biggest challenges they face is locating stones in places where there is a lot of real estate development. Another problem is locals who do not believe their intentions. “Very often they think we are treasure hunters and that the government may take over their land if we find a treasure there,” said Vinay Kumar. The duo has had to battle superstitious locals who believe in myths that surround these stones.
Vinay Kumar recollects an expedition in Ganigarahalli near Chikkabanavara Lake in the northwest of Bangalore, where, while uncovering a stone, a female shepherd told them they would have a dream that would reveal to them the location of a long-lost treasure. When they returned a few days later, she was waiting there for them and asked them to recount their dream. “We told her we didn’t have any dream, but she refused to believe us,” recounted Vinay Kumar with a chuckle. “She thought we had returned there on account of the dream to locate the treasure.”
Important records
“We’ve been able to locate close to 30 of the 150-odd stones documented by Rice,” he said. “Almost 100 are known to have been destroyed in the last 15 years.”
One of the most interesting aspects of these inscriptions is they provide an illuminating glimpse into the way the languages of the region have developed. Kannada, Tamil and Telugu are the prominent languages found on these inscriptions, their use mirroring the rise and fall of the ruling dynasty of the time. While Kannada dominates overall, Tamil flourished during the Chola and Hoysala periods. Telugu gained prominence during the reign of the Vijayanagar empire.
King Vira Ballala of Unnamale (now Tiruvannamalai) of the Hoysala dynasty commissioned inscription stones in all three languages and these are located not too far from one another. The inscriptions at Dasarahalli and KR Puram are possibly the oldest-known Kannada inscriptions in Bengaluru, their script similar to the Halmidi inscription that was found in Hassan, dating back 300 years prior, giving a clear sense of the how the script was developing.
A stone inscription at Jakkur from the Hoysala period, dated 1342 CE, records the gift of the land of Jakkur by a local chieftain to the village accountant, Allala, as a sarvamanya kodige (tax exemption to lands or villages conferred as a privilege by the rulers). On the top corners of the front face of the stone tablet are symbols of the sun and the moon, signifying that the proclamation on the stone holds good for eternity.
Another inscription found in Allasandra is dated to the regency of Sadashivaraya of the Vijayanagara kingdom and records the grant of the village of Allalasandra to the god Allalanatha of Jakkur within the Sivanasamudra region of the Elahaka-nad (Yelahanka). The grant was on ashta-bogha-teja-svamya terms, implying complete ownership of all the rights over the property. The stone is testimony to the advanced legal acumen of the people.
Another interesting inscription is the one found at Kodigehalli. It records the gifting of the village Virupakshapura (the neighbourhood name even today) to the Someshwara temple at Shivanasamudra (present-day Hesaraghatta), on the occasion of a solar eclipse on August 8, 1431, wishing for the long life, health and prosperity of King Devaraya of Vijayanagara. This inscription is the earliest mention of Shivanasamudra, which helps date Hesaraghatta to 1431 CE at least. The basis for the name Kodigehalli could very likely be this inscription (kodige is grant in Kannada). The Kodigehalli stone has a record of a solar eclipse and is of particular importance to astronomers.
Paying it forward
Last November, Vinay Kumar and Uday Kumar, together with the Archaeology Department, organised an exhibition called Inscription Stones of Bengaluru at Venkatappa Art Gallery. “The primary intent was to document the current state of the stones and create awareness about the need to preserve them,” said Vinay Kumar. “We made posters about 25 stones with photos, translation, history and transliteration of the inscriptions.”
The posters also had QR codes that provided links to the locations of the stone on Google Maps. Another QR code pointed to 3D models of the stones. India Post released a special cover to commemorate the exhibition and a special postal cancellation, which is a marking applied on a postage stamp to prevent its reuse, was made available for the duration of the exhibition.
Ever since the exhibition, the project has picked up traction. Uday Kumar and Vinay Kumar have been part of talks across the city. A contest was run for college students to create a design for a shelter for these stones. UNESCO recently made two videos on their project in English and Spanish, and versions in Kannada and Hindi might be made in the future.
Vinay Kumar believes their mission will be successful when the people in the vicinity of a stone realise its importance and take ownership to protect it. He cites the example of inscription stones discovered at Jakkur and Allalsandra, which were moved to safer locations by local volunteers after the exhibition. “Our project is a good example of civic activism,” he said. “If two ordinary citizens could gather support from fellow citizens, government departments and crowdsource this project, I feel every citizen can do this in an area of their interest.”
A controversial dialogue keeps coming again and again asserting superiority of one religion or the other more specifically Vedantic Philosophy (Sanatan Dharma) over Gurmat (Gurbani) or vice versa.
All religious/spiritual paths help make human life meaningful and happy and one can give different names to attainable spiritual states.
Vedantic Philosophy served the humanity well till some rituals overpowered the core messages by the practices of the Philosophy over the time. A number of barriers (like original language and traditions) over a long span of period have helped to dilute or corrode the significance of the Vedantic Philosophy. Practioners of Sanatan Dharma do acknowledge this. There are very few good Hindus who believe in Vedantic Philosophy rest simply think that the Hinduism is just a way of life.
However, the knowledge of Vedas is like "an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) in automobiles". All the cars are run on the principle of this ICE. However, when you go to buy a car you look for various other features such as: fuel consumption per KM, maximum speed, increasing degree of automation, safety standards, internal upholstery, body strength and auxiliary fittings of convenience and entertainment etc etc. in a car of your choice.
According to Guru Amar Das Ji, Trisna (false desire) is a disease which makes us to forget Naam, which is highlighted in Vedas.
ਜੀਅਹੁ ਮੈਲੇ ਬਾਹਰਹੁ ਨਿਰਮਲ ॥ (Raag Raamkali M. 3, 91-13).
Vaedhaa Mehi Naam Outham So Sunehi Naahee Firehi Jio Baethaaliaa ||
In the Vedas, the ultimate objective is the Naam, the Name of the Lord; but they do not hear this, and they wander around like demons.
Sikhi on the other hand which thrives on Gurmat (drawn from teachings of Gurbani) has relevant elements of all religious philosophies and practices before Guru Nanak Sahib. Gurbani also endorses the importance of Naam - "Nanak ke ghar kewal Naam" (M. 5).
Gurbani openly acknowledges good points of Vedas and Shastras and also condemns the useless practices (empty rituals) that became manifested among the masses. Gurbani does not spare in condemning any empty rituals that were prevalent during Sikh Guru's time. While the Sikhs do pay attention to condemned rituals of Hindus and Muslims but at the same time do not relax in attracting rituals in Sikhism as well, thus defeating the core message of Gurbani: "Naam tul kach aver na hoe":-
O Nanak, rare are those, who, as Gurmukh, obtain the Naam. ||8||2||
In Sikhi, unless one gets Naam all other activities amounts to waste of time and are empty rituals as in other religions. We need to examine as how many of us or on the right path? While the goal is clear and can be achieved with grace of Waheguru as 'Gurparsad', the path itself is also very lucrative with blessings of different kinds even when we are short of destination.
Gurbani does show a definite spiritual path leading to 'Gobind Milan' (blissful enlightenment) but at the same time does not put a seal that it is the only path. Therefore, people are free to explore any other paths suggested by a Spiritual Gurus provided the Gurus attained the necessary enlightenment through that paths.
On listening to informed devotees of other religions/faiths, I invariably end up in finding myself in a position of stronger resolve about truths in Gurbani (Gurmat).
I have a firm conviction that anyone who knows his/her religion well does easily attract goodness from other religions/faiths while easily filtering the insignificant differences.
With Punjabi as my mother tongue, I feel at ease to grasp the essence of Gurbani. And more so I love Gurbani for the following reasons while respecting scriptures of ALL other faiths and religions:-
1. Gurbani is fairly recent, written in a language well understood by me.
2. The authors of various compositions are well known to have lived like human-beings and then evolved spiritually through an enlightened Guru/Gursabd..
3. All the authors admit that a Divine Grace helped them to say what they said. I trust them as 'gentlemen'. They all believed and practiced Truth-fullness:
Truth is higher than everything; but higher still is truthful living. ||5||
4. The truths, promises and instructions in Gurbani of Guru Granth Sahib were tested by by ten Sikh Gurus; and the 1st to 5th and 9th Sikh Gurus, Bhagats and Mahapurakhs, whose compositions are included in the Guru Granth Sahib have collaborated on the unity of theme of Gurmat.
5. There is historical account that all the Sikh Gurus practiced and demonstrated the divinity in Gurbani in their day to day real life though the 6th, 7th, 8th Gurus (they did not as such say any Gurbani of their own) and the 10th Guru (left a separate Dasam Granth).
6. The Gurbani was tested for a period of about 240 years before it was handed down as Guru Granth Sahib by Guru Gobind Singh Ji in 1708.
7. Gurbani was revealed in Kal-Yug by Kal-Yugi Gurus to save Kal-Yugi human beings. It is indeed bad luck of those those who turn away from Gurbani that it belongs only to the Sikhs and not to them.
8. All the Gursikhs who are/were imbued with Gurbani guide us the spirit of Seva, Sacrifices and Humility that illuminates/illuminated their personalities.
9. I am able to comprehend other faiths and religions better because of some understanding of Gurbani.
10. Gurbani does not say that it is the last word about God (Waheguru) rather says that 'Sahib mera neet nawan' (God is fresh and new every day).
11. Gurbani encourages me to look out for 'Satsangat' - congregation of spiritually elevated persons of all the faiths and religions and not restricting to only Sikh Gurmukhs.
12. Personally, Gurbani helps me to communicate with you otherwise I would be talking only chemistry (my professional subject).
13. With Gurbani background, I shall be tempted to accept any other religion or faith that offers me more than the above mentioned posts to hold on to - That is why I love Gurbani!
When I go to a Mandir, Mosque, Church or Gurduara, I find the message is pretty the same i. e. God is all-in-all, He is Love and is present in all of (toon ghat ghat antar sarab nirantar jee, har eko purakh samana). All religions teach Universal Brotherhood of mankind and attract us towards Divine Sojhee/Bud-bebik (Naam). - "naam sang jis ka man maneiaa, nanak tine niranjan janeiaa" (Sukhmani Sahib).
Regarding social practices, the environment plays an important role e. g. when we were in India surrounded by Hindus were naturally part of Hindu festivity; we spent 12 years in Nigeria in a predominantly Muslim state where we took part in Eids and Salahs and now when we live in New Zealand we do enthusiastically live in Christmas festivity - we have put up a Christmas tree in our house as mark of the festive season. All this does not stop us to celebrate Guru Nanak Birthday (we had a prayer and feast at home and also joined the Sangat at Wellington Gurduara Sahib later on a Sunday), Vaisakhi and other important days in Sikh-calendar.
We usually put up lights on our house around Diwali and the same stays on and is lighted again on Guru Nanak's Birthday followed by on Christmas - without causing any conflict in our firm faith in Gurbani.
"(Mauryan) economy must have been very prosperous, as the coins seem to have been minted in the millions. Large hoards of Mauryan coins are found to this day..." http://coinindia.com/galleries-maurya.html
Millions of Rosetta Stones deploy Indus Script Cipher -- paharaṇa mudra (punches) on coins of ancient mints from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura are emphatic evidence for the continued use of Meluhha metalwork catalogues -- aka Indus Script Inscriptions -- to proclaim metallurgical repertoire of ancient mints.
Millions of ancient coins exemplify the major contribution made by technologies of metalwork wealth to the cumulative wealth of the nation. This is evidenced by the fact that Ancient India contributed to 33% of World GDP in 1 CE (pace Angus Maddison).
In my view, the Indus Script Hypertexts/Hieroglyphs proclaimed on millions of ancient coins of India are conclusive validation of the Indus Script Inscriptions as Meluhha metalwork wealth accounting ledger catalogues.
This monograph presents only a few snippets (brief extracts) of evidences from Ancient coins of historical periods (Before Common Era) from mints.
These coins constitute Rosetta Stones for Indus Script.
Why were particular 'symbols' chosen to be impressed on ancient coins of mints in an extensive area ranging from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura? The answer lies in the continuum of Meluhha (spoken form of Bharatiya sprachbund), Indus Script Cipher tradition to create accounting ledgers of wealth created by metalwork. The mints were the manufactories of metalwork of ancient times during the Metals Age.
Indus Script Hieroglyphs/Hypertexts -- all of which constitute metalwork repertoire of mints to create the wealth of nations. The period relates to the Metals Age which constituted the World's First Industrial Revolution.
All the coins punching Indus Script Hieroglyphs/Hypertexts recorded metalwork catalogues, and proclaimed them as wealth accounting ledgers of the mint which issued the coins. "Metals were well suited to represent wealth, owing to their great commodity value per unit weight or volume, and their durability, divisibility and rarity. The best metals for coinage are gold, silver, platinum, copper, tin, nickel, aluminum, zinc, iron, and their alloys; certain alloys of gold, silver, copper and nickel have the best combination of the required qualities. The first mint was likely established in Lydia in the 7th century BC, for coining gold, silver and electrum. The Lydian innovation of manufacturing coins under the authority of the state spread to neighboring Greece, where a number of city-states operated their own mints. Some of the earliest Greek mints were within city-states on Greek islands such as Crete; a mint existed at the ancient city of Cydonia on Crete at least as early as the fifth century BCE."
At about the same time, mints also appeared in Ancient India from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura
GK Chesterton's Invisible Man is an extraordinary detective story. Here is an excerpt with the famous statement of the famous detective Father Brown, 'nobody ever notices postmen somehow'.
Many decipherment claims on Indus Script have somehow missed the postmen of the Script. There are literally millions of ancient coins from mints of an extensive area from Takṣaśila to Anuradhapura which continued to use Indus Script Hieroglyphs and Hypertexts with an astonishing regularity proclaiming the repertoire of the mints -- metalworkshops of the Metals Age Revolution Before Common Era. [quote]
“You are not mad,” said Brown, “only a little unobservant. You have not noticed such a man as this, for example.”
He took three quick strides forward, and put his hand on the shoulder of an ordinary passing postman who had bustled by them unnoticed under the shade of the trees.
“Nobody ever notices postmen somehow,” he said thoughtfully; “yet they have passions like other men, and even carry large bags where a small corpse can be stowed quite easily.”
The postman, instead of turning naturally, had ducked and tumbled against the garden fence. He was a lean fair-bearded man of very ordinary appearance, but as he turned an alarmed face over his shoulder, all three men were fixed with an almost fiendish squint.
[unquote] See:
Harappa Script continuum on punch-marked coin symbols.Insights of Fabri et al validated by Meluhha Script cipher http://tinyurl.com/gu24z4h
This is a tribute to Pran Nath, KN Dikshit and CL Fabri who had provided insights citing parallels between Harappa (Indus Script) and symbols on Punch-marked coins.
What do the symbols on ancient Indian coins (e.g. punch-marked coins or cast coins with embossed/inscribed symbols) signify?
This monograph posits Indus Script continuum and hyertexts on ancient Indian coins as signifiers of metalwork wealth-creation activities in ancient mints -- which are a legacy of the Bronze Age Tin-Bronze revolution mediated by seafaring merchants and artisans of ancient Bhāratam.
Punch-marked coins are referred to as paharaṇa mudra in Indian sprachbund (language union). The symbols on such ancient coins signify wealth of metalwork, a continuum of Indus Script tradition of rebus rendering in Meluhha of metalwork wealth account ledger entries (kharaḍā). This kharaḍā, wealth account ledger entries is signified by the Indus Script Hieroglyph Sign 176khareḍo'a currycomb (Gujarati) Rebus: karaḍā खरडें 'daybook, wealth-accounting ledger'. Rebus: kharādī' turner' (Gujarati)
The symbols on ancient coins signify metalwork wealth produced in ancient mints.
With the decipherment of Meluhha script & langauge of the Corpora of Inscriptions dated from ca. 3300 BCE (which is the date of the Harappa potsherd with three inscribed hieroglyphs signifying tagara 'tabernae montana' rebus: tagara 'tin'), it is now possible to delineate a glossary of hieroglyphs and readings in Meluhha for the parallels identified in a brilliant and lucid article of 1834 in JRAS.
Find spots of ancient coins of India
Find spots of late hoards of India Punch-marked coins
JOURNAL ARTICLE
A Survey of Late Hoards of Indian Punch-marked Coins
ELIZABETH ERRINGTON The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-) Vol. 163 (2003), pp. 69-121
The Emergence and Spread of Coins in Ancient India -- Deme Raja Reddy (2014)
Abstract
This communication describes the emergence and spread of coins in ancient India. The barter system of exchange of goods was prevalent in ancient India from the Vedic period. The Indus valley people may have used precious metals of fixed weights such as silver for buying goods which is evident from excavations in the DK area at Mohenjo-Daro. But eventually barter method gave way slowly to the money economy through the medium of coins for their obvious advantages. The origin of coins, also known as metallic money in India dates back to the sixth–seventh centuries BC and it is probable that Lydia, India and China invented coinage around the same time and also independent of each other. The emergence of coinage was one of the important monetary innovations in ancient India. The formation of ‘janapadas’ and the evolution of the second urbanization were the catalysts for the invention of coinage. The money economy originated in India during the ‘janapada’ period and it grew markedly during the Magadha, Nanda and Mauryan rule which needed the maintenance of a huge army as well as official machinery to run the big empire. Coinage and urbanization which are linked also facilitated the growth of trade in the country internally as well as with other countries. Maritime trade prospered especially with Rome during the Satavahana rule in the Deccan. The lack of trade barriers between ‘janapadas’ and the presence of local rulers even during the rule of major dynasties might have contributed to the growth of trade.
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barad, barat 'ox' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c.(Marathi) PLUSpattar 'trough'; rebus pattar, vartaka 'merchant, goldsmith' (Tamil) பத்தர்² pattar , n. < T.battuḍu. A caste title of goldsmiths; தட்டார்.
पोळpōḷa 'zebu, a bull set at liberty' पोळpōḷa 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)'
rango 'buffalo' rebus: rango 'pewter' PLUS kolmo 'rice plant' rebus: kolimi'smithy, forge'
kola 'tiger' Rebus:kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' kol 'blacksmith' PLUSkrammara 'look back' rebus: kamar 'smith, artisan' PLUS kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'
1. koDiya ‘rings on neck’, ‘young bull’ koD ‘horn’ rebus 1: koṭiya 'dhow, seafaring vessel' khōṇḍī 'pannier sack' खोंडी (p. 216) [ khōṇḍī ] f An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a कांबळा, to hold or fend off grain, chaff &c.)
khOnda ‘young bull’ rebus 2: kOnda ‘lapidary, engraver’ rebus 3: kundAr ‘turner’कोंड [kōṇḍa] A circular hamlet; a division of a मौजा or village, composed generally of the huts of one caste. खोट [khōṭa] Alloyed--a metal
2. sangaḍa ‘lathe’ sanghaṭṭana ‘bracelet’ rebus 1: .sanghāṭa ‘raft’ sAngaḍa ‘catamaran, double-canoe’rebus čaṇṇāḍam (Tu.ജംഗാല, Port. Jangada). Ferryboat, junction of 2 boats, also rafts.2 jangaḍia 'military guard accompanying treasure into the treasury' ചങ്ങാതം čaṇṇāδam (Tdbh.;സംഘാതം) 1. Convoy, guard; responsible Nāyar guide through foreign territories. rebus 3: जाकड़ja:kaṛजांगड़jāngāḍ‘entrustment note’ जखडणेंtying up (as a beast to a stake)rebus 4: sanghāṭa ‘accumulation, collection’ rebus 5. sangaDa ‘portable furnace, brazier’ rebus 6: sanghAta ‘adamantine glue‘ rebus 7: sangara ‘fortification’ rebus 8: sangara ‘proclamation’ 9: samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'.
kkharā 'hare' (Oriya): *kharabhaka ʻ hare ʼ. [ʻ longeared like a donkey ʼ: khara -- 1?]N. kharāyo ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) ``^rabbit'' Sa. kulai `rabbit'.Mu. kulai`rabbit'. KW kulai @(M063) खरगोस (p. 113) kharagōsa m ( P) A hare. (Marathi) Rebus: khār खार् 'blacksmith' (Kashmiri)
कर्णकkarṇaka m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 rebus: कर्णक karṇaka'helmsman' PLUS meḍ'body' (Santali.Ho. Mu.) rebus:mẽṛhẽt, meḍiron (Santali.Ho.Mu.)
PLUS eraka 'upraised hand' (Tamil) Rebus: eraka 'moltencast, metal infusion', eraka, arka 'copper, gold'
PLUS
H. dãtāwlī f. ʻ rake, harrow ʼ. (CDIAL 6162). Ku. danīṛo m. ʻ harrow ʼ; N. dãde ʻ toothed ʼ sb. ʻ harrow ʼ; A. dãtīyā ʻ having new teeth in place of the first ʼ, dãtinī ʻ woman with projecting teeth ʼ; Or. dāntiā ʻ toothed ʼ; H. dãtī f. ʻ harrow ʼ; G. dã̄tiyɔ m. ʻ semicircular comb ʼ, dãtiyɔm. ʻ harrow ʼ. (CDIAL 6163). G. dã̄tɔ m. ʻ a kind of rake or harrow ʼ(CDIAL 6153). Pk. daṁtāla -- m., °lī -- f. ʻ grass -- cutting instrument ʼ; S. ḍ̠andārī f. ʻ rake ʼ, L. (Ju.) ḍ̠ãdāl m., °lī f.; Ku. danyālo m. ʻharrowʼ danyāw (y from danīṛo < dantín -- ); N.dãtār ʻ tusked ʼ (← a Bi. form); A. dãtāl adj. ʻ tusked ʼ, sb. ʻ spade ʼ; B. dãtāl ʻ toothed ʼ; G. dãtāḷ n., °ḷī f. ʻ harrow ʼ; M. dã̄tāḷ ʻ having projecting teeth ʼ, dã̄tāḷ, °ḷē, dãtāḷ n. ʻ harrow, rake ʼ.Garh. dãdāḷu ʻ forked implement ʼ, Brj. dãtāl, dãtāro ʻ toothed ʼ, m. ʻ elephant ʼ. (CDIAL 6160).Rebus: dhatu 'mineral (ore)(Samskritam)
kāṅga 'comb' Rebus: kanga 'brazier, fireplace' (See also semantics of 'harrow' above). khareḍo = a currycomb (Gujarati) Rebus: kharādī ' turner' (Gujarati)
tabar 'axe' rebus: tam(b)ra 'copper'.
Signs 288, 296, 301खांडा [khāṇḍā] A division of a field. (Marathi) खंडणें (p. 192) [ khaṇḍaṇēṃ ] v c ( खंडन S) To break; to reduce into parts (Marathi) Rebus: khāṇḍā '(metal) implements'
Oval shape: mũhe 'ingot' Dotted circle: dhātu.dhāū, dhāv 'a strand' rebus: dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻa partic. soft red ore' (Rigveda)dhātu 'mineral ore'
arā 'spokes' rebus: āra 'brass' eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast' arka 'copper, gold'. kunda 'lathe' rebus: kō̃da 'fire-altar' (Kashmiri) payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद । परिपाककन्दुः f. a kiln (a potter's fireplace)(Kashmiri)
kāca m. ʻ loop, string fastened to both ends of a pole, carrying yoke ʼ lex. [← Drav. Kui kāsa(CDIAL 3009) rebus: kāsa 'bronze'.
ḍato 'claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs' rebu: dhatu 'mineral' kāru 'pincers' rebus: khār'blacksmith' 'claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs
dhatu 'crossroad' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral';
karaṇḍa 'duck' rebus: karaḍa 'hard alloy'
koṭṭu cock's comb, peacock's tuft. rebus: खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down).ḍhāḷā 'sprig' ḍhāḷāko 'large ingot'
मेढा [mēḍhā] A twistor tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi) rebus: meḍ'iron' (Mu.Ho.) med 'copper' (Slavic languages) medhā 'yajna, dhanam'
kaṇḍa 'water' rebus: kaṇḍa'implements'
dhatu 'crossroad' Rebus: dhatu 'mineral' PLUS kaṇḍō 'a stool' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements'.
Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛʻstalk,arrowʼ(CDIAL 3023).ayaskāṇḍa 'a quantity of iron, excellent (Panini) kāṇḍa 'implements' PLUSmaṇḍā 'raisedplatform, stool' Rebus: maṇḍā 'warehouse' PLUS kāca m. ʻloop,string fastened to both ends of a pole, carrying yoke ʼ lex. [← Drav. Kuikāsa (CDIAL 3009) rebus: kāsa 'bronze'. Thus, bronze andmetal implements warehouse.
Jayaswal, KP, 1834,Comment on: The punch-marked coins, a survival of the Indus Civilization, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society, 1834, pp. 72-721
Fabri, CL, 1834,The punch-marked coins, a survival of the Indus Civilization, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society, 1834, pp.307-318
Punch-marked coins are considered the earliest documented coins in India.
Shakya punch-marked coin
Shakya Vajji or Lichchavi janapada. 600 to 450 BCE. A dot within a pentagonal circumscript. The Meluhha gloss for 'five' is: taṭṭal Homonym is: ṭhaṭṭha brass (i.e. alloy of copper + zinc). Thus the hieroglyph of a pentagon circumscribing a dot may read 'brass ingot': thattha 'brass' PLUS खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.Silver 5-shana c. 600-450 BCE Weight:7.04 gm., 20 x 20 mm. Central pentagonal symbolwith additional symbol to left/ blank Ref: See Rajgor, 522-531.
This hieroglyph-multiplex may also read pañcantaṭṭāṉ, 'goldsmith (who works with five metals)'in:பஞ்சகம்மாளர் pañca-kammāḷar , n. < pañcantaṭṭāṉ, kaṉṉāṉ, ciṟpaṉ, taccaṉ, kollaṉ; தட்டான், கன்னான், சிற்பன், தச்சன் கொல்லன் என்ற ஐவகைப் பட்ட கம்மாளர். (சங். அக.)
Why is a pentagon shape chosen as circumscript to a dot (blob)?
Consistent with Indus Script Cipher, this signifies pancaloha coin, an ingot made of a 5-metal alloy. The dot of blob is goTa 'round, pebble' rebus: khoTa 'ingot, wedge'. Ancient smiths, Bharatam Janam (an expression used by Rishi Visvamitra in Rigveda) were experimenting with many alloys and many methods of casting metal objects (implements, tools, weapons, even sculptures) using hard alloys and techniques such as cire perdue (lost-wax) casting. This metallurgical heritage should be documented using Indus Script hieroglyhs and disseminated in all schools, the world over.
There are many speculations. See for e.g., figures presented below, from D.D. Kosambi, 1981, Indian Numismatics, Indian Council for Historical Research.
All the hieroglyphs on Taxila Punch-marked coins are a continuum from Harappa Script cipher of Meluhha rebus readings to signify metalwork catalogues. This tradition of Harappa Script Corpora as proclamations of metalwork continues on the early kārshāpaṇa issued from Taxila mint by Gandhara janapada.
Mohenjo-daro Seals m1118 and Kalibangan 032 (with fish and arrow hieroglyph)
Nausharo: céramique de la période I (c. 2500 BCE) cf. Catherine Jarrigeपोळ [pōḷa], 'zebu' as hieroglyph is read rebus: pōḷa, 'magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide';poliya 'citizen, gatekeeper of town quarter'.
m1406 Mohenjo-daro seal. Hieroglyphs: thread of three stands + drummer + tumblers
dhollu ‘drummer’ (Western Pahari) dolutsu 'tumble' Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’
karaḍa 'double-drum' Rebus: karaḍa 'hard alloy'. med 'drummer, boatman, basketmaker'; meD 'iron' med 'copper' (Slavic languages)].mēdam. ʻ a mixed caste, any one living by a degrading occupation ʼ Mn. [→ Bal.mēdʻ boatman, fisher- man ʼ. -- Cf. Tam.metavarʻbasket-- maker ʼ &c. DED 4178] dhAtu 'strands of rope' Rebus: dhAtu 'mineral, metal, ore'
dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAtu 'ineral ore' PLUS Hieroglyph: vaṭa A loop of coir rope, used for climbing palm-trees Rebus: dhā̆vaḍ 'iron-smelter. Hieroglyph: kāca 'loop' rebus:kāsa 'bronze'.
m1521A copper tablet. Harappa Script Corpora
Sun hieroglyph: arka 'sun' rebus: erako 'moltencast' arka 'copper, gold'
Six spokes emanating from 'dotted circle' are topped with multiple counts (2 or 3 each) of ligatured hieroglyphs: arrow, loop (with variants of ovals, buds, fish, hour-glass, one-horned young bull). dula 'two' rebus; dul'metal casting' kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' kaṇḍa 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements' kāca 'loop' rebus:kāsa 'bronze' mũh 'oval shape' rebus: mũh 'ingot' ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'metal alloy' aya 'iron' vajra (octagonal)samghāta 'adamantine glue', samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'
kharā 'hare' (Oriya): *kharabhaka ʻ hare ʼ. ... N. kharāyo ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) .rebus: khār'blacksmith' PLUS meṭṭu 'mound,height'Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Santali.Mu.Ho.)
Kur.mūxā frog. Malt.múqeid. / Cf. Skt.mūkaka- id. (DEDR 5023) Rebus:mū̃h'ingot' muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace.'
dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAu, dhAtu 'mineral ore' PLUS meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ ‘iron’. मेढा [mēḍhā] A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl (Marathi). Rebus: meḍ 'iron, copper' (Munda. Slavic) mẽṛhẽt, meD 'iron' (Mu.Ho.Santali)
meď 'copper' (Slovak)
Santali glosses:
kolmo 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'
पोळ pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus taurus, bull set at liberty' rebus: पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)'
"Kārshāpaṇas were basically silver pieces stamped with one to five or six rūpas ('symbols') originally only on the obverse side of the coins initially issued by the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas, and generally carried minute mark or marks to testify their legitimacy. Silver punch-marked coins ceased to be minted sometime in the second century BCE but exerted a wide influence for next five centuries." (Parmeshwari Lal Gupta. Coins, National Book Trust. pp. 7–11.)
Punch-Marked Coin from the Early Third Century B.C. (Image courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Errington, British Museum)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana కాసు (p. 280) kāsu kāsu. [Tel.] n. A small copper coin, a pie. A coin in general, whether gold, silver or copper, thus బంగారు కాసు a gold coin. మడికాసు a silver coin (lit. white coin. "అది సుధాకరబింబమా కాదు మడికాసువన్నె వేలుపుటన్నువత్తి గాని." P. iv. 251, 551. కాసైనా లేదు there is not even a farthing. (The కాసు or farthing was called cash by the English, and the coin called ten cash was about one halfpenny: "twenty cash" being a penny, and eighty cash a fanam.) కాసంత kāsanta. n. A pie's worth కాసంతలేదు not a bit remains. Ta. kācu gold, gold coin, money, a small copper coin. Ma. kāśu gold, money, the smallest copper coin. Ko. ka·c rupee. To. ko·s id. Ka. kāsu the smallest copper coin, a cash, coin or money in general. Tu. kāsů an old copper coin worth half a pie, a cash. Te. kāsu a cash, a coin in general, a gold coin, money. Go. (Ko.) kāsu pice (< Te.; Voc. 663). / ? Cf. Skt. karṣa-.(DEDR 1431) काश् [p= 280,2] cl.1 A1. काशते (perf. चकाशे , 3. pl. °शिरे) , to be visible , appear MBh. &c ; to shine , be brilliant , have an agreeable appearance ib. : cl.4. काश्यते Dha1tup. xxvi , 53 : Intens.P. A1. च्/आकशीति , चाकश्य्/अते , to shine brightly S3Br. ii Ka1tyS3r.; to see clearly , survey S3Br. xi Pa1n2. 7-3 , 87 Va1rtt. 1 Pat. காசு³ kācu , n. prob. kāš. cf. kāca. [M. kāšu.] 1. Gold; பொன். (ஆ. நி.) 2. Necklace of gold coins; அச்சுத்தாலி. காசும் பிறப்புங் கலகலப்ப (திவ். திருப்பா. 7). 3. An ancient gold coin = 28 gr. troy; ஒரு பழைய பொன்னாணயம். (Insc.) 4. A small copper coin; சிறுசெப்புக்காசு. நெஞ்சே யுனையோர் காசா மதியேன் (தாயு. உடல்பொய். 72). 5. Coin, cash, money; ரொக்கம். எப்பேர்ப்பட்ட பல காசா யங்களும் (S.I.I. i, 89). 6. Gem, crystal bead; மணி. நாண்வழிக் காசுபோலவும் (இறை. 2, உரை, பக். 29).
कर्ष [p= 259,3] m. ( √कृष्) , the act of drawing , dragging Pa1n2. mn. a weight of gold or silver (= 16 माषs = 80 Rettis = 1÷4 पल = 1÷400 of a तुला = about 176 grains troy ; in common use 8 Rettis are given to the माष , and the कर्ष is then about 280 grains troy) Sus3r. VarBr2S. &c கஃசு kaḵcu, n. cf. karṣa. A measure of weight = ¼ பலம். தொடிப்புழுதி கஃசா வுணக்கின் (குறள், 1037). कार्षापणः णम् (or पणकः) A coin or weight of different values; पुराकल्प एतदासीत् षोडश माषाः कार्षापणं Mbh. on P.I.2.64. कार्षापणं तु विज्ञेयस्ताम्रिकः कार्षिकः पणः Ms.9.136,336;9.282. (= कर्ष). न हि काकिन्यां नष्टायां तदन्वेषणं कार्षापणेन क्रियते ŚB. on MS.4.3.39. -णम् Money, gold and silver. कार्षा* पण[p= 276,3] mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि ; cf. कर्ष्) " weighing a कर्ष " , a coin or weight of different values (if of gold , = 16 माषs » कर्ष ; if of silver , = 16 पणs or 1280 Kowries , commonly termed a Kahan ; if of copper , = 80 रक्तिकाs or about 176 grains ; but accord. to some = only 1 पण of Kowries or 80 Kowries) Mn. viii , 136 ; 336 ; ix , 282 (ifc.) worth so many कार्षापणs Pa1n2. 5-1 , 29 n. money , gold and silver L.
కాసె (p. 280) kāse kāse. [Tel.] adj. Appertaining to the stonecutter trade, masonry, or brick-laying. కాసెవాడు or కాసెభట్టు a mason, a stonecutter, a bricklayer. కాసెపని masonry, building. కాసెయులి a stonecutter's chisel. రాయితొలిచే ఉలి, టంకము. కాసీడు (p. 280) kāsīḍu kāsīḍu. [Tel.] n. A mason. రాతి పనివాడు.
[quote] Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin –
कार्षापणशो ददाति
"he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or
कार्षापणम् ददाति
"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",
while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin".[2] The Shatapatha Brahmana speaks aboutKārshāpaṇas weighing 100 ratis which kind were found buried at Taxila by John Marshall in 1912. The Golakpur (Patna) find pertains to the period of Ajātaśatru.[3] The Chaman – I – Hazuri (Kabul) find includes two varieties of punch-marked Indian coins along with numerous Greek coins of 600-500 BCE, thereby indicating that those kind of Kārshāpaṇaswere contemporaneous to the Greek coins and in circulation as legal tender.[4]
During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇa or Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part).The early indigenous Indian coins were called Suvarṇa (made of gold), Purāṇa or Dhārana (made of silver) andKārshāpaṇa (made of copper). The Golakpur (Patna) find is mainly pre-Maurya, possibly of the Nanda era, and appear to have been re-validated to make them kośa- praveśya (legal tender); the coins bearing larger number of marks are thought to be older in origin. The Maurya Empire was definitely based upon money-economy.[5] The punch-marked copper coins were called paṇa.[6] This type of coins were in circulation much before the occupation of Punjab by the Greeks [7] who even carried them away to their own homeland.[8] Originally, they were issued by traders as blank silver bent-bars or pieces; the Magadha silver punch-marked Kārshāpaṇa of Ajatashatru of Haryanka dynasty was a royal issue bearing five marks and weighing fifty-four grains, the Vedic weight called kārsha equal to sixteen māshas.[9]
Even during the Harappan Period (ca 2300 BCE) silver was extracted from argentiferous galena. Silver Kārshāpaṇas show lead impurity but no association with gold. The internal chronology of Kārshāpaṇa and the marks of distinction between the coins issued by the Janapadas and the Magadhan issues is not known, the Arthashastra of Kautilya speaks about the role of the Lakshanadhyaksha ('the Superintendent of Mint') who knew about the symbols and the Rupadarshaka ('Examiner of Coins'), but has remained silent with regard to the construction, order, meaning and background of the punched symbols on these coins hence their exact identification and dating has not been possible.[10]
The English word, "Cash", is derived from the Sanskrit word, kārsha.[11] The punch-marked coins were called "Kārshāpaṇa" because they weighed one kārsha each.[12]Indian merchants, through land and sea routes, have traded with the east African, Arab and middle-east people from 12th century BCE onwards. The term Kārshāpaṇa referred to gold, silver and copper coins weighing 80 ratis or 146.5 grains; these coins, the earliest square in shape, followed the ancient Indian system of weights described in Manu Smriti.[13] Use of money was known to Vedic people much before 700 BCE. The words,Nishka and Krishnala, denoted money, and Kārshāpaṇas , as standard coins, were regularly stored in the royal treasuries.[14] The Local silver punch-marked coins, included in the Bhabhuā and Golakpur finds, were issued by the Janapadas and were in circulation during the rule of the Brihadratha Dynasty which was succeeded by the Magadha empire founded by the Haryanka dynasty in 684 BCE; these coins show four punch-marks - the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, arrows (three) and taurine (three) which were current even during the rule of Bimbisara (604-552 BCE). Ajatashatru (552-520 BCE) issued the first Imperial coins of six punch-marks with the addition of the bull and the lion. The successors of Ajatashatru who ruled between 520 and 440 BCE and the laterShishunaga dynasty and the nanda dynasty issued coins of five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol and any three of the 450 symbols. The Maurya coins also have five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, three-arched hill with crescent at top, a branch of a tree at the corner of a four-squared railing and a bull with a taurine in front. Punch-marked copper coins were first issued during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya or Bindusara. The Bhīr find includes Maurya coins and a coin of Diodotus I (255-239 BCE) issued in 248 BCE.[15]
4 Recording the Progress of Indian History. Primus Books.
Jump up5Radhakumud Mookerji. Chandragupta Maurya and his times. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 106, 107, 215, 212.
6ump upIndian Sculpture. University of California Press. p. 67.
Jump up7Alexander Cunnigham. Coins of Ancient India. Asian Educational Services. p. 47.
Jump up8Frank L. Holt. Into the Land of Bones. University of California Press. p. 161.
Jump up9D.D.Kosambi. The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline. p. 124,129.
Jump up10 Hari C. Bhardwaj. Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 140, 142.
Jump up11C.A.S.Williams. Chinese Symbolism and Art Motifs. Tuttle Publishing. p. 76.
Jump up12A.V.Narsimha Murthy. The Coins of Karnataka. Geetha Book House. p. 19.
Jump up13S.N.Naskar. Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture. Abhinav Publications. p. 186.
Jump up14D.R.Bhandarkar. Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics. Asian Educational Services. pp. 55, 62, 79.
I do NOT agree with his arguments and conclusions. For example, about the Taxila hoard examples discussed in this note he states as follows: "In each set of marks, the first four represent the king; the fifth, an issuing authority such as a crown prince. Often the fifth mark in one set becomes the fourth in another set, indicating the accession of the crown prince to the throne."
Praharana mudra = stamped punch-marked coins. praháraṇan. ʻ attack, weapon ʼ MBh., ʻ striking ʼ Pañcat. 2. praharaṇīya -- n. ʻ a weapon ʼ MBh. [√hr̥] 1. Pa. paharaṇa -- n. ʻ striking ʼ, °aka -- adj.; Pk. paharaṇa -- n. ʻ striking, weaponʼ; Si. paraṇa ʻ stroke, blow, flogging ʼ.2. Or. pāhāruṇi ʻ iron -- studded stick used in threshing rice ʼ.(CDIAL 8901) प्र-° हरण [p= 701,1] n.striking, beating , pecking Pan5cat. attack , combat MBh. (Monier-Williams) This is the closest equivalent in Indian sprachbund, of 'punch-marked'.
The expressions in Kannada anguli-praharaṇa, anguli-mudra clearly demonstrate that the word praharaṇa in the Prakrtam text cited by DD Kosambi, should be a reference to punch-marked mudra:
Arthasastra, A. II, 12, 30; Meyer, 9, p. 120. The text describes the alloys of copper used in coins.
Arthasastra, "Rupadarsaka is to establish or adjust the panayatra, or circulation of currency.
Saddahasi sigdlassa surapitassa brahmana
Sippikdnam satam natthi kuto kamsasata duve (Jat. I, 426)
“He hasn’t a hundred cowries, how could he have two hundred bronze coins? Those who examined coins were called herannika (Samskrtam haira-nyika) Heranilika’s are described in the Visuddhimagga, 14,4…” karsapana = kahapano
Karsharpanastu vighneya tamrigha karshigha panha ‘ karsapana = copper coin one karsa in weight’; karsa = 16 masaka."
[Pl. 39, Tree symbol (often on a platform) on punch-marked coins; a symbol recurring on many Indus script tablets and seals.] Source for the tables of symbols on punchmarked coins: Savita Sharma, 1990, Early Indian Symbols, Numismatic Evidence, Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan.
jm4heu Punch-marked coin. Ashoka.This hypertext on a Punch-marked coin is a Harappa (Indus) Script hieroglyph, a remarkable evidence of continuum of script tradition in Bharatam.The hieroglyph 'plait of three strands' gets expanded semantically to orthograph the unique hypertext on Gandhara Punch-marked coins.On this punch-marked silver bent-bar coin of Gandhara, the three plaits (strands) are duplicated to signify six plaits emanating from the central 'dotted circle. The hypertext is read rebus in Meluhha: dhAu 'strand' rebus: dhAu, dhAtu 'mineral ore' PLUS meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ ‘iron’.
See Mohenjo-daro seal m1406 which signifies an identical three plaits. kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Thus, three 'plaited hieroglyphs' emanting from the central 'dotted circle' signify meḍ dhAtu 'iron mineral'. A pair of such hieroglyphs: dula 'pair' rebus;dul 'metal casting'. Thus, the six arms of six plaits (strands) signify: dulmeḍ dhAtu 'cast iron mineral'.baTa 'six' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace'. Thus, the hypertext is a technical specification of mintwork repertoire of Gandhara mint with the centre-piece of a furnace to smelt mineral ores. See semantics of Rigveda: dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour).
This semantic expansion explains the unique hypertext orthographed on Gandhara silver-bent-bar Punch-marked coin.
Archaic Silver Punch-marked coin, Gandhara region, silver 'bent-bar', early type (flat bar with wide flan), (c. 450-400 BCE), Rajgor series 34, 11.39g. Obv: two radiate symbols punched at extreme ends. Rev: blank.
A silver 1/8 karshapana coin from the mint at Taxila, c.400's BCE
John Huntington has demonstrated the continuum from Vedic times related to some symbols on punch-marked coins, traceable to Harappa Script hieroglyphs/hypertexts. http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/10/vajra-six-angled-hypertext-of-punch.html Vajra षट्--कोण 'six-angled' hypertext of Punch-marked coins khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint'.
Metalworkers of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization expand their functions in janapada-s to manage mints and monetary transactions of the janapada-s.
With the decipherment of Harappa (Indus) Script as rebus cipher in Meluhha Script (Bharata sprachbund,language union), it is now possible to rename the punch-marked coins and symbols punched on the coins using Meluhha lexis (vocabulary) since most of the symbols used are a continuum from Harappa (Indus) Script tradition. Thus, it is no longer necessary to name the symbols on Punchmarked coins with expressions such as taurine symbol, srivatsa, svastika, arrow, dotted circle, elephant, bull. All the symbols can now be expressed in Meluhha language, the lingua franca of Bhāratam Janam from ca. 7th millennium BCE. A coin is mudda ‘seal, stamp’. mudrāˊf. ʻ seal, signet -- ring ʼ MBh. [Prob. ← Ir. EWA ii 654] Pa.muddā-- f. ʻ seal, stamp ʼ,muddikā-- f. ʻ signetring ʼ; NiDoc.mu(ṁ)dra,mutraʻ seal ʼ; Pk.muddā-- ,°diā-- f.,°daya-- m. ʻ seal, ring ʼ; S.muṇḍraf. ʻ seal ʼ,°rīf. ʻ finger -- ring with seal ʼ; L.mundrīf. ʻ ring ʼ; P.mundarm. ʻ earring ʼ,mundīf. ʻ ring ʼ; Ku.munṛoʻ earring ʼ, gng.mun*lṛʻ ring ʼ, N.mun(d)ro, MB.mudaṛī; Or.mudaʻ seal ʼ,mudiʻ ring ʼ,mudāʻ act of sealing ʼ; Bi.mū̃drīʻ iron ring fastening blade of scraper ʼ; G.mū̃drīf. ʻ ring ʼ, M.mudīf., Ko.muddi; Si.mudda<muduva, st.mudu-- ʻ seal, ring ʼ; Md.mudiʻ ring ʼ.mudraṇa -- , mudrayati; mudrākara-- .mudrākaram. ʻ maker of seals ʼ MW. [mudrāˊ -- , kará--1] Simuduvarayāʻ goldsmith ʼ. (CDIAL 10203, 10204) முத்திரை muttira, n. < mudrā. 1. Impress, mark; அடையாளம். அசாதாரணமுத்திரையோடேவரவேணுமென்கிறார் (திவ்.பெரியாழ். 1, 8, 9, வ்யா.). 2. Seal, signet; இலாஞ்சனை. பொறித்தமுத்திரையும்வேறாய்(திருவாலவா. 24, 8). 3. Stamp, as for postage, for court fees; தபால்முத்திரைமுதலியன. 4. Badge of a soldier or peon; போர்ச்சேவகன்அல்லதுசேவகனுக்குரியஅடையாளவில்லை.முத்திரைக்கணக்கர் muttirai-k-kaṇakkar, n. < முத்திரை +. A class of temple servants;கோயிற்பணியாளருள்ஒருவகையார். (மீனாட். சரித். i, 2.) Four Harappa Script hieroglyphs are uambiguous on the Sunga coin and are relatale to the mineral/metal resources deployed in mint-work:
The Meluhha rebus readings, respectively, from l. to r. are: iron, implements, red ore, zinc mēḍhā 'a twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl' rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'. A variant for the 'twist' hieroglyph reading: kãsā 'twist, loo' rebus: kãsā 'bronze'. kaṇḍa, 'arrow' rebus: kaṇḍa,'implements/sword dhātu 'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore' Hieroglyph: sattuvu (Kannada), svastika:sāthiyo (G.); satthia, sotthia (Pkt.) rebus: sattuvupewter (Kannada), jasta 'zinc' (Hindi)
Thus, when a hypertext is orthographed including one or more of thee hieroglyphs, the message is clear and unambiguous, as, for example on a common hypertext on early Punch-marked coins which include three of these hieroglyphs: :mēḍhā 'twist' rebus: mēḍ 'iron', kaṇḍa 'arrow rebus:kaṇḍa,'implements' dhātu 'strand' rebus: dhātu 'red ore'. An alternative reading is also apposite for the 'loop' imagery: kāca m. ʻloop' rebus: kāsa 'bronze'. Thus, the frequently signified hypertext on Punch-marked coins may be read: dhatu kāsa kaṇḍa 'mineral (metal), bronze implements'.
Four dotted circles joined together orthographed as 'Ujjaini symbol': gaṇḍa 'four' rbus: kaṇḍa'implements' PLUS dhātu 'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore'. Thus, metal implements (with a variety of ore alloys). karṇaka कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 rebus: karṇaka 'helmsman' PLUS koḍa 'one'rebus: koḍ 'workshop'
Mauryan Dynasty .(321 to 185 BC ) Silver punch marked coins. ಮುರ್ಯರ , ಮುದ್ರಂಕಿಥ ಬೆಳ್ಳಿ ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳು Hieroglyph: hare: N. kharāyo ʻ hare ʼ, Or. kharā, °riā, kherihā, Mth. kharehā, H. kharahā m(CDIAL 3823) Rebus: khār'blacksmith' (Kashmiri) खार् ।
Is it a stylized 'ram' in the centre, reduplicated? dula 'pair' rebus; dul 'metal casting' PLUS meḍho'ram' rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'.
Janapadas, 600 - 300 BCE dhātu'strand' (Rigveda) S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope .rebus: dhāū, dhāv, dhātu 'red ore'. Three combined are orthographed as a triangle with curved endings: tri-dhātu 'three strands' (Rigveda) rebus: tri-dhātu 'three red ores' (perhaps, magnetite, haematite, laterite). May also refer to eraka, arka 'red copper ores' (pyrites)..
Mauryan. Ashoka. This braided orthography of three strands may be a variant to signify: tri-dhātu 'three strands of rope' Rebus: dhāv 'red ore' (ferrite) ti-dhāu 'three strands' Rebus: ti-dhāv 'three ferrite ores: magnetite, hematite, laterite'.
dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus:aya 'iron' ayas 'metal alloy' PLUSmēḍhā 'a twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl' rebus: meḍh ‘helper of merchant’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi ‘merchant’s clerk; (Gujarati) मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meḍ'iron' (Ho.); med 'copper' medha 'yajna' medhā 'dhanam'. Thus, alloy metal castings, iron castings.
Vidarbha janapada
.
Seven symbols
Five symbols
Taxila symbol. A hypertext composed of 'round stone''crucible pair''a pair of persons standing with spread legs':
Gupta, PL & Hardaker, 1985, Ancient Indian silver punchmarked coins, Magadha-Maurya series
Kothari, Narendra, 2006, Ujjaini coins. Hieroglyph 1: கமடம், [ *kamaṭam, ] s. A turtle, a tortoise, ஆமை (Winslow Tamil lexicon) rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'..
Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, multi-symbol type
Weight: 4.22 gm., Diameter: 18 mm. Centrally placed Ujjain symbol; svastika and Indradhvaja on right and railed tree on left; fish-tank above the Ujjain symbol and parts of chakra on top right; river at the bottom. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol Reference: Pieper 379 (plate specimen)
Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/4 karshapana, multi-symbol type Weight: 5.98 gm., Diameter: 17x15 mm. Six-armed symbol in center; svastika and taurine above a railed tree on the left; Ujjain symbol above Indradhvaja on the right; river at the bottom; above the six-armed symbol is a square tank with two fishes and two turtles. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb. Reference: Pieper 384 (plate specimen)
Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, tree type Weight: 4.19 gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm. Obv.: Tree-on-hill on right and six-armed symbol on left. Rev.: Ujjain symbol with alternating taurines and svastikas in the orbs. Reference: Pieper 400
Ujjain, inscribed AE 1/2 karshapana, 'tank between trees' type Weight: 5.62 gm., Diameter: 14x14 mm. Fishtank from which a water channel is branching flanked by two railed trees; Brahmi legend part below reading 'sidhatho(madana)' Ujjain symbol Reference: Pieper 409 (plate specimen)
Until now the legend on this coin type had been read as 'rathimadana'. This is the first specimen to show at least the first three letters of the legend clear beyond doubt. Credit goes to Harry Falk to have read the legend as 'sidhato'. The second part of the name appears to have been correctly identified from the available specimens except for the last letter which still is somewhat doubtful but '...madana' is well possible. In that case the complete name would be 'Sidhathomadana'.
Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/8 karshapana, makara type Weight: 1.17 gm., Diameter: 10x8 mm. Obv.: Makara to right in form of an aquatic creature with fishtail and head of an elephant; Ujjain symbol at top. Rev.: Ujjain symbol with a dot in each angle. Reference: Pieper 366 (plate specimen)
The makara is the vahana (mount) of Ganga, the goddess of the river Ganges, and of the sea-god Varuna. Its frontal part is that of a terrestrial animal, its hind part that of a sea-creature. The depiction of a creature with fish-tail and elephant's head, like on this coin, is frequently used in depictions of a makara.
mahā kara = मकर [ makara ] m (S) An aquatic monster understood usually of the alligator, crocodile, and shark, but, properly, a fabulous animal. It is the emblem of the god of love. (Marathi) H گهڙيال घड़ियाल ghaṛiyāl [S. घण्टिका+आलः or आलु], s.m. A crocodile; the Gangetic alligator, Lacerta gangetica (cf. magar).H مگر मगर magar [Prk. मकरो; S. मकरः], s.m. An alligator; a crocodile. mahā kara = मकर [ makara ] is a hieroglyph multiplex composed of a number of hieroglyph components:
3. Elephant trunk as snout, ibha 'elephant' Rebus: ib 'iron'
కారుమొసలి a wild crocodile or alligator (Telugu).
Rebus: khār ‘blacksmith’ khār 1 खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1 खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1 खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-basta खार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith.
Synonym: ayo ‘fish’ (Mu.); rebus: aya ‘(alloyed) metal’ (G.) kāru a wild crocodile or alligator (Te.) Rebus:khār a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār) (Kashmiri)
Combined rebus reading: ayakāra ‘iron-smith’ (Pali).
dãtɔ m. a kind of rake or harrow (Gujarati) rebus: dhatu 'mineral, ore' PLUS satthiya 'svastika' rebus:svastika 'pewter', jasta 'zinc'.
Magadha janapada. Silver karshapana
c. 5th-4th century BCE Weight: 3.08 gm., Dim: 26 x 24 mm. Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others, plus banker's marks / Banker's marks Ref: GH 36.meḍha 'polar star' (Marathi). meḍ 'iron' (Ho.Mu.) .
This hieroglyph, twist of three strands, signified on Punch-marked coins of Gandhara is traced to Harappa Script hieroglyph tradition. This signifies dhā̆vaḍ 'smelter' meḍhi 'plait' rebus: meḍ‘iron’
See Mohenjo-daro seal m1406
m1406 Seal using
tri-dhAtu 'three-stranded rope': Rebus: tri-hAtu, three red ores.
Hieroglyph: धातु [p= 513,3] m. layer , stratum Ka1tyS3r. Kaus3. constituent part , ingredient (esp. [ and in RV. only] ifc. , where often = " fold " e.g.त्रि-ध्/आतु , threefold &c ; cf.त्रिविष्टि-, सप्त- , सु-) RV. TS. S3Br. &c (Monier-Williams) dhāˊtu *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.).; S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773)
Rebus: M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍm. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ;(CDIAL 6773) धातु primary element of the earth i.e. metal , mineral, ore (esp. a mineral of a red colour) Mn. MBh. &c element of words i.e. grammatical or verbal root or stem Nir. Pra1t. MBh. &c (with the southern Buddhists धातु means either the 6 elements [see above] Dharmas. xxv ; or the 18 elementary spheres [धातु-लोक] ib. lviii ; or the ashes of the body , relics L. [cf. -गर्भ]) (Monier-Williams. Samskritam) Harappa (Indus) script hieroglyphs signify dhAtu 'iron ore', Dharwar, Ib names of places in India in the iron ore belt.
S. mī˜ḍhī f., °ḍho m. ʻ braid in a woman's hair ʼ, L. f.; G. mĩḍlɔ, miḍ° m. ʻ braid of hair on a girl's forehead ʼ; M. meḍhā m. ʻ curl, snarl, twist or tangle in cord or thread ʼ.मेढा [ mēḍhā ] meṇḍa A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl. (Marathi) (CDIAL 10312). meḍhi, miḍhī, meṇḍhī = a plait in a woman’s hair; a plaited or twisted strand of hair (P.)(CDIAL 10312)].
Rebus: semantics 'iron': meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho)meṛed (Mundari);mẽṛed iron; enga meṛed soft iron; sanḍi meṛedhard iron; ispāt meṛed steel; dul meṛed cast iron; i meṛed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bica meṛed iron extracted from stone ore; bali meṛed iron extracted from sand ore; meṛed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.)
There are two Railway stations in India called Dharwad and Ib. Both are related to Prakritam words with the semantic significance: iron worker, iron ore.
dhā̆vaḍm. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ (Marathi)(CDIAL 6773) PLUS kanka, karNaka 'rim of jar' rebus: karNI 'supercargo' PLUS mēd, 'boatman, one who plays drums at ceremonies' Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron (metal)’Alternative: dhollu ‘drummer’ (Western Pahari) dolutsu 'tumble' Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’.
A variant orthography shows a pair of three strands of twisted rope, signified as a total of six spokes emanating from a dotted circle in the centre (See image of Silver shatamana of Gandhara).
Six spokes: baṭa 'six' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'.
Rebus reading: dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS , meḍhi 'plait' meḍ ‘iron’ Thus, cast iron.
PLUS dhā̆vaḍm. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ(Marathi) The expression dhā̆vaḍ is composed of two words: dhāu 'strand' rebus: dhāu'three red ores, minerals' PLUS vaṭa 'string'.
“That the guilds or corporations of taders were empowerd to issue coins is attested by the Negama coins fromTaxila. The word Negama (Skt. Naigamah here should be taken to mean ‘the s’reis or corporations ofmerchants’. The Taxila Negama coins bear several other words: Dojaka, Atakataka, Ralimasa, Kaare, etc. (Allan, Catalogue of Coins of Ancient India, pp. 214-219, pls. XXXI and XXXIV). I think that these terms refer to the merchants’ localities where the respective coins were minted. Some Taxila coins bear the legend Pancanekame mening probably that they were issues of a joint body of five nigamas or of a guild called Panchanigama. This would indicate that in the Gandhara region during the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE, there existed several guilds of traders who were authorized to issue coins bearing their particular names.” (Bajpai, KD, 2004, Indian numismatic studies, Abhinav Publications, Delhi, p.2)
“Some Taxila coins bear the legendPancanakame(Alan,CCBM, pp. 214-19, Pl. XXXi and XXXiv). The legend shows that the coins were either the issues of a joint body of five nigamas or of a guild calledpancanigama. Further, it indicates that there existed, in the Gandhara region during the third-second centuries BCE, several guilds of traders who were authorised to issue coins bearing their particular names. The nigama or negama series of Taxila coins refer to Ralimasa which, like Dojaka, Dosanasa and Hiranasama, has been differently interpreted. DR Bhandarkar is inclined to take it as the name of a city.”(Paramanand Gupta, 1989, Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals, Delhi, Concept Publishing Company, p.147).
After Fig. 10.13. ibid. Coinage ascribable to the Mauryan and immediately post-Mauryan period. 6,7,8 silver punchmarked coins, national series; 9,10,11 coper cast coins; 12,13,15,16 die-struck copper coins; 14. inscribed copper coin, Taxila; obv. negama (Brahmi script), rev. kojaka (Kharosthi script). "We believe it is reasonable to conclude that during the Mauryan period silver punchmarked coins of the national series were very widely distributed in South Asia, and were accompanied by coins of the cast copper varieties."(Allchin, FR & George Erdosy, 1995, The archaeology of early historic South Asia: the emergence of cities and states, Cambridge University Press, p.221). It is known that sculptors of Sanchi and Bharhut artifacts were in the tradition of ivory carvers of Begram. The hieroglyphs -- for example, elephant, tiger, mountain-range, tree, fire-altar, sun's rays, svastika -- deployed on the coins of Mauryan period are comparable to the hieroglyphs on Indus Script Corpora. The later-day inventors of Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts are likely to have been adept at Indus Script hieroglyph writing (mlecchita vikalpa, i.e. Meluhha cipher). arka 'sun' rebus: arka, eraka 'gold, copper moltencast' kanda 'fire-altar' kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter' Ku. ḍã̄g, ḍã̄k ʻ stony land ʼ; B. ḍāṅ ʻ heap ʼ, ḍāṅgā ʻ hill, dry upland ʼ; H. ḍã̄g f. ʻ mountain -- ridge ʼ; M. ḍã̄g m.n., ḍã̄gaṇ, °gāṇ, ḍãgāṇ n. ʻ hill -- tract ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : N. ḍaṅgur ʻ heap ʼ. M. ḍũg m. ʻ hill, pile ʼ, °gā m. ʻ eminence ʼ, °gī f. ʻ heap ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Pk. ḍuṁgara -- m. ʻ mountain ʼ; Ku. ḍũgar, ḍũgrī; N. ḍuṅgar ʻ heap ʼ; Or. ḍuṅguri ʻ hillock ʼ, H. ḍū̃gar m., G. ḍũgar m., ḍũgrī f. S. ḍ̠ū̃garu m. ʻ hill ʼ, H. M. ḍõgar m.(CDIAL 5523) rebus: N. ḍāṅro ʻ term of contempt for a blacksmith ʼ; Or. dhāṅgaṛ ʻ young servant, herdsman, name of a Santal tribe ʼ,H.dhaṅgar m. ʻ herdsman ʼ, dhã̄gaṛ, °ar m. ʻ a non-- Aryan tribe in the Vindhyas, digger of wells and tanks ʼ(CDIAL 5524) For rebus readings of elephant, tiger, see following paragraphs.
Semantics of negama (Brahmi) and kojaka (Kharosthi) on Taxila coin which meant 'merchant caravans' and 'treasurer' respectively as may be seen from the glosses of Indian sprachbund (both Indo-Aryan including Prakritam and Dravidian):
One meaning of the word nigama is: the place where the passage from Veda occurs. It is possible that the semantics of nigama as a market or merchant guild are relatable to this vedic inference as the production of metalwork from a yajna, treating the yajna as a smelting process of metals, bahusuvarNaka, metals of many colours.
नि-° गम [p= 545,3] a caravan or company of merchants (ifc.f(आ).) R. Das3. ;a town , city , market-place A1past. Car. Lalit. m. insertion (esp. of the name of a deity into a liturgical formula) SrS.the वेद or the Vedic text Hariv. Pa1n2. Pur. &cany work auxiliary to and explanatory of the वेदs Mn. iv , 19 ( Kull. )doctrine , instruction in , art of (comp.) Ba1lar.= परिशिष्ट Cat. (Monier-Williams)
nigamá m. ʻ marketplace ʼ Āpast. [√gam]Pa. nigama -- m. ʻ market town ʼ, Pk. ṇigama -- m.; OSi. niyama ʻ marketplace ʼ.(CDIAL 7158)*nigamagrāma ʻ market village ʼ. [nigamá -- , grāˊma -- ]Si. niyamgama ʻ large village ʼ.(CDIAL 7159) Go<tiniGam>(A) {V} ``to ^start (doing something)''.(Munda etyma) It is possible that the gloss is linked to grAma 'village'. grāˊma m. ʻ troop, village ʼ RV., °aka -- m. MBh.Pa. gāma -- , °aka -- m. ʻ village ʼ, Aś. gāma -- , KharI. grama, Dhp. gama, NiDoc. grame pl.; Pk. gāma -- m. ʻ collection, village ʼ; Gy. eur. gav m. ʻ village, town ʼ; Ash. glam ʻ village ʼ, Kt. gŕom, Pr. gəm, Dm. gram, Paš. dar. lām, kuṛ. lāma, chil. lōm, ar. dlōm, lōm (not dialects in which it would collide with lām < kárman -- IIFL iii 3, 109), Niṅg. Shum. lām, Woṭ. gām m., Gaw. lām, Kal. grom, Kho. gram (in cmpds. and place names), Bshk. lām, Tor. gām, Mai. gã̄, Gau. gaõ, Sv. grām, Phal. grōm, Sh. girōm ʻ cowpen ʼ (earlier → Bur. gir*lm ʻ clan, village ʼ Morgenstierne in Lorimer BurLg I, xxii), dr. gām ʻ village ʼ, gur. gāõ (← Ind. ~ kui < kuṭī -- ); K. gām m. ʻ village ʼ, S. gã̄u m., L. girã̄ m., P. grã̄, girã̄, °rāũ m., WPah. bhad. ḍḷã̄, bhiḍ. bhal. ḍḷaũ n., paṅ. cam. grã̄; cur. girã̄ ʻ field ʼ; rudh. gyeũ ʻ village ʼ, khaś. grão, Ku. gaũ, gng. gɔ̃, N. A. gāũ, B. Or. gã̄, Bi. gã̄w, Mth. gã̄o, gām, Bhoj. Aw. lakh. H. gã̄u m., Marw. gã̄v, G. gām n., M. gã̄v, gāv m.n., Ko. gã̄vu m., Si. gama; -- ext. -- ṭa -- : Sk. grāmaṭikā -- f. ʻ wretched village ʼ, Pk. gāmaḍa -- m., G. gāmṛũ n. ʻ small village ʼ.grāmín -- ; *agrāmin -- , agrāmya -- , *nirgrāmika -- , saṁgrāmá -- ; grāmakūṭa -- , grāmaṇīˊ -- , *grāmadāra -- , *grāmadhāna -- , grāmavāsin -- , grāmastha -- , grāmāntá -- , *grāmārdha -- ; *gōgrāma -- , *nigamagrāma -- , *paragrāma -- , *pāṇḍavagrāma -- , *pālagrāma -- , mātr̥grāma -- .Addenda: grāˊma -- : WPah.kṭg. (kc.) graũ m. (obl. kṭg. graũ, kc. grama) ʻ village ʼ.(CDIAL 4368)
Traders’ Guild Coin – Nigama (2nd century BC), Copper, 1.29 g, Brahmi legend written in circular fashion, Nigamaye (of Nigam). The other side has a motif similar to capital U. The U hieroglyph on the reverse is a crucible: kuThara ‘crucible’ rebus: kuThAru ‘armourer’ koThAr ‘warehouse’.
Taxila, regional 'Guild' coinage, c. 2nd century BC, 'Five Guilds' type, MAC4423-4425, 4.76g. Obv: Dharmachakra (Wheel of Law) Rev: a row of Buddhist symbols (Triratna, Swastika, Triratna), Kharoshthi legend Panchanekame below.
Artifact finds of Sanchi and Bharhut demonstrate the use of Brahmi and Kharosthi syllabic writing which demonstrate that the language of the artists and artisans was Prakritam. Use of Brahmi and Kharosthi writing is also evidenced on a punchmarked coin of Taxila (Fig. 10.13.14) with inscriptions: obv. negama(Brahmi) and rev. kojaka (Kharosthi).
"In the northwest Kharosthi continued to flourish and most of the known inscriptions in that are were written in this script between c. BCE 200 and CE 200. Kharosthi gained wide currency for coin inscriptions in the same reion. That its use spread at an early date into the Ganges valley can be inferred from the fact that at Bharhut the masons used Kharosthi letters for their masonry marks. Recently a number of Kharosthi inscriptions have been discovered on potsherds from sites in Bengal. Coinage. Around the opening of the second century BCE the establishment of an Indo-Greek kingdom in Gandhara introduced into the northwest a major new currency system, with a predominantly silver and bronze coinage. At an early stage the Greeks employed bilingual inscriptions in Greek and in Prakrit in Brahmi or Kharosthi script, and their coins provided a model which later rulers in the region were to initiate. The Greeks were followed into India by a series of foreign groups, first the Sakas and later the Kusanas who were among those to emulate the Greek patterns of coin...On the coins of Kaniska and his successors in the second century CE a wide variety of deities was depicted, including, beside the mainly Iranian pantheon, the Buddha and Siva, as well as Greek and Egyptian deities."(Allchin, FR & George Erdosy, 1995, The archaeology of early historic South Asia: the emergence of cities and states, Cambridge University Press, p.311).
Malwa, clay sealing
Weight: 4.48 gm., Dimensions: 20×15 mm.
Railed yupa (sacrificial post) with side decorations and a Brahmi legend below reading khadasa
Reference: Pieper collection “Thanks to Shailendra Bhandare for the correct reading. According to Bhandare the legend refers to the worship of Skanda; similar objects pertaining to the Skanda cult have been reported from regions of Malwa, Vidarbha and the Deccan.”
yupa Skambha as mEDha ‘pillar, stake’ rebus: meD ‘iron’ med ‘copper’ (Slavic) dula ‘pair’ rebus: dul ‘cast metal’ kadasa kanda? rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’ Thus, fire-altar for cast copper/iron.
bhagila text: rebus: गर्भगळीत, गर्भगिळीत, गर्भगीळ (p. 225) [ garbhagaḷīta, garbhagiḷīta, garbhagīḷa ] a (गर्भ & गळणें) That has dropped or cast the womb. भागी (p. 607) [ bhāgī ] c भागीदार or भागीलदार c A partner, an associate in a joint concern. 2 A sharer or partaker; a shareholder.
Vedi in Vedisa: vedi ‘fire-altar’ rebus: vetai ‘alchemy, transmutation of base metals into precious metals’ vedha ‘pierced hole’ rebus: vedi ‘fire-altar’ वेदिका f. a sacrificial ground , altar VarBr2S
kulyA ‘hood of snake’ rebus: kol ‘working in iron’ kolle ‘blacksmith’ kolhe ‘smelter’ nAga ‘snake’ rebus: nAga ‘lead (ore)’.eraka ‘knave of wheel’ rebus: eraka ‘moltencast, copper’
poLa ‘zebu’ rebus: poLa ‘magnetite ore’
tAmarasa ‘lotus’ rebus: tAmra ‘copper’
kANDa ‘water’ rebus: khaNDa ‘metal implements’
gaNDa ‘four’ rebus: kanda ‘fire-altar’ (see Ujjain symbol)
Tree shown on a tablet from Harappa. kuTi 'tree' Rebus: kuThi 'smelter'. In semantic expansion, tree as hieroglyph also signifies an armourer. कुठारु[p=289,1] ‘a tree, a monkey, an armourer’ (Monier-Williams)
“Vidisha, Sanchi and Udayagiri complex, together with Dhar, Mandu and Eran, all in Madhya Pradesh, have yielded ancient metallic objects (exemplified by the Delhi iron pillar)…” http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/12-14/features3372.htm
Indus script hieroglyphs: karaDi ‘safflower’ rebus: karaDa ‘hard alloy’; poLa ‘zebu’ rebus: poLa ‘magnetite’; jasta ‘svastika’ rebus: sattva ‘zinc, spelter’ kariba ‘trunk of elephant’ ibha ‘elephant’ rebus: karb ‘iron’ ib ‘iron’; kuTi ‘tree’ rebus: kuThi ‘smelter’ sangaDa ‘brazier, standard device’ rebus: sangaTas ‘collection of implemnts’ dhAV ‘ strand of rope, dotted circle’ rebus: dhavaD ‘smelter’; dhAtu ‘mineral ore’; kANDa ‘water’ rebus: khaNDa ‘implements’. Infixed within the ‘standard device’ is a ‘twist’ hieroglyph: meDha ‘twist’ rebus: meD ‘iron’ med ‘copper’ (Slavic)
Billondrachm of the Indo-Hephthalite King Napki Malka(Afghanistan/Gandhara, c. 475–576). Obverse shows a fire altar with a spoked wheel on the left kanda ‘fire-altar’ eraka ‘knave of wheel’ rebus: eraka ‘moltencast, copper’. Eraka! this is the source for the name of Erakina. Eraka is also the appellation of Subrahmanya in Swamimalai, a place renowned for cire perdue castings of pancaloha murti-s and utsava bera-s. Eraka is an emphatic semantic indicator of copper metalwork and metalcastings.
Eran was a coin-minting centre. Semi-circle on Eran coins may have signified a crucible: kuThAra ‘crucible’ Rebus: kuThAri ‘warehouse keeper’ kuThAru ‘armourer’.
Eran was on the Bharruch (Bhragu Kachha), Ujjain to Kaushambi, Mathura, Taxishila trade route.
Eran-Vidisha AE 1/2 karshapana, Bhumidata, six punch type
Weight: 5.10 gm., Dimensions: 21x21 mm. Railed tree in centre; elephant on left and railed Indradhvaja on right; river at the bottom; on top right taurine in fixed railing and on top left legend punch reading rajno bhumidatasa Blank reverse Reference: S. Tiwari collection, p. 196, var.3 / Pieper 489 (plate coin)
Orthography of the 'dotted circle' is representation of a single strand:dhāu rebus: dhāū 'red stone minerals.
It is this signifier which occurs in the orthography of the dotted circle hieroglyph-multiplex on early punch-marked coins of Magadha -- a proclamation of the dhāū 'element, mineral ores' used in the Magadha mint. On one Silver Satamana punch-marked coin of Gandhara septa-radiate or, seven strands emerge from the dotted circle signifying the use in the mint of सप्त--धातु 'seven mineral ores'.
The 'dot' within the circle is a signifier of a mineral dhāū ingot खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'
A triskelion hieroglyph of Kuntala punchmarked coins can be signifiers of त्रि धातु 'three minerals'. The endings of the triskelion are curved like crucibles holding 'dots' or ingots. koṭhārī ʻ crucible ʼ (Old Punjabi) rebus: koṭhari 'chamber' (oriya)koṭṭhāgāra ʻstorehouse' (Prakrtam) खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'
The hieroglyphs which accompany such meaningful Indus Script cipher orthographs read rebus in Old Prakrtam are also metalwork catalogues:
Magadha. Silver Karshapana. c. 5th-4th century BCE
Weight: 3.37 gm., Dim: 21 x 22 mm. Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others, plus a banker's mark / Blank Ref: GH 249.
arka 'sun' rebus: arka,'copper' eraka 'moltencast copper'
मेढा [mēḍhā] Atwist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu. Ho.) mRdu id. (Samskrtam)
khambhaṛā 'fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'coiner, coinage, mint' aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'metal'
Six dots above crucilbe+ ingot: baTa 'six' rebus: baTa 'iron' bhaTa 'furnace' koṭhārī ʻ crucible ʼ (Old Punjabi) rebus: koṭhari 'chamber' (oriya)koṭṭhāgāra ʻstorehouse' (Prakrtam) PLUS खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.'
Sixth hieroglyph from left:kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'.
Ref: Rajgor, 502-509. Kuntala janapada Punch-marked coin 450 BCE. Two angular shaped parallel lines having solid dot on the head connect to the circle. This addition indicates that a sun is not signified by the dotted circle. There is a A triskelion or triskele (which invariably has rotational symmetry) a motif consisting of three interlocked spirals between the two solid dots. Hieroglyph: two chains with rings: śã̄gal, śã̄gaḍ ʻchainʼ (WPah.) śr̥ṅkhala m.n. ʻ chain ʼ MārkP., °lā -- f. VarBr̥S., śr̥ṅkhalaka -- m. ʻ chain ʼ MW., ʻ chained camel ʼ Pāṇ. [Similar ending in mḗkhalā -- ]Pa. saṅkhalā -- , °likā -- f. ʻ chain ʼ; Pk. saṁkala -- m.n., °lā -- , °lī -- , °liā -- , saṁkhalā -- , siṁkh°, siṁkalā -- f. ʻ chainʼ Rebus: Vajra Sanghāta 'binding together': Mixture of 8 lead, 2 bell-metal, 1 iron rust constitute adamantine glue. (Allograph) Hieroglyph: sãghāṛɔ 'lathe'.(Gujarati) See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/03/metallurgy-alloying-competence-chain.html?view=magazine
Magadha. Silver karshapana. c. 5th-4th century BCEWeight: 3.07 gm., Dim: 14 x 21 mm. Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others / Banker's marks Ref: GH 463. Zebu over a hill: Ta. meṭṭu mound, heap of earth; mēṭu height, eminence, hillock; muṭṭu rising ground, high ground, heap. Ma. mēṭu rising ground, hillock; māṭu hillock, raised ground; miṭṭāl rising ground, an alluvial bank; (Tiyya) maṭṭa hill. Ka. mēḍu height, rising ground, hillock; miṭṭu rising or high ground, hill; miṭṭe state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) muṭṭe heap (as of straw). Tu. miṭṭè prominent, protruding; muṭṭe heap. Te. meṭṭa raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meṭṭumound; miṭṭa high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mēṭu, mēṭa, mēṭi stack of hay; (Inscr.) meṇṭa-cēnu dry field (cf. meṭṭu-nēla, meṭṭu-vari). Kol. (SR.) meṭṭā hill; (Kin.) meṭṭ, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. meṭṭ hill, mountain. Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) meṭṭa high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) maṭṭā, (Mu.)maṭṭa mountain; (M. L.) meṭā id., hill; (A. D. Ko.) meṭṭa, (Y. Ma. M.) meṭa hill; (SR.) meṭṭā hillock (Voc. 2949). Konḍa meṭa id. Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) meṭa sand hill. (DEDR 5058) Rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu. Ho.) mRdu id. (Samskrtam) Thus the nature of the ferrous ore is reinforced phonetically, as a ferrous (iron) ore.
Vidarbha janapada. Silver 1/3 karshapana
c. 5th century BCEFour punches / Blank Weight: 1.21 gm., Dim: 16 x 16 mm. Ref: Rajgor 27 var
Mauryan empire. Silver karshapana c. 4th-2nd century BCEWeight: 3.19 gm., Dim: 16 x 17 mm. Ref: GH 477.
Many so-called 'megalithic symbols' on ancient artifacts -- particularly punch-marked coins from Gandhara, Magadha, Maurya mints from ca. 6th century BCE (perhaps earlier, ca. 12th century BCE -- pace DK Chakrabarti's opinion) -- in Indian sprachbund of Bronze Age should be read as Indus Script cipher metalwork catalogues in Prakritam (Mleccha/Meluhha, the lingua franca).
dhamaka is blacksmith; dhammiya is righteous. The same gloss becomes the dominant hieroglyph on Nandipada, Srivatsa hieroglyph multiplex layers, a celebration of dharma-dhamma order.
It is possible to explain the so-called taurine, nandipada and srivatsa symbols as Indus script hieroglyph multiplexes read rebus in Prakritam (Mleccha-Meluhha).
Hieroglyph: kuṭi in cmpd.‘curve' (CDIAL 3231). kuṭilá ʻ bent, crooked ʼ KātyŚr., °aka -- Pañcat., n. ʻ a partic. plant ʼ lex. [√kuṭ1]Pa. kuṭila -- ʻ bent ʼ, n. ʻ bend ʼ; Pk. kuḍila -- ʻ crooked ʼ, °illa -- ʻ humpbacked ʼ, °illaya -- ʻ bent ʼ(CDIAL 3231) कुटिल a [p= 288,2] mf(आ)n. bent , crooked , curved , round , running in curved lines , crisped , curled Ka1tyS3r. MBh.&c; n. tin W. (Monier-Williams)
Rebus: kuṭi ‘smelter furnace’ (Santali)kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin)(CDIAL 3230). [cf. āra-kūṭa, 'brass' (Samskritam)
Hieroglyph 1: dhánvan1 n. ʻ bow ʼ RV. [dhánus -- ]Pa. daḷha -- dhamma -- ʻ having a strong bow ʼ (< dṛḍhadhanvan -- MBh.); Pk. dhamma -- m. ʻ bow ʼ; Kal.rumb. thum, urt. thām ʻ bow ʼ (th -- due to Ir. influence, cf. Av.qanvarə ʻ bow ʼ?).(CDIAL 6728) Rebus: dhárma m. ʻ what is established, law, duty, right ʼ AV. [dhárman -- n. RV. -- √dhr̥]Pa. dhamma -- m. (rarely n.), Aś.shah. man. dhrama -- , gir. kāl. &c. dhaṁma -- ; NiDoc. dham̄a ʻ employment in the royal administration ʼ; Dhp.dharma -- , dhama -- , Pk. dhamma -- m.; OB. dhāma ʻ religious conduct ʼ; H. kāmdhām ʻ work, business ʼ; OSi. dama ʻ religion ʼ (Si. daham ← Pa.).(CDIAL 6753) dharmin ʻ pious, just ʼ Gaut. [dhárma -- ]Pa. dhammika -- ʻ righteous ʼ; NiDoc. dharmiyas̱a gen. sg. ʻ title of a king ʼ; Pk. dhammi -- , °ia -- ʻ righteous ʼ (dhamma -- < dharmya -- , cf. Pa.dhammiya -- , or < dhārmá -- ); Paš.ar. dräm ʻ friend ʼ; Si. dämi ʻ righteous ʼ.(CDIAL 6762)
Normally, there are 5 hieroglyphs on punch-marked coins:
Hieroglyphs 3, 4 and 5 are: elephant, bull, bird, peacock, fish, crocodile, spoked wheel, bow and arrow, All these are Indus Script hieroglyphs and continue to be deployed on punch-marked coins to signify metalwork.
Hieroglyph: barad, barat 'bull' Rebus: भरत (p. 603) [ bharata ] n A factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin &c. भरताचें भांडें (p. 603) [ bharatācē mbhāṇḍēṃ ] n A vessel made of the metal भरत. 2 See भरिताचें भांडें.भरती (p. 603) [ bharatī ] a Composed of the metal भरत.(Marathi)
Hieroglyph: कारंडव (p. 159) [ kāraṇḍava ] m S A drake or sort of duck. कारंडवीf S The female. Rebus: करडा (p. 137) [ karaḍā ] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi)
Hieroglyph: maraka 'peacock' Rebus: marakaka loha'copper alloy, calcining metal'. Rebus: लोह lōha मारकa. calcining a metal (Samskritam)
aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron, metal' (Gujarati. Rigveda)
karA, ghariyAl 'crocodile' Rebus: khār 1खार् । लोहकारः m. (sg. abl. khāra 1खार; the pl. dat. of this word is khāran 1खारन्, which is to be distinguished from khāran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandūka-khār, p. 111b, l. 46; K.Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khār, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khāra-bastaखार-बस््त । चर्मप्रसेविका f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -büṭhü-ब&above;ठू&below; । लोहकारभित्तिः f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -bāy-बाय् । लोहकारपत्नी f. a blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -dŏkuru-द्वकुरु&below; । लोहकारायोघनः m. a blacksmith's hammer, a sledge-hammer. -gȧji-ग&above;जि&below;or -güjü-ग&above;जू&below; । लोहकारचुल्लिः f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hāl-हाल् । लोहकारकन्दुः f. (sg. dat. -höjü-हा&above;जू&below;), a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hāl 5. -kūrü-कूरू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter. -koṭu-क&above;टु&below; । लोहकारपुत्रः m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, who can work at the same profession. -küṭü-क&above;टू&below; । लोहकारकन्या f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp. one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. -më˘ʦü 1-म्य&above;च&dotbelow;ू&below; । लोहकारमृत्तिका f. (for 2, see [khāra 3] ), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -nĕcyuwu-न्यचिवु&below; । लोहकारात्मजः m. a blacksmith's son. -nay-नय् । लोहकारनालिका f. (for khāranay 2, see [khārun] ), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -ʦañĕ-च्&dotbelow;ञ । लोहकारशान्ताङ्गाराः f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. -wānवान् ।लोहकारापणः m. a blacksmith's shop, a forge, smithy (K.Pr. 3). -waṭh-वठ् । आघाताधारशिला m. (sg. dat. -waṭas-वटि), the large stone used by a blacksmith as an anvil. (Kashmiri)
Hieroglyph: eraka 'nave of wheel' Rebus: eraka 'copper molten cast'. Hieroglyph: arā (nave, spokes) Rebus: arA 'brass' as in ArakUTa आर--कूट [p= 149,2] m.n. a kind of brass. (Monier-Williams)
Taurine (hieroglyph multiplex: bent oval or kernel or seed PLUS crucible as superscript). The encircling dots around the hieroglyph multiplex signifies khōṭa 'alloy ingots.'
goṭi, ‘silver, laterite’ are signified by goṭa, ‘seed’ hieroglyph.
Hieroglyph: seed, something round: *gōṭṭa ʻ something round ʼ. [Cf. guḍá -- 1. -- In sense ʻ fruit, kernel ʼ cert. ← Drav., cf. Tam. koṭṭai ʻ nut, kernel ʼ, Kan. goṟaṭe &c. listed DED 1722]K. goṭh f., dat. °ṭi f. ʻ chequer or chess or dice board ʼ; S. g̠oṭu m. ʻ large ball of tobacco ready for hookah ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ small do. ʼ; P. goṭ f. ʻ spool on which gold or silver wire is wound, piece on a chequer board ʼ; N. goṭo ʻ piece ʼ, goṭi ʻ chess piece ʼ; A. goṭ ʻ a fruit, whole piece ʼ, °ṭā ʻ globular, solid ʼ, guṭi ʻ small ball, seed, kernel ʼ; B. goṭā ʻ seed, bean, whole ʼ; Or. goṭā ʻ whole, undivided ʼ, goṭi ʻ small ball, cocoon ʼ, goṭāli ʻ small round piece of chalk ʼ; Bi. goṭā ʻ seed ʼ; Mth. goṭa ʻ numerative particle ʼ; H. goṭf. ʻ piece (at chess &c.) ʼ; G. goṭ m. ʻ cloud of smoke ʼ, °ṭɔ m. ʻ kernel of coconut, nosegay ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ lump of silver, clot of blood ʼ, °ṭilɔ m. ʻ hard ball of cloth ʼ; M. goṭā m. ʻ roundish stone ʼ, °ṭī f. ʻ a marble ʼ, goṭuḷā ʻ spherical ʼ; Si. guṭiya ʻ lump, ball ʼ; -- prob. also P. goṭṭā ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ, H. goṭā m. ʻ edging of such ʼ (→ K. goṭa m. ʻ edging of gold braid ʼ, S. goṭo m. ʻ gold or silver lace ʼ); M. goṭ ʻ hem of a garment, metal wristlet ʼ.*gōḍḍ -- ʻ dig ʼ see *khōdd -- .Addenda: *gōṭṭa -- : also Ko. gōṭu ʻ silver or gold braid ʼ.(CDIAL 4271) Ta. koṭṭai seed of any kind not enclosed in chaff or husk, nut, stone, kernel; testicles; (RS, p. 142, items 200, 201) koṭṭāṅkacci, koṭṭācci coconut shell. Ma. koṭṭakernel of fruit, particularly of coconut, castor-oil seed; kuṟaṭṭa, kuraṭṭa kernel; kuraṇṭi stone of palmfruit. Ko. keṭ testes; scrotum. Ka. koṭṭe, goṟaṭe stone or kernel of fruit, esp. of mangoes; goṭṭa mango stone. Koḍ. koraṇḍi id. Tu. koṭṭè kernel of a nut, testicles; koṭṭañji a fruit without flesh; koṭṭayi a dried areca-nut; koraṇtu kernel or stone of fruit, cashew-nut; goṭṭu kernel of a nut as coconut, almond, castor-oil seed. Te. kuriḍī dried whole kernel of coconut. Kol. (Kin.) goṛva stone of fruit. Nk. goṛage stone of fruit. Kur.
goṭā any seed which forms inside a fruit or shell. Malt. goṭa a seed or berry. / Cf. words meaning 'fruit, kernel, seed' in Turner, CDIAL, no. 4271 (so noted by Turner).(DEDR 2069) Rebus: khōṭa 'alloy ingot' (Marathi)
Hieroglyph multiplex: koṭhārī f. ʻcrucible' PLUS khōṭa 'alloy ingot', kuṭi in cmpd.‘curve' Rebus:kuṭhi'smelter' Rebus: koṭhārī ʻ treasurer ʼ
Hierolyphs 1 and 2 are: sun and six-armed hieroglyph multiplex.
Hieroglyph: arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc] Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624) अर्क [p=89,1]m. ( √ अर्च्) , Ved. a ray , flash of lightning RV. &cthe sun RV. &cfire RV. ix , 50 , 4 S3Br. Br2A1rUp.
Rebus: cast metal, metal infusion: arka copper L. Ka. eṟe to pour any liquids, cast (as metal);n. pouring; eṟacu, ercu to scoop, sprinkle, scatter, strew, sow; eṟaka, eraka any metal infusion; molten state, fusion. Tu. eraka molten, cast (as metal); eraguni to melt.(DEDR 866)
kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge'. Hieroglyph: kuṭilá ʻbent, crookedʼ Rebus 1: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) Hieroglyph:goṭa a seed or berry. Rebus 2: khōṭa 'alloy ingot' (Marathi)
kolmo 'three' Rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' Hieroglyph: kāˊṇḍa (kāṇḍá -- TS.) m.n. ʻ single joint of a plant ʼ AV., ʻ arrow ʼ MBh., ʻ cluster, heap ʼ (in tr̥ṇa -- kāṇḍa -- Pāṇ. Kāś.). [Poss. connexion with gaṇḍa -- 2makes prob. non -- Aryan origin (not with P. Tedesco Language 22, 190 < kr̥ntáti). Prob. ← Drav., cf. Tam. kaṇ ʻ joint of bamboo or sugarcane ʼ EWA i 197]
Pa. kaṇḍa -- m.n. ʻ joint of stalk, stalk, arrow, lump ʼ; Pk. kaṁḍa -- , °aya -- m.n. ʻ knot of bough, bough, stick ʼ; Ash. kaṇ ʻ arrow ʼ, Kt. kåṇ, Wg. kāṇ, kŕãdotdot;, Pr. kə̃, Dm. kā̆n; Paš. lauṛ. kāṇḍ, kāṇ, ar. kōṇ, kuṛ. kō̃, dar. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, kã̄ṛī ʻ torch ʼ; Shum. kō̃ṛ, kō̃ ʻ arrow ʼ, Gaw. kāṇḍ, kāṇ; Kho. kan ʻ tree, large bush ʼ; Bshk. kāˋ'n ʻ arrow ʼ, Tor. kan m., Sv. kã̄ṛa, Phal. kōṇ, Sh. gil. kōn f. (→ Ḍ. kōn, pl. kāna f.), pales. kōṇ; K. kã̄ḍ m. ʻ stalk of a reed, straw ʼ (kān m. ʻ arrow ʼ ← Sh.?); S. kānu m. ʻ arrow ʼ, °no m. ʻ reed ʼ, °nī f. ʻ topmost joint of the reed Sara, reed pen, stalk, straw, porcupine's quill ʼ; L. kānã̄ m. ʻ stalk of the reed Sara ʼ, °nī˜ f. ʻ pen, small spear ʼ; P. kānnā m. ʻ the reed Saccharum munja, reed in a weaver's warp ʼ, kānī f. ʻ arrow ʼ; WPah. bhal. kān n. ʻ arrow ʼ, jaun. kã̄ḍ; N. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ, °ṛo ʻ rafter ʼ; A. kã̄r ʻ arrow ʼ; B. kã̄ṛ ʻ arrow ʼ,°ṛā ʻ oil vessel made of bamboo joint, needle of bamboo for netting ʼ, kẽṛiyā ʻ wooden or earthen vessel for oil &c. ʼ; Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻ stalk, arrow ʼ; Bi. kã̄ṛā ʻ stem of muñja grass (used for thatching) ʼ; Mth. kã̄ṛ ʻ stack of stalks of large millet ʼ, kã̄ṛī ʻ wooden milkpail ʼ; Bhoj. kaṇḍā ʻ reeds ʼ; H. kã̄ṛī f. ʻ rafter, yoke ʼ, kaṇḍā m. ʻ reed, bush ʼ (← EP.?); G. kã̄ḍ m. ʻ joint, bough, arrow ʼ, °ḍũ n. ʻ wrist ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ joint, bough, arrow, lucifer match ʼ; M. kã̄ḍ n. ʻ trunk, stem ʼ, °ḍẽ n. ʻ joint, knot, stem, straw ʼ, °ḍī f. ʻ joint of sugarcane, shoot of root (of ginger, &c.) ʼ; Si. kaḍaya ʻ arrow ʼ. -- Deriv. A. kāriyāiba ʻ to shoot with an arrow ʼ.kāˊṇḍīra -- ; *kāṇḍakara -- , *kāṇḍārā -- ; *dēhīkāṇḍa -- Add.Addenda: kāˊṇḍa -- [< IE. *kondo -- , Gk. kondu/los ʻ knuckle ʼ, ko/ndos ʻ ankle ʼ T. Burrow BSOAS xxxviii 55]S.kcch. kāṇḍī f. ʻ lucifer match ʼ? (CDIAL 3023) *kāṇḍakara ʻ worker with reeds or arrows ʼ. [kāˊṇḍa -- , kará -- 1]L. kanērā m. ʻ mat -- maker ʼ; H. kãḍerā m. ʻ a caste of bow -- and arrow -- makers ʼ.(CDIAL 3024) Rebus: लोखंडकाम (p. 723) [ lōkhaṇḍakāma ] n Iron work; that portion (of a building, machine &c.) which consists of iron. 2 The business of an ironsmith.लोहोलोखंड (p. 723) [ lōhōlōkhaṇḍa ] n (लोह & लोखंड) Iron tools, vessels, or articles in general. khāṇḍa 'tools, metalware'.
http://coins.lakdiva.org/codrington/images/CCC_006.jpg karibha 'elephant trunk' (Pali) rebus: karba 'iron' Dhanga 'mountain range' rebus: Dhangar 'blacksmith'. sal 'two' rebus: sal 'workshop' aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron, metal' (Rigveda. Gujarat).
In the absence of a Rosetta stone with inscriptions in three scripts, how to validate any claim of Indus Script decipherment?
Rosetta Stone is astele, found in 1799, inscribed with three versions of a decree issued at Memphis, Egypt in 196 BCE during the Ptolemaic dynasty on behalf of King Ptolemy V. The top and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian using hieroglyphic script and Demotic script, respectively, while the bottom is in Ancient Greek. This stone helped validate Champollion's decipherment of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs, even though the Rosetta stone dated to 196 BCE is dated over two millennia after the Egyptian Hieroglyph Writing System.
Such a stone in 3 scripts has not been found to validate claims of Indus Script decipherment. But we have found millions of what may be called pseudo-Rosetta-Stones in ancient coins from ca. 6th cent BCE which continue to use Indus Script Hieroglyphs/hypertexts -- hieroglyphs/hypertexts suc as tree-in-railing, mountain range, zebu, elephant, crocodile holding fish in its jaw, fish, svastika, dotted circle. All these hieroglyphs/hypertexts read rebus in Meluhha constitute metalwork catalogues as wealth accounting ledgers. The ancient mints continue to use these hypertexts/hieroglyphs on the ancient coins to proclaim catalogues of the metalwork repertoire of the mints which issued the coins. See:
Is it reasonable to read Egyptan Hieroglyphs rebus (i.e. identifying homonyms with similar-sounding words to name the hieroglyph pictorial motif and to name a similar-sounding substantive word, related to, say, a Pharaoh's life?) Similarly, is it reasonable to read Indus Script Hieroglyphs rebus? If so, what language should provide the lexis (vocabulary in ancient dictionaries) for rebus reading of the homonyms suggested by the hieroglyphs/hieroglyph-components in hypertexts? For example, fish is an Indus Script hieroglyph. In one ancient language stream of Sarasvati Civilization area (where most of the Indus Script Inscriptions have been found) the word for 'fish' is: ayo. A similar sounding word with cognate pronunciation variants is: aya, 'iron' (Gujarati), ayas'alloy metal' (R̥gveda). Thus, when a hypertext is seen on Indus Script Corpora (which now exceed 8000 inscriptions) proclaiming 'fish' pictorial motif or hieroglyph PLUS variants including ligatures such as 'lid', circumscripts, fin-marks, slanted/inclined stroke, notch, it is reasonable to read the underlying word as related to aya 'iron' PLUS descriptive ligatures to signify the archaeo-metallurgical use of iron to produce, say, ingots or equipment. The ancient language stream related to the semantics of 'fish' is seen in the set of Munda etyma related to ayo, ayu:
beḍa hako (ayo) ‘fish’ (Santali); beḍa ‘either of the sides of a hearth’ (G.) Munda: So. ayo `fish'. Go. ayu `fish'. Go <ayu> (Z), <ayu?u> (Z),, <ayu?> (A) {N} ``^fish''. Kh. kaDOG `fish'. Sa. Hako `fish'. Mu. hai (H) ~ haku(N) ~ haikO(M) `fish'. Ho haku `fish'. Bj. hai `fish'. Bh.haku `fish'. KW haiku ~ hakO |Analyzed hai-kO, ha-kO (RDM). Ku. Kaku`fish'.@(V064,M106) Mu. ha-i, haku `fish' (HJP). @(V341) ayu>(Z), <ayu?u> (Z) <ayu?>(A) {N} ``^fish''. #1370. <yO>\\<AyO>(L) {N} ``^fish''. #3612. <kukkulEyO>,,<kukkuli-yO>(LMD) {N} ``prawn''. !Serango dialect. #32612. <sArjAjyO>,,<sArjAj>(D) {N} ``prawn''. #32622. <magur-yO>(ZL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. *Or.<>. #32632. <ur+GOl-Da-yO>(LL) {N} ``a kind of ^fish''. #32642.<bal.bal-yO>(DL) {N} ``smoked fish''. #15163.
The use of Munda word ayo'fish' is justified by the fact that most Khmer languages originate from Santali/Munda (pace the researches of University of Hawaii on Austro-Asiatic languages). This fact is best illustrated by two maps: Pinnow's map of Austro-Asiatic languages and Ancient Map of Bronze Age sites in Ancient India and Ancient Far East (Khmer region). The maps show a perfect correlation between Munda-Austro-Asiatic Speaker regions and Bronze Age settlements.
Bronze Age sites of eastern Bha_rata and neighbouring areas: 1. Koldihwa; 2. Khairdih; 3. Chirand; 4. Mahisadal; 5. Pandu Rajar Dhibi; 6. Mehrgarh; 7. Harappa; 8. Mohenjo-daro; 9. Ahar; 10.Kayatha; 11. Navdatoli; 12. Inamgaon; 13. Non Pa Wai; 14. Nong Nor; 15. Ban Na Di and Ban Chiang; 16. Non Nok Tha; 17. Thanh Den; 18. Shizhaishan; 19. Ban Don Ta Phet [After Fig. 8.1 in: Charles Higham, 1996, The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia, Cambridge University Press].
Some Bronze Age sites, Far East. (After Fig. 2.2 in Higham, Charles, 1996, The bronze age of Southeast Asia, Cambridge Univ. Press.
A unique orthographic style of Indus Script is to create hypertexts using underlying hieroglyph combinations. Thus, a 'fish' hieroglyph becomes a hypertext, with the addition of a ligature of 'lid of pot'. Sign 65 is composed of Sign 59 'fish' PLUS Sign 134 'lid of pot'.
To read rebus, the Sign 65 as Hypertext, the rebus readings of the underlying hieroglyphs are: ayo'fish' rebus; ayas'alloy metal' PLUS ḍhaṁkaṇa'lid' rebus dhakka 'excellent, bright, blazing metal article'.
An added justification for the use of Munda etyma in rebus readings together with most of the ancient Indian languages is the fact that linguistic studies have now veered round to accepting Ancient India as a Linguistic Area or Sprachbund (speech union). A sprachbund is a a region of speakers where speakers of various language families interact with one another and absorb language features from one another and make them their own. Thus, some language speakers may have phonetic variants for the semantics of 'fish' such as ayiri 'fish' or ã̄is ʻscales of fishʼ). Similar-sounding words are: ayas'alloy metal' (R̥gveda), ajirda karba'iron' (Tulu). Based on this semantic structure of the sprachbund, the 'fish' hieroglyph is read rebus in Meluhha (speech form) as: ayo'fish' rebus: ayas'alloy metal'.
Many decipherment claims have erred in assuming that the Indus Script Writing System is syllabic or alphabetic. In fact, the Indus Script writing system is logographic-semantic-hieroglyphic using the unique cipher of hypertexting (i.e. combing hieroglyph components). This hypertexting feature is seen NOT only on 'signs' but also on 'pictorial motifs'.
Thus, the Indus Script Corpora proclaims unusual animals -- 1. with body of a bovine and heads of a young bull, antelope or ox; 2. hypertext of animal/orthographic hieroglyph components: zebu horns, elephant trunk, scarfs on neck, cobrahood as tail, face of human etc.
In these compositions, the device is सांगड sāṅgaḍa 'joined animals/animal parts' rebus: saṁgaha'catalogues' (of metalwork wealth). The cobra hood as tail is: फड, phaḍa, 'cobra hood' rebus: फड, phaḍa, paṭṭaḍa'metals manufactory' 'Bhāratīya arsenal of metal weapons, wealth-accounting ledger'.
Three animal heads + bovine body:
1. kõda'young bull, bull-calf' + koḍ 'horn'Rebus: -kō̃da -कोँद । इष्टिकाभ्राष्ट्रः f. a brick-kiln. (Kashmiri); kõdā'to turn in a lathe'(B.) कोंद kōnda 'engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems' (Marathi) koḍ'artisan's workshop' (Kuwi)
With this hypertexting feature which is unique to Indus Script writing system, the entire Indus Script Corpora of over 8000 inscriptions are read as metalwork, wealth accounting ledgers of the Metals Age from 4th millennium BCE.
Indus Script Corpora is fully, conclusively deciphered.
Cluster 38 Diffusion of Metallurgy: Meluhha and western Afghanistan sources of tin
This accounting classification of metalwork wealth categories is consistent with the finding that the writing system with a recognized pattern of clustering pictorial motifs was consistently used over the entire gamut of contact areas of Sarasvati civilization. Decipherment of the hieroglyph components of field symbols yields the semantic structure of underlying Meluhha speech in Bhāratīya sprachbund(Speech union). Tatsama and tadbhava words in a comparative lexicon of Bharatiya languages (e.g. Indian Lexicon), establish the reality of Bharatiya sprachbund of 4th millennium BCE.
The total number of objects on M Corpus with distinct, unambiguous pictorials or field symbols is 1894. It is unfortunate that most decipherment claims ignore an analysis of this dominant portion of the documented evidence of the civilization. Some brush them aside as 'cult symbols', some say they are 'religious symbols'.
A cluster analysis of these 1894 Indus Script Field symbols has also been ignored by the cluster analysis of triplets of 'signs' done by K-means by Nisha Yadav et al. I submit that pictorial motifs or field symbols are integral parts of the hypertext messaging system of the Indus Script inscriptions. It should be noted that these pictorial motifs or field symbols occupy the major portion of the space for messaging used on an inscribed object in Indus Script Corpora (which now total over 8000 inscriptions).
This demonstrable laxity in most decipherment claims or cluster analyses is governed by a hypothesis of the 'text' as the writing system, and perhaps ignoring the field symbol or pictorial motifs are extraneous to the messaging system.
I submit that the field symbols or pictorial motifs are the dominant classifiers of the Indus accounting system to identify distinct wealth-accounting category ledgers to document the wealth of a guild of artisans and seafaring merchants. This monograph demonstrates the semantic structure of the field symbols or pictorial motifs in the framework of the principal design principle of the script (which applies to both 'signs' and 'field symbols') which is: sāṅgāḍī'joined parts' rebus: samgraha,samgaha 'catalogue, list, arranger, manager' jangaḍ ,'invoiced on approval basis' -- an accounting classification of ledgers for wealth accounting during the Tin-Bronze Revolution, 4th millennium BCE. This sāṅgāḍī 'joined parts' principle of writing system design explains why animal parts are joined together to create 'fabulour' or 'composite' animal pictorial motifs or field symbols.
33 clusters of field symbols signify 33 metalwork wealth/guild work classifiers for accounting ledgers
FS 1-7 1159 One-horned young bull (bos indicus aurochs)
FS 120 67 One or more dotted circles
FS 122-123 19 Standard device
FS 8-9 5 Two-horned young bull (bos indicus aurochs)
FS 10 54 Bos indicus, zebu
FS 11-13 95 Short-horned bull or ox (aurochs)
FS 15-17 14 Buffalo
FS 18-20 55 Elephant
FS 22-23 16 Tiger
FS 24-25 5 Horned tiger
FS 16-28 39 Rhinoceros
FS 29 1 Two rhinoceroses
FS 30-38 36 Goat-antelope, short tail
FS 39-41 26 Ox-antelope
FS 42 10 Hare
FS 43 1 Hare
FS 51 20 Fabulous animal
FS 56 9 Fabulous animal
FS 63-67 49 Gharial (crocodile + fish)
FS 68 14 Fish
FS 73 9 Entwined serpent, pillar or rings on pillar
FS 74 4 Bird (eagle) in flight
FS 75-77 34 Kino tree on platform
FS 79 3 Pipal leaf
FS 80-90 22 Horned standing persons
FS 105 3 Person grappling two tigers
FS 109 5 Person seated on tree branch
FS 111 3 Woman grappling two men with uprooted trees\
FS 118-119 50 Svastika (on seals of Indus Script Corpora)
FS 124 4 Endless knot, twisted rope
FS 125 3 Boat
FS 131 6 Sickle
FS 130 3 Writing tablet
FS 133-139 51 ornamental edges
TOTAL 1894
Sarasvati Civilization core areaFrequently occurring pairs of 'signs' on Corpora (M77) are also linked with Field Symbols to identify lapidary clusters of metals manufactory (phaḍa, paṭṭaḍa) recorded on daybooks of metalwork catalogues.
(Products) Investigated daybook 179 final position; 90 on miniature tablets कारणिक investigating; khareḍo 'a currycomb' rebus: kharada खरडें daybook
Mohenjo-daro Seal impression. m0296 Two heads of one-horned bulls with neck-rings, joined end to end (to a standard device with two rings coming out of the top part?), under a stylized tree-branch with nine leaves.
खोंद[ khōnda ]n A hump (on the back): also a protuberance or an incurvation (of a wall, a hedge, a road). Rebus: kō̃da -कोँद।इष्टिकाभ्राष्ट्रः f. a brick-kiln. (Kashmiri) kõdār 'turner' (Bengali). Rebus: खोदणें [ khōdaṇēṃ ] v c & i ( H) To dig. 2 To engrave. खोद खोदून विचारणें or -पुसणें To question minutely and searchingly, to probe.गोट [ gōṭa ] m ( H) A metal wristlet. An ornament of women. 2 Encircling or investing. v घाल, दे. 3 An encampment or camp: also a division of a camp. 4 The hem or an appended border (of a garment).गोटा [ gōṭā ] m A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble (of stone, lac, wood &c.) 3 fig. A grain of rice in the ear. Ex. पावसानें भाताचे गोटे झडले. An overripe and rattling cocoanut: also such dry kernel detached from the shell. 5 A narrow fillet of brocade.गोटाळ [ gōṭāḷa ] a (गोटा) Abounding in pebbles--ground.गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A roundish stone or pebble. 2 A marble. 3 A large lifting stone. Used in trials of strength among the Athletæ. 4 A stone in temples described at length under उचला 5 fig. A term for a round, fleshy, well-filled body.
Rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] f (Dim. of गोटा) A lump of silver: as obtained by melting down lace or fringe.
Hieroglyph: lo = nine (Santali); no = nine (B.) on-patu = nine (Ta.)
[Note the count of nine fig leaves on m0296] Rebus: loa = aspecies of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus glomerata (Santali.lex.)
Epigraph: 1387
kana, kanac = corner (Santali); Rebus: kan~cu
= bronze (Te.) Ligatured glyph. ara 'spoke' rebus: ara 'brass'. era, er-a = eraka = ?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.) [Note Sign 391 and its ligatures Signs 392 and 393 may connote a spoked-wheel, nave of the wheel through which the axle passes; cf. ara_, spoke]erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper(metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.); erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) Rebus: eraka = copper (Ka.)eruvai = copper (Ta.); ere - a dark-red colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). eraka, era, er-a = syn. erka, copper, weapons (Ka.)Vikalpa: ara, arā (RV.) = spoke of wheel ஆரம்² āram , n. < āra. 1. Spoke of a wheel. See ஆரக்கால். ஆரஞ்
சூழ்ந்தவயில்வாய்நேமியொடு (சிறுபாண். 253). Rebus: ஆரம் brass; பித்தளை.(அக. நி.)kund opening in the nave or hub of a wheel to admit the axle (Santali) Rebus: kō̃da -कोँद।इष्टिकाभ्राष्ट्रः f. a brick-kiln. (Kashmiri) kõdār 'turner' (Bengali).
kuṭi= a slice, a bit, a small piece (Santali.lex.Bodding) Rebus: kuṭhi ‘iron smelter furnace’ (Santali) kuṭhī factory (A.)(CDIAL 3546)
Thus, the sign sequence
connotes a copper, bronze, brass smelter furnace
Ayo ‘fish’; kaṇḍa ‘arrow’; rebus: ayaskāṇḍa. The sign sequence is ayaskāṇḍa ‘a quantity of iron, excellent iron’ (Pāṇ.gaṇ) ayo, hako 'fish'; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) kaṇḍa ‘fire-altar’ (Santali) DEDR 191Ta.ayirai, acarai, acalailoach, sandy colour,Cobitis thermalis; ayilaia kind of fish.Ma.ayalaa fish, mackerel, scomber;aila, ayilaa fish;ayiraa kind of small fish, loach.
kole.l 'temple, smithy' (Ko.); kolme ‘smithy' (Ka.) kol ‘working in iron, blacksmith (Ta.); kollan-blacksmith (Ta.); kollan blacksmith, artificer (Ma.)(DEDR 2133) kolme = furnace (Ka.) kol = pan~calo_ha (five metals); kol metal (Ta.lex.) pan~caloha = a metallic alloy containing five metals: copper, brass, tin, lead and iron (Skt.); an
alternative list of five metals: gold, silver, copper, tin (lead), and iron (dhātu; Nānārtharatnākara. 82; Man:garāja’s Nighaṇṭu. 498)(Ka.) kol, kolhe, ‘the koles, an aboriginal tribe if iron smelters speaking a language akin to that of Santals’ (Santali)
Zebu and leaves. In front of the standard device and the stylized tree of 9 leaves, are the black buck antelopes. Black paint on red ware of Kulli style. Mehi. Second-half of 3rd millennium BCE. [After G.L. Possehl, 1986, Kulli: an exploration of an ancient civilization in South Asia, Centers of Civilization, I, Durham, NC: 46, fig. 18 (Mehi II.4.5), based on Stein 1931: pl. 30.
adar ḍangra ‘zebu’ (Santali); Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.);ḍhan:gar ‘blacksmith’ (WPah.) ayir = iron dust, any ore (Ma.) aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretation of the Amarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330) DEDR 192Ta.ayiliron.Ma.ayir, ayiramany ore.Ka.adurunative metal.Tu.ajirda karbavery hard iron
V326 (Orthographic variants of Sign 326) V327 (Orthographic variants of Sign 327) loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus glomerata (Santali.lex.) Vikalpa: kamaṛkom ‘ficus’ (Santali); rebus: kampaṭṭam ‘mint’ (Ta.) patra ‘leaf’ (Skt.); rebus: paṭṭarai ‘workshop’ (Ta.) Rebus: lo ‘iron’ (Assamese, Bengali); loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) lauha = made of copper or iron (Gr.S'r.); metal, iron (Skt.); lo_haka_ra = coppersmith, ironsmith (Pali); lo_ha_ra = blacksmith (Pt.); lohal.a (Or.); lo_ha = metal, esp. copper or bronze (Pali); copper
(VS.); loho, lo_ = metal, ore, iron (Si.) loha lut.i = iron utensils and implements (Santali.lex.) koṭiyum = a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal; koṭ = neck
(G.lex.) kōṭu = horns (Ta.) kōḍiya, kōḍe = young bull (G.) Rebus: koḍ = place where artisans work (Gujarati)
dol = likeness, picture, form (Santali) [e.g., two tigers, two bulls, duplicated signs] me~ṛhe~t iron; ispat m. = steel; dul m. = cast iron (Santali)
[Thus, the paired glyph of one-horned heifers connotes (metal) casting (dul) workshop (koḍ)]
The standard device
A variant may be seen. 1.Finely burnished gold fillet (headband)
with holes at both ends to hold a cord. Each end is decorated with a punctuated design of standard device. 42 x 1.4 cm. Mohenjodaro Museum, MM 1366; Marshall 1931: 220.527. Pl. CXVIII, 14 (for punctuated design) 2. Detail of gold fillet with punctuated design of standard device at both ends of the gold fillet. (After Fig. 7.32, Kenoyer, 1998)
Guild, caravan
Pali:Sanghaṭita [saŋ+ghaṭita, for ˚ghaṭṭita, pp. of ghaṭṭeti] 1. struck, sounded, resounding with (-- ˚) Jv.9 (v. l. ṭṭ); Miln 2. -- 2. pierced together, pegged together, constructed Miln 161 (nāvā nānā -- dāru˚). Marathi: सांगड[ sāṅgaḍa ]m f(संघट्टS) A float composed of
two canoes or boats bound together: also a link of two pompions &c. to swim or float by. 2fA body formed of two or more (fruits, animals, men) linked or joined together. 3 That member of a turner's apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied.सांगडीस धरणेंTo take into linkedness or close connection with, lit. fig.
सांगडणी[ sāṅgaḍaṇī ]f(Verbal ofसांगडणें) Linking or joining together.
सांगडणें[ sāṅgaḍaṇēṃ ]v c(सांगड) To link, join, or unite together (boats, fruits, animals).
2 Freely. To tie or bind up or unto.
सांगडबाहुली[ sāṅgaḍabāhulī ]fA puppet.
सांगडी[ sāṅgaḍī ]f(Commonlyसांगड) A float &c. san:gaḍa ‘lathe, furnace’ san:ghāḍo, saghaḍī (G.) = firepan; saghaḍī, śaghaḍi = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cula_ sagaḍi_
portable hearth (G.)] aguḍe = brazier (Tu.) san:gaḍa, ‘lathe, portable furnace’; rebus: battle; jangaḍ iyo ‘military guard who accompanies treasure into the treasury’; san:ghāḍiyo, a worker on a lathe (G.) The dotted circles on the bottom portion of the device connote ghangar ghongor; rebus: kangar ‘portable furnace’. Rebus: CDIAL 12858 saṁgharaliving in the same house . [Cf.ságr̥ha<-> ĀpŚr. --ghara --]Pa.saṅghara-- with one's own family (?); L.sagghrāaccompanied by one's own family ; H.sã̄gharm. wife's son by former husband . CDIAL 12854saṁghám.
association, a community Mn. [√han1] Pa.saṅgha-- m. assembly, the priesthood ; Aś.saṁgha-- m. the Buddhist community ; Pk.saṁgha-- m. assembly, collection ; OSi. (Brāhmī inscr.)saga, Si.san̆gaʻ crowd, collection . -- Rather <saṅga -- :S.saṅgum. body of pilgrims (whencesã̄gom. caravan ), L. P.saṅgm. CDIAL 12862 saṁghātásaṁghātám. close union, mass TS., closing (a door) VS., dashing together MBh. [Cf.saṁhata<-> with similar range of meanings. --ghāta --] Tamil: சங்கத்தார்
caṅkattār,n. < id. 1. Members of an assembly, academy, a society, council or committee; சபையோர். 2. Buddhist and Jain fraternity of monks; பௌத்த சைன
சங்த்தார். (சீவக. 4, உரை; சிலப். 30, 32, அரும்.) 3. The learned body of poets in Madura, inancient times; மதுரைச் சங்கப்புலவர். சங்கத்தா ரெல்லாம் (திருவிளை. தருமிக்கு. 82) சங்கம்² caṅkam,n. <saṅgha. 1. Mustering, gathering; கூட்டம். சங்கமாகி வெங்கணை வீக்க மொடு (பெருங். மகத. 17, 38). 2. Society, assembly, council, senate, academy; சபை. புலம்பரிச் சங்கம் பொருளொடு முழங்க (மணி. 7, 114). 3. Literati, poets; புலவர். (திவா.) 4. Learned assemblies or academies of ancient times patronised by Pāṇḍya kings, three in number, viz.,talai-c-caṅkam, iṭai-c-caṅkam, kaṭai-c-caṅkam; பாண்டி யர் ஆதரவுபெற்று விளங்கிய தலைச்சங்கம், இடைச் சங்கம்,கடைச்சங்கம் என்ற முச்சங்கங்கள். எம்மைப் பவந்தீர்ப்பவர் சங்கமிருந்தது (பெரியபு. மூர்த்திநா. 7). 5. Fraternity of monks among Buddhists and Jains;
சங்கமர் caṅkamar ,n. < சங்கமம்¹. A class of Vīrašaivas, Lingayats; ஒரு சார் வீரசைவர்.
சங்கநிதி¹ caṅka-niti,n. < id. +. One of the nine treasures of Kubēra; குபேரனது நவநிதி யுள் ஒன்று. சங்கநிதி பதுமநிதிசங்காத்தம் caṅkāttam,n. <saṅ-gata. 1. Friendship, intimacy, familiar intercourse; இணக்கம்.பூனைக்கும்வீட்டெலிக்குஞ்
combination; கூட்டம். (சி. சி. 1, 14, சிவாக்.) Marathi: संघात[ saṅghāta ]mS Assembly or
assemblage; multitude or heap; a collection together (of things animate or
inanimate). 2 A division of the infernal regions. संघट्टणें[ saṅghaṭṭaṇēṃ ]v i(Poetry.संघट्टन) To come into contact or meeting; to meet or encounter. Ex.अर्ध योजन आसपास ॥ वास घ्राण देवीसीं संघटे ॥.संघट्टन[ saṅghaṭṭana ]nSसंघट्टनाfS orruptlyसंघठण, संघट्टण, संघष्टण, संघष्टन, संघृष्टन, संघट्ठणेंnClose connection and
intercourse; intimate and familiar communication. Ex.तुका
म्हणे जिणें ॥ भलें संत संघट्टणें ॥. 2 Coming into contact with, encountering,
meeting. 3 Close contact;--as the intertwining of wrestlers, the clinging and
cleaving of lovers in their embraces &c. 4 Rubbing together, confrication.
Pali: Sanghara=saghara [sa4+ghara] one's own house Jv.222. Sangharaṇa (nt.) [=saŋharaṇa] accumulation Jiii.319 (dhana˚).Sangharati [=saŋharati] 1. to bring together, collect, accumulate Jiii.261;iv.36 (dhanaŋ), 371;v.383.
<-> 2. to crush, to pound Ji.493.
Pali: Sanghāṭa [fr. saŋ+ghaṭeti, lit. "binding together"; on etym. see Kern,Toev.ii.68]
1. a raft Jii.20, 332 (nāvā˚);iii.362 (id.), 371. Miln 376.dāru˚(=nāvā˚) Jv.194, 195. -- 2. junction, union VvA 233. -- 3. collection, aggregate Jiv.15 (upāhana˚); Th 1, 519 (papañca˚). Freq. asaṭṭhi˚(cp. sankhalā etc.) a string of bones, i. e. a skeleton Th 1, 570; DhAiii.112; Jv.256. -- 4. a weft, tangle, mass (almost="robe," i. e. sanghāṭī), intaṇhā˚ -- paṭimukkaMi.271;vāda˚ -- paṭimukkaMi.383 (Neumann "defeat");diṭṭhi˚ -- paṭimukkaMiln 390. <-> 5. a post, inpiṭṭha˚door --post, lintel Vinii.120.
The standard device depicted on m0296 is comparable to the
orthography on other seals, h098 and m1408. There are many variants used to show this sangad.a ‘lathe, portable furnace’. h098 Text 4256 Pict-122
Standard device which is normally in front of a one-horned bull. m1408At