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Āryabhaṭa and his sine table -- manasa-taramgini. Calculus: the real story -- CK Raju (2015)

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Āryabhaṭa and his sine table

Everyone and his son have written about Āryabhaṭa and his sine table. Yet we too do this because sometimes the situation arises where you have to explain things clearly to a layman who might have some education but is unfamiliar with the intricacies of, or in some cases lacks the correct perspective on, Hindu tradition.

Regarding him Hindu tradition states:

siddhānta-pañcaka-vidhāv api dṛg viruddham
auḍhyoparāga-mukha-khecara-cāra-kḷptau |
sūryaḥ svayaṃ kusumapury abhavat kalau tu
bhūgolavit kulapa āryabhaṭābhidhānaḥ ||

When the predictions of the five siddhānta-s and observations of conjunctions, occultations and setting times of planets began to conflict the solar deity himself incarnated in Kusumapuri in the Kali age in the form of the geographer and head professor Āryabhaṭa.

The great astronomer and mathematician Āryabhaṭa-I’s, who was seen by some Hindus as the incarnation of the solar deity, was born in 476 CE in the Aśmaka country (close to modern Maharashtra-Telangana border). He was active at Pāṭaliputra in the golden age of Hindu power during the reign of emperor Budhagupta. He is known to have composed at least two works the Āryabhaṭīya, which was an update of the old Svāyambhuva-siddhānta tradition, and the Āryabhaṭa-siddhānta which was modeled after the old Sūrya siddhānta. We are informed by Bhāskara-I that in his Āryabhaṭīya Āryabhaṭa was following in the footsteps of the great astronomer of antiquity Pārāśarya, who was likely one of the early promulgators of the Svāyambhuva tradition. Āryabhaṭa as head professor is said to have had the following notable students: Lāṭadeva, Niśaṅku, Pāṇḍuraṅgasvamin and Prabhākara. Sadly their works have been lost. Of them Lāṭadeva is recorded in old Hindu scientific tradition as having written several works including on Hellenistic astronomy and likely succeeded Āryabhaṭa as the ācārya of his school.

Thus, Āryabhaṭa’s work is the earliest surviving record of one of the most important Hindu scientific traditions, namely that of Svāyambhuva-s. In the manner of the scientists of old Hindu naturalistic tradition Āryabhaṭa presents the acquisition of scientific knowledge as the attainment of brahmavidyā:

daśa-gītika-sūtram idam bhū-graha-caritam bha-pañjare jñātvā |
graha-bha-gaṇa-paribhramaṇaṃ sa yāti bhittvā param brahma ||
Having known these sūtra-s in the ten verses composed in the gītika meter providing the motions of the Earth and the planets within the celestial sphere [pañjara: marked by the coordinate grid], and having penetrated the orbits of the planets and the stars he attains the supreme brahman.

His clear mention of the movement of the Earth in the celestial sphere along with the other planets in the celestial sphere has been taken as Āryabhaṭa’s discovery of heliocentricity. However, here we are not going into this issue and the real nature of his unique planetary model which sets the old Hindu Svāyambhuva planetary model apart from those of the Greeks. Nevertheless, as a testimony of his astronomical achievements we will merely state the period of sidereal day of the Earth as determined by Āryabhaṭa in modern units: 23^h 56^m 4^{s.}1, which is practically the modern value.

One of the important features of Āryabhaṭa’s work was his presentation of the old Hindu sine difference table. Āryabhaṭa gives the table using his syllable-numeral equivalence which goes as:

makhi bhaki phakhi dhakhi ṇakhi ñakhi ṅakhi hasjha skaki kiṣga śghaki kighva |
ghlaki kigra hakya dhaki kica sga jhaśa ṅva kla pta pha cha kalā ardha-jyāH ||
225, 224, 222, 219, 215, 210, 205, 199, 191, 183, 174, 164, 154, 143, 131, 119, 106, 93, 79, 65, 51, 37, 22, 7 are the R\sin(\theta) [differences].

So how do we understand this? As per Hindu terminology if the arc is equivalent to the bow then the chord is equivalent to the bowstring (jyā). Hence, the sine can be seen as half a jyā (ardhajyā) as Āryabhaṭa terms it in the above sūtra. For simplicity call Āryabhaṭa’s ardhajyā a function named jyā and represent it thus in modern notation:
Let the function jyā (\theta) be defined as,
jyā (\theta)=R\sin(\theta), where R=3438.

Why the number 3438? Āryabhaṭa conceives a circle whose circumference is divided into 360 \times 60=21600 parts. Now the radius of this circle given Āryabhaṭa’s \pi \approx 3.1416 will be,
\dfrac{21600}{3.1416}=3437.73 \approx 3438 \Rightarrow 1\;radian
Thus, Āryabhaṭa’s R value is for the first time a radian-like concept was used in trigonometry. Now, Āryabhaṭa divides his quadrant into 24 parts; thus, his minimal angle is \theta_1=\frac{\pi}{48}. To see why he chose this value of \theta_1 note the following:

\dfrac{\pi}{48} \times 3438 \approx 225
jyā (\dfrac{\pi}{48})=3438\sin(\dfrac{\pi}{48})=3438\times0.06540 \approx 225
\therefore jyā (\dfrac{\pi}{48})\Big/R\cdot\dfrac{\pi}{48} \approx 1; actual value 0.99982

Thus, Āryabhaṭa’s value of \theta_1 is chosen such that the angle and its jyā are practically the same (Figure 1). This value as a proxy for \displaystyle \lim_{\theta \to 0}\frac{\sin(\theta)}{\theta}=1 continued to be used in the subsequent development of Hindu calculus. The \theta and jyā (\theta) being nearly the same at this value allows linear interpolation for intermediate values.
jyAthetaratio
Figure 1

Now the rest of his table is in the form of differences. So to get a jyā (\theta_n) we have to do the following:
jyā (\theta_2)=225+224=449; jyā (\theta_3)=225+224+222=671

The table below compares Āryabhaṭa’s jyā (\theta) values to the exact modern values.

AryabhaTa_sin

https://manasataramgini.wordpress.com/2017/03/19/aryabha%E1%B9%ADa-and-his-sine-table/

TRANSMISSION OF THE CALCULUS FROM KERALA TO EUROPE[1]

                                             TheAryabhata Group[2]

                                             School of Education

                                             Universities of Exeter and Manchester, UK


Introduction

It is by now widely recognised[3]that the calculus had already developed in India in the works of the mathematicians and astronomers of the Aryabhata school: Madhava, Nilakantha (Tantrasangraha), Jyeshtadeva (Yuktibhasa) etc, between the 14thand 16th centuries CE.  These developments included infinite “Gregory/Taylor” series for sine, cosine and arctan functions,[4]with accurate remainder terms, and a numerically efficient algorithm, leading to a 9 decimal-place precision table for sines and cosines stated in sexagesimal katapayadi notation in two verses found also in the widely distributed KaranaPaddhati of Putumuna Somayaji.[5]The development also included the calculation of complex derivatives like that of arcsin   (psin x)  (TantrasangrahaV.53-54), and p sin x/(1+pcos x) (Sphutanirnaya III.19-20), to calculate the instantaneous velocities of the sun and the moon, and infinite series expansions, and high-precision computations of the value of p correct to 9, 10 (and later 17) decimal places.[6](As already noted by Benjamin Heyne[7]in 1805 these developments were probably not confined to Kerala but were available also in Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Karnataka, though this possibility has not yet been properly investigated.)


A key point, that has not been noticed earlier, is this: these developments cannot be dismissed as “pre-calculus”, the way the works of Fermat, Pascal, Wallis, Torricelli, Roberval, etc. usually are. Thus, the traditional Indian number system, similar to the floating point numbers used in present-day computers, together with sharp estimates of the remainder or error term, enabled the Indian mathematicians to provide a rigorous rationale for the infinite series and the infinitesimal calculus.[8]This was quite unlike the case of Newton, etc. who, lacking also the notion of real number, used “fluxions” or “infinitesimals”[9], the exact meaning of which remained a mystery until the development of mathematical analysis and the clarification of the notion of “proof” in the late 19th century and early 20th century CE. Since the Indian mathematicians had a rigorous rationale which Newton could not possibly have had, the Yuktibhasa exposition should, a fortiori, count as calculus.


It is true that the Yuktibhasa ideas of mathematics and proof differ from the Platonic and Hilbertian idea that mathematics must be divorced from the empirical; however, it is hard to see, from either a theoretical or a practical point of view, why acceptance of the Platonic point of view and Platonic authority ought to be a key ingredient of mathematics. In particular, the Platonic insistence on a divorce from the empirical leaves hanging in the air the question of what logic ought to underlie a proof,[10]whereas acceptance of the empirical would mean a change in the notion of proof, since different criteria are used to validate a physical theory. Since this paper is concerned with transmission, rather than epistemology, we do not pursue this any further.


Prior to Vasco da Gama there is ample evidence of the import of Indian mathematical knowledge into Europe.[11]The history of Indian arithmetical techniques imported into Europevia the Arabs as “algorismus” texts is now well known. (Algorismus is the Latinized version of Al Khwarizmi (9th century CE), who translated the arithmetical and astronomical texts of the 7th century CE Brahmagupta.) These “algorismus” techniques were first introduced into Europe by Gerbert (Pope Sylvester III) in the 10th century CE, but it is only in the 16th century CE that their final triumph over abacus techniques started being depicted on the covers of arithmetical texts.[12]On the other hand, there is also, from afterthe late 17th century, ample evidence of the large scale import of Indian texts and manuscripts, tens of thousands of which are today housed in European libraries[13]. Our primary hypothesis for investigation is that this process of importing Indian texts continued also during the unstudied intervening period of the 16thand 17th century.  Our general hypothesis is that the arrival of Vasco da Gama in Calicutnot only short-circuited the traditional Arab route for spices, it also short-circuited the traditional Arab route for knowledge of Indian mathematics and astronomy.


Further, it is our hypothesis that the epistemological difficulties encountered with infinitesimals in Europe from the 17thto the 19th centuries CE arose, exactly like the difficulties with sunya (zero), due to the import of techniques with a different epistemological base.[14]This has important pedagogical implications. However, in this paper we will set aside the epistemological and pedagogical issues and focus on the question of transmission.


What is the evidence for transmission? Before addressing this question we need to address a meta-question: what is an acceptable standardof evidence for transmission? This meta-question seems not to have been addressed at all in the literature on the history of mathematics.[15]In the past there have been far too many claims of transmission, where the evidence produced is farcical; for example, in support of the widespread claim of the transmission of Ptolemaic astronomy from Alexandria to India, one line of evidence, proposed by Thibaut, is that Varahamihira’s use of “Paulisha” suggests that it could have been derived from “Paul” (rather than Pulisha or Pulastya, one of the seven sages forming the constellation known as the Great Bear). If this be the standard of evidence, there is nothing for us to prove.  For the works of Paramesvara, Madhava, Nilakantha, and Jyeshtadeva, clearly precede those of Fermat, Pascal, Gregory, Wallis, Newton, and Leibniz, and India was clearly known (and actively linked) to Europe by the 16th century CE.


However, we are aware that, for some unfathomable reasons, the standard of evidence required for an acceptable claim of transmission of knowledge from East to West is different from the standard of evidence required for a similar claim of transmission of knowledge from West to East. Priority and the possibility of contact always establish a socially acceptable case for transmission from West to East, but priority and definite contact never establish an acceptable case for transmission from East to West, for there always is the possibility that similar things could have been discovered independently. Hence we propose to adopt a legal standard of evidence good enough to hang a person for murder. Briefly, we propose to test the hypothesis on the grounds of (1) motivation, (2) opportunity, (3) circumstantial evidence, and (4) documentary evidence.

(1) Motivation


The motivation for import of knowledge derived from the needs of greater accuracy in (a) navigation, (b) the calendar, and (c) practical mathematics (used for everyday financial calculations). Christoph Clavius, a key figure in the transitional period, exhibits all three concerns: since he (a) authored a book on practical mathematics, (b) headed the calendar reform committee, and (c) was a student of the famous navigational theorist Pedro Nunes.


Navigation was clearly the key motivation, being then a matter of the greatest strategic and economic importance for Europe. Early navigators like Columbus, and Vasco da Gama did not know stellar navigation,[16]and dead reckoning was of little use in “uncharted” seas unless, like Columbus, one was aimed at so massive a shore line, that one could hardly hope to miss it! Various European governments officially acknowledged both (a) the European ignorance of navigational techniques, and (b) the enormous interest in learning more. Many governments also widely publicised this official acknowledgment by instituting huge prizes for anyone who could provide an accurate technique of navigation. These included the Spanish government (1567, 1598) the Dutch government  (1632), the French government (1670), and the British government (1711), which last prize was finally claimed in 1762 by Harrison with his chronometer (which came into general use only by the 19thcentury). The value of these prizes gives an indication of the importance that various governments attached to the problem of navigation: to get an idea of the true value of these prizes we observe that e.g. the British government’s prize of 1711 was more than 300 times Newton’s annual fellowship.


Consequently, not only kings and parliaments, but also very many of the leading scientists of the times were involved in these efforts. Galileo, for example, unsuccessfully competed for the revised Spanish prize for 16 years, before shifting his attention to the Dutch prize. Colbert wrote personally to all the leading scientists of Europe, offering large rewards, and selected from the replies received to start the FrenchRoyalAcademy“to improve maps, sailing charts, and advance the science of navigation”. One of the stated aims of the newly founded Royal Society was: Finding the longitude.  Newton testified before the British parliament in connection with this problem of navigation.


However, the popular accounts of the history of navigation have focussed on the development of the marine chronometer, which relates to the 18th century CE. Our concern is with navigation in the 16th and 17th centuries CE, when the focus was on stellar and celestial navigation, apart from geodesy and geography. Indeed the enormous growth of interest in mathematics and astronomy  in Europein the 16th and 17th centuries CE, is directly attributable to the practical benefit  that these studies were expected to have on the navigational problem.  


Secondly, the popular account of navigation history has focussed almost exclusively on the problem of longitude determination, whereas in the 16th century CE, latitude determination was the key problem, because of an inaccurate calendar, and the then lack of knowledge of celestial navigation in Europe. Latitude determination also involved a problem of timekeeping, but this timekeeping pertained to the calendarrather than the chronometer.

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Finally, we do need to ask: how did the European attack on the problem of navigation and the related problems of astronomy and mathematics proceed? Did Europe abandon a 500 year old tradition of importing knowledge and books from Arabs and Indiaand suddenly switch to a completely autonomous path of knowledge development? Did Europeans turn a blind eye to the knowledge resources of the areas with which they were hoping to establish new trade routes? The slightest acquaintance with European texts of the 16th and 17thcenturies CE shows that exactly the contrary was the case. The “knowledge of the ancients” was most highly valued, and was sought after by such disparate personalities as Stevins, Mersenne and Fermat. All of them actively sought out knowledge from ancient texts, regarding this as one of the superior ways of attacking the problem, and as we shall explicitly see later on in this paper, in “ancient” texts they clearly included texts from other lands.


What sorts of texts might the Europeans have searched for to learn more about navigation? As we saw above, stellar/solar navigation naturally related to the study of astronomy and timekeeping, which was, then, inseparably linked to mathematics. Most Indian texts on mathematics, too, were located in the context of astronomy and timekeeping. (In particular, this is true for all the texts on the calculus, mentioned above.) The term jyotisa, as in Vedanga Jyotisa, meant timekeeping.[17]  Stellar astronomy and mathematics was used for timekeeping, and also for constructing the calendar.


Moreover, the navigational and calendrical knowledge that the Europeans needed and sought in ancient texts was, in fact, available in Indian mathematical and astronomical texts. The widely distributed Laghu Bhaskariya (abridged work of Bhaskara) and Maha Bhaskariya  (extensive work of Bhaskara) of the first Bhaskara (629 CE) explicitly detailed methods of determining the local latitude and longitude, using observations of solar declination, or pole star altitude, and simple instruments like the gnomon, and the clepsydra.[18]Since local latitude could easily be determined from solar declination by day and e.g. pole star altitude at night (using a common instrument like the kamal), an accurate sine table was just what was required to determine local longitudefrom a knowledge of latitudinal differences and course angle. The simplest method was to solve a plane triangle. The Laghu Bhaskariya already states the criticism that determination of longitude by a calculation involving planetriangles is not adequate because of the roundness of the earth. Later texts like the Siddhanta of Vatesvara (904 CE) pointed out that these techniques needed to be corrected by applying spherical trigonometry.  Al Biruni, the 10th-11th century scholar, who visited India on behalf of Mahmud of Ghazni, and systematically studied and translated Indian mathematical and astronomical texts, explicitly used these techniques of spherical trigonometry to determine local latitudes and longitudes in his treatise on mathematical geography.[19]


Exactly this technique started being tried in Europe in the 16th century, when the centre of navigational excellence in Europe had shifted from Florenceto Coimbra. In the first half of the 16th century, Pedro Nunes studied motion on the sphere along a given rhumb line, or a given course[20]. Evaluating such a path or a loxodromic (Gr. loxos= oblique, dromos = course) curve is exactly equivalent to the fundamental theorem of calculus: [21]given the tangent at every point, to determine the curve passing through these points which has those tangents. It is very interesting that these loxodromic curves were, in fact, studied by Pedro Nunes and Simon Stevin[22]using sine tables, and the above stated technique,[23]with a solution in spherical triangles, though the triangles involved were not strictly spherical, as Stevin observed. (The exact technique by which Mercator obtained the loxodromic curves for his famous chart is not known, but was probably similar.) The conjectures of Pedro Nunes were tested in a voyage to Goa, in the 1540's during which they reportedly failed, presumably due to inaccurate techniques of calculation, inadequate sine table, and other factors listed below. 


Though the Europeans, motivated by navigation, were actively seeking the knowledge of determining local latitude and longitude through stellar astronomy, and though this knowledge was available in Indian mathematical texts, there were three things that impeded their search. They lacked: (a) knowledge of practical and mental arithmetic, (b) an accurate calendar, and  (c) an accurate estimate of the size of the earth. An accurate estimatew of the size of the earth was needed for the calculation of longitudes/departures, from a knowledge of only latitude differences and course angle.[24]While Caliph al Mamun had confirmed through empirical observations in the 9thcentruy CE, the estimates of the equatorial radius of the earth given in Indian astronomical texts, and al Biruni had implemented a cheaper and easier technique to confirm these,[25]Columbus undid this. To sell his idea of sailing West to reach the East, he underestimated the size of the earth by 40%. Presumably due to Columbus’ “success” this error persisted, with, for example, Newton’s initial estimates being off by 25%, until Picard’s accurate re-determination of the size of the earth, in 1671, funded by the French Royal Academy as its first scientific effort.


Secondly, in the first part of the 16th century lacking even an accurate calendar, and lacking techniques of calculation, the difficulty was with determining latitudecorrectly. It has been overlooked in the popular history of navigation that the longitude problem was preceded by a latitude problem. Well before the attempt to construct an accurate chronometer to solve the longitude problem, the attempt was to construct an accurate calendar to solve the latitude problem. 


Thus, Vasco da Gama was unacquainted with instruments like the kamal or rapalagai  used to determine latitude by measurement of pole-star altitude. This instrument was used by the Indian pilot who navigated him across the Arabian sea from Melinde in Africa to Calicut in India. Since the instrument has a string, which is held with the teeth, and since the instrument uses the pole star, called kau in Malayalam, a term which also means teeth, Vasco da Gama thought the pilot was telling the distance by his teeth! The instrument has a string on which are tied knots in harmonic proportion: not realising this, Vasco da Gama carried back a copy of this instrument to get it graduated in inches!


While this technique was presumably mastered by the Europeans by the mid-16th century CE, this was useful only at night. The standard technique for determining latitude in day time was to use solar declination. While a great variety of instruments were available for measuring solar declination, linking solar declination to the local latitude required an accurate calendar. The European calendar, then in use, was unchanged since Roman times, and was inaccurate because it was a solar calendar which assumed that the length of the year was 365 ¼ days.  Making the calendar accurate was a problem which involved the date of the equinoxes, identical with the ritual concern with the date of the Easter festival. By 1545 CE this problem had been recognised by both navigators (like Nunes) and by the church which set up a committee to review the date of Easter.   


Thus, it was in this direction of correcting the calendar that the European efforts to gather knowledge were first focussed. As already stated above, the calendar, in India, was constructed by jyotisi-s, who used jyoti manuals that also explicitly stated techniques of  determining local latitude and longitude through observations using simple instruments and possibly complex calculations.


How did the Europeans gather local knowledge? Were they familiar with local languages? Like al Biruni was to Mahmud of Ghazni, the Jesuits were to the Portuguese an intelligence gathering arm. The Jesuits learned the local languages like Malayalam, Telegu and Tamil[26]easily enough, and Valignano declared that it was more important for Jesuits to learn the local language than to learn philosophy. However, the Jesuits were (a) deficient in knowledge of mathematics, and (b) constrained by an inaccurate ritual calendar.  Christoph Clavius, who had studied under the famous Pedro Nunes at Coimbra, realised this handicap. He reformed the Jesuit mathematical curriculum at the Collegio Romano in the 1570’s, and later went on to head the committee which reformed the Gregorian Calendar to which the Pope gave his assent in 1582[27].


Clavius also wrote a text on practical mathematics, and compiled and published a tables of sines[28]which could be looked up without the need for any mental calculation. These tables, presumably, were intended to replace the tables of Regiomontanus, taken from Arabic sources, and those of Rheticus, who perhaps also obtained his information from Arabic sources, like Copernicus.[29]Thus, Clavius recognized and strove to remove all the drawbacks listed above.  The need for more accurate sine tables for navigational purposes was stressed also by Clavius’ contemporary, Simon Stevins, in his criticism of the work of Pedro Nunes. Stevins explicitly states Aryabhata’s value of p, observing that it is more accurate than that of Regiomontanus, who came nearly a thousand years after Aryabhata.[30](As is well known, Stevins contemporary, Ludolph von Ceulen devoted a lifetime to getting increasingly accurate values of p.)


(2) Opportunity

The famous Matteo Ricci was in the first batch of Jesuits trained in the new mathematics curriculum introduced in the Collegio Romano by Clavius[31]. He also went to Lisbonto study cosmography and nautical science. Ricci was then sent to Indiain 1578. While the Portuguese had shifted their headquarters to Goa, the Jesuits maintained a large presence in Cochin(until the Protestant Dutch closed down the CochinCollegearound 1670). Subsequently many other scientist Jesuits trained both by Clavius or Grienberger were sent to India. Most notable of these, in terms of their scientific activity in India, were Johann Schreck[32]and Antonio Rubino[33]. The former had studied with the French mathematician Viete, well known for his work in algebra and geometry.


At some point in their stay in India these Jesuits went the Malabar region including the city of Cochin, the epicentre of developments in the infinitesimal calculus. Further, in order to not only aid conversions but also to collect local knowledge, the Jesuits learned the local languages like Malayalam, Telegu and Tamil[34].


As mentioned above, Ricci was in search of Indian calendrical knowledge. He and the other Jesuits could not but have noticed the discrepancy between their calendar and the local calendar. For example, the Jesuits were accustomed to the idea that festivals like Christmas fell on a fixed day of their calendar so they could not have failed to notice that the major Indian festivals like Dussehara, Diwali, Holi, Sankranti etc., did not fall on the same days of the Julian calendar. However, the typical Jesuit before Matteo Ricci probably did not know enough about astronomy to have known the difference even between the sidereal year (the basis of the Indian calendar) and the tropical year (the basis of the Julian/Gregorian calendar); so they could hardly have been expected to understand the complexities of the Indian calendar. However they could easily have acquired the knowledge in manuscript form and sent it back to either Maffei in Portugalor to Clavius in the Collegio Romano for analysis. Let us assess the likelihood that this did, in fact, happen.


In India, preparing the calendar (pancanga) was and remains to this day the task of the jyotishi. The typical  jyotishi relied (and still relies), like a clerk, on a handbook

of rules, without bothering to go into too many details of how the rules were derived.  The standard treatises that were consulted and are today still consulted for this purpose are the Laghu Bhaskariya, and, in Kerala, the KaranaPaddhati.   These are in the nature of calendrical manuals, and so are widely distributed throughout the country, since they are used every year to determine the dates of a large number of festivals. Depending upon differences of religion, caste, and region, each group of people only accept as authoritative a pancanga (almanac) prepared by a particular family.  Thousands of families of pancangamakers were hence involved in this process of calendar making, across the country.[35]So, if Matteo Ricci did try to find out about the calendar from a Brahmin source in Cochin, in the heart of Kerala, as he explicitly stated he was trying to do, it is difficult to conceive that he did not run into these verses incorporated in manuscripts like the Tantrasangraha, Yuktibhasa, Kriyakramakari, and the KaranaPaddhati. It may help to reiterate that the KaranaPaddhati, etc incorporate Madhava’s sine table, in a single verse, along with the cosine table in another verse.

We also emphasise that the Jesuits had much more than a casual interest in the calendar. For at just about that time, Matteo Ricci’s teacher, Christoph Clavius was busy heading the commission that ultimately reformed the Gregorian calendar in 1582, an event that had been preceded by centuries of controversy.  The 1545 Council of Trent had already acknowledged the error in the Julian calendar, and had authorised the Pope to correct it. So Matteo Ricci’s interest in the Indian calendar was not a casual one, but was an effort preceded by years of preparation and study, and came at a time when the Jesuit interest in both India and the calendar was at a peak. 


Finally, we emphasise that Matteo Ricci’s mathematical preparation was most suited to the task at hand. Christoph Clavius had written a commentary on the Sphere of Sacro Bosco, (after studying the Sphere of Pedro Nunes) and had published in 1580 a large 645 page book on Gnomonices.  The sphere (gola) and the gnomon (shanku) were the two key topics needed to understand Indian astronomy and timekeeping: Aryabhata devotes a chapter to the sphere, while Vatesvara has a whole book on it. Ricci had studied nautical science along with the Cosmographia of Apian, so he could hardly have missed the significance and importance of precise sine values. The latter Jesuits such as Schreck and Rubino were just as qualified to undertake this mission to acquire knowledge[36].


Ricci went to Cochin after taking his orders. He remained in touch with the Dean of the Collegio Romano. Writing from Cochin to Maffei, he explicitly acknowledged that he was trying to find out about the calendar from Indian sources, both Hindus and Muslim. (For details and references, see Section 4 below.)


We emphasise that the Jesuits had much more than a casual interest in India. For at just about the time that Matteo Ricci was in Cochin, in 1580, the Mughal emperor Akbar invited the Jesuits to his court. This was represented in Rome as a sign of his imminent conversion, an event of the greatest importance, which could bring along with it all the political and material benefits that the Roman church obtained from Constantine; three high-level missions were sent to Akbar’s court. Matteo Ricci was, at the same time, writing back sending details of the Mughal army.  So Matteo Ricci’s interest in the Indian calendar was not only not a casual one, preceded as it was by years of preparation and study, but came at a time when the Jesuit interest in both Indiaand the calendar was at a peak. 


(3) The Scenario of Transmission

Before we move on to the documentary evidence for transmission to Europe of the calculus that had developed in India, in the works of the mathematicians and astronomers of the Aryabhata school between the 14thand 16th centuries, it is apposite to recapitulate. There clearly was strong motivation for the transmission in the needs of navigation and the calendar reform, which were recognised as the most important scientific problems of that age in Europe. Europeans, particularly Jesuits,  had ample opportunity to access the texts and calendrical almanacs in which this information was to be found, not only in the straightforward sense that they knew the local languages well, but also in the sense that trained mathematicians were sent for the express purpose of collecting the knowledge available in these texts. 


Let us now turn to detail the circumstantial and documentary evidence, for it helps also to understand how this knowledge, after arriving in Europe, diffused in Europe. (Apart from historical curiosity, this is also a matter of contemporary pedagogical significance, since it enables us to assess, in a non-destructive way, the possible impact of introducing today the study of calculus with a different epistemological basis.)


We know too little even to conjecture anything about the accumulation of knowledge in Coimbra, nor exactly what happened to this accumulated knowledge after Jesuits took over control of the university after about 1560. After 1560, in line with the above reasoning, our working hypothesis, or scenario, is that over a 50 year period, say from 1560 to 1610, knowledge of Indian mathematical, astronomical and calendrical techniques accumulated in Rome, and diffused to nearby universities like Padova and Pisa, and to wider regions through Cavalieri and Galileo, and through visitors to Padova, like James Gregory[37]. Subsequently, it also reached Paris where, through the agency of  Mersenne, and his study circle, it diffused throughout Europe


Mersenne, though a minim monk, had received a Jesuit education, and was closely linked to Jesuits. Mersenne’s correspondence reveals that Goa and Cochin were famous places in his time,[38]and Mersenne writes of the knowledge of Brahmins and “Indicos”,[39]and mentions the orientalist Erpen and his “les livres manuscrits Arabics, Syriaques, Persiens, Turcs, Indiens en langue Malaye”.[40]Mersenne’s study circle included Fermat, Pascal, Roberval etc., and Mersenne’s well-known correspondence with leading scientists and mathematicians of his time, could have helped this knowledge diffuse throughout Europe. (Newton, as is well known,[41]followed Wallis, and Leibniz himself states, he followed Pascal.) Of course, acquisition of knowledge of Indian mathematics could hardly have been a controlled process, so that many others, like the Dutch and French, for instance, could have simultaneously acquired this knowledge directly from India, without the intervention of Rome


(3) Circumstantial Evidence

With this scenario as the background, we can ask: what sort of circumstantial evidence can we hope to find? Certainly it would be absurd to expect citations in published work! The tradition in Europe of that time was that mathematicians did not reveal their sources. When they could get hold of others’ sources, they copied them without compunction. The case of e.g. Cardan is well known, and there are well documented cases against, e.g. Copernicus,[42]Galileo[43], Descartes[44], etc., of copying from others, whether or not such copying amounted to “plagiarism”.  Under these circumstances, mathematicians naturally kept their sources a closely guarded secret: they published only problems, not their solutions, and challenged other mathematicians to solve them.


(a)   Fermat and Pell’s Equation.

One such challenge problem was proposed by Fermat, and has come to be known as Pell’s equation (for no fault of Pell). “In a letter of February 1657 (Oeuvres, II, 333-335, III, 312-313)  Fermat challenged all mathematicians (thinking in the first place of John Wallis in England) to find an infinity of integer solutions of the equation , where A is any nonsquare integer.”[45]Mathematicians in Europe were unable to solve Fermat’s challenge problem for over 75 years, until Euler published a general solution in 1738. In February 1657,  Fermat also wrote a letter to Frenicle, where he elaborated upon this problem:[46]“What is for example the smallest square which, multiplied by 61 with unity added, makes a square?”


As Struik further notes, Indian mathematicians had a solution to this problem. In fact, strangely enough, exactly the case of  A=61 is given as a solved example in the BeejGanitatext of Bhaskara II.  This coincidence is not trivial when we consider that the solution   x = 1766319049, y = 226153980 involves rather large numbers.[47]A similar problem had earlier been suggested by the 7th century Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II provides the general solution with his chakravala method. Thus, Fermat’s challenge problem, strongly suggests a connection of Fermat with Indian mathematics: Fermat probably had access to some Indian mathematical texts like the BijaGanita.  


Euler certainly knew about Indian astronomy (hence mathematics), for Giovanni Cassini, then the most reputed astronomer of France,  had already published an account of “Hindu astronomy” in  1691,  and Euler wrote on the “Hindu year”[48]  (sidereal  year; the pope’s bull was still not acceptable e.g. to Protestant Britain, until 1752). Since numerous Indian astronomical texts deal with “Pell’s” equation, Euler had presumably learnt about this as well. However, we are not aware that he acknowledged this when he published his solution to what he called Pell’s equation.


This suggestion that Fermat knew something about Indian mathematics is reinforced by Fermat’s friendship not only with Mersenne, but with Jacques de Billy (1602-1669), a Jesuit teacher of mathematics in Dijon. Fermat also had the habit (then a general proclivity) of searching for knowledge in ancient books.[49] 


(b) Fermat, Pascal and the Calculus

“One of Fermat’s most stunning achievements,” continues Aczel, “was to develop the main ideas of calculus, which he did thirteen years before the birth of Sir Isaac Newton [in 1642].” Fermat’s and Pascal’s approach to the calculus reinforces the belief in a connection with Indian mathematics. It was at Mersenne’s place that Pascal met Descartes who remarked in his La Geometrie of 1637 about the impossibility of measuring the circumference of a circle: “The ratios between straight and curved lines

are not known, and I even believe cannot be discovered by men, and therefore no conclusion based upon such ratios can be accepted as rigorous and exact.” Therefore, there was not, at this point of time, anything that could be called an indigenous or acceptable tradition of calculus.


However, in Indian mathematics, from the time of the sulba sutras, because of the different epistemological base, measuring the length of a curved line by laying a rope  (sulba) along it, and straightening it (or measuring a general area by triangulation) has been quite an acceptable process, used to obtain a value of p. In fact, Aryabhata states that the area of a general plane figure should be obtained by triangulation,[50]before going on to give an improved measure of the (curved) circumference of a circle in terms of the diameter (a straight line), in the next verse.[51]In the very next verse he explains how his sine table is derived by approximating small arcs by line segments.[52]  It is therefore quite natural to find this eventually developing into the calculus in the Tantrasangraha, whose author Nilakantha belonged to the Aryabhata school, and wrote wrote a lengthy commentary on the Aryabhatiya, almost exactly a thousand years after it.


Nilakantha’s younger contemporary, Jyeshtadeva, author of the Malayalam Yuktibhasa (“Discourse on Rationales”), has a chapter on the circle, explaining the method of deriving the improved sine table stated in the Tantrasangraha. The key step in this derivation[53]is the evaluation of:


 
 



This is also exactly the approach to calculus adopted by Fermat, Pascal, Wallis, etc. to evaluate the area under the parabolas  , or, equivalently, calculate   As Pascal remarked,  about this formula, it serves to solve all sorts of problems of the calculus. “Any person at all familiar with the doctrine of indivisibles will perceive the results that one can draw from the above for the determination of curvilinear areas. Nothing is easier, in fact, than to obtain immediately the quadrature of all types of parabolas and the measures of numberless other magnitudes.” This formula has been attributed to Fermat in 1629; Roberval, another member of Mersenne’s circle, also worked on it. Earlier Cavalieri, a student of Galileo, had stated this formula, without proof,  in 1635, after waiting five years for Galileo to write on infinitesimals. John Wallis, who visited Pisa, verified the formula for a few values of k, and obtained his value of  p using similar series expansions.


The curious thing is that though so many European mathematicians seem to have suddenly “discovered” this formula at about the same time, the formula had no natural epistemological basis in European mathematics, either of that time or for the next two centuries, for European mathematics was oriented towards “proof” rather than “calculation”, and shared the Greek “horror of the infinite”.  Even today, despite the compelling changes of technology, due to widespread use of supercomputers, the situation has not entirely changed, and as in the time of Clavius, calculation continues to be regarded as “inferior” to “proof”.


Though the European mathematicians were unable to prove the above formula or provide a rigorous rationale for it within their epistemology,[54]even the techniques by which they attempted to prove the formula suggests transmission. For example, Pascal tried to establish[55]the formula using the so-called Pascal’s triangle, for the binomial coefficients. The triangle appears as the meru prastara, in Pingala’s Chandahsutra of (-3 century CE ), and another 1200 years later in the work of his 10th century CE commentator Halayudha.[56]It was known to the Arabs and the Chinese.[57]Among Renaissance European mathematicians it is found in the arithmetic of Apian, and in the work of authors like Bombelli[58].


(c)   The Ahargana and the Julian Day-Number System

The use of Julian day numbers is another kind of  evidence. These day numbers, used in scientific specification of dates,  are named, somewhat ambiguously, after Julius Scaliger, the father of Joseph Scaliger. Joseph Scaliger was a well-known opponent of Christoph Clavius, and he, too,  introduced his numbering system from 1582. 


Now, from at least the time of Aryabhata, all dates in Indian astronomy are specified in this way,  using day numbers. This eliminates any possible ambiguity due to calendrical differences; such ambiguities did exist because of the variety of calendars in use.  These day numbers are specified as Ahargana or “heap of days”. Understanding the first stanza of the Aryabhatiyarequires us to know about this system; in fact, the day number system could have been transmitted by absolutely any Indian astronomical text.


The difference between Ahargana and Julian day numbers is only this: the Aharganacount starts from the beginning  of the Kaliyuga,  (17 Feb -3102 CE) whereas the Julian day-number count starts  from 1 Jan - 4713 CE (an astronomically convenient date, presumably related to the date of Biblical creation). Thus, the Aharganadiffers from the Julian day number by exactly 588,465 which is the Julian day number for the start of the Kaliyuga. Of course, the system is simple enough and could have been invented by anyone at any time. The strange thing is that the system was allegedly invented in Europe at exactly the time, in 1582,  when it could have been transmitted through a stated earlier desire to learn about Indian calendrical techniques.  If our conjecture about transmission of the day-number system is true, it would seem that well before their conquest of Cochin, the Dutch had independent sources of information from India.

(d) Planetary Models and Elliptic Orbits

There are many other key instances that should count as circumstantial evidence. For example, Nilakantha’s planetary model, in the Tantrasangraha,  is exactly the “Tychonic” model (Tycho was a contemporary of Clavius), except that it involves elliptical orbits. (It is now known that Tycho’s student, Kepler, obtained his elliptical orbits by computing his “observations”.[59]) We do not go into these for reasons of space, since we first need to give an exposition of all the relevant planetary theories.


(4) Documentary Evidence of the Role of the Jesuits


The period after Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Calicut in 1498 and the establishment, shortly thereafter, of a Portuguese colony with bases in Cochin, Cannanore and Goa, by Afonso de Albuquerque in 1510, laid the foundations for Catholic missionary work in the Malabar coast.


Among the various missions, the Jesuit one was the most important in respect of transmitting local knowledge to Europe. While there is a paucity of literature on this subject (mainly due to the, as yet, uncatalogued nature of a vast quantity of oriental manuscripts in Portugal), this is not the case with French missionary work.[60]That the French Jesuits were actively engaged in the acquisition of Indian astronomy is reported by Otto Spies.[61]Spies makes explicit reference to the Jesuit Calmette’s study of local astronomy.


The earlier Jesuits in the Malabar Coast were interested in arithmetic, astronomy and timekeeping is indicated by many references in the Documenta Indica[62].  Their interest in local science seems motivated also indirectly by their policy to master vernacular languages such as Malaylam and Tamil[63]so much so that they were encouraged to speak to each other in the vernacular to progress this policy. Prominent Jesuits who became fluent native speakers included De Nobili who spoke Sanskrit and Tamil (the language spoken in Trichur) and the Portuguese Diogo Gonsalves who spoke Malayalam fluently. The attempt by Jesuits to learn the vernacular was so widespread that they frequently used Malayalam to sign their names in letters to the Society of Jesus headquarters in Rome.[64]The rationale for learning the vernacular languages was to aid their work in converting the local populace to Jesuit Catholicism by understanding their science, culture and customs and, of course, by facilitating communication. The former was important for the Jesuits and this included, at the very least, awareness of jyotisa - de Nobili, for instance, in 1615, wrote[65]a strong polemic against the Vedanga Jyotisa, a work that had been discarded as obsolete by Varahamihira, a thousand years earlier. To formalise the policy of educating Jesuit workers in the local culture,‘local’ subjects such as astrology or jyotisa were included in the curriculum of the Jesuit colleges in the Malabar Coast.[66]The Jesuits’ study of the vernacular languages was not merely intended to facilitate their work in conversions. It was also intended to enable work on transmitting this knowledge back to Europe. This is supported by the acquisition of translations of Malyalam and Sanskrit manuscripts[67]. Further evidence of this knowledge acquisition is contained in the ARSI collections Goa38, 46 and 58. The last being the work of Diogo Gonsalves and contains detailed notes on the judicial system and on the sciences and mechanical arts of the Malabar region. In addition the Jesuit Luis Frois who worked in the Malabar region is referred to in Goa46 was active in information acquisition[68]. Then there is de Menses who, writing from Kollam in 1580, reports that, on the basis of local knowledge, the European maps have inaccuracies[69].


The arrival of Matteo Ricci in Goa in September 13, 1578, as pointed out earlier, was significant in respect of Jesuit acquisition of local knowledge. His specialist knowledge of mathematics, cosmography, astronomy and navigation made him a candidate for discovering the knowledge of the colonies and he had specific instructions to investigate the science of India. The Jesuit historian Henri Bernard states that Ricci


“…had resided in the cities of Goa and of Cochin for more than three years and a half (September 13, 1578-April 15, 1582): he had been requested to apply himself to the scientific study of this new and imperfectly know country, in order to document his illustrious contemporary, Father Maffei, the ‘Titus Livius’ of Portuguese explorations.”[70]


Bernard reports that Ricci had begun his task prior to arriving in India by setting about a study of nautical science. It is also known that Ricci had enquiries about Indian calendrical science; in a letter to Maffei he states that he requires the assistance of an “intelligent Brahmin or an honest Moor” to help him understand the local ways of recording and measuring time  (lit. jyotisa). [71]


There were other later Jesuits who report of scientific findings on such diverse things as calendrical sciences and inaccuracies in the European maps and mathematical tables. Antonio Rubino writes, in 1610, similarly about inaccuracies in European mathematical tables[72]. Then there is the letter from Schreck, in 1618, of astronomical observations intended for the benefit of Kepler[73]- the latter had requested the eminent Jesuit mathematician Paul Guldin to help him to acquire astronomical knowledge from India to support his theories[74]. Further research is needed on the activities of these latter Jesuits as little is literature is available on this subject.


Further, the Jesuits established printing presses all over the Malabar region; in 1550 in Goa which used Roman types, in 1577 in Vaipicota using Tamil and Malyalam types, in 1602 Vaipicota using Syro-Chaldic, and in 1578 in Tuticorin with Tamil types. The aim of these presses was to publish the catechism so essential for missionary work; for example, St Francis Xavier’s catechism was published in 1557 by the Goapress.  The aim was also to translate the local science into Portuguese prior to transmission to Europe; for example, Garcia da Orta’s Colloquios dos simples e drogas he cousas mediçinas da Indiapublished in Goa in 1563[75].  There were many other publications of this type but they remain obscure because, as Sarton points out  “A Portuguese book printed in Goa could not attract much attention outside the Portuguese world.”[76]Nevertheless, subsequent Jesuits such as Schreck followed on from Garcia da Orta in botany[77].


All available evidence points out that the Jesuits were active in acquiring local scientific knowledge including astronomy and calendrical science. Thus they would have been aware of the astronomy of the Madhava school and would have sought it out. But how might the Jesuits have obtained key manuscripts of Indian astronomy such as the Tantrasangraha and the Yuktibhasa? We present a plausible conjecture. Such manuscripts would require the Jesuits being in close contact with scholarly Brahmins; there is concrete evidence that they were in contact with such people. There is plenty of evidence of the Jesuits being in contacts with kings across the country. We establish that the Jesuits had close relations with the kings of Cochin, and that the latter were knowledgeable about mathematics and astronomy in the tradition of Kerala.


The kings of Cochin came from the scholarly kshatriya Varma ‘Tampuran’ family who were knowledgeable about the mathematical and astronomical works of medieval Kerala[78]. Rama Varma Tampuran who, in 1948 (together with A.R. Akhileswara Iyer),[79]had published an exposition in Malayalam on the Yuktibhasa was one of the princes of Cochin already stated; this exposition which has been the basis of most subsequent work on the Yuktibhasa used the TantraSangrahaVyakhya manuscript of the Desa Mangalatta Mana (a Namputiri household, now disbanded). This manuscript was in the keeping of Rama Varma Tampuran (who belonged to that household)[80].  Moreover, various authors, from Charles Whish in the 19th century to Rajagopal and Rangachari have acknowledged that members of the royal household were very helpful in supplying these manuscripts in their possession.  


This suggests that the former royal family in Cochin, which was in possession of a large number of MSS, had not only a scholarly tradition, but also a tradition of helping other scholars. Thus, the royal family could itself have been a possible source of knowledge for the Jesuits. Indeed the Jesuits working on the Malabar Coast had close relations with the kings of Cochin[81]. Furthermore, around 1670, they were granted special privileges by King Rama Varma[82]who, despite his misgivings about the Jesuit work in conversion, permitted members of his household to be converted to Christianity[83].  The close relationship between the King of Cochin and the foreigners from Portugalwas cemented by King Rama Varma’s appointment of a Portuguese as his tax collector[84].


Given this close relationship with the Kings of Cochin, the Jesuit desire to know about local knowledge, and the royal family’s contiguity to the works on Indian astronomy, it is quite possible that the Jesuits may have acquired the key manuscripts via the royal household. In addition after the 1580 annexation of Portugal by Spainand subsequent loss of funding from Lisbon, the rationale for transmission acquired another dimension, that of  profit[85]. Given the financial rewards for accurate navigational methods the motivation for such acquisition must have been overwhelming.

Conclusion

At the beginning of this paper we proposed to take a legal view of the evidence for the transmission to Europe of the calculus that had developed in the works of the mathematicians and astronomers of the Aryabhata school between the 14th and 16th centuries. We established strong motivation for the transmission in the needs of navigation and the calendar reform., which were recognised as the most important scientific problems of that age in Europe. We also established that Europeans had ample opportunity to access the texts and calendrical almanacs in which this information was to be found not only in the straightforward sense that they knew the local languages well, but also in the sense that trained mathematicians were sent for the express purpose of collecting the knowledge available in these texts. The circumstantial evidence for transmission would appear while the work on documentary evidence has only just started.

 

ENDNOTES





[1] This paper is based on a presentation at the ‘International Conference on 1500 years of the Aryabhateeyam’, Thiruvanthapuram, India, 12-16 Jan, 2000.


[2]The Aryabhata Group acknowledges financial support from the Schoolof Education, University of Exeter, in the work that led to this paper.


[3] A.P. Jushkevich, Geschichte der  Matematik im Mittelater German translation, Leipzig, 1964,

of the original, Moscow, 1961. Victor J. Katz, A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, HarperCollinsCollegePublishers, 1992. Srinivasiengar, The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics, World Press, Calcutta, 1967, A. K. Bag. Mathematics in Ancient and Medieval India, Chaukhambha Orientalia, Delhi, 1979. A popular account may be found in G. G. Joseph, The Crest of the Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Princeton University Press, 2000. But it needs to be pointed out that there is ‘inertia’ in some quarters; for example, L. Fiegenbaum (‘Brook Taylor and the Method of Increments, Arch Hist Ex Sci, 34(1), 1986, 1-140, p72 )  makes no ackowledgement of the work of the Aryabhata  School  “….it is known today that Taylor was not the first to have discovered (the Taylor theorem), and that he was anticipated by at least five others: James Gregory, Newton, Leibniz, Johann Bernoulli and Abraham de Moivre. Nor is it certain that the list ends here since it reflects only our current awareness of the published and unpublished papers of Taylor’s predecessors.”


[4] The version of the TantraSangrahawhich has been recently serialised (K. V. Sarma ed) together with its English translation (V. S. Narasimhan Tr.) in the Indian Journal of History of Science (issue starting Vol. 33, No. 1 of March 1998) is incomplete and does not contain the relevant passages. We have used the verion of the TantraSangraha as found in the TantraSangrahaVyakhya, Palm Leaf MS No 697 and its transcript No. T 1251, both of the KeralaUniversity MS Library, Trivandrum. The missing verses are after II.21a of the Trivandrum Sanskrit Series MS. The same verses are also found on pp 68—69 of of the transcript No., T-275 of the TantraSangrahaVyakhya at Trippunitra Sanskrit College Library, copied from a palm leaf manuscript of the Desa Mangalatta Mana. We found Pl-697/T-1251 more useful since the commentary in Malayalam is clearly separated from the original text in Sanskrit. Needless to say  these verses are also found in the YuktiBhasa etc.


[5] P. K. Koru (ed) Karana-paddhati of Putumuna Somayaji, Astro Printing and Publishing Co., Cherp (Kerala), 1953, p 203; S. K. Nayar (ed) Karana Paddhati of Putumuna Somayaji, Govt. Oriental Manuscript Library, Madras, 1956, pp 189--193. For an exposition, see C. K. Raju, “Kamal or Rapalagai”, Paper presented at the Xth Indo-Portuguese Conference on History, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, Dec 1998.

 

[6] K. V. Sarma (Ed and Tr) GanitaYuktiBhasa of Jeyshtadeva (Analytical Exposition of the Rationales of Indian Mathematics and Astronomy), unpublished typescript , p 33-34. The precise number of decimal places actually calculated should not be used as a yardstick of development, since the method used was such  higher precision values could be obtained with only slightly greater effort. Thus, the number of correct decimal places actually obtained in the expansiion of p should be taken as an index of requirement rather than capability.


[7] J. Warren, Kala Sankalita, Madras1825, pp 93, 309--310. This observation of Heyne precedes the better known paper of Charles Whish, presented in 1832: “On the Hindu quadrature of the circle and the infinite series of the proportion of the circumference to the diameter exhibited in the four Shastras, the Tantrasamgraham, Yukti-Bhasa, Carana Padhati, and Sadratnamala.” Tr. Royal Asiatic Society of Gr. Britain and Ireland, 3 (1835) p 509-523.


[8] C. K. Raju, “Computers, Mathematics Education, and the Alternative Epistemology of the Calculus in the YuktiBhasa”, Plenary talk: Session on Technology, Education, and Changing Conceptions of Knowledge,  8th East-West conference, Hawai’i,  January 2000.


[9] For example in J.F.Scott, The Mathematical Work of John Wallis, Chelsea, New York, 1981,

P 66 we see that “Wallis [in A Defense of the Treatise of the Angle of Contact]  introduced the idea of ‘inceptive quantities’, and his definition of these – prima principia quod sic – no doubt provided Newton with a hint for the ‘nascent quantities’ which are at the root of the Method of Fluxions. ‘There are some things’, said Wallis, ‘which tho’ as to some kind of Magnitude, they are nothing; yet are in the next possibility of being somewhat. They are not in it, but tantum non; they are in the next possibility to it; and the beginning of it….’”


[10] This is not an empty question since the logic employed in other cultural traditions, like the empirical logic of quantum mechanics,  need be neither 2-valued nor even truth functional; see, C. K. Raju, “Mathematics and Culture”, in: History, Time and Truth: Essays in Honour of D. P. Chattopadhyaya,  (eds) Daya Krishna and K. Satchidananda Murty, Kalki Prakash, New Delhi 1998.


[11] Suzan Rose Benedict, A Comparative Study of the Early Treatises Introducing into Europe the Hundu Art of Reckoning, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan, April, 1914, Rumford Press.


[12] The victory of algorismus over abacus was depicted by a smiling Boethius using Indian numerals, and a glum Pythagoras to whom the abacus technique was attributed. This picture first appeared in the Margarita Philosophica of Gregor Reisch, 1503, and is reproduced e.g. in Karl Menninger, Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers, (Tr) Paul Broneer, MIT Press, Cambridge,  Mass., 1970, p 350. According to the periodisation suggested by Menso Folkerts, the abacus period commenced by the 12th century, though the use of the abacus is obviously much older. Menso Folkerts,  Lecture at the Second Meeting of the International Laboratory for the History of Science, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, 19-26 June 1999.


[13] An early descriptive catalogue of the Indian manuscripts in the Vatican is P. Paulino A. S. Bartholomaeo, Historico-Criticum Codicum Indicorum, Rome, 1792.


[14] For the different epistemology underlying the notion of sunya, see C. K. Raju, “Mathematical Epistemology of Sunya”, summary of interventions at the Seminar on the Concept of Sunya, Indian National Science Academy and Indira Gandhi Centre for the Arts, Delhi, Feb, 1997. To appear in Proceedings.


[15] See, however, C. K. Raju, “India’s Interaction with China, Central and West Asia in Mathematics and Astronomy” in A. Rahman (ed) India’s Interaction with China, Central and West Asia, PHISPC, New Delhi, 2000.

[16] For references and other details see C. K. Raju, “Kamal or Rapalagai” Paper presented at the Xth Indo-Portuguese meeting on History, Indian National Science Academy, Dec 1998, to appear in Proc. The rapalagai was the instrument used by the Indian pilot who brought Vasco da Gama to India, from Melinde.

[17] Later on the term jyotisacame to mean the determination of more specifically auspicious or “lucky” times for performing rituals, so that jyotisais today often mistranslated as astrology, “astral science”, etc.


[18]  Specifically, the method of determining longitude using a clepsydra is detailed in Laghu Bhaskariya , II.8 (Ed and Tr. K. S. Shukla), Department of Mathematics and Astronomy, LucknowUniversity, 1963, p 53. 


[19] E. S. Kennedy, A Commentary Upon Biruni’s Kitab Tahdid al Amakin, An 11th Century Treatise on Mathematical Geography, AmericanUniversity of Beirut, Beirut, 1973.


[20] J. Carvalho, Pedro Nunes – Defensaõ Do Tratado Da Rumacao Do Globo Para A Arte De Navegar, Coimbra, 1952


[21] D. J. Struik, A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200--1800, HarvardUniversity Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1969,  p 253.


[22]The Principal Works of Simon Stevin, Vol. III, Astronomy and Navigation (eds) A Pannekoek and Ernst Crone, Amsterdam, Swets and Seitlinger, 1961.


[23] For a figure etc., see C. K. Raju, “Kamal...” cited above. Stevins, The Haven Finding Art, cited above, p 481 et. seq.  Nunes ascribed to the loxodrome  a particular property, viz. That the sines of the polar distances of the points of intersection with meridians at equal differences of longitude form a continued proportion. Stevins,(p 491) refuted this by direct calculation.


[24] For more details, see C. K. Raju, “Kamal...” cited above


[25] For details of Al Biruni’s technique, and for the connection to the Indo-Arabic navigational measure of zam, see C. K. Raju, “Kamal or Rapalagai,” cited earlier.


[26] See, for example, D. Ferroli, The Jesuits in Malabar, Bangalore, 1939, Volume 2, page 402.

[27]  It is noteworthy that Nunes had, in 1577  received an  invitation to join the commission on the reform of the calendar. See J. Carvalho, Pedro Nunes Defensaõ Do Tratado Da Rumacao Do Globo Para A Arte De Navegar, Coimbra, 1952, p x.


[28] Christophori Clavii Bambergensis, Tabulae Sinuum,  Tangentium et Secantium ad partes radij 10,000,000 ..., Ioannis Albini, 1607. As the title suggests, this table concerns not sine values proper,  as today understaood, but RSine values which are what are given in Indian manuscripts. Stevins follows the same practice for his secant tables, The Haven Finding Art, cited above, p 483.


[29] George Saliba, A History of Arabic Astronomy in the Golden Age of Islam,New YorkUniversityPress, 1994.


[30]The Principal Works of Simon Stevins, Vol III, cited above, p 603.


[31] V.Cronin, in The Wise Man From The West – Matteo Ricci and His Mission To China, Fount, Collins, 1984, p 22, states that “. ….. in 1575 Ricci entered a new phase of his studies; philosophy and mathematics, Aristotle and Euclid. The advanced course was taught by a young German, Christopher Clavius, the most brilliant mathematician of his day. …He showed special aptitude for this course winning notice as a mathematician of promise.”


[32]Isaia Iannaccone, Johann Schreck Terrentius, Instituto Universitario Orientale, Napoli, 1998


[33] See, for example, Ugo Baldini, Studi Su Filosofia E Scienza Dei Gesuiti In Italia 1540 - 1632, Bulzoin Editore, 1992


[34] See, for example, D. Ferroli, The Jesuits in Malabar, Bangalore, 1939, Volume 2, page 402.


[35] Printing has somewhat simplified this process. For a listing of 60 different currently printed pancanga-s, see Report of the Calendar Reform Committee, Govt of India, CSIR, 1955.


[36]Ugo Baldini, Studi su filosofia e scienza dei gesuiti in Italia 1540 - 1632, Bulzoni Editore, 1992, p70 “Si può ricordare che molti dei migliori allievi gesuiti di Clavio e Geienberger (iniziando con Matteo Ricci e proseguendo con C. Spinola, G. Aleni, G. A. Rubino, S. De Ursis, Schreck, G. Rho) divennero missionari nelle Indie orientali. Questa scelta, se li fece protagonisti di un interscambio tra la tradizione europea e quelle indiana e cinese, particolarmente in matematica ed astronomia, che fu di per sé un fenomeno di grande significato storico, limitò certamente la loro produttività scientifica.”


[37] See H W Turnbull, James Gregory Tercentenary Memorial Volume, London , 1939. “Gregory spent three or four years (1664-1668) in Italy....having stayed most of the time in Padua, where Galileo taught.” (p 4). That Gregory acquired his knowledge through other sources is made plain by A. Prag, “On James Gregory's Geometriae Pars Universalis”, pp 487-509, in H W Turnbull, James Gregory Tercentenary Memorial Volume, London, 1939: “James Gregory published Geometriae Pars Universalis at the end of his visit to Italy in 1668. This book is the firs attempt to write a systematic text-book on what we should call the calculus. Gregory does not suggest that he is the actual author of all the theorems in this work …We cannot judge exactly how much Gregory borrowed from other authors, because we do not know which books he may have read and to what extent he had knowledge of the unprinted work of his contemporaries.”


[38]Correspondance du P. Marin Mersenne, 18 volumes, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1945-. ; A letter from the astronomer Ismael Boulliaud to Mersenne in Rome,  Vol XIII,  p 267-73.


[39]Correspondance, Vol XIII, p 518-521.


[40]Correspondance, Vol II, p 103-115.


[41] E.g. Carl B. Boyer, A History of Mathematics, Wiley, 1968, p 424; C. H. Edwards, The Historical Development of the Calculus, Springer, 1979, p 113.


[42] George Saliba, cited earlier.


[43] William Wallace, Galileo and his Sources – The heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo’s Science, Princeton University Press, 1984,has direct evidence of Galileo borrowing heavily from Jesuit sources in the Collegio Romano.


[44] Fauvel and Gray, The History of Mathematics – A Reader, Macmillan, 1987, p 291, describe Wallis’s strong claim that Descartes plagiarized a treatise of Thomas Harriot (Britain’s greatest mathematician before Newton).


[45] D. Struik, A Source Book in Mathematics, cited earlier, p 29.


[46] D. Struik, A Source Book in Mathematics, cited above, p 30.


[47] For an modern introduction to details of Bhaskara’s chakravala method, see I. S. Bhanu Murthy, A Modern Introduction to Ancient Indian Mathematics, Wiley Eastern, new Delhi, 1992. Also see C.Selenius, ‘Rationale of the Chakravala Process of Jayadeva and Bhaskara II’, Historia Mathematica, 2, 1975, 167-184


[48] Euler’s paper on the “Hindu year” was an appendix to Historia Regni Graecorum Bactriani by T. S. Bayer; see G. R. Kaye, Hindu Astronomy, 1924, reprinted, Cosmo Publications, 1981, p 1.


[49] Amir D. Aczel, Fermat’s Last Theorem, Penguin, p 5.


[50]Ganita, 9 a-b. Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata,(ed and Tr.) K. S. Shukla and K. V. Sarma, IndianNationalScienceAcademy, Delhi, 1976.  It may be recollected here, that area is not defined anywhere in any well-known version of the Elements, and that Hilbert’s synthetic approach to the Elements, which defines neither length nor area, hence fails beyond Proposition 1.35 of the Elements.

 

[51]Ganita, 10. Aryabhatiya, cited above.


[52]Ganita, 11. Aryabhatiya, cited above.


[53] C. K. Raju, “Approximation and proof in the Yuktibhasa derivation of Madhava’s sine series”, cited earlier.


[54] E..g. Cavalieri’s statement is now termed a conjecture, while Wallis is said to have stated the formula without proof. Edwards, cited above, p 114; Boyer, cited above, p 417.


[55] E.g. Edwards, cited above, p 109-113.


[56] S. N. Sen, “Mathematics”, in D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen, and B. V. Subbarayappa (eds), A Concise History of Science in India, IndianNationalScienceAcademy, Delhi, 1971, pp 156-157.


[57] Photographs of a 1303 Chinese depiction of Pascal’s triangle have been provided by Joseph Needham, The Shorter Science & Civlisation in China, Vol 2, Cambridge University Press, 1981, p 55.


[58] Bombelli acknowledged  the transmission of Indian mathematics to the West. From J. Fauvel and J. Gray, The History of Mathematics, Macmillan,  1987, we have (page 264) from the preface of Bombelli's  Algebra“ …a Greek work on this discipline has been discovered in the

Library of our Lord in the Vatican, composed by a certain Diophantus of Alexandria, a Greek author, who lived at the  time of Antoninus Pius. When it had been shown to me by Master Antonio Maria Pazzi, from Reggio, public lecturer in mathematics in Rome…..(we) set ourselves to translate it … in this work we have found that he cites Indian authors many times, and thus I have been made aware that this discipline belonged to the Indians before the Arabs.”


[59]“Planet fakery exposed. Falsified data: Johannes Kepler” The Times (London) 25 January 1990, 31a, including large excerpts from the article by William J. Broad, “After 400 years, a challenge to Kepler: He fabricated his data, scholars say”. New York Times23 January 1990, C1, 6. The key article is William Donahue, “Kepler’s fabricated figures: Covering up the mess in the New Astronomy” Journal for the History of  Astronomy, 19 (1988) p 217-37.


[60] E.g. Gérard Colas, Les manuscrits envoyé de l’Inde par les jésuites français entre 1729 et 1735, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.


[61] O. Spies,  “Il P. Calmette e le sue Conoscenze Indologiche”, Studia Indologica, Bonn, 1955, p 53- 64.


[62] See, for example, Documenta Indica,  IV p 293 and  VIII p 458.


[63]Documenta Indica,  XIVp 425 and XV p 34*, and D. Ferroli, The Jesuits in Malabar, Bangalore, 1939.


[64] see, e.g., the letters contained in the manuscript collection Goa13 at the Archivum Romanicum Societate Iesu in Rome.

[65] V. Cronin, A Pearl to India – The Life of Roberto de Nobili, Darton, Longman and Todd, 1966, p 178-180.


[66] Documenta Indica,  III, p 307


[67] For example, D. Ferroli, The Jesuits in Malabar, 1939, Vol 2, p402, states  “In Portuguese India, hardly seven years after the death of St. Francis Xavier the fathers obtained the translation of a great part of the 18 Puranas and sent it to Europe. A Brahmin spent eight years in translating the works of Veaso (Vyasa)……several Hindu books were got from Brahmin houses, and brought to the Library of the Jesuit college. These translations are now preserved in the Roman Archives of the Society of Jesus. (Goa46)”


[68] Luis Pina, As Ciencias Na Historia Do Imperio Colonial Portugueses, (seculos XV a XIX), Lisbon, 1956,  p 127, “ Ao jesuita luis frois cabe lugar especial neste trabalho; a este, como a outros padres da compangia; basta lermos o valioso capitulo ALEM-MAR, CIENCAS E LETRAS.”


[69]Documenta Indica XI,  P185, a letter of de Menses, Coulano, dated 31/12/1580 states “Lá  mando a V.P. huma descripçam de todo o mundo por muitos astrologos apurada e pilotos, e quanto ás cousas da india, sem nenhum erro nas alturas e schalas miliharias, por se fazer por astrologos e pilotos que cada dia correm estas terras, porque as cartas de lá sam todas erradas nas alturas indicas, como eu claramente vi.”


[70] Henri Bernard, Matteo Ricci’s Scientific Contribution to China, Hyperion Press, Westport, Conn., 1973, p38.  It is relevant to point out that it was Maffei (I. Petri Maffei, History of the Indies, in book 1, Venice 1589) who details the navigational help received by da Gama to cross the Arabian sea and arrive at Calicut. Ricci, furthermore, was not alone in scientific exploration of India; for example in Documenta Indica, Vol 15, p 185, De Menses reports ‘Lá  mando a V.P. huma descripçam de todo o mundo por muitos astrologos apurada e pilotos, e quanto ás cousas da india, sem nenhum erro nas alturas e schalas miliharias, por se fazer por astrologos e pilotos que cada dia correm estas terras, porque as cartas de lá sam todas erradas nas alturas indicas, como eu claramente vi. Em os santos sacrificios de V.P. muito me encomendo.’


[71]“Com tudo não me parece que sera impossivel saberse, mas has de ser por via d`algum mouro honorado ou brahmane muito intelligente que saiba as cronicas dos tiempos, dos quais eu procurarei saber tudo.” Letter by Matteo Ricci to Petri Maffei on 1 Dec 1581. Goa38I, ff 129r--30v, corrected and reproduced in Documenta Indica, XII,  472-477  (p 474). Also reproduced  in Tacchi Venturi, Matteo Ricci S.I., Le Lettre Dalla Cina 1580-1610, vol 2, Macerata, 1613.


[72] Ugo Baldini, Studi su filosofia e scienza dei gesuiti in Italia 1540 - 1632, Bulzoin Editore, 1992, p214reports of Rubino’s letter  “…….scritta da una località indiana il cui nome è di lettura incerta, egli informa di fare rilevazíoni per cartografare il territorio, per determinare alcune posizioni si è servito di eclissi, confrontando i tempi locali reali con quelli desumibili dalle efemeridi di Magini e riscontrandovi grandi inesattezze; chiede perciò altre efemeridi, oppure le Tabulae prutenicae.


[73] See, Isaia Iannaccone, Johann Schreck Terrentius, Instituto Universitario Orientale, Napoli, 1998,

 p58  “Durante la sosta a Goa, Schreck fu altresi impegnato in campo astronomico: assieme a Kirwitzer, Schall von Bell, Rho e Rubino annotò le osservazioni di alcune comete visibili verso la fine del 1618; i risultati di queste osservazioni furono poi inviate in Europa ai confratelli Ziegler e Decker del Collegio di Ingolstadt, affinché le trasmettessero a Kepler


[74] C. Baumgardt, Johannes Kepler: Life and Letters, Philosophical Library, NY, 1951, p 153, (in Kepler’s letter to Paul Guldin Jesuit professor of mathematics in Vienna, from Linz, Feb7,1626) Kepler writes “If I could only obtain soon the observations on the eclipse from India or from any other place (where it occurs)…”

[75] T. J. S. Patterson, ‘Science and Medicine in India’, in Eds Pietro Corsi and Paul Weindling, Information Sources In The History Of Science And Medicine, Butterworths Scientific, 1983, p 437-456.


[76] D. Sarton, 1955, The Appreciation of Ancient and Medieval Science During the Renaissance (1450-1600), University of Pennsylvania, 1955, p102


[77] See Isaia Iannaccone, Johann Schreck Terrentius, Instituto Universitario Orientale, Napoli, 1998


[78] C. M. Whish, On the Hindu Quadrature of the Circle…., Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 3(3), 1835, pp 509-523.  Whish states here (p 521) that the author of the astronomical work the Sadratnamalah is Sankara Varma, the younger brother of Raja of Cadattanada near Tellicherry and further states that the Raja is a very acute mathematician. Also C. N. Srinivasiengar, The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics, World Press, Calcutta, 1967. Srinivasiengar also states that Sankara Varma is the author of  Sadratnamalah and is brother of the Uday Varma, the King of Kerala (p146) . He further refers (p 145) to the Malyalam History of Sanskrit Literature in Keralawhich identifies the King of Cochin, Raja Varma, as being aware of the chronology of the Karana-Paddhati.


[79]YuktibhasaPart 1, with notes (Ed) Ramavarma (Maru) Tampuran and A. R. Akhileswara Aiyar,  Mangalodayam Ltd, Trichur, 1948 (in Malayalam). Most subsequent work has relied on this exposition.

C. T. Ragagopal and M. S. Rangachari, ‘On an Untapped Source of Medieval Keralese Mathematics’, Archive for the History of Exact Sciences, 18, 1978, 89-102. Rajagopal and Rangachari state that Rama Varma Tampuran supplied them with the manuscript material [Desa Mangalatta Mana MS of TantraSangrahaVyakhya] relating to Kerala mathematics. Also K. V. Sarma, A History of the Kerala School of Hindu Astronomy, Hoshiarpur Vishveshvaranand Institute, 1972. On page 12, K. V. Sarma points to the valuable notes added to the analysis of Kerala astronomy by Rama Varma Maru Tampuran in his 1948 exposition of the first part of the Yuktibhasa. His subsequent translation of the Yuktibhasa has utilised the same material (personal communication).


[80] In a personal communication with, Mukunda Marar, the eldest son of the last king of Cochin the Aryabhata Group has established that the former kings were, at the least, all aware of the astronomical methods of the astrological prediction and of the MS that contained these methods. Several were scholarly enough to publish commentaries of the mathematical/astronomical works. Mukunda Marar, himself, worked with C T Rajagopal and published a work On the Hindu Quadrature of the Circle, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Bombaybranch), 20, 1944, 65-82.


[81] see for example, Documenta Indica, X, pages 239, 834, 835, 838, and 845


[82]Documenta Indica,XV, p 224


[83]Documenta Indica, vol XV, p 7*


[84]Documenta Indica, vol XV, p 667


[85]  “Most of the Jesuit missionaries set to work to master the vernaculars…. some of their number studies Indian books and Indian philosophy, not merely with the idea of refuting it, but with the desire of profiting by it.” D. Ferroli, The Jesuits in Malabar, 1939, volume 2, p 93.  

http://www.ms.uky.edu/~sohum/ma330/files/12%20Aryabhata%20Group%20Transmissiond%20temp%20(2).doc


See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80ryabha%E1%B9%ADa's_sine_table
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhava%27s_sine_table
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhaskara_I%27s_sine_approximation_formula

http://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol37_2_1_BNNAchar.pdf Āryabhaṭa and the table of Rsines by BN Narahari Achar Indian Journal of History of Science, 37.2 (2002) 95-99


How calculus was appropriated from India into Europe? – Dr. Bhaskar Kamble


The development of the infinitesimal calculus is considered to be a watershed event in the history of science and mathematics. Its importance in the natural sciences cannot be overestimated. Among the people credited for its invention are John Wallis (1616-1703 CE), Isaac Newton (1642-1727 CE), and Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716 CE).
Very roughly speaking, calculus handles those problems where the rate at which ‘something’ is increasing is itself changing in time. Simple examples can include the case where the speed (the rate at which the distance is increasing) is changing in time, or the case where the acceleration (the rate at which the speed is changing in time) is changing in time. Together with Newton’s three laws of motion, which are physical in content, it offers a powerful tool to mathematically describe physical phenomena.
However, the standard story of calculus being developed in Europe independently by Newton and Leibniz, which is so universally accepted today, may well be in need of a major revision. Just like the concept of zero and the decimal number system originated in India, it is now well known that the concept of calculus also originated in India three centuries before it first appeared in Europe [1,2]. There is strong circumstantial evidence to suggest that these ideas and concepts were systematically appropriated by the church in Europe at the end of the 16th century and subsequently passed off as a European invention.
The earliest notion of calculus, specifically differential calculus, is to be found in the notion of tatkalika gati (Sanskrit: instantaneous velocity), of Bhaskaracharya (1114-1185 CE), in his monumental work Siddhanta Shiromani. In this text, he explicitly demonstrates and makes use of the relation
which is a standard result of differential calculus, to determine the instantaneous velocity of a planet. He also states one of the most important results of differential calculus – that the derivative vanishes at the points of minima or maxima, and also states what is today known as the Rolle’s theorem in analysis/calculus [2].
The tradition of mathematics in India has a long and hoary past, with several shining names such as Aryabhata, Bhaskara I, Bhaskaracharya, Brahmagupta, Varahamihira, and so on. The schools started by several of these mathematicians would constantly develop and improve upon the discoveries of the earlier mathematicians, and come up with significant new results in the process. The most sophisticated insights and developments undoubtedly come from the work of what is known as the Kerala school of mathematics, which was extant from 1300-1600 CE. They wrote commentaries on the works of earlier mathematicians such as Aryabhata and Bhaskara, and made important discoveries in what is known today as calculus. That these mathematicians developed calculus 300 hundred years before Newton and Leibniz did is obvious [1,2], but what is more interesting is how and why their work was hauled off to Europe, plagiarized, and passed off as a European invention. In this post I will try to shed light on how this occurred.
Till the 15th – 16th centuries, it is important to remember that the church dominated all spheres of life in Europe. Central to its aims was the establishment of Christianity throughout the world and destroy all ‘pagan’ and ‘heathen’ cultures in the process. The genocide of Red Indians in the Americas, or of aborigines in Australia, or Hindus in India (especially the Goa inquisition in the 16th century), are a direct consequence of these aims, and so are the continued attempts of today by Christian missionaries to convert people of other faiths into Christianity. To further these expansionist policies, it was necessary to go to far-away lands and ‘civilize’ and Christianize the ‘natives’. To do so, however, needed navigational skills which, in turn, needed a good knowledge of astronomy (for example while navigating with the help of the stars) and a good knowledge of trigonometry (for example to calculate the latitude and longitude). In particular, trigonometric tables of the sine and cosine functions are a must for accurately determining the latitude at sea based on the altitude of the pole star.
There was another very important reason why the church needed astronomical knowledge – to carry out the calendar reform. The calendar originally used by the church was the Julian calendar, which had an error of one day in a century. This error was accumulating over the centuries and was causing the date of Easter to drift further and further away from the spring equinox into summer. It was very important for the church to set it right. A good calendar is also essential for good navigation, and thus the problem of navigation and the calendar were closely related. Thus, the issues of navigation and the calendar were high priority programs by the church, and several mathematicians involved with the church were actively involved in finding solutions. Attractive prizes were offered to anyone who could come up with solutions to these problems. The most important member in this regard is Christoph Clavius, who modified the curriculum of the priests in Collegio Romano to teach them mathematics, and himself designed the mathematical content of the curriculum, as well as writing a text book on mathematics to be used by the priests in their education.
In spite of this, as is well known, European astronomy and mathematics of those times was hopelessly lacking in the required knowledge [3]. And at the same time, the astronomical and mathematical knowledge of India was much superior to that of Europe. The works of several Indian mathematicians were well known in Europe, thanks to Arabic translations of Sanskrit texts, and the subsequent translations into Latin [4]. Also Fibonacci had introduced the Indian number system to Europe in 1202 CE. The navigational skills of Indian merchants was also something of a legend [5].
To realize just how advanced the Indian mathematics was at this time, we need to look at the achievements of the Kerala school. The tradition of the Kerala school was started by Madhava of Sangamagrama (1340-1425 CE), who was followed by several brilliant mathematicians and astronomers which include Parameshvara (1380-1460 CE), Nilakantha Somayaji (1444-1544 CE), and Jyeshthadeva (1500-1610 CE). Madhava is credited with many of the discoveries of the Kerala school, but verly little of his writings survive. The results obtained by him are further elaborated and developed by later scholars such as Nilakantha Somayaji in his work Tantra Sangraha, and Jyeshthadeva in his work Yukti Bhasha. The Yukti Bhasha is a veritable text book of calculus, and offers detailed explanations of most of the results obtained by the Kerala scholars. The scholars of this school also made several astronomical observations and collected the data in their works, and proposed significant improvements of the then prevailing astronomical models. Among the achievements of the Kerala school are the systematic development of the ‘limit’ procedure, which is so central to calculus, the systematic analysis of inifinte series, infinite series expansions of the sine, cosine and arctan functions, (the so-called Taylor series of today), a plethora of series expansions of pi (including the one known today as the Gregory series, 300 years before Gregory discovered them), important contributions in spherical trigonometry, and the development of much improved astronomical models based on actual observations. A practical application, much sought after by European navigators, was the calculation of sine tables, which had been carried out by Madhava up to an accuracy of eight decimal places [6,7]. An interesting application of this work was the calculation of pi up to 17 decimal places, which is coded beautifully through the kattapayadi system in the Sadratnamala of Shankara Varman.  In fact many of the works of these mathematicians are still subjects of active research by modern mathematicians! And of course, behind this there was a whole body of work by earlier Indian mathematicians such as Aryabhata, Bhaskara I and II, Brahmagupta etc.
It is in the light of this vastly superior Indian mathematics and astronomy, and the tremendous eagerness of the church to possess this knowledge, that the situation in Europe in the 15th – 16th centuries must be viewed. As already mentioned, Christoph Clavius had set up the mathematical syllabus of the Jesuit priests, and in 1578, the first batch of the most capable priests trained by him, which included Matteo Ricci, Johann Schreck, and Antonio Rubino, were dispatched to the Malabar region of Kerala, including Cochin, which was the epicenter of the Kerala mathematics.
Once they were there, they set up a printing press, learnt the local language, and gained the patronage and trust of the local scholars and royal personages. And now began in earnest the task to acquire Indian texts, translate them, and dispatch them back to Europe [7]. However, all this was kept a top secret. Even today, if you make a Google search on Matteo Ricci, you will never find the real reason why he was there, although it will be mentioned that he was in Kerala. And this, in spite of the fact Ricci and Rubino have been recorded in correspondence as answering requests for astronomical information from Kerala sources [8].
However, there is enough circumstantial evidence to prove that the transfer of the calculus from India indeed took place. First, there is little doubt about the real intention behind the trip of the Jesuits to Kerala: before being sent to India in 1578, not only were they trained in mathematics by the leading astronomer of those days, Christoph Clavius,  but also that, soon thereafter in 1582, the Gregorian calendar reform took place [9]! Remember that the calendar reform was one of the pressing concerns of the church and, what is more, the committee that carried out this reform was also headed by Christoph Clavius!
Next, as mentioned already, the Kerala mathematicians had created extensive tables of sines and cosines to a high degree of accuracy. Now, in 1607, Clavius published these tables under his name, without explaining how he carried out the calculations [10]! This again leaves no doubts as to the source of these tables.
The above two circumstances are quite strong to come to the conclusion that the Europeans surreptitiously used the Kerala texts, but there is more. At the end of the 16th century, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe came up with his ‘Tychonic model’ of planetary motion, wherein Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn revolve around the sun, but the sun is revolving around the earth. What is interesting to note here is that this is exactly the model proposed by Nilakantha in his Tantra Sangraha some 300 years earlier [11]! What a ‘coincidence’! Remember that Tycho Brahe in the capacity of the Royal astronomer of the Holy Roman Empire had easy access to all the Kerala texts sent by missionaries such as Ricci. He was also known to be extremely secretive and jealous about the astronomical observations and other documents in his possession [11]. The only explanation and conclusion is that Brahe was in possession of the work of the Kerala school of mathematics which he used to come up with his ‘Tychonic model’.
We must also mention that Jyeshthadeva’s Yuktibhasha gives a formula involving a passage to infinity to calculate the area under a parabola. The same formula was used by Fermat, Pascal, and Wallis [8]. Wallis is also given partial credit for the development of calculus. It is thus quite safe to conclude that the Kerala texts fell into the hands of these mathematicians, based on whose work Newton and Leibniz came up with the ideas of calculus. The possibility that Newton and Leibniz had direct access to these texts cannot be ruled out.
Finally the question may be raised as to why the church kept all this activity so secret. The answer is obvious: the church could not possibly carry out its noble mission of ‘civilizing pagan cultures’ and at the same time accept that these cultures had a much advanced scientific culture upon which it (the church) was so dependent! This only makes sense since it is difficult for a ‘superior’ race to cope with the fact that an ‘inferior’ race can have a civilization and culture much more advanced than theirs. This is the reason why the Aryan race theory was created by the European imperialists when the antiquity and culture of the Hindu civilization was discovered [12]. Moreover, in the case of the church, anyone who professed to be using ‘pagan’ sources of knowledge ran the certain risk of being a heretic and being burnt at the stake for ‘devil-worship’. This certainly was a good enough incentive for anyone to conceal the true sources of knowledge! In this context, it is instructive to read the following quote from [13]:
“There is nothing ‘natural’ or universal in hiding what one has learnt from others: the Arabs, for instance, did not mind learning from others, and they openly acknowledged it. This is another feature unique to the church: the idea that learning from others is something so shameful that, if it had to be done, the fact ought to be hidden. Therefore, though the church sought knowledge about the calendar, specifically from India, and profusely imported astronomical texts … this import of knowledge remained hidden.”
Since the modern world is fortunately not governed by ecclesiastical restrictions anymore, and since it is good scientific practice to give credit where it is due, it is time that we revise the standard story of calculus and honor and remember its original inventors from Bharat.
References:
[1] ‘On the Hindu quadrature of the circle, and the infinite series of the proportion of the circumference to the diameter exhibited in the four Sastras, the Tantra Sangraham, Yucti Bhasha, Carana Padhati, and Sadratnamala’, by C. M. Whish, published in the  Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol.  3, No. 3, pp. 509–523.
[2] Encyclopedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures (two volumes), ed. Helaine Selin, Springer.
[3] To understand the status of European navigation in the 16th century, look up Navigation, Maths and Astronomy: the Pagan Knowledge, by D. P. Agrawal ( http://www.indianscience.org/essays/15-%20E–Navigation%20&%20Math.pdf  ).
[4] In this context we note how the modern names for the trigonometric functions ‘sine’ and ‘cosine’ originated: “When Arabic writers translated his (Aryabhata’s) works from Sanskrit into Arabic, they referred it as jiba. However, in Arabic writings, vowels are omitted, and it was abbreviated as jb. Later writers substituted it with jaib, meaning “pocket” or “fold (in a garment)”. (In Arabic, jiba is a meaningless word.) Later in the 12th century, when Gherardo of Cremona translated these writings from Arabic into Latin, he replaced the Arabic jaib with its Latin counterpart, sinus, which means “cove” or “bay”; thence comes the English sine” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata#Trigonometry).
[5] One of the best kept secrets of Western history is that Vasco da Gama and Columbus were no good navigators at all. It is commonly assumed that Vasco da Gama ‘discovered’ India- he did nothing of the sort. In fact he was safely escorted to India by an Indian merchant from Gujarat, named Kanha, from the African coast.
[7] C.K. Raju (2007). Cultural foundations of mathematics: The nature of mathematical proof and the transmission of calculus from India to Europe in the 16 thc. CE. History of Philosophy, Science and Culture in Indian Civilization. X Part 4. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations. pp. 114–123.
[8] D. F. Almeida and G. G. Joseph, Eurocentrism in the history of mathematics: the case of the Kerala school, Race and Class, Vol. 45(4): 45-59 (2004).
[9] Resulting in the so-called Gregorian calendar, which is the one used today.
[10] Christophori Clavii Bambergensis, Tabulae Sinuum, Tangentium et Secantium ad partes radij 10,000,000 (Ioannis Albini, 1607), as quoted in C. K. Raju, Teaching mathematics with a different philosophy, Part 2: Calculus without Limits, Science and Culture 77(7-8) (2011) pp. 280-285.
[11] C. K. Raju, Ending Academic Imperialism: a Beginning. Available online at http://www.ckraju.net/papers/Academic-imperialism-final.pdf
[12] An excellent account of the Aryan race theory is given in Breaking India, by Rajiv Malhotra and Aravindan Neelakandan.
[13] D. P. Agrawal, Navigation, Maths and Astronomy: the Pagan Knowledge. The article can be accessed at http://www.indianscience.org/essays/15-%20E–Navigation%20&%20Math.pdf
https://bharathgyanblog.wordpress.com/2016/12/28/how

http://www.indicstudies.us/PROC14.PS.pdf Astronomical Dating of Events & Select Vignettes from Indian History Volume I Edited and compiled by Kosla Vepa (2008)

http://ckraju.net/blog/?p=6 Aryabhata and Ptolemy. How does Aryabhata’s value of pi compare with Ptolemy’s?


What are some unknown facts about Aryabhata?

2 Answers


Sahana Seetharaman
These facts are not 'unknown' but many people are unaware of them:
1. The correct spelling of Aryabhata is Aryabhata (as you have spelt it). Aryabhata is often misspelt as Aryabhatta. The meaning of 'bhata' is 'slave, soldier' whereas the meaning of 'bhatta' is 'Brahmin, learned man'. However, in all commentaries of Aryabhata by mathematcians from his school, his name is always mentioned as Aryabhata and not Aryabhatta. However, Aryabhata is often drawn as a Brahmin man wearing a sacred thread including in textbooks. There is no evidence that Aryabhata was a Brahmin and hence these pictures are wrong portrayals of Aryabhata. For more information on this, consult books by C.K.Raju. Most of the information below is  also from C.K.Raju.

2. The first clear description of relativity was given by Aryabhata. (From : A Note on Aryabhata's Relativity, Parakh) The following stanzas appear in the Astronomical Section of Aryabhatiya:
 Just as a man in a boat moving sees the stationary objects (on either side of the river) as moving backward, just so are the stationary starts seen by people at Lanka (reference co-ordinate on the equator), as moving exactly towards the west.

(It so appears as if) the entire structure of the asterisms together with the planets were moving exactly towards the west of Lanka, being constantly driven by the provector wind, to cause their rising and setting.

3. Aryabhata gave algorithms to compute square roots and cube roots.

4. Aryabhata gave an approximation of the value of pi correctly to five significant figures as 3.1416.

5. Aryabhat was only 23 years old when he wrote the Aryabhatiya.

6. The Madhava school or Keralese schoolin Cochin who developed calculus considered themselves as Aryabhata school, that is they were followers of his tradition of mathematics.

7. It is important to understand Aryabhata's work in the larger context of Indian mathematical tradition which is algorithmic and practical. This was necessitated because the primary source of wealth in India was agriculture and navigation. For agriculture, a way to predict monsoons was needed and for navigation trigonometry was needed. Thus, arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry and calculus were developed in India. Aryabhatiyam is important in this context because it is the oldest known book on mathematics in India.
 
8. I will add more points to this later.


Rupak Ghosh

'Unknown'? No. 'Lesser-known?' Maybe.
Aryabhatta is credited with inventing an alphabetic system of notation.
These were denominations - each 10 times the preceding one - and were used for enumerating the numerical portions of his study in astronomy.
The denominations were: eka, dasa, sata, sahasra, ayuta, niyuta, prayata, koti, arbuda, and vrinda.
This laid the foundation of what came to be known in Mathematics as place value.
https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-unknown-facts-about-Aryabhata
  1. K.V. Sarma, Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (critical edition with English translation and notes), 1974-76. Published by INSA, 1976, on the occasion of the 1500th Brith Anniversary Celebration of Aryabhata.
  2. K.V. Sarma, Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (with commentary of Suryadeva Yajvan, critical edition), 1974-76. Published by INSA, 1976,on the occasion of the 1500th Birth Anniversary Celebration of Aryabhata. http://insaindia.res.in/comproj96.php
http://www.scienceandculture-isna.org/July-aug-2011/03%20C%20K%20Raju.pdf 


https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1312/1312.2100.pdf Teaching mathematics with a different philosophy by CK Raju (2011)

http://www.hbcse.tifr.res.in/episteme/episteme-1/allabs/rajuabs.pdf Math wars and the epistemic divide in Mathematics by CK Raju (1999)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaodCGDjqzs  Published on Nov 20, 2015 Calculus: The Real Story - Prof. C. K. Raju (1:03:57)



MONDAY 26 OCTOBER 2009


History and Philosophy of Mathematics: C K Raju

Excerpts of this interview appeared in:
Ghadar Jari Hai—The Revolt Continues, Vol III, No. 3&4, July-Dec, 2009

Peepul ke Neeche

“Indian mathematics is practical whereas the European is metaphysical”

C K Raju has been arguing passionately through several lectures and books about the uniqueness of ancient Indian mathematics and how it influenced the rest of the world. He says what is taught as standard modern mathematics today, is based on theological positions taken by the Church after the Crusades. Shivanand Kanavi conversed with Raju on the results of his research in the history and philosophy of mathematics.
Shivanand: Dr Raju welcome to peepul ke neeche conversation. Having looked at some of your writings, I see that you have researched deeply into the mathematical tradition of India as well as that of Persia, Arabia and Europe. Could you give us an overview of exchanges between India and West Asia in the field of mathematics?

Raju: As I have stated in the book (Is Science Western in Origin?—C K Raju), the process of exchange with Arabs started with Barmakids (barmak from pramukh, Persian-Buddhists who were wazirs to Abbasid Khalifas--Ed), this was around 8th century CE, after the conquest of Persia by the Arabs. Besides the spread of Islam in Persia, Persian customs spread to the Arabs. There was a tradition in Persia of importing knowledge from all over the world. It was based on a philosophy which regarded knowledge itself as virtue, like the Socratic philosophy. So, to make people virtuous you gather knowledge from all corners of the world. It was begun by Khusrow Noshirvan in the 6th century. At that time Justinian closed all the schools of philosophy in the Roman empire and many philosophers took refuge in the court of Noshirvan. According to the Shahnama [of Firdausi] his wazir came to India and took chess, Panchatantra etc. back to Persia. There was also an astronomical tradition in Jundishapur (Gundeshapur) in Persia. This astronomy also traveled from India. Which is interesting, because Khusrow’s court already had the most knowledgeable people in the Roman empire and if the Almagest (Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name al-kitabu-l-mijisti, (The Great Book) of a mathematical and astronomical treatise proposing the complex motions of the stars and planetary paths, originally written in Greek by Ptolemy of Alexandria, Egypt, written in the 2nd century. The Almagest is the most important source of information on ancient Greek astronomy-Ed) or any other advanced astronomical text existed at that time then it would have been similarly collected and translated, but we do not hear about it. On the contrary, the Almagest itself starts off by addressing an unknown “Cyrus”. So it was probably constructed in Persia. Certainly, Greek knowledge was translated into Persian and later into Arabic. But, so far as astronomy is concerned we know that the very fact that first it went [from India] to Persia and then Baghdad shows that Greek knowledge at that point did not compare in any way with the present-day versions of Ptolemy’s Almagest. There was also a strong tradition of neo-Platonism which came through texts in Greek language [though probably it originated in Egypt]. This was called the “theology of Aristotle”, and that was the primary extent of “Greek” knowledge at that time. There was no Greek knowledge available from Byzantium at that time since all the schools of philosophy there had been closed. [We also know that Arabic knowledge travelled in the other direction, to Greek texts.] The proof is that Panchatantra is translated from Sanskrit to Pahlavi (and you find its reference in Firdausi’s Shahnama) and from Pahlavi it was translated into Arabic and then from Arabic to Greek. Among the Arabs it became the basis of a movement –Ikhwan as- Safa (the Brethren of Purity); so we know the route that knowledge took from India to Greek texts, and it also traveled directly [as in Ashoka’s time when Indian texts and medicinal plants went to Alexandria]. The process really took off with Bayt al hikma (The House of Wisdom at Baghdad) which was linked to Islamic rational theology which valued knowledge as a virtue. It was closely related to aql-i-kalaam, which meant Allah has given you aql and one must apply that aql in order to interpret the Koran.

SK: Which were the sources from which knowledge was gathered in Persia?

Raju: India was one of them. I already talked about Panchatantra, medicine. Indian mathematical texts traveled to Baghdad and they were translated by Al Khwarizmi. [Because of this movement to gather knowledge in Baghdad] the demand for books increased so much that paper technology came in from China into Baghdad. We also hear in some accounts that things came from what are called Greeks [but were from Alexandria in the African continent].

SK: Was there any exchange between Persia and Greece and Persia and India during Alexander’s (Sikander) travel through Persia up to India?

Raju: There is an account in the Zoroastrian book of Nativity that Alexander got his books from the Persian emperor and got them translated. The question is: what happened to them? Presumably, some of them [the looted books] went to Aristotle [Alexander’s teacher] and some of them went to the corpus of the library of Alexandria. Aristotle was supposed to be the first person in Greece to have a library so where did his books come from?

SK: That does not sound very different from Elgin’s marbles!

Raju: (Laughs) Yes. People have not talked about the sources of books for the library of Alexandria. It could not have been those small city states in Greece, which did not have the capacity to produce them. If you look at the trial of Socrates, there were supposed to be 600-odd jurors. If you take ten persons in the population for every citizen then there would still be only about 5-6000 people in Athens so how could they produce the books on the scale of the library of Alexandria—half a million books as is normally mentioned? Only a Persia or an Egypt could have done that.
In the case of Alexander, as with other military conquerors, knowledge flows towards them in the case of barbarian incursions.

SK: Such a large collection of books in those days must have been accumulated over a long time and must have preceded Alexander also.

Raju: Exactly! It must have taken a very, very long time. Papyrus was very expensive [so it also took a lot of resources].

SK: I said this because when I was in Deccan College, Pune, I found that they are putting together a Sanskrit dictionary and after eight volumes they are still in ‘a’since they are adding on contextual meaning as a word occurs in different canonical Sanskrit texts. They have chosen 1500 classical Sanskrit works to do so, which include natya shastra, vastu shastra, ayurveda, literary and philosophical texts and so on. If they are considering 1500 as fairly representative of canonical Sanskrit texts then to have hundreds of thousands of works it must have taken many centuries and many civilisational sources.

Raju: Exactly and that is the how the real corpus of books in the Library of Alexandria accumulated. In fact, how many Greek texts can we count? Nowhere in that neighborhood! There is no possibility that those small [Greek] states could have produced that kind of knowledge. So this entire myth making about Greeks has used this library of Alexandria. Possibly there were some texts in it that came from Greece, but nowhere in the range of half a million.

SK: There must have been Mediterranean exchanges..

Raju: The exchanges between Greece and Egypt were already taking place. Greek people like Plato, Herodotus [routinely] used to come to Egypt for higher studies. Greeks were copying Egyptian gods. Each Greek god has a counterpart in Egypt and in fact Herodotus says that explicitly.

SK: After all Egypt was a much older civilization by a couple of millennia. Did this exchange continue after the Baghdad period also?

Raju: Yes this culture of libraries spread in the entire Islamic world even in Cordoba, Spain during the Islamic period. Al Beruni when he came to India made it a point to collect knowledge of all kinds. The Baghdad book bazaar had become prominent, and this [tradition] persisted [in Islam] at least till the 12th -13th century.

SK: Arabs have been depicted as carriers and safe keepers of knowledge rather than creators of knowledge. Can you comments on that.

Raju: There is an enormous amount of evidence to the contrary. [The book mentions the case of Copernicus, where the Arabs were clearly the creators and the Europeans merely the carriers of knowledge. So] it is good to look at the question: how did this story start? (that Arabs were mere safe keepers of Greek knowledge).

SK: In fact they have been depicted as barbaric nomads killing each other, who did not have any culture till the British formed various nation states in Arabia. Thus there were Pharaohs and then there were Bedouins till the Anglo-Saxons came…

Raju: If you look at Arab literature (pre-Islamic) there is a depiction of a freewheeling society living in the desert. Post Islam, they conquered Persia and absorbed a lot of administrative structure of the Persians and then there was this culture of books and libraries. That itself shows that they had to produce books. It is a different matter that in a bazaar to get a higher price one might say not me but somebody more famous wrote this, or it was written a long time back and make it an antique etc. After all, a lot of things happen in a market. It is undeniable that Arabs were creative and made contributions so one should look at when did the story start that Arabs are only safe keepers. It started during the Crusades. They [the Christians of Europe] were fighting a religious war and Europe had a tradition of book burning. In fact, there were many fiats [by Christian emperors] right from 4th century to burn books. The library of Alexandria was burnt down. There was a tradition of burning heretical books which included secular knowledge. Within Christendom, there was not much of a culture of books and when they were fighting the Arabs they realized that they needed secular knowledge which was available in books. They captured Toledo which had a massive library [coming from] the Umayyad khilafat. It took a lot of time [for the church] to arrive at the decision to translate those books [and not burn them]. This needed a justification. That was concocted by saying that this knowledge belongs to Greece and the Greeks were theologically ‘correct’. This was regarding early Greeks mind you, since they were pre-Christian, whereas they [the church] had conflicts with later Greeks like Proclus, Theon etc. The advantage of inventing a person like Euclid was that you can attribute a philosophy to that individual which suits you.

SK: Is there any Church document or correspondence which discusses these things?

Raju: The church does not operate like that. They are not accessible. Even what the Church did in India is not accessible. If I wish to know what happened in India during the Inquisition then I don’t get access to that even if the records exist. It is not an open archive. I would rather not demand documentary evidence. In this entire [church] tradition, so many documents have been cooked up or forged. After all, even in Delhi, periodically fires go on in so many ministries and documents get burnt (laughs). Let us look at common sense and circumstantial evidence.

SK: What do you consider as Greek contributions, you have raised some questions about their arithmetical capabilities…

Raju: It is clear from their system that it was completely inadequate to do quick sums; forget about subtractions and divisions. I don’t know what their contributions were in science. I don’t have any evidence of that. May be in theatre or other things, however there is strong evidence that some ideas including Platonic ideas come from the mystery geometry tradition of Egypt.

SK: What is mystery geometry?

Raju: I have written a new book on Euclid and the mystery geometry of Egypt. If you see how Plato looks at geometry. He says it should be taught to students in his Republic, which is an ideal state. He has written about how its citizens should be trained—he particularly talks about two subjects viz music and mathematics—in order for their souls to be virtuous. The very word mathematics comes from mathesis, which means learning. What is learning? Socrates demonstrates it by calling a slave boy and asking him questions, thereby showing that the slave boy has an intrinsic knowledge of geometry. He says this is possible because the boy has a soul and the soul is recollecting the knowledge from the previous birth. In fact, the Platonic doctrine is that “all learning is recollection”. Mathematical truths are eternal, and since the soul is eternal, by sympathetic magic they [the eternal truths] arouse the soul. Thus the function of mathematics is to arouse the soul through introspection, by taking you away from the external world. This is the idea of mystery geometry. The practical applications are of no concern to us says Plato, the moral applications are more important.

SK: There are these well known names of Pythagoras and later Archimedes..

Raju: Pythagoras is a school which indulged in mystery mathematics of numbers etc. There is an exoteric part which is told to outsiders and there an esoteric part which is told to initiates. What is the evidence of Pythagoras and the proof of his theorem? [Deductive] proof is a concept post-12th century. At that time [in Pythagoras’ time] it [geometry] was only for arousing the soul. In the mystery tradition the soul knows what truth is and that [intrinsic knowledge of the soul] is the ultimate standard [of truth]. That belief about the soul came into violent conflict with [post-Nicene] Christianity, even though that notion of soul was very much part of early Christianity of Origen. From his notes the present day Bible is derived. He was declared a heretic. The doctrine of love was entirely a mystery tradition. But, after the Church and State came together in the 4th century you could not say that everyone would be saved. There had to be some advantage in becoming a Christian. It is like the state saying I am going to treat my citizens above those of other states. It brings in a boundary: this is ours and that is theirs. That is why Proclus was declared a heretic. Because he said mathematics deals with eternal truths, since the soul is eternal, therefore the cosmos should also be eternal. That goes against the [church] doctrine: for then there will be no creation and no apocalypse, so he was declared a heretic. So was the case of Hypatia and her father Theon (both prominent mathematicians from Alexandria—Ed). Clearly Christianity was uncomfortable with this interpretation of Elements and looked at it as heretical. Then Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) reinterpreted Elements and used it as a weapon against Islam. Basically at that point in time Christendom had realized that it was not possible to spread beyond Spain by force alone. Moreover Europe was still very poor compared to the Arabs and they still coveted that money [the Arabs had]. Even though it [the Crusades] was called a religious war, it was motivated by material concerns. Like the Iraq war, which is not based on moral concerns, but on the oil wealth in the region.
Since it could not be done by warfare the church realized that it also had to adopt the method of argumentation and discourse. Quoting the [Christian] scriptures would not work with the Arabs. Thus, a third ground had to be found. That was found in the neo-Platonism that had already fascinated Islam in the form of aql-i-kalaam or falsafaa. Therefore, Aquinas realized that reason was needed to influence the Arabs. Thus, after Augustine, there was a second period of change in the Christian theological doctrine in the post-Crusade era. It was called Christian rational theology and was an adaptation of Islamic rational theology. This tried to establish universal principles of ‘proof’ [to persuade the Islamic Arabs]. That is where Elements came in.

SK: But did this not create a dichotomy within Christianity, how do you reconcile faith with reason?

Raju: It did indeed. Initially a whole lot of books ascribed to Aristotle, were banned and placed on the Index, since they were thought to be contrary to the doctrines of the Church. But then there was a whole army of people working on it who were trying to reconcile these contradictory beliefs. So it took time for “Aristotle” to be accepted into the [Christian] system. There was a process of absorption via reinterpretation. Thus Elements was reinterpreted from the tradition of mystery geometry to something which gives you a universal ‘proof’.

SK: It is like Vedanta, which says everyone is a part of the Brahman, at the same time it coexisted with the caste system…

Raju: Yes, for example there is this famous story of Shankaracharya and the chandaal, where he prostrates himself in front of the chandaal, but later it is reinterpreted. It is said that chandaal was actually a reincarnation of Shiva etc..

SK: One of the important theses put forward by you is that mathematics has cultural foundations. Can you say that there is an Indian way of doing mathematics if so what are its features?

Raju: There are some clear cut features. In India there was just one notion of proof of praman which was applied everywhere: be it philosophy, mathematics or physics. The first praman was pratyaksh. Empirical means were accepted as proof. This you find in sulbasutras, in Aryabhata, and right down to Yuktibhasha. For example the so called ‘Pythagorean theorem’ could be proved by drawing the triangle on a palm leaf, and it could be shown that the square on the ‘diagonal’ was equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. This could be shown by cutting, rotating etc. Whereas the European tradition would disagree and say that mathematics is purely metaphysical and by bringing in motion you are bringing in physics and it violates the basic idea of geometry as concerned with immovable space. That is one major source of tension. [Secondly], today the notion of proof is seen in a very rigid manner in a completely metaphysical way. How do you carry out deduction? on what logical basis? This is unclear in the Indian tradition. After all there are different systems of logic which are prevalent. There is the Jain system of syadvad and saptabhangi, there is Buddhist logic of chatuskoti and so on. In fact, in the debates between Naiyayikas and Buddhists over a thousand year period you find that they are not addressing each other’s issues because of differing concepts of anumaan [or deduction]. But Europeans declare their logic as universal, when it is not. There is a third aspect which I have called zeroism, which has to do with what is mathematics good for. In the neo-Platonic view it is good for the soul. The European view is that mathematics is good for providing proof. But in India, the aim of mathematics was not to provide praman but to do something vyavaharik, something practical, which is removed from soul etc. If I am doing something vyavaharik, I don’t mind making approximations. If I am computing, then the computer is going to make so many approximations. Many things are discarded or zeroed, and that is acceptable. However European mathematics demands perfection where you cannot discard the smallest entity. The belief in perfection comes from a religious view of mathematics. It then gets into theology that God made the world and he wrote the laws in the language of mathematics [which must hence be perfect]. In India it is calculations.

SK: The word for mathematics in India is ganit that is counting..

Raju: Yes it is numerical calculation. There are proofs and they can be empirical and one particular logic is not considered universal. [So proofs are not the focal concern.]

SK: When pratyaksh praman is not available you bring in inference etc. Clearly mathematics was considered something physical. Can you explain the concept of universalism that is prevalent in mathematics.

Raju: Universality is factually incorrect. The way mathematics was done in India was different from Europe. So the Indian place value system and algorithms or calculus took such a long time to be absorbed by the Europeans. Metaphysics is never universal. The moment mathematical proof becomes metaphysical it ceases to be universal. In fact it can become ‘universal’ only to the extent that it is demonstrable empirically (pratyaksh). Universality is just a European prejudice as they are ill informed about other cultures, so they declare universality from a parochial point of view.

SK: The crude way in which universality is put forward is by saying that 2+2=4, no matter where you are in Greece or Arabia, India or China…

Raju: It is not true, and I have argued it at great length in my paper presented in Hawaii. Let us say we are using a computer to add. 2+2 is a complicated case, so let us take 1+1, The answer could be 1 or even 0 depending on what kind of logic gate one is using. So, I have to specify and say I am using integers. But what are integers? If I do arithmetic with integers on computers say using a C program on a 16 bit machine it will not give 2 as the answer but something else unless I do rounding off. In order to specify what are integers I need infinite time and infinite memory. In a commercial transaction we get into an agreement saying Rs 2 plus Rs 2 would be Rs 4. But that is an agreement. It is not a universal truth. If I have two stones and if I take up two more stones then I get four stones but if I break one of them into two then I get five stone pieces. So I have to be careful about them as universal truths. At a practical level there is no problem. Even if there is no formal agreement or legal frame work, I would simply say you broke the stone. An agreement is not a universal truth or ultimate truth etc.

SK: The statement that numbers are metaphysical transcendental, entities is itself a metaphysical statement.

Raju: That is exactly the point. So long as you are in the domain of convenience it is fine. If you look at Indian texts they will have numbers with 18 digits. What will you do if you need more? you go to 20, 30 or 40 places for a particular purpose. Normally you don’t need more than 18 places. Yajurved goes only till 12 places. Aryabhat goes to 18 places. It is a matter of convenience, but you never go to an infinity of places. That is also how computer arithmetic is done. You round off after some time, and that is perfectly fine but then don’t talk about universal truth.
There is an example given in ethno-mathematics. Suppose I have borrowed two fish from you and I have returned two fish. It won’t do if I have borrowed two big fish and then returned two tiny fish. There is a sense of exchange and fairness involved, not universal truth.

SK: What is the European view on standard of proof etc.

Raju: There is the Platonic deprecation of the empirical. Then there is the clerical elevation of metaphysics over the empirical. The clergy said the metaphysical is a higher truth than the empirical truth. That is fallacious. Metaphysics is decided by a coterie.
What Hilbert did is that he analysed the Elements from this perspective: for example, the proposition 1.4 [of the Elements] or the SAS [Side-Angle-Side] theorem involves physical movement in space, like the Yuktibhasha proof of the “Pythagorean Theorem”. They said the empirical has got into mathematics, which [empirical] is perishable, not eternal, it involves motion hence physics, whereas geometry should be concerned only with properties of immovable space and so on.
So Hilbert said if this theorem is made a postulate then everything becomes metaphysical. Thus he removed the last vestiges of empirical elements in the ‘Elements’. Or at least he thought he did. But actually he could not because he had this notion of congruence which fails after proposition 1.35, the one which is used to derive the area of a triangle. There [in 1.35] congruence is not in the sense of being of the same shape but same area. Earlier propositions are about congruent triangles where you [may] just transfer attention from one shape to the other without moving them. Now [in 1.35] they are incongruent but they are equal in area. The word used in Elements is not “congruent” but “equal”. Equal again is related to equality of the soul as in say Advaita Vedanta which is also a political statement of equality of all people who might look dissimilar. The esoteric meaning is equality of dissimilar things. The way out taken by Hilbert is to define area. But how do you define area without defining length? But if you do define length then the entire Elements becomes trivial as Birkhoff showed with the metric. Thus by throwing out the empirical you start introducing peculiar and artificial things [like defining area without allowing length to be defined] Thus, Hilbert made mathematics completely metaphysical through his ‘axiomatic’ approach.
Now a lot of proofs in mathematics are based on reductio ad absurdum, which depends on two valued logic which would not be acceptable in the Indian tradition at all. So how are these proofs universal?
It is all based on and tightly tied to the [historical] perception that Aristotle the Greek did some logic etc. Of course, one does not even consider that what is called “Aristotelian logic” [might] actually have come from Naiyaikas, through the Arabs. It is a misnomer to call it “Aristotelian”. In my article on Logic for the Springer Encyclopedia of Non-Western Science, Technology, and Medicine, I have made this point that the Aristotelian syllogism is [historically] not to be found anywhere [in Greece]! There is a Stoic syllogism [in Alexandria], but then these things [Aristotelian syllogism] suddenly appear in Toledo and that is problematic.

SK: But syllogism is a very prominent part of Nyaya..

Raju: Yes that is the point, and we also know that Nyaya went to Baghdad. Anyway, the standard approach in mathematics is not universal but has been universalized. First there was the ignorance of Europeans and this ignorance has been universalized through the process of colonization. On the one side [in Americas] people are just killed off, and on the other side they are given Western education where they were given a fabricated history which made them feel inferior. The Indian elite in the 19th century swallowed this and found the solution in aping the west. This has persisted even after independence. My demand is Swaraj in science and in science education.

SK: The creative process is not deductive, otherwise rule-based machines could have done it. But post-facto deduction may be used to teach. However if again our students at the frontiers of research are not going to use the deductive approach then what is the use of even teaching this method?

Raju: Why is mathematics difficult? My answer to that is that math per se is not difficult. But if you look at the text of NCERT for 12th standard, and particularly in Hindi, you find terms like continuity, differentiability, formal real numbers, set theory etc. All this is extremely difficult to follow [in Hindi] even though I have studied all that. It is so terribly convoluted. Where are their primary axioms? They are in set theory, which enables me to axiomatically perform infinite processes, which I cannot ever hope to perform. With the axiom of choice I can have a choice function, I can claim its “existence” etc. It is only through such metaphysical and imaginary infinite processes that one can preserve the perfection of mathematics required by Western theology.
Apart from all these theological principles that have come in, you cannot teach set theory for 10th standard students, so you cannot teach the axiomatic deductive process today. I can do that only at the MSc level and very few people come to that level. The vast majority hence cannot be taught mathematics. You have to tell them a set is a collection of objects! A student has to be taught what is a ring and a field. What utter nonsense! It is very bad pedagogy.

SK: I see a great danger in this. The common perception is that Indians are good in mathematics and good with numbers. That comes from a different tradition than this abstract set theoretic one. By adopting this in our schools we are subverting ourselves!

Raju: That is right and that is the point I have made to the Knowledge Commission. Our culture has some good points and by dropping them we are subverting ourselves.

SK: A very senior executive the chairman of a large bank in Japan told me “We Japanese cannot do software because it is abstract we can do manufacturing very well. We can make things cheaper, faster, smaller etc but not deal with abstractions. Whereas Indian can do it well because they have a philosophic tradition which we lack.” I ventured to say “but you have Zen” and he just brushed it aside.

Raju: That is interesting. I hope it is true. But we are actually adopting counter cultural traditions. There is no discussion of all these things in the public space. I would like to build a quantum computer based on Buddhist logic of chatuskoti, but where is the space to discuss this?
We need to discuss what we need to teach. Somebody just sits behind closed doors and decides what should be taught and that is not correct. There is no reason. Just that we should continue to ape the west. This is how things are made ‘universal’ by a class which is educated in the western tradition and are treated as experts. If experts cannot engage in critical thinking then how do you expect the students to do it?
It is not possible to do computer arithmetic without discarding some part of a number. As soon as we start looking at what a floating point number is, we find that it is not part of a ring or a field or anything! The basic so called associative law is not obeyed. By the way, whose law? why “law”? These are all theological concepts, that the numbers must obey the law etc. All the standard algebraic structures are useless [for computer arithmetic].
In reality, there is a practical way of doing things which is embodied in the way these data types like floating point numbers are used, which is different from theoretical computer science. This encompasses a different philosophy which is closer to what I am talking about. I am talking about practical computation, where we can discard these things. But on what logic? not based on perfection or universalism! You tell me how many decimal places you need and I can procure them. That is where shoonyavad or zeroism comes in. Based on this zeroism I am conducting a course on “Calculus without Limits” in Central University of Tibetan Studies in Sarnath. I am demonstrating it to show how much simpler life can be without universalism or set theory etc.
If we say we are a secular state why should we bring in theology in mathematics, after all if I use Buddhist logic many of the theorems in mathematics will fail! We should teach secular and practical mathematics. We are doing it because the universities in the west are doing it. But those universities were erected for theological purposes. According to [Isaac] Barrow, Cambridge University was established to breed clerics!

SK: I think seeing the pragmatism embedded in western societies today I think if you build a quantum computer using Buddhist logic that can threaten the encryption involved US financial system then you would have proved your point and billions of dollars will be spent on research on alternative logic.

Raju: That is accepted. We do need to find applications, but for me the very fact that people will be able to understand much of mathematics using this new system itself would be a worth it. I don’t care if the west wants to do it or not. My son should be able to do calculations easily which he could not do earlier.

SK: I will give an example to illustrate what I was saying. Fuzzy Logic was invented by Lotfi Zadeh, a Iranian professor at University of Berkeley. There were people who called it cocaine of mathematics implying that he was high on drugs and invented this since it did not follow the normal Aristotelian binary logic. The Japanese picked it up and used it in all appliances like washing machines, TV etc. The Americans picked it up only in the 80s because they had launched an armed commando raid on Tehran in 78-79 during the hostage crisis. But the control systems of their military helicopters carrying the commandos could not stand the heat and dust of the desert. They crashed and the mission was a failure. Then they realized they needed fuzzy logic based adaptive control systems and they brought them in. In that sense they are not theological.

Raju: My concern is not to convert the west. My concern is if these theological concepts have crept into mathematics then that mathematics should NOT be taught in this country. We should teach secular mathematics. After all it is being used to condition people, inculcate inferiority in them through fake history etc.

SK: It is definitely driving people away from mathematics.

Raju: And these kids keep looking at pictures of a fake Euclid and a fake Pythagoras as white Caucasians which we see in text books, and grow up in awe of the west and say the solution to any problem is to ape the west. If we can break out of those things that itself would be an achievement.

SK: One last comment. Many have objections to the way the Indian mathematical results are written in the form of a sutra without explaining how they arrived at it or what is the justification for it. Is there any insight into how they achieved these results? Secondly, one person who wrote many results filling up many note books without giving proof is Srinivasan Ramanujan though it was in the field of analysis in the western tradition.

Raju: I am not arguing for an absence of process. To deny the value of deductive proof is one thing, and to say that there should be complete absence of process is another thing. I would assert that though there was the sutra tradition there were also Yuktibhasa, Yukti Deepika etc where they explain the process, perhaps due to Jesuit pressure! They were written after the arrival of Europeans in Cochin. A sutra has to be terse to make it easy to remember. It is a cultural matter [in the oral tradition] that here we are dealing with minds of human beings and hence the communication should be from one mind to another and not filtered through a derivation on a dead parchment where it is liable to be misunderstood. Right or wrong that seemed to have been the cultural tradition and an oral tradition. After all even Vedas are not written down. That is not a critical issue dealing with validity but a pedagogical matter.
Certainly a process has to be there and a justification [praman] has to be there. In my book [Cultural Foundations of Mathematics] I have shown [in Chapter 3] that there is complete praman for the infinite series in India, but the derivation is on different philosophical principles. I don’t say that first I should have set theory which allows me to do some infinite processes and then I should have an infinite set of numbers and then prove convergence and so on. That is the rigmarole of Western mathematics.
I want to sum the series and the stated criterion is that the sum should remain constant when I add two consecutive terms. How does it remain constant? Up to the level of accuracy and the decimal (or sexagesimal) places I need. This is similar to epsilon-delta [and the “Cauchy” criterion] but deals with a finite number of terms [and does not involve a infinite metaphysical process]. That is a perfectly good criterion.

SK: That is what physicists do when they sum any series like Raleigh-Schroedinger perturbation series. You calculate to the second order of approximation and if there is serious problem you go to the next order.

Raju: That is how all computer algorithms are done. It only ceases to be valid if you demand perfection! That is a perfectly practical attitude. It is not that process and proof are missing. It is just proof from a different philosophical position.
The first text book on philosophy that I picked up from my father said, there is no philosophical tradition in India but only poetry! For philosophy you have to read the Greeks! So now I can say that there is no mathematical tradition in Europe and it is all theology which was imported here through colonialism!
What happened with Elements is that it had come to India through Islam but it was not translated into Sanskrit till very late at the time of Sawai Jai Singh in 1723, long after the arrival of Jesuits in Jehangir’s court. There were two parallel distinct traditions. Akbar’s courtier (Abul Fazl) who wrote the Ain-e-Akbari talks about learning from the Elements. It was there in Arabic and Persian traditions but was not considered valuable by Indian mathematicians. It was considered something religious. Also, practically Pythagoras theorem comes at the end of the Elements where as Yuktibhasa starts with it, with a different way of proving it without the forty odd earlier results.
So I would say it is a religious belief which is being universalized and I find it highly objectionable. I would say, in fact, our principles are universal since they are empirical and physical. I would characterize present-day mathematics as European ethno-mathematics tainted by theology.

1 comment:

yasin yussuf said...
Prof Ck Raju is an outstanding professor. he thought history and philosophy of science at Albukhary internation university in Malaysia

Kalabhra coin hieroglyphs traced to Sarasvati Script. Kalabhra period coin die made by Roman smiths minted in Sangam Era?

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Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/k2gvsnn

The Itihāsa narratives of kalabhras of Sangam Age are shrouded in mystery and 

subject to historians' speculations. Some link them to Karnataka-s, some to kalavar 

(lit. navigators). One reality is emphatic. The kalabhras did issue some coins with unique 

hieroglyphs.

Kalabhra coinSince it is speculation 
time, I suggest that some coins attributed to Kalabhras bear Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs. 
In particular, the hieroglyph 'elephant' is a dominant hieroglyph.

This 'elephant' hieroglyph has clear metallurgical connotations in Meluhha (mleccha):
 karabha, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron'. I am unable to identify other 
hieroglyphs shown on Kalabhra coins. These do NOT seem to be Brahmi syllabary 
but a continuum of Sarasvati Script hieroglyphs. There are indications that Kalabhra 
spoke Prakritam and possibly used words of that that language in their coins.

One hieroglyph on this square coin of Kalabhra is significant. It signifies 'wave' of water. 
This is a Sarasvati Script hieroglyph: ṇḍa 'water' rebus: kāṇḍa 'implements'. 

Ta. koṭu curved, bent, crooked; Pa. kũḍaŋgey elbow; koḍka billhook.(DEDR 2054) 
rebus: kōḍa 'workshop'.

I hypothesise that thee word karabha 'elephant' was pronounced in a variant: kalabhra or 
kalabha in ancient times.

Numismatist R.Krishnamurthy reports a coin found in Amaravathi River, Karur 
which is attributed to Kalabhra. I suggest that the coin is in the Sarasvati Script tradition 
and the hieroglyph 'elephant' signifies karabha 'elephant' (variant in Kannada: kalabha 
'young elephant') rebus: karba 'iron':a. ayil iron. Ma. ayir, ayiram any ore. Ka. aduru 
native metal. Tu. ajirda karba very hard iron. (DEDR 192) Ta. karum poṉ iron; 
kari (-v-, -nt-) to be charred, scorched, become black; (-pp-, -tt-) to char; 
n. charcoal, charred wood, lampblack;Tu. kari soot, charcoal; kariya black; 
karṅka state of being burnt or singed; karṅkāḍuni to burn (tr.); 
karñcuni to be burned to cinders; karñcāvuni to cause to burn to cinders; 
kardů black; karba iron; karvāvuni to burn the down of a fowl by holding it over the fire; 
(DEDR 1278a)
Karabha the trunk of an elephant; in karabhoru (k˚+ūru) (a woman) with
 beautiful thighs Mhbv 29.(Pali)

karabhá m. ʻ camel ʼ MBh., ʻ young camel ʼ Pañcat., ʻ young elephant ʼ BhP. 2. 
kalabhá -- ʻ young elephant or camel ʼ Pañcat. [Poss. a non -- aryan kar -- ʻ elephant ʼ 
also in karḗṇu -- , karin -- EWA i 165 2. Pa. kalabha -- m. ʻ young elephant ʼ, 
Pk. kalabha -- m., °bhiā -- f., kalaha -- m.; Ku. kalṛo ʻ young calf ʼ; Or. kālhuṛi ʻ 
young bullock, heifer ʼ; Si. kalam̆bayā ʻ young elephant ʼ.
Addenda: karabhá -- : OMarw. karaha ʻ 
camel ʼ.(CDIAL 2797)

கலவர் kalavar n. < கலம்¹. 1. Navigators, sailors; மரக்கலமாக்கள். கடற்குட்டம் 
போழ்வர் கல வர் (நான்மணி. 16). 2. Passengers in a ship; கப் பலிற் 
செல்வோர���. காற்றத் திடைப்பட்ட கலவர் மனம் போல் 
(திவ். பெரியதி. 11, 8, 2). 3. Inhabitants of a maritime tract; fishermen; 
நெய்தனிலமாக்கள். கலவர் . . . மீனெறி சால நேர்விரித் துலர்த்தலும் 
(சே துபு. கந்தமா. 91). 4. Warriors; படைவீரர். (W.)


See: M. Arunachalam, 1979, The Kalabhras in the Pandiya country and their impact on the life and letters there, Univ. of Madras

"A number of theories have been advanced for the identity of the Kalabhras. 
T. A. Gopinath Rao equates them with the Muttaraiyars, and Kallars and an 
inscription in the Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchi mentions a Muttaraiyar 
named as Kalavara-Kalvan.  The word Kalabhra might possibly be a Sanskrit derivation of the Tamil Kalvan. M. Raghava Iyengar, on the other hand, identifies the Kalabhras with the Vellala 
Kalappalars.The c. 770 Velvikudi plates of the Pandyan king Parantaka 
Nedunjadaiyan mention the Kalabhras and R. Narasimhacharya and 
V. Venkayya believe them to have been Karnatas.K. R. Venkatarama Iyer
suggests that the Kalabhras might have settled in the Bangalore-Chittoor region 
early in the 5th century....The history of Cholas of Uraiyur (Tiruchirappalli) is 
exceedingly obscure from 4th to the 9th century, chiefly owing to the occupation of
their country by the Kalabhras. Buddhadatta, the great writer in Pali, belonged to 
Uraiyur. He mentions his contemporary, King Achyutavikranta of the Kalabharakula, 
as ruling over the Chola country from Kaveripumpattinam. He was a Buddhist. Tamil literary 
tradition refers to an Achyuta who kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in captivity. 
On the basis of the contemporaneity of Buddhadatta with Buddhaghosha, Achyuta may
 be assigned to the 5th century. ...It is known that the Kalabhras patronised Hinduism, 
Buddhism and Jainism. The late Kalabhras appear to have been Shaivite and Vaishnavite.
 Scholar F. E. Hardy traced the palace ceremony to a Vishnu or Mayon temple to the rule of
 the Kalabhras. They are known for patronising the Hindu god, Skanda or Subramanya.
They imprinted his image on their 5th-century coins, especially those of the
 Kaveripumpattinam rulers. King Achyuta worshipped Vaishnava Tirumal...
The rule of the Kalabhras of South India was ended by the counter-invasions of 
Pandyas, Chalukyas and Pallavas. There are other references to the Kalabhras in 
Pallava and Chalukya inscriptions. They were conquered by Pallava, Simhavishnu and Pandya, Kadungon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty

‘Galapra’ period coin die made by Roman smiths 

minted in Sangam Era?

By Express News Service  |   Published: 02nd March 201 |  


The two faces of the Galapra period coin | Express

CHENNAI: After a gap of several years, a ‘Galapra’ 
period coin has been discovered and deciphered in 
Tamil Nadu, thanks to the efforts of R Krishnamurthy,
 president, South Indian Numismatic Society (SINS).  
The coin was collected from the Amaravathi river bed 
Karur in 1986. The period immediately after Sangam 
Age in the Tamil Country is called the Kalabhra 
(also Galapra) Interregnum and  an alien tribe occupied
 the Tamil Country throwing out the  ancient Chera, 
Chola and  Pandya kingdoms and ruled for some
 period for which there is no proper evidence.
“This is an accidental discovery. When I was rearranging 
my old collection of Pallava Coins six months ago, 
I saw a coin which has a different texture not at all 
connected with the Pallava coin. In the coin holder, 
 I have written in 1986 that the coin was collected from the Amaravathi river bed, Karur,” 
Krishnamurthy, an expert in deciphering Brahmi scripts, told Express.
He also recalled that in 1986 he had published a square copper coin with  an elephant 
on the obverse and a legend in Brahmi-script  “I read the legend as ‘GALAPIRA’.   
Many scholars did not accept  my reading because of some reasons,” he recalled. 
Krishnamurthy had presented a paper on his recent discovery at the recent conference 
of SINS at Hyderabad.
Regarding the date of the coin, Krishnamurthy said, “The coin is die struck and the 

minting is of high quality. It looks similar to the Roman bronze coin of Third century AD. 
On going through a Roman Coin  catalogue, I found a coin similar in diameter and 
weight. The Galapra coin die might have been designed and made by Roman coin 
die-makers.”
He further said the ‘Galapra’ coin had four symbols on the obverse top right near the 
border  which are usually seen in Sangam Age Tamil coins.
 “So, the coin may have been minted  at the fag end of Sangam  Age,” Krishnamurthy said.

Wednesday, September 26, 2012


Story of Indian Money - XII Rise of indigenous South Indian dynasties (225-1336 A.D.)


The Deccan region saw the rise of new dynasties after the fall of Satavahanas in the third century and their local successors in the Andhra region viz. Ikshavakus, Shalankayanas and Vishnukundins issued their own coinages. The Vishnukundins issued a typical coin with image of ‘a stylised lion’ on the obverse and a vase flanked by two lampstands within a rayed circle on the reverse.

In the Western Deccan, dynasties like the Traikutakas based their own coinage on the earlier prototype of the Western Kshatrapas. The Kadamba dynasty (r.345-525) of Banavasi in Uttara Kanara initiated a new gold coin called Padma tanka which revived the ancient technique of punch-mark minting with a central image of lotus deeply impressed upon the coin. These coins were emulated by many later dynasties like the Cholas, Yadavas of Devagiri and the Eastern Chalukyas.



The Kadambas were replaced by Chalukyas of Badami under Pulakeshin II (r. 610-642) who issued coins similar to the Vishnukundin prototype with his preferred epithet ‘Shri Satya’. Pulakeshin II helped his brother Vishnuvardhana capture Vengi in Andhra Pradesh and head a separate dynasty called the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. The Eastern Chalukyas issued gold Padma tankas with the central image of a boar representing ‘Varaha’.

The Tamil Desha region witnessed a decline of ruling dynasties of Chola, Pandya and Chera rulers between 3rd and 6th century as they were subdued by the Kalabhara dynasty. The Kalabharas were vanquished by the later Pallavas and the Pandyas. The Pallavas issued copper and lead coins with obverse images of the dynastic crest of the Pallavas, the bull. Some Pallava coins show images of lion replacing the bull.


The Chola power was revived in 850 A.D. by Vijayalaya who assumed the titles ‘Rajakesari’ and ‘Parakesari’ which used by all succeeding kings on their coins. His successors consolidated the gains by throwing of the Pallava yoke.  However, the earliest Chola ruler to issue a coin in his name was Uttama Chola (r.970-985) who issued gold and silver coins with ‘Uttama Chola’ written in Nagari for the first time on a South Indian coin! Another unique feature of Uttama Chola’s coin was the use of three royal crests viz. bow, fish and tiger symbolising the Chera, Pandya and Chola powers and symbolizing their unity under his leadership.

Rajaraja Chola (r.985-1014) increased the empire’s limits to Sri Lanka and Orissa.  He initiated a new coin type in all three metals with the image of a standing king on the obverse and sitting king on the reverse with ‘Sri Rajaraja’ in Nagari below his left arm.     



Rajendra Chola (r.1012-1044) spread his domains right till the Bengal coast assuming the title ‘Gangaikonda Chola’ (the Chola whose horses drank the waters of the Ganga). Rajaadhiraja Chola (r.1018-1054) issued similar coins during his rule. 


Kulothunga Chola (r.1070-1120) was the heir to the joint fortunes of the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas and issued gold coins based on Eastern Chalukya coins with multiple punch marks. The central punch bears the image of two fishes, a tiger flanked by a bow and parasol and a fly whisk above; the marginal punches have two titles, ‘Kataikondacholam’ and ‘Malainadukondacholam’ referring to his conquest of Katai and Malainadu. After Kulothunga’s reign, the Cholas were soon overshadowed by Pandyas in the twelfth century.   


The Pandya coins show a consistent use of their dynastic symbol of ‘stylised fish’ throughout their history. The stylised fish emblem was also adopted by the Alupa dynasty of Dakshina Kanara (r.550-1500) who claimed to be descendants of Pandyas on their gold fanams along with the epithet ‘Sri Pandya Dhananjayam’.  The later Pandyas under Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya ushered the golden age of Pandyas in the thirteenth century and issued gold/copper coins with the legends ‘Sundara Pandya’ and ‘Vira Pandya’ indicating the last great phase of Pandyas.


















Images (numbered from top): 
1st and 2nd images : Vishnukundin Copper issue with Lion on obverse and Conch symbol on reverse
             3rd image: Kulotthunga's Gold Punchmarked issue with central image of Varaha (Boar)
             4th and 5th Image: Raja Raja Chola I's Silver Kaasu with images of seated King and Standing deity with Nagari legend 'Sri Raja Raja'
              6th Image:  Rajendra Chola I's Silver Kaasu with image of Tiger, Fish and Bow representing his rule over Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras respectively 
       7th and 8th Images: Pallavas Copper issue with image of Bull and Chakra
      9th and 10th Images: Alupas' late Gold issue with images of two fishes flanked by two lamps and Chhatra (umbrella above) and Lotus below on obverse; Kannada Legend 'Shri Pandya Dhananjayam' on reverse

Yogi & The Flying Pigs -- Ravinar

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MONDAY, MARCH 20, 2017

Yogi & The Flying Pigs

That the MSM has mostly become a bunch of folks with political wet-dreams is now looking more and more comic. Sitting far away and getting some inputs from local folks one could sense the mood in the states that went to polls recently. The MSM footsies went to UP, Punjab, Uttarakhand and Goa and still got it all wrong. Obviously, their purpose wasn’t to report or find out the mood of the people. They went to campaign for either Congress or AAP and did their best to file bogus reports on BJP and fake opinion polls. Nobody went to Manipur because there weren’t many sponsors for their trips and nor do they consider the state politically relevant. In Punjab and Goa these scumbags were rooting for AAP despite Kejriwal being a terribly bad performer in Delhi and nothing but a wanton anti-Modi-ranter. The worst footsies of Kejri, like those crap-peddlers from Economic Times for Akhilesh, or this one didn’t know how to react:
Yes, AAP has indeed arrived as a “national force” only to provide us with a glut of political comedy. And pigs can fly. The higher they climb, the harder they fall. And they keep thinking their deception can fool people into making choices of their corrupt parties. Kejriwal still has dreams of Gujarat. I am sure he will end up damaging Congress votes because Hindus are not going to veer away from BJP yet. Fools fall into the same trap, not once but thrice. And yet around the corner another disappointment smacked them in their faces. The BJP went ahead and chose a saffron-clad Yogi as their CM for UP. Understandably, all hell broke loose with these Sickulars. Who else to start off the charade than the C5M with a bucket full of lies:
 
Quickly, Sagarika Ghose realises her lie won’t sell on SM because they rip apart liars in seconds lately. Then, she vaguely defends here crap claiming Yogi Adityanathshared the stage with  the person who made that comment. Seriously, would a person know in advance what kind off-hand comment one would make on a shared stage? But these liars so soaked in their own filthy crap that they’re unable to feel the pulse of the people. Not that they did at any time in the last seven years or so. And eternal loser and graceless Barkha Dutt became a laughing stock again with her endless, frustrated rants:
Her driver educates her. Some Lucknow guys educate her. Some Paan-wallahs or Sabji-wallahs educate her. But wisdom still eludes her. She still asks if the Yogi represents polarisation. Yes whiner, every election is polarisation! Each party seeks to polarise voters to its ideas and agenda. Elections are not about “we will be everything for everyone” kind of school-contests. And the “What about Muslims? What about Muslims? What about Muslims?” nonsense is also waning. No govt should be ever about any single community and it’s not as if the Muslims have had a raw deal. They too are tired of being portrayed as eternal victims by the Sickulars. In the Yogi’s constituency of Gorakhpur, the Muslims were reportedly celebrating along with others:
 
There are videos and stories on SM on how the Yogi has shown no impartiality or bias against Muslims who are quite in number around the temple he is associated with in Gorakhpur. But that is not the core issue here at all. Why should Muslims continue to be pampered? Are they such weaklings that they should forever be mollycoddled? And even as BJP won a massive majority in UP the stupid questions had already started from the same corrupt media:
There’s CNN18 asking if BJP will have a Hindu as a Haj minister. Well, if Azam Khan can be head of the Kumbh Mela, I don’t see why a Hindu cannot manage Haj. Even otherwise, Haj is a private travel to a foreign country where India has no control. Why should there even be a minister for it? The SC has also sought an end to Haj subsidies by 2022. I hope it does end. You don’t need to go on a pilgrimage on borrowed money. God would probably prefer you came with your own. And there’s MaliniP whining about the decline of the Commies. We should be glad and celebrate the decline. Communism is one of the most evil ideologies ever practiced by humans – a most murderous and inhuman ideology. In India, it transforms to a Chrislamist agenda that then hates everything that is Hindu – from festivals to a saffron-clad CM. The BBC recently released a list of the most corrupt parties from a survey. And it puts the darling of Sickulars, the Congress, at No.4 in the list:
Interestingly, the Congress is in good company with the worst Commies and Nazis of the world. And their morons keep calling others “fascists” and “Hitler”. We certainly didn’t need the BBC to tell us Congress is among the most corrupt, fascist parties in the world. The narrative accompanying the list makes fair reading too:

Corruption is the most dreadful disease of the government but some people are not conscious of it therefore there are many parties in the world which are called as corrupt because of their ruthless behavior and they also deceive countrymen to fill their own necessitates but despite of this, they impacted before the world as most desirable and welfare parties of their countries”.

Sickos in media must learn at least now that their preferred corrupt parties like Congress or SP or BSP won’t sell any longer. These parties need to change dramatically to present a viable political option to BJP that does not discriminate against Hindus and does not fool Muslims. And the third-rate peddler of Muslim-victimhood to enrich herself, from Gujarat to Kashmir to UP, equates the Yogi with scumbags like Azam Khan and Imran Masood. The last one, Masood, is the guy who wanted to make “boti-boti” of Modi during the 2014 campaign. Barkha Dutt and her ilk have become laughable clowns and SM is having a good laugh over their stupidities. And singularly, Barkha has been losing her political campaigns from Gujarat to UP to USA. People rightly call her a “Panauti”. There’s the Southern Commie who calls the Yogi a “hardliner” who doesn’t fit in with PM Modi’s development agenda:
Malini seems to forget that stupid media also called Modi a “Hindutva poster boy”, a “Hindutva Hardliner” and the “Hindu Hriday Samrat”. I don’t see why a Hindutva guy cannot deliver development. Modi has already proved it and so will Yogi Adityanath.

I consider politicians are now smarter than media folks. They don’t go into battles with ordinary folks and the public in general. PM Modi himself has been more receptive to criticism from ordinary folks than the media. He even responds on Twitter to ordinary people and shows concern where required. It’s the dumb folks of media that have gotten into a running battle with the very people they are supposed to serve. Nobody is complaining though, people are seeing these Commie pigs fly and they are enjoying watching their flight. Yogi Adityanath, I am sure, will do a fine job in UP as he knows his challenges pretty well and also knows UP well enough to know what to do. We await the flight of the Pigs in Gujarat. And the result is going to be no different. 

5 comments :

  1. Ravi:

    You missed out the Traffic policemen, the Three musketeers of NDTV, Shekar, Prannoy and Dorab Sopariwala. The video showing them questioning Yogi on Hindu and India (https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=3&v=gE4RONcQIUA).

    Jayaraman

    Reply
  2. A few grammatical errors, but the message is crystal clear ��

    I am sure Yogi Adityanath will be a golden chapter in the history of UP and India

    Reply
  3. Hi Ravinar,

    I enjoy reading all your articles which is an eye opener and filled with facts. Keep writing :)

    Regarding "The Top 10 Corrupt parties" survey seems to be a bogus one and not done by the actual "BBC". Could you please double check it. 

    -
    Regards,
    Nagaraj

    Reply
  4. The survey can't be of BBC. True, their standards are rather low these days, but the language sounds more like something off Google Translate than the BBC brand of English.
http://www.mediacrooks.com/2017/03/yogi-flying-pigs.html

Kaalaadhan.Fake currency alert in 5 cities. Fake notes worth Rs 3.92 crore seized in Rajkot

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Fake currency notes worth Rs 3.92 crore seized in Rajkot

The currency notes were suspected to be printed by Ketan Dave, a city-based financier, who is presently in judicial custody on charges of cheating a scrap dealer

By: PTI | Rajkot | Published:March 4, 2017 10:40 pm
Fake currency notes with a face value of Rs 3.92 crore have been seized from a car belonging to a city-based financier lodged in jail, police said Saturday. The currency notes were suspected to be printed by Ketan Dave, a city-based financier, who is presently in judicial custody on charges of cheating a scrap dealer Nitin Patel, they said. The Rajkot Police found the car parked at one Sukhsagar Society here last night, after the questioning of two of Dave’s accomplices, Parth Terraiya and Umang Gajjar, who are also in jail.up
"We searched the parked car owned by Dave and found fake currency with a face value of Rs 3.92 crore,” Rajkot Police Commissioner Anupamsinh Gehlot told reporters. Genuine currency notes worth Rs 80,000 were also seized from the same car, he added. “The accused had used high-quality paper and ink making it difficult to figure out if the currency is fake,” Gehlot said.
Also, investigation is underway to ascertain whether the accused had circulated the fake currency in local market or in banks (through deposits), he added. Police had arrested Dave along with his business partner Shailesh Bambhaniya after Patel filed a complaint of cheating on February 24. Subsequent police raids on Dave’s office premises unearthed fake currency with face value of Rs 57 lakh.
Patel in the FIR said Dave and Bambhaniya had promised to lend him Rs 50 lakh in cash on the condition that he issue a cheque of the same amount in the name of their financial firm. Patel had issued a cheque but failed to get the money from them following which he lodged a complaint with “A” division police station here.
Their interrogation had led the police to nab the two accomplices (Terraiya and Gajjar) whose questioning led the police to seize the fake currency, Gehlot said.
http://indianexpress.com/article/india/fake-currency-notes-worth-rs-3-92-crore-seized-in-rajkot-4554637/

‘High quality’ fake Rs 2000 notes seized, NIA sends them for forensic analysis

BLACK MONEY CRACKDOWN Updated: Feb 16, 2017 13:23 IST
Rajesh Ahuja
Fake cash

File photo of Rs 2000 banknotes.(Sonu Mehta/HT File Photo)

After the demonetisation, the National Investigation Agency (NIA) made its first recovery of three fake Indian currency notes of Rs 2,000 which investigators say ‘appear’ to be of high quality.
“Following the introduction of new currency notes of Rs 2,000 and Rs 500, there have been around half a dozen cases where fake currency notes in the denomination of Rs 2,000 were recovered but their quality of far inferior. Most of them were just scanned copy of the note. But the recovery made on Tuesday by our investigators appear to be of high quality,” said a senior NIA official who spoke on the condition of anonymity.
The agency said it arrested an absconding accused Umar Faruq, a native of Malda in West Bengal, in a two-year-old case of Fake India Currency Smuggling (FICN).
Faruq was on his way to hand over the samples of the fake Rs 2,000 notes to another FICN racketeer when he was picked up.
“The note appeared to be high quality but as of now we don’t know how many security features of the new Rs 2000 currency note have been imitated by the smugglers. The notes have been sent for a forensic analysis for detailed study,” added the official.
Before the recovery made by the NIA on Tuesday, the West Bengal police have also registered a case in connection with a recovery, of 40 fake Rs 2000 notes, made by the BSF at Indo-Bangladesh border.
“Their quality is also looks better than the scanned print outs recovered earlier. But that case is not with the NIA,” said the official.
The NIA takes up probe of only those cases where the recovered fake currency is high quality ,where most of the security features of the Indian currency are found to be imitated, and also when involvement of organised networks from across the border is suspected. Before the Tuesday’s recovery from Faruq, the agency had not taken over probe into any of recoveries of fake currency made across the country after the demonetization on November 8 due to their inferior quality.
The government had argued that smuggling of the FICN from across the border was one of the reasons of demonetisation of old currency notes in the denomination of Rs 500 and Rs 1,000.














































































http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/fake-cash-fears-grow-as-nia-seizes-high-quality-rs-2-000-notes/story-WU67ihJWSSGCm5CpbT7rxJ.html

Ports, containers searched in five cities over fake currency alert

TNN | Mar 19, 2017, 05.10 AM IST
Ports, containers searched in five cities over fake currency alert
The Department of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) carried out extensive searches at container depots in Chennai, Tughlakabad, Kanpur, Kolkata and Mumbai following a tip-off about large consignments of fake Indian currency notes being brought in through ports.

Import cargo was frozen at three sea ports in Tamil Nadu and Chennai airport. The operation began early morning and was on till the time of going to the press.

A senior customs official in Chennai said they had identified a container at Chennai port which, according to an intelligence input, may have Rs 400 crore in fake currency . "We will open it tomorrow," said the official.

Another official in Mumbai said that some AK-47 rifles might have reached an inland container terminal in Tughlakabad, Delhi. However, a DRI official refused to confirm any seizure. There was an intelligence alert that fake currency was being brought into the country through the container route," said an official in Delhi. Sources said the cargo would be released once the search is over.

Sources in Mumbai said DRI and CBI swung into action following information gathered by the national security adviser's office that Rs 150 crore in fake currency has been smuggled into the country. Information indicated that the fake currency originated from Pakistan and may have landed at Chennai, Mumbai or ICD Tughlakabad. An official said imports at these three locations have been stopped, which means no container will leave the port without examination. This is bound to create chaos as currently only random inspection of containers happens at the ports.


Customs received a specific intelligence report on Friday evening of fake Indian currency notes in denominations of 2,000 and 500 having reached Chennai in a container. Customs stopped clearing import cargo at Chennai, Ennore and Kattupalli ports. "It is part of a nationwide alert, a few other cities have also been alerted," said another officer. "Nothing can move out of the port without DRI's clearance. Export cargo s allowed to be passed."


Customs has sent a circular to all its managers at container freight stations in Chennai customs zone asking them to report for duty on Sunday . They have also sought reinforcements for CISF cover at Chennai port.


Soon after the alert on Friday evening, DRI and customs launched a search. All import boxes that arrived at the three TN ports after March 1 are being checked thoroughly and cleared after due process by customs, an internal communication said.


Not a single import container left the Kolkata Port on Saturday because of the DRI customs operation. The port officials are not being kept in the loop, sources said.
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ports-containers-searched-in-five-cities-over-fake-currency-alert/articleshow/57712199.cms

Astronomical dating of Mahabharat -- Saroj Bala Youtube Video (8:58)

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See: https://youtu.be/iTAUQJ7MVfM (8:58) Astronomical dating of Mahabharat By Saroj Bala 

Published on Mar 19, 2017

See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=en2pXlLrlR4 (9:00) Determining the date of the Mahabharata war by Dr. Narahari Achar- 01Uploaded on Dec 27, 2009
Dr. Narahari Achar is currently Physics Professor at the University of Memphis. He pioneered the use of Planetarium software in exploring the sky described in vedic texts and has made a number of contributions to the study of astronomy in India. One of his major contributions is the determination of the date of the Mahabharata War using planetarium software on the basis of astronomical references in the epic.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1i04gl6hE4 (45:48) Talk by Prof. Narahari Achar on -- "Historicity of the Mahabharta War" Published on Apr 23, 2013
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DltXnvYkF0w (1:51:51) Introduction to Hindu / Indian Calendar Systems by Prof Narahari Achar Published on Jun 25, 2015
This is an informal discussion with Prof Narahari Achar during his visit to India Week 2013 to UMCP campus. DESI team requested him for an overview of the Calendar Systems prevalent in India, and he graciously accepted the request.

He explains the rational behind many concepts commonly known to millions of Indians and how they are connected with the way things are. From planetary motion and concept of measuring time to the traditional stories about 28 wives of moon many interesting concepts are explained here.

The session ends with an overview of the Planetorium software used to study planetary motion, and developed in part by NASA.
See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dalNJ4luBws (34:25) Uploaded on Aug 4, 2011
http://ramsss.com/bhakti
Krishna History or Myth Movie
Release Date 29th Aug 2009
Genre : Documentary Factual
Studio : Saraswati films

The film which proves Krishna's existence and gives the exact year of the Kurukshetra war. Krishna is normally thought of as a completely mythical character by most Indians and Westerners. This film proves the existence of the historical Krishna using archaeology, oral and living traditions of India and the astronomy of the Mahabharata.

Directed By Dr Manish Pandit
Screenplay By Dr Manish Pandit and David Pashley
Produced By Saraswati Films
See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8dOLj601ys (10:25) Rigveda To Robotics - HISTORICITY OF VEDIC and RAMAYAN ERAS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0gAfNWFi3k (1:45:34) Vimarsha on 'Scientific Dating of the Ancient Events from 2000 to 7000 B.C.' Published on Aug 20, 2012
Vimarsha on 'Scientific Dating of the Ancient Events from 2000 to 7000 B.C.' by Saroj Bala Member Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction, Ministry of Finance - Govt of India & Director - Institute of Scientific Research on Vedas

See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vEvyuJ6fFZo (18:31) Rigveda to Robotics - Scientific Dating of Ancient Events from Rigveda to Aryabhatiam - Part -I Published on Sep 22, 2015
Scientific Dating of Ancient Events from Rigveda to Aryabhatiam.
First Seminar titled, "Scientific Dating of Ancient Events before 2000 BC... Held in Delhi on 30-31 July, 2011, for which inaugural address was delivered by H.E. Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-u21bcAd6I (9:07) Published on Jul 17, 2016
This is an introductory video about the research work being done by I-SERVE to determine the Historicity and dating of events referred to in ancient texts, particularly Vedas and Epics. It determines the cultural continuity since Rigveda times based on multi-disciplinary scientific evidences. This video focuses on Ramayan era.

Sequential Sky views of astronomical references in Mahabharat, generated using Planetarium software, spanning 60 years of events. 

Sunday, March 19, 2017



After carrying out in depth research for 8 years, I have worked out sequential astronomical dates of Mahabharat war and of related events. These are also supported by Scientific evidences from Archaeology, Archaebotany , Geology, Remote sensing imagery, DNA studies etc. A summary is given below.


Mahabharat Retold with Scientific Evidences

Saroj Bala
IRS (1972 Batch), Retd. Member, CBDT
Director, Institute of scientific Research on Vedas
E-mail: sarojbala044@gmail.com


Abstract

Entire ancient history, revealed through Vedas and Epics, is capable of being re-constructed scientifically with accuracy by making use of modern scientific tools and technologies, which include planetarium software. The astronomical references of Rigveda could be observed in the sky between 7000 BCE and 5000 BCE, whereas those of Ramayan could be observed sequentially around 5100 BCE. The astronomical references of Mahabharat pertain to the sky views observed sequentially between 3153 BCE and 3102 BCE. For arriving at these dates, following approach & methodology were adopted –

·       More than one lakh slokas contained in nine volumes of Mahabharat (Parimal Publications) were scrutinized and astronomical references were extracted sequentially. Only those which were found in Critical Edition as well were identified for sequential dating. All translations were redone with the help of Sanskrit scholars and referring to dictionaries as some of the traditional translations were found to be not fully correct.


·       Astronomical references from Sabha parva, Vana Parva, Udyog Parva, Bhisma Parva, Shalya Parva, Shanti Parva, and Mausal Parva have been dated sequentially by making use of Planetarium software (Fogware). The internal consistency of astronomical dates with the text of Mahabharta was ensured. Astronomical dates calculated by almost all the scholars during last 130 years were analysed with respect and genuine efforts were made to provide the missing links and to make the dating more comprehensive.


·       Vana Parva of Mahabharat reveals that in Mahabharat days asterisms were being counted from Rohini as equinox was on that.  Astronomically there is precession of equinox by one degree in 72 years. Today Spring equinox is in 3rd quarter of Purva Bhadrapad Asterism; thus equinox has moved by more than 5.25 naksatras (Krttika, Bharani, Asvini, Revati, and Uttara Bhadrapada) since this reference in Mahabharata. This means that more than 5040 years (960 X 5.25) have passed. This took our research period for dating of Mahabharata references to 4000 BC – 3000 BC).


·       A more accurate translation of all the relevant slokas of chapters 2 and 3 of Bhishma Parva, had enabled such accurate depiction of sequential sky views, which should be able to set at rest all controversies regarding the dating of Mahabharat war. Sky view of 19th December, 3139 BC, depicting Magh Shukla Saptami, a day before Bhishma’s demise and of September 14, 3139 BC, depicting all astronomical references of Bhishma Parva observed six hours before solar eclipse of Kartik month are most exclusive, which do not get repeated on any other date; not even around 3067 BC, 1792 BC or 1472 BC.


Eleven sequential sky views covering a period of 52 years from 3153 BC to 3101 BC have been generated, using planetarium software (Fogware), which exactly match the descriptions in Mahabharat, are internally consistent and sequentially accurate. Evidences from archaeology, archaeobotany, palynology, oceanography, remote sensing and genetic studies have corroborated this date sequence of events recorded in Mahabharat. The kingdoms which supported Pandavas and Kauravas during Mahabharat war, have been plotted on the Map, which reveals that entire Greater India was involved in this war. This map also certifies the existence of Bharatvarsha as a Nation with defined boundaries for more than 5000 Years.


Date
Reference
Description of Event / Sky view
Oct. 20, 3153 BC, 10:25 hrs. / Hastinapur (Meerut)
Mahabharat
Sabha Parva
2/80/29
Solar eclipse observed when Pandavas were
 leaving Hastinapur for 13 years of exile after losing in
 the game of dice. War started after 14 years appx.
Aug. 31, 3139 BC; 11:10 hrs. / Hastinapur
Bhishma parva 6/2/23
Lunar eclipse followed by solar eclipse within 14 days; foreboding widespread destruction before war         
Sep. 14, 3139 BC
22:15 hrs. / Hastinapur
Bhishma parva 6/2/23 & 6/3/28-32
Solar eclipseobserved within 14 days (13thtithi) of lunar eclipse. On next Amavasya, Mahabharat war actually started.
18:30 hrs. / Hastinapur
Bhishma parva. 6/3/14 -18

Just six hours before the eclipse all the positions of stars and planets described in Udyog Parva & Bhishma Parva could be observed in the sky.
Sep. 25, 3139 BC
Udyog Parva 5/83/6-7
Lord Krishna leaves for last peace mission in Kartika month, Revati Nakshtra.
Oct. 3. 3139 BC
Hastinapur
Shalya Parva 9/34/5-6,
Udyog Parva 5/142/17-18
After failure of Krishna’s peace mission, Balram leaves
 for pilgrimage in Pushya Nakshtra. 3-4 days later, Krishna tells Karna that war could begin on next Amavasya.
Oct. 13, 3139 BC 6:15 hrs. / Hastinapur
Udyog Parva
5/142/17-18
Amavasya within 13 days of Kartik Purnima, moon near Jyeshta (Scorpius / vrishchika) – war started after the failure of Sri Krishan’s last peace mission.
Nov. 14, 3139 BC 06:50 hrs. / Kurukshetra
Shalya Parva  9/34/5-7
With Shalya’s fall war came to an end on 31st October. Duryodhan went into hiding in Dvaipayana lake. Pandavas could locate him only after 12-13 days. Balram comes back after 42 days in Shravana Nakshatra. Duryodhana gets killed in Gada yuddha  with Bhim
Dec. 19, 3139 BC
07:20 hrs. / Kurukshetra
Anushasan Parva 13/167/26-28
Occurrence of Winter Solstice on Magh Shukla Saptmi. Next day on Magh Ashtami was Bhishma’s demise. This was 68th day after beginning of the war on 13thOct.
March 3, 3102 BC 10:30 hrs. / Dwarka
Mausala parva 16/2/18-19
Solar Eclipse on 13th tithi after Purnima  again in the 36th year of war indicating; annihilation of Yadavas and destruction of Dwarka, proving Gandhari’s curse true
Jan. 22, 3101 BC Delhi 10:47
Sabha Parva 2/1//19-91; Dasagitika/3
Spectacular assemblage of Sun, Moon & Five Planets around Aries when Kali era Began 37 years after the Mahabharat war

Table 1: List of some important sequential sky views generated along with the dates on which these are recorded as observed at the time of important events narrated in Mahabharat

Note: References are from ‘Mahabharat’ of Parimal Prakashan (2008 Edition) translated by M N Dutt, edited by Dr. Ishwar Chandra Sharma and Dr. O N Bimali; all these are also included in critical edition ‘The Mahabharat’ by Vishnu S. Sukthankar.


Keywords: Saroj bala, Shri Krishna, Shri Ram, Mahabharat, Bhagvadgita, Ramayan, Pandu, Pandavas, Kunti, Yudhishthir, Bhim, Arjun, Nakul, Sahadev, Kuru, Draupadi, Kauravas, Dhritarashtar, Gandhari, Duryodhan, Bhishma, Dronacharya, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam, Sukthankar, Hastinapur, Indraprastha, Kurukshetra, Dwarika, Matsya Desh, Kamyaka forest, Gandhamadan Parvat, Ekchakra Nagri, Rakhigarhi, Bhirrana,  Kunal, Sarasvati, Lahuradeva, Jhussi, Sabha parva, Vana Parva, Udyog Parva,  Bhishma Parva, Shalya Parva, Shanti Parva, Stri Parva, Anushasan Parva,  Mausal  Parva, Tithi,  Nakshatras , asterism, planets, equinox, sky-view, Planetarium software, Astronomical, solar eclipse, lunar eclipse, archaeology, archaeobotany, palynology, oceanography, remote sensing, genetic studies, Gandiv, astras, sastras, Mace, Terracotta, Gandhara, Kamboja, Matsya, Surasena, Kuru, Panchala, Avanti, Chedi, Vatsa, Kasi, Kosala, Malla, Magadha, Vrijj, Anga, Asmaka, Yadus, 

Full Paper

Did Lord Krishna actually recite the profound philosophy of Gita to Arjun from the battlefield of Kurukshetra? Did the land of Kurukshetra actually turn red with the blood of millions of warriors who were killed during that historic war?  If yes, then where, when and in which year?

About 5200 years back Vichitravirya, the son of  Raja Shantanu, was coronated as the king of Hastinapur.  He was married to Ambika and Ambalika, two daughters of King Kashiraj.  Vichitravirya thereafter died very soon.  In order to save the Kuru Dynasty from extinction and with the permission of mother Satyavati, Ambika bears a son through Sage Vyas who is named as Dhritarashtra whereas Ambalika bears a son named Pandu.

Since Dhritarashtra was blind from birth, he was considered unfit for the throne; therefore, Pandu is coronated as the king of Hastinapur.  For this reason, Dhritarashatra nurtured resentment against Pandu from the very beginning. King Pandu expanded the boundaries of Kuru kingdom through multiple victories but there after he handed over the Throne to Dhritarashtra and went to live the life of an ascetic along with his two wives Kunti and Madri. King Pandu was blessed with five sons – Yudhisthir, Bhim, Arjun, and Nakul & Sahadev. Dhritarashtar was married to Gandhari who gave birth to many sons; the eldest was named Duryodhan.

Maharishi Dronacharya was appointed as the teacher for both Kuru and Pandu princes.  For doing well in every competition, Pandava princes were generally appreciated which generated a lot of jealousy among in the hearts of Kuru princes. For this very reason, Duryodhan attempted to kill Pandu princes through deceit but all such attempts remained unsuccessful. Since Yudhisthir was the eldest of Pandu and Kuru princes and was also very accomplished, talented and admired by the public, he was declared as the Crown Prince of Hastinapur.

Out of jealousy and frustration, Duryodhan and his Shakuni mama hatched a conspiracy to send all Pandavas to Varanavat and then burn them alive in Lakshagrih i.e. a house built with highly inflammable material by Purochan. However, Pandavas saved their lives by escaping through a tunnel alongwith mother Kunti.  They reached Ekchakra Nagri and started living with a Brahmin. After some years, Pandavas went to participate in the Swayamvara of Draupadi, the princess of Panchala. Her brother, Dhrishtadyumna hadannounced that anyone who shoots the target with the five arrows through the five holes of the Yantra over which the target was kept would have Draupadi as his wife. Arjun won the archery contest and won Draupadi as his wife. On reaching Ekchakra Nagri, Arjun announced to his mother that he had won the “prize,” Kunti told him to share that prize with his brothers, without seeing Draupadi. Like an irrevocable vow, her statement, even by mistake, could not be undone, so all five brothers married Draupadi, the daughter of King Drupada.

Back in Hastinapur, Dhritarashtar had declared Duryodhana as the Crown Prince presuming that all Pandava brothers had died alongwith their mother Kunti in Varanavat Lakshagrih. After learning about Pandava’s victory during Draupadi Swayamvara, Dhritarashtar invitedthem to Hastinapur along with their mother Kunti and wife Draupadi. On being persuaded by Bhishma Pitamah and King Dhritarashtra, Duryodhan handed over deserted region of Khandav Van as half the kingdom to Yudhisthira, who accepted the offer in the hope of averting a war.Thereafter, with the help of Vishvakarma and Maya Danav, the Pandavas built a great city named Indraprastha along with its grand palace.

Duryodhan could not digest this prosperity of Pandavas; he invited them to a game of dice with the intention of winning their kingdom through deceit. Yudhishthira lost everything, his wealth, his kingdom and even Draupadi in this game of dice. Dushasan dragged Draupadi in to Kuru Darbar, Karna, still stinging from his rejection at the swayamvara, called her a harlot who serviced five men. Enraged at this treatment of his wife, Bhim vowed that he would one day drink Duhsasana’s blood and break Duryodhana’s thigh. The wicked Kauravas even tried to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire Raj Darbar, but her honour was saved by Lord Krishna who miraculously created lengths of cloth to replace the ones being removed.

After having lost in the game of dice, the Pandavas were required to go into exile for 12 years, and live incognito in the 13th year; if discovered by the Kauravas, they would be sent into exile for another 12 years. As they were leaving Hastinapur, there were many ill omens and a solar eclipse was also seen as per references in Sarga 80 of Sabha Parva (2/80/29). This eclipse was seen on 20th Oct. 3153 BC (10:25 hrs) from Hastinapur (29N, 77E) –




Figure 1: Solar eclipse as seen on 20th Oct. 3153 BC (10:25 hrs) from Hastinapur (29°N, 77°E)


The Pandavas first went to Kamyaka forest, where Lord Krishna, King Drupad, and Draupadi’s brother Dhristadyumna expressed their outrage at the humiliation of Draupadi in Kuru Court and they all pledged revenge and re-installation of Dharmaraja Yudhishthra on the throne.  Thereafter, Pandavas moved into Dvyaitavana and built their hermitage, where Rishi Markandeya consoled them by narrating the story of Ramayan; comparing sufferings of Yudhishthira with that of Lord Ram, sacrifices of his four brothers with those of Lakshman and troubles of Draupadi with those of Sita. Draupadi and Bhim were sore and angry and made every effort to provoke Yudhishthira to take revenge from Kauravas but were unable to convince him.

Pandavas, thereafter, returned to Kamyaka forest. After a briefing from Sage Vyasa, Yudhishthira told Arjun “all four branches of weaponry have been mastered by Bhishma, Drona, Kripa, Karna and Ashvathama, who being on the side of Duryodhana have made him invincible. Therefore, only celestial weapons obtained from Indra can provide us victory”.Great warrior Arjun quickly left with the resolve to secure these weapons.  He crossed Himalayas, and thereafter he crossed Gandhamadan Parvat and obtained the divine weapons with the blessings of Lord Indra and Lord Shiva. Bright, brilliant and even more powerful Arjun came back and narrated the story of his adventures to Yudhishthira.  They all moved back to Dvaitavan, where Duryodhana and Karna came to enjoy the sight of Pandavas living in miserable conditions. But instead, Karna was defeated by Gandharvas, who also captured Duryodhana.  On being so ordered by Yudhishthira, Pandavas defeated Gandharvas and rescued Duryodhana. Duryodhana boiled with anger at this humiliation.

Thereafter, one day king Jayadratha, husband of Duryodhana’s sister Dushala, came suddenly and forcibly abducted Draupadi in his chariot.  Bhim and Arjun chased him, defeated him and rescued Draupadi. Back in the hermitage, Rishi Markandeya consoled Yudhishthira by narrating the story of abduction of Sitaji by Ravana; Lord Ram had killed Ravana and rescued Sitaji. Rishi Markandeya assured that troubles of Yudhishthira would also soon be over and he would rule as the king of Hastinapur.

During these twelve years of exile; there were many more adventures and many alliances were also made for a possible future battle.According to the conditions of the game of dice, the thirteenth year, which the Pandavas were to spend in disguise had now arrived. They went to the court of King Virataof Matsya Desh.Yudhishthira presented himself as a poor Brahmin, his brothers and Draupadi as wandering servants; they all found refuge  at the court of King Virata. Towards the end of 13th year of living incognito and presuming that Pandavas might be hiding in Viratanagar, Duryodhana launched an attack on Virata's kingdom. The king entrusted his troops to his young son who needed a chariot driver. Accepting Draupadi’s suggestion, prince Uttar tookArjun as his charioteer; Arjun defeated Duryodhana’s forces and repulsed the attack on Virat’s kingdom.

After this Victory, the true identity of Pandavas got revealed. Consequently King Virata offered his daughter Uttarā’s hand to Abhimanyu, son of Arjun through Subhadra, sister of Lord Krishna. The wedding was celebrated in style; the Kings from all over the Indian sub-continent assembledin Viratanagar to attend this marriage. Apprehending that Duryodhana would not give back their kingdom to Pandavas, this occasion was also used to build alliances for augmenting military power in case war became inevitable.

Duryodhana refused to give their kingdom back to them, claiming that Arjun was identified one day before the completion of 13th year but neither Bhishma Pitamah nor Guru Drona agreed with him.  Duryodhana even rejected Lord Krishna’s proposal of giving them only five villages.  The war thus became imminent and all efforts made to prevent war had failed. There are several references to dhoomketus, ulkapats, eclipses which forebode widespread destruction. There is a reference to very inauspicious lunar eclipse on Kartika Purnima followed by a solar eclipse on 13th day in Sarga two and three of Bhishma Parva (6/2/23, 6/3/14-18). This lunar eclipse was seen from Hastinapur (29N, 77E) on 31st August 3139 B.C. (11:10 hrs) on the first Purnima of Kartika month –
 
Figure 2: Lunar eclipse as seen from Hastinapur (29°N, 77°E) on 31st August 3139 B.C. (11:10 hrs) on the first Purnima of Kartika month


On 14th September 3139 B.C., on Kartika Amavasya day a solar eclipse was also observed from Hastinapur.  This was 13th lunar tithi as there was tithi kshaya on 1-2 September and at the time of solar eclipse on 14th September new lunar tithi had not begun. Reference here be also made to 6/3/32 , which states that a lunar fortnight has hitherto consisted of 14 days or 15 days or even of 16 days, but on the 13th day and in the course of same month two eclipses have taken place. See the sky-view depicting solar eclipse of 14th September, 3139 BC (22:15 hrs.) from Hastinapur (29N, 77E)-




Figure 3: Sky-view depicting solar eclipse of 14th September, 3139 BC (22:15 hrs.) from Hastinapur (29°N, 77°E)


In Sarga 3 of Bhishma Parva, there are comprehensive details of locations and movements of various Planets and Nakshatras just before the solar eclipse. All these positions could be exactly seen in the sky just six hours before the solar eclipse on 14th September, 3139BC(18:30 hrs.) from Hastinapur (29oN, 77oE).  The positions as narrated in Mahabharat are summarized as under –

     6/3/14 – Mangal (Mars) is comfortable (i.e. magh) entering its own house i.e. mesha (Aries) in Vakra-gati (in backward motion) as it was in Tauras before 13th Sep 3139 BC. Brihaspati(Jupiter) is in Shravan Nakshtra (in Capricornus). Sun’s offspring Shani (Saturn) is (in Scorpius) and is thus aspecing Bhagham i.e. Uttar Phalguni(in Leo) which is 10th constellation from Scorpius and is therefore in full aspect of Saturn.

     6/3/15 - Shining brilliantly, the planet Shukra (Venus) is aspecting Poorva Bhadrapada & there after Uttara Bhadrapada (both in Pisces). On 14th Sep 3139 BC, Venus is situated in kanya (Virgo) and is thus aspecting 7th constellation from its location i.e. Meena Rashi (Pisces).

     6/3/17 - Both Sun and moon are located in Scorpius, therefore they are afflicting Rohini (located just opposite in Taurus). Parush Graha i.e. Shukra (Venus) is located between between Chitra&Swati Asterisms and is thus located between Kanya (Virgo Constellation) and Tula (Libra).

      6/3/18 - Brihspati i.e. Jupiter (Pavak prabha) is going around Shravana in Brahmraashi i.e.Makar Rashi (Capricornus); whereas Vakra/Lohitangi.e.Mangal (Mars) inVakra-anuvakra gati (backward-forward motion) is looking stable/static.




Figure 4: Planetary positions as seen in the sky six hours before the solar eclipse on 14th September, 3139 BC (18:30 hrs.) from Hastinapur (29°N, 77°E)


This sky view is exclusive and it does not get repeated in/around 5561 BCE, 3067 BCE, in 1792 BCE or in 1478 BCE; for this reason the date of war in 3139 BC appears to be almost indisputable. There is lunar eclipse on first Kartik Purnima on 31 Aug 3139 BC followed by solar eclipse on 14th Sep 3139 BC, which had occurred on 13th lunar tithiafter the lunar eclipse; all the above stated planetary positions could be observed six hours before the solar eclipse.

Eleven Akshauhini Sena of Duryodhana and Seven Akshauhini Sena of Yudhisthira had by now assembled in Kurukshetra.  Duryodhana wanted to start the war in Pushya Nakshtra i.e. 3rd October, 3139 B.C. However, in the meantime in the month of Kartika, after the end of autumn season (Patjharh) and beginning of winter season(Hemant Ritu), Shri Krishana left Dwarka for Hastinapur on his last peace mission in Rewati Nakshtra (5/83/6-7). See the sky-view on 25th September 3139 B.Cat 6:20 AM from Dwarika (23N, 69E), in the month of Kartik –



Figure 5: Sky-view on 25th September 3139 B.C at 6:20 AM from Dwarika (23°N, 69°E), in the month of Kartik;


After reaching Hastinapur, Lord Krishna tried to persuade Duryodhana to make peace with Pandavas but Duryodhana said, “I can sacrifice my life, my kingdom, my everything, but I can never live in peace with the Pandavas”. Consequently, the peace mission failed and the war was just going to begin. Not wanting to take sides, Balram left for 42 days of pilgrimage in Pushya Nakshtra (Moon in Cancer) i.e. on 3rd Oct. 3139 BC and was to come back after 42 days in Shrawan nakshatra (5/142/17-18 & 9/34/5-6). See the sky view of 3rd October, 3139 BC from Hastinapur (29N, 77E), when Moon was in Pushya nakshatra -


Figure 6: Sky view of 3rd October, 3139 BC from Hastinapur (29N, 77E), when Moon was in Pushya nakshatra


The forces of Duryodhana and of Yudhisthira stood opposite to each other in Kurukshetra; ready to fight the most devastating war in the history of mankind! As suggested by Lord Krishna the war actually started on Jyeshtha Amavasaya day of Marghshish month, when Moon was near Jyeshtha in Scorpius (5/142/17-18), which happened to be on 13th October, 3139 B.C. See the sky-view of this historic day!




Figure 6: Sky-view on 13th October, 3139 B.C. - Amavasya day of Margshish  month when Moon was near Jyeshtha in Scorpius. Mahabharat war started on this day.


Eleven divisions of Duryodhana’s army and seven divisions of Yudhisthira’s army stood face to face in the battle ground of Kurukshetra. Arjun requested Lord Krishna to take his chariot in the middle of Kuru and Pandu armies. After seeing his near and dear ones, like Bishama Pitamah and Guru Drona, Arjun broke down and abandoned hisGandiv Dhanush. At this juncture, through Arjun, Lord Krishna passed on to the World the great philosophy of Bhagavad Gita. He asked Arjun to do his Karma by fighting the war in order to protect Dharma.  He also added that the soul is eternal and indestructible, only the body is perishable.

The time of this Gita-updesh must have been sometime before the beginning of war on 13th October 3139 B.C. It was the month of Margshish, in winter season, when the Sun was in Dakshiayan (Southward movement). We Indians still wait for the assurance given by Shri Krishna during Gita Updesh -


yadā yadā hi dharmasya glānirbhavati bhārata | 
abhyutthānamadharmasya tadātmānaṃ sṛjāmyaham || (4.07)

paritrānāya sādhunām vināsāya ca duskritām |

dharma-samsthāpanārthāya sambhavāmi yuge yuge || (4.08)


            Through these words Lord Krishna had assured that whenever and wherever there is a decline of Dharma i.e. virtue and true religion languish whereas irreligion and sin predominate, O descendant of Bharat! I manifest myself in different eras to establish the superiority of Dharma by annihilating the miscreants and protecting the pious and the noble.
We still console ourselves at the death of a near and dear one by remembering what Lord Krishna had said –

nainaṃ chindanti śastrāṇi nainaṃ dahati pāvakaḥ | 
na cainaṃ kledayantyāpo na śoṣayati mārutaḥ || (2.23)


            Meaning thereby that the soul can never be cut into pieces by any weapons, nor can it be burnt by fire. The soul cannot be moistened/submerged by water, nor can it be withered by wind. The soul is eternal and indestructible, it is only the body which perishes.
karmanya evadhikaras te ma phalesu kadacana |

ma karma-phala-hetur bhur mā te sango 'stv akarmani ||2-47||


Meaning thereby that your concern is only with the actions, never with their fruits. Let not the fruits of actions be your motives. Perform your righteous duties without being attached to their results.

Our belief system still centers around karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, the three paths out of which individual could make a choice.

The war began on 13th October, 3139 B.C., with Bhishma Pitamah as the Commandar-in-chief of Duryodhana’s army. Military science was much developed; a four division army comprising infantry, horse riders, elephant riders and rathis were built in nine steps. The weapons used included astras (missiles like chakras and arrows), sastras (swords, spears and axes), dandayuddha (mace and musala) and yantrayuddha (firearms like sataghni and bhusundi). Some such weapons, which are considered to be more than 5000 years old, have been found during excavations in the relevant geographic locations. Every day there used to be different kind of battle-array. At least eighteen types of vyuha-rachnas are described in the Epic.

Under the command of  Bhishma Pitamah, Kuru army fought fierce battles and killed very large number of warriors of Pandava’s side during first nine days. The Pandavas visited Bhishma Pitamah by night on ninth day and sought his blessings. He advised them to place Shikhandi in the front line as Bhishma would not attack a woman. On the 10th day, placing Shikhandi in front of him, Arjun succeeded in showering thousands of arrows on Bhishma Pitamah, which practically put him on the bed of arrows.  Bhishma Pitamah was now waiting for the beginning of Uttrayan for his mahaprayan

On 11th day of war, Guru Drona took over as the commander-in-chief of Duryodhana’s forces. Through his clever chakravyuh formation (circular array), he succeeded in killing Abhimanyu when Jaidrath engaged Arjun in a diversionary battle far away. However, on the 15th day Dhrishtadyumna succeeded in killing Dronacharya by severing his head. On 16th day Karna took over as the commander-in-chief of Duryodhana’s forces but on the 17th day of war, the wheel of Karna’s chariot got stuck in the mud.  Just at that time Arjun shot an arrow which instantly killed Karna in the battlefield. 

On the 18th day Shalya came to fight as the commander-in-chief of Duryodhan’s Kuru forces but got killed at the hands of Yudhisthira by mid day. Thus on the 18th day the war came to an end but Duryodhana hid himself in the waters of Dvaipayan Lake; he was making plans to take revenge from Pandavas after his recovery. The Pandavas launched the search operation; after several attempts, they finally succeeded in locating him on the 14th day. On being challenged by Pandavas, Duryodhana came out of the lake to fight mace battle with Bhim. Just at that time Balram came there in Shrawan Nakshatra after 42 days of pilgrimage and he desired to see the mace battle between his two disciples (Shalya Parva 9/34/5-7). See the sky-view from Kurukshetra (30o N 77o E) of 14th November, 3139 B.C, when Moon was near Shrawan in Capricornus.




 
Figure 7: sky-view from Kurukshetra (30° N 77° E) of 14th November, 3139 B.C, when Moon was near Shrawan in Capricornus


On being hit by Bhim on his thighs, Duryodhana collapsed and Pandavas went away leaving him behind in pain.  Kritverma, Kripacharya and Ashvatthama were grief-stricken looking at the plight of Duryodhana. They decided to take revenge from Pandavas; In the middle of night when the entire Pandava sena and all the five sons of Draupadi were in deep slumber, they killed Dhrishtadyumna and five sons of Draupadi by striking them with their shastras. Thereafter, they killed all other remaining warriors by putting the camp on fire. Ashvatthama even tried to destroy the womb of Uttara but Lord Krishana saved her pregnancy. This child in Uttara’s womb, named Parikshit, later on became the king of Hastinapur when Pandavas went for Swargarohan. 

Yudhishthira reported the death toll at six million during this dreadful war. The women were crying piteously after losing their husbands, fathers, brothers and sons (M.B. – Stri Parva) According to one study conducted by Estonian Bio-Centre, Tartu, around 5000 years back the ratio of men vis-à-vis the women went down to 1:4.

Let us just have one look at the map which displays the geographic locations of kingdoms and tribes which had participated in Mahabharat War. Most of the North Western kingdoms of Indian sub-continent fought on behalf of Kauravas; whereas those from South Eastern areas participated in the war to support the Pandavas.


Figure 8: Map depicting kingdoms which participated in Mahabharat War


After the end of Mahabharat War, Yudhishthira was coronated as the king of Hastinapur. Grief-stricken, he was very reluctant to accept the kingship. He performed the funeral rites of the deceased kings and warriors and took several steps to console the grieving females.

Lying on his bed of arrows, Bhishma Pitamah was waiting for the Sun to begin its Northward journey (Uttarayan). That day arrived on 19th December 3139 B.C. when it was Saptmi of the lighted fortnight in the month of Maghaand moon was in Rohini Nakshtra (in Taurus), as per the references in Anushasana Parva(13/167/26-28) and in Shanti parva (12/47/3) of Mahabharat. See the Sky view from Hastinapur (29N, 77E) of 19th December, 3139 BC at 7.20 AM, when Sun had just started its northwards journey; Moon was near Rohini and it was Magh Shukla Saptami. This is also a unique date and sky-view which does not get repeated in / around 5561 BCE, 3067 BCE, 1792 BCE or 1478 BCE.



Figure 9: Sky view from Hastinapur (29°N, 77°E) of 19th December, 3139 BC at 7.20 AM, when Sun had just started its northwards journey; Moon was near Rohini and it was Magh Shukla Saptami


King Yudhishthira arrived on Magh Shukla Saptami and bowed before Bhishma Pitamah who enlightened him about the basic principles of Rajdharma, Mokshdharma, Daandharma and Shantidharma. Thereafter every surviving member of the family met Pitamah. The very next day i.e. on 20th December 3139 B.C., Bhishma left for his heavenly abode and this day is celebrated as Bhishma Asthmi till date.

Thereafter, Yudhishthira got fully involved in the welfare of the Praja. After some time he conducted Ashvamedha Yagya and gave huge amount of wealth in charity. Lord Krishna had also got fed up with wars and battles, therefore, was in search of peace. So he went and settled in Dwarika along with Yadavas, Gopis and war-widows.

36 years were spent in peace but thereafter the signs of destruction all around again became visible. Around that time, a solar eclipse was seen from Dwarika which also occurred on an Amavasya on 13th lunar tithi after Purnima as per references in the Mausala Parva. See the solar eclipse of 3rd March 3102 B.C. (at 10:30 AM) from Dwarika (23N, 69E), which could be seen right from the time of Sunrise to Sunset.



Figure 10: solar eclipse of 3rd March 3102 B.C. (at 10:30 AM) from Dwarika (23°N, 69°E), which could be seen right from the time of Sunrise to Sunset


Thereafter, there was destruction all around in Dwarika. Yaduvanshis were killing other Yaduvanshis. Balraam had died by drowning in the sea, Vasudeva also left for his heavenly abode; Yadav race was at the verge of extinction. After some time the entire city of Dwarika was devoured by the Sea. On receipt of a message from Lord Krishna, Arjun had left for Dwarika. However, in the meantime an arrow mistakenly shot by a hunter pierced at the heel of Lord Krishna, who thereafter left for celestial region.

Arjun performed the last rites of many kinsmen and took the survivors along with him. He made Vajra the king of Indraprastha and settled other survivors in smaller kingdoms. After hearing about the destruction in Dwarika and about Mahapriyan of Lord Krishna, Yudhisthira decided to renounce the world.  He coronated Prikshit, son of Uttara and Abhimanyu, as the king of Hastinapur. After donating huge amount of wealth in charity, he left for Swargarohan accompanied by his four brothers and Draupadi.

Around this time a spectacular assemblage of Moon and five bright planets along with the Sun was seen on the eastern horizon in Aries and Pisces on 22nd January, 3101 B.C. This striking sight at dawn must have come down as a legend associated with the beginning of Kali Era i.e. Kaliyug –



 
Figure 11: Sky-view on 22nd January, 3101 B.C. when assemblage of Moon and five bright planets along with the Sun was seen on the eastern horizon in Aries and Pisces associated with the beginning of Kali Era or Kalyug


Let us have one look again at the map of Bharatvarsha of Mahabharat times, given above.  Bharatvarsha was a nation with defined boundaries 5000 years back, when its territories included modern day India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkamenistan, Tibet, Bangla-Desh etc. Excavations have been carried out in many of the principalities and kingdoms plotted in this Map, which had participated in the Great War. From the archaeological evidence from these sites, it has been concluded on the basis of C-14 dating that these political principalities and kingdoms were well established by the second millennium BCE, though the settlements started at many of these sites much earlier; for example -

·       Sarai Khola and Pushkalavati (Charsadda) in Gandhara,

·       BMAC and Gandhara Grave Culture sites in Kamboja;

·       Bairat, Gilund and Ojiana in Matsya

·       Mathura, Sonkh and Noh in Surasena

·       Hastinapura, Hulas and Alamgirpur in Kuru

·       Ahichchhatra, Atranjikhera, Kannoj and Kampilya in Panchala

·       Ujjain, Kayatha, Nagda, Ahar in Avanti

·       Eran and Tripuri in Chedi

·       Kaushambi and Jhusi in Vatsa

·       Rajghat-Sarai Mohana in Kasi

·       Ayodhya, Sravasti, Lahuradewa, Siswania in Kosala

·       Rajdhani, Narhan, Sohgaura in Malla

·       Rajgir, Chirand and Juafardih (Nalanda) in Magadha

·       Vaisali and Lauriya Nandangarh in Vrijj

·       Champa and Oriup in Anga

·       Adam and Inamgaon in Asmaka

Kingdom of Kurus i.e. Hastinapur was near Upper Ganga plains, Krishna’s Mathura was on the banks of Yamuna and war was fought in Kurukshetra of Sarasvati region. The excavations carried out in these areas have also established the direct connection of Mahabharat references with 3000 BC. These include excavations at Rakhigarhi, Bhirranaand Kunal in the Sarasvati valley and Lahuradeva and Jhussi etc. in Ganga region, from where terracotta, beads, jewellery, metals, weapons etc. have been excavated, the radio-metric dates of which go back to the time bracket ranging between 5000 - 2500 BC.

See pottery, mirror, necklace, silver and beads excavated from Rakhigarhi in Saravati and Drishadvati belt near Hissar of modern day Haryana –


Figure 12: Pottery, mirror, necklace, silver and beads excavated from Rakhigarhi in Saravati
 and Drishadvati belt near Hissar of modern day Haryana


Figure 13: Arrow heads, lapis lazuli, bangles and beads etc. excavated from Bhirrana in the area adjacent to Rakhgarhi


In fact the entire region, at multiple sites, has yielded similar kind of artefacts, which are dated more than 5000 years old. Have a look at those excavated from Kunal, near Kurukshetra -


Figure 14: 5000 year old artefacts excavated from Kunal near Kurukshetra

In middle Ganga Plains, the most important excavated sites include Koldihwa, Lahuradeva, Jhusi, Tokwa and Hetapatti etc., which have revealed an uninterrupted history of cultural development in this region from 7000 BC till date. More than 5000 year old plants have been found in these areas, many of which find reference in Mahabharat -


Figure 15: Crop remains from 7000-6000 B.C. found in Middle Ganga Plains

In view of the above said scientific evidences, we can safely conclude that Mahabharat refers to the historical events of the remote past. The Mahabharat war was actually fought about 5150 years back in 3139 BC. Just before that war, Shri Krishna had actually passed on to the world, through the instrumentality of Arjun, that adbhut jnana of Bhagavadgita.

Keeping in mind the discriminations and distortions prevailing in India during modern times, let us remember and follow what Lord Krishna said in 4/13 of Bhagavadgita –

cāturvarṇyaṃ mayā sṛṣṭaṃ guṇakarmavibhāgaśaḥ | 
tasya kartāramapi māṃ viddhyakartāramavyayam || (4.13) 


Lord Krishna said that four varnas had been created by God Almighty, based on the guna i.e. qualities and karmai.e. actions/functions of individuals. Thus the four varnas had nothing to do with the birth or with the modern day caste system. Dronacharya was a Brahmin but fought like a kshtriya; Karna was discriminated against by Bhishma but befriended by Kuru king Duryodhana. Eklavya was discriminated against by Drona but was mentored by Jarasandha. Sudama was a Brahmin but was very poor, whereas Drona was a Brahmin but humiliated by King Drupada. Thus discrimination was not caste-based but more complex, which reflected the selfish motives and baser or nobler instincts of individuals.

However over the years these four varnas got linked to birth and gave rise to caste-system. Slowly social evils like untouchability, inequality, caste-based discrimination started taking deep roots, which have played havoc with our country and its social fabric. To remove these vices, we shall have to revert back to the true teachings contained in our ancient Vedas and Epics. We shall have to cleanse these from the distortions, which were interpolated subsequently after India was enslaved by external forces. Let us all resolve to build India in which no one is discriminated against and all are treated with love and respect.

In the words of Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam, “In India the core culture goes beyond time. It precedes the arrival of Islam; it precedes the arrival of Christianity……..It is when we accept India in all its splendid glory that, with a shared past as a base, we can look forward to a shared future of peace and prosperity, of creation and abundance. Our past is there with us forever. It has to be nurtured in good faith, not destroyed in exercises of political one-upmanship”.


Note on References

No references have been given within the text of this paper because no extracts or pictures have been taken from any other book. This paper contains the sky-views of astronomical references in Mahabharat, which have been generated making use of Planetarium software. The pictures of excavated artefacts have been taken from the reports published by Archaeological Survey of India and Indian Archaeology Society. However, the names of authors of books and articles who might have influenced the thought process behind this paper are listed below with gratitude.

-          Saroj Bala





Gratitude

A K Gupta

J F Jarrige

R Saraswat

A K Pokharia

J R Sharma

Rajgopalachari C.

A R Chaudhry

John Marshall

Rakesh Tewari

A P J Abdul Kalam

K D Abhyankar

Ramtej Pandey

Ajay Mitra Shastri

K L Joshi

Sadguru Jaggi vasdev Ji

Ashok Bhatnagar

K L Seshagiri Rao

Swami Ramsukh Das

Ayengar R N

K N Dikshit

S Kalyanaraman

Banmali O N

K S Sarswat

S N Chaturvedi

B K Bhadra

K S Valdiya

S P Gupta

B Narhari Achar

K V R S Murty

S R Rao

B P Radhakrishna

K V Krishna Murthy

S Sorensen

B R Mani

Kamlesh Kapur

S Sukthankar

Barthwal H

Kapil Kapur

Sriram Sharma

Bhagvadatta Satyashrva

Kenneth Kennedy

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar Ji

Bhagwan Singh

Kulbhushan Misra

Subhash Kak

C M Nautiyal

M G Yadav

Subramanian Swamy

Cavalli-Sforza

Maitreyee Deshpande

V D Misra

Chanchala Srivastava

Manjil Hazarika

V H Sonawane

Come carpentier

Michael Denino

V R Rao

David Frawley

Narahari Achar

V S Wakankar

Divya Tripathi

N S Rajaram

Vasant Shinde

Dutt M N

Narasimha Rao

Vartak P V

Romesh C Dutt

Peeyush Sandhir

Vijay Singhal

G R Sharma

Premendra Priyadarshi

Yashpal

Gurcharan Das

Pushkar Bhatnagar

Yogesh Chandra

Gyaneshwar Chaubey

R Nigam

Yuktanand Swami

H Maheshwari

R P Arya

Z D Ansari

Ishwar Chandra Sharma

R S Bisht

 Many more








A pregnant cow falls 40ft and then swims to The Rumps

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Cow falls 40ft and then swims to The Rumps

CowImage copyrightCORNWALL FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICE
Image captionThe White Park cow was sedated and put into an animal rescue harness
A pregnant cow has been rescued after falling down a 40ft cliff and then swimming to an "isolated island".
The cow spent a night down on the rocks before being sedated at The Rumps, near Polzeath, Cornwall.
After a nine-hour rescue, the rare White Park cow was winched back up to the top of the cliff at 16:30 GMT on Sunday.
"Despite her ordeal she is now back happily grazing in the field," Cornwall Fire and Rescue Service said.
CowImage copyrightDAMION GOUGH
Image captionThe cow was winched to safety
The rescue began on Saturday afternoon but was stopped due to the rising tide and fading light, and began again on Sunday morning.
"The incident was made extremely difficult as the cow swam to an isolated island where she was out of reach of the emergency services," Wadebridge Community Fire Station said.
A vet and rifleman sedated the cow, before she was put into an animal rescue harness and brought back to the top of the cliff.
CowImage copyrightCORNWALL FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICE
Image captionThe cow fell on to rocks on Saturday, and was finally brought back up on Sunday after a nine-hour rescue
Specialist animal rescue crews from Bodmin Community Fire Station and further crews from Wadebridge were assisted by Padstow Lifeboat and Polzeath Coastguard.
The cow was left in the care of a vet and the farmer, the fire service said.

Exit the muslim veto, enter the muslim voter -- Sandhya Jain. A brilliant piece.

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  • EXIT THE MUSLIM VETO, ENTER THE MUSLIM VOTER

    Tuesday, 21 March 2017 | Sandhya Jain | in Edit
    As more and more Muslims come forward to taste the rights and freedoms bestowed by the Constitution, the near-monolithic vote bloc will be impossible to resurrect. This is the greatest takeaway from the UP election
    The Uttar Pradesh Assembly election grabbed national and even international eyeballs because of the unprecedented victory of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which its opponents had hoped to deflate in the run up to the general elections of 2019. But its most spectacular outcome was the eclipse of the ‘Muslim veto’.
    The Muslim vote has decided elections to Parliament and State Assemblies since 1952, when Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru crafted them into the Congress’s default vote bloc in lieu of ‘protection’ in post-partition India. Muslims supported Congress out of a mixture of guilt and insecurity, as a result of which the party needed only a small addition of select caste groups (mostly Brahmins and Scheduled Castes) to win.
    As a corollary, Muslim leaders prospered as gatekeepers of their community’s vote, and nurtured orthodoxy to control its thought process, keeping it backward in modern education and its attendant opportunities. They paid scant attention to the sufferings of women due to instant divorce (triple talaq). When Shah Bano, a divorcee, won a niggardly alimony from a court, the clergy and Muslim leadership united to force the Rajiv Gandhi Government to pass the monstrous Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986. Lone voices of sanity, like that of Arif Mohammad Khan, who resigned from the Cabinet in anger, were brushed aside as educated and secular-left Muslims carried the day.
    Since then, Muslim women and their children have had no redress against tripletalaq and its adverse consequences. Clerics with totalitarian power have encouraged men to disregard the prescribed procedure oftalaq delivered in three stages across three months (to provide scope for reconciliation), and pronounce it callously via telephone, SMS or even whatsapp.
    The decision of Muslim women’s organisations to approach the Supreme Court for justice in 2016, and demand rights and protection as citizens, was a revolutionary moment. The Indian Constitution grants rights and freedoms to citizens, not to caste or religious collectives; the quest for gender justice has shattered the tentacles of orthodoxy. Hindu girls always had social and religious reformers to speak for them; the Government also introduced many reforms. But entrenched orthodoxy and vote-bank politics put Muslim women beyond the pale.
    Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who never lets grass grow under his feet, quickly indicated keenness to consign the disreputable Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, to the dustbin of history. The Government submitted an affidavit in the Supreme Court asserting that divorce procedures are not an intrinsic feature of Islamic religious practice, and can be amended in the interests of the community.
    At the start of the election campaign, BJP president Amit Shah promised a constitutional amendment invalidating triple talaq if the BJP was voted to power in Uttar Pradesh, which has a huge Muslim population.
    Interestingly, at a post-election seminar of the Muslim Welfare Manch in the capital’s Constitution Club, delegates applauded the Prime Minister for speaking up for Muslim women on an issue that threatens their peace of mind throughout their lives. In contrast, the Congress and the Samajwadi Party (SP) always evaded the issue.
    Claiming that not only Muslim women, but also men, had supported the BJP in Uttar Pradesh, they demanded a ban on triple talaq. Berating madrassas for teaching the Quran by rote, and not by its meaning, they asserted that personal study showed that the clergy was peddling its own version of the faith and demanded that the meaning of the verses be taught along with the text. Such a development would equal the Ataturk revolution in Turkey, with no one would speak for the caliphate this time.
    A word on the BJP campaign and subsequent choice of Yogi Adityanath as the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh is in order. By not fielding Muslim candidates, the BJP allowed the divided opposition (SP-Congress vs the Bahujan Samaj Party) to compete for the minority vote, and wooed Muslims at par with other citizens, on a development platform.
    Now, battered by the election results, the secularists are trying to provoke the community with references to the Yogi’s election speeches. We may note that tensions between certain groups pre-date independence and flare up occasionally due to local irritants, which need to be handled maturely. Yogi ji’s moral authority in the State — he was star campaigner in all seven phases of the poll — is the best guarantor of peace and stability. That is why Muslims in the vicinity of Gorakhnath peeth spontaneously celebrated his anointment.
    The Muslim voter has finally come of age. And the era of the Muslim veto is over. As more and more Muslims come forward to taste the rights and freedoms bestowed by the Constitution, the near-monolithic vote bloc will be impossible to resurrect. This is the greatest takeaway from the Uttar Pradesh election.
    The BJP won 31 of the 42 seats where Muslims comprised one-third of the electorate; logically these seats should have been won by the SP-Congress or the BSP. State-wide, however, the BSP was battered because Amit Shah convinced non-Jatav Scheduled Castes to trust the Prime Minister’s development programmes.
    Akhilesh Yadav was worsted because Shah courted the non-Yadav OBCs and because umpteen incidents of communal tension across the State were hushed up and not handled politically. At election time, the SP-Congress alliance could not ensure mutual transfer of Yadav and Muslim votes; the rest is history.
    Two issues deserve mention. Muslim women need legal relief from tripletalaq and polygamy. Most second marriages occur without the consent of the first wife and without making adequate provision for her and her children. They also want an end to the repulsive practice of halala, whereby a woman has to marry another man and consummate the marriage before she can divorce him and remarry the husband who regrets having divorced her. The Centre and the Supreme Court must bring Muslim women within the ambit of existing laws.
    The second is the Ram Janmabhoomi temple in Ayodhya. As a fervent believer in the temple, this writer insists that the mandate of 2014 and of 2017 was not sought in the name of Sri Ram, but of development and progress for all. Like Prime Minister Modi, Yogi Adityanath must focus on governance and development — the civilisational circuits to promote tourism would make a good beginning — and restrain agent provocateurs. The Ayodhya dispute is pending in the Supreme Court which has a huge backlog of cases that deserve higher priority. Larger forces of history will determine when the grand temple will be built.

  • (The writer is a political analyst and an independent researcher)
  • http://www.dailypioneer.com/columnists/edit/exit-the-muslim-veto-enter-the-muslim-voter.html
kA



An incisive and insightful analysis by Sandhya Jain. Yogi ji should take steps to build the temple for Sri Ram without any further delays. He should also promote the renaissance of the publishing house, Gita Press which has rendered great service to the protection of dharma, which is the ātmā of Bhāratam Janam (a phrase used by R̥ṣi Viśvāmitra in RV 3.53.12), a phrase which gives us our identity. Caste was a fraudulent construct by the British colonial regime and it is time to give it the status of a śreṇi, 'guild' tradition and NOT the aberrations caused by divisive, OBC identities promoted by VP SIngh. There is NO word for 'caste' in Hindu tradition. What we have is varṇa, a functional allocation of responsibilities in a samājam, Rāṣṭram. I am sure there will soon be measures for making ghar-wapasi a national movement, remembering that 1857 was fought together by both Hindu and Muslim bandhu. Counterfeit seculars of the types opposing Yogiji's anointment should become irrelevant in the polity of Bhārata Rāṣṭram. Thanks, again, Sandhya ji for a thought-provoking piece, coming from the pen of the author of path-breaking Adi Deo Arya Devata. जीवेम शरदः शतं May you live a hundred autumns.


  • SSadda 
    Thank you Sandhyaji.
    4475
    about an hour ago
     (0) ·  (0)

    • PPremolal 
      Very good analysis. One of the prosperous country of Asia (and many others), Singapore has same laws for every citizens regardless religions, castes or provinces. To say that in article "... In contrast, the Congress and the Samajwadi Party (SP) always evaded the issue"... is not true statement -if one looks closely. They have openly sided with fatwa, clerics and Mullahs on many issues like these due to their vote bank policies. One can still ask these opposition leaders, giving them only option of "Yes or No". It is failure of our psuedo secular media spoke persons , who never ask opposition parties and their leaders/spokemen a direct question re ' integration of Kashmir, triple talaqs, anti-Hindu propaganda, anti-national elements speeches in colleges, gath bhandhan princples'. They never asked why Archaeological Survey of India(ASI) completed report was buried under carpet by Congress-when three of the two SC judges certified that report indicated that '...in foundation of Babri Building, ASI found relics of Hindu Temple'.. , though one minority judge, a Muslim, Mr. Aftab ignored that report. It seems that report is not published or it is not in public domain. Why?

    The new arthashastra: a security strategy for India -- Gurmeet Kanwal (ed.), a collection of 20 contributions by eminent strategic thinkers. Review by Lt. Gen. Vijay Oberoi

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    On Monday, 20 March 2017 2:46 PM, VIJAY OBEROI <genoberoi@gmail.com> wrote:


    Dear All,

    A book titled "The New ArthashastraA Security Strategy for India" was released late last year. It is edited by Brig Gurmeet Kanwal.

    Headquarters Western Command had organised an event for appraising the book, a few days back. I was the Appraiser. My presentation, in the form of slides is enclosed as an attachment.

    You may like to browse through it, if you have the time and the interest; it is quite long!!

    Regards.

    Vijay Oberoi














































































    Global laundromat: how $80 bn laundered out of Russia 2010-2014. NaMo, nationalise kaalaadhan

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    British banks handled vast sums of laundered Russian money

    Exclusive: A global money-laundering scheme enabled criminals to funnel at least $20bn out of Russia and into offshore funds, British property, private school fees and even rock music tours.
    Subscribe to The Guardian ► http://is.gd/subscribeguardian
    UK banks such as HSBC, RBS and Coutts processed $738m in the ‘Laundromat’ scheme, which is now being reviewed by the National Crime Agency.
    Britain’s high street banks processed nearly $740m from a vast money-laundering operation run by Russian criminals with links to the Russian government and the KGB, the Guardian can reveal.
    HSBC, the Royal Bank of Scotland, Lloyds, Barclays and Coutts are among 17 banks based in the UK, or with branches here, that are facing questions over what they knew about the international scheme and why they did not turn away suspicious money transfers.



    Documents seen by the Guardian show that at least $20bn appears to have been moved out of Russia during a four-year period between 2010 and 2014. The true figure could be $80bn, detectives believe.
    One senior figure involved in the inquiry said the money from Russia was “obviously either stolen or with criminal origin”.
    Investigators are still trying to identify some of the wealthy and politically influential Russians behind the operation, known as “the Global Laundromat”.
    They estimate a group of about 500 people were involved. These include oligarchs, Moscow bankers, and figures working for or connected to the FSB, the successor spy agency to the KGB.
    Igor Putin, the cousin of Russia’s president, Vladimir, sat on the board of a Moscow bank which held accounts involved in the fraud.
    British-registered companies played a prominent role in this extensive money-laundering network. The real owners of most of the firms used in the scheme remain secret, however, because of the anonymity provided by controversial offshore laws.
    The Global Laundromat banking records were obtained by the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project (OCCRP) and Novaya Gazeta from sources who wish to remain anonymous. OCCRP shared the data with the Guardian and media partners in 32 countries.
    The documents include details of about 70,000 banking transactions, including 1,920 that went through UK banks and 373 via US banks.


    HSBC’s building in Canary Wharf, London.
    Pinterest
     HSBC’s building in Canary Wharf, London. Photograph: Anthony Devlin/PA Archive/Press Association Ima

    The data is understood to be part of the evidence gathered in a three-year money-laundering investigation led by police in Latvia and Moldova.
    Detectives have unravelled a conspiracy that involved billions of dollars being sent from suspected criminals in Russia via accounts in Latvia and Moldova held at banks notorious for their exposure to money-laundering scams.



    The trail led investigators to 96 countries and to a network of anonymously owned firms, most of them registered at Companies House in London. Most of the 21 core companies under scrutiny have been dissolved.
    The scale of the operation has staggered law enforcement officials. The records show British banks and foreign banks with offices in London processed $738.1m in transactions apparently involving criminal money from Moscow.
    Banks say they have sophisticated units dedicated to rooting out financial crime. But they say the volume of payments – billions a year – makes such work difficult.
    “If you are on the back end you are kind of playing whack-a-mole, trying to pick this up,” one source said.
    HSBC processed $545.3m in Laundromat cash, mostly routed through its Hong Kong branch. The troubled Royal Bank of Scotland – which is 71% owned by the UK government – handled $113.1m. Coutts – used by the Queen and owned by RBS – accepted $32.8m worth of payments via its office in Zurich, Switzerland. Coutts is winding down its Swiss operation and was last month fined by regulators for money laundering in a different case.
    Other high street banks that appear in the Laundromat data include Barclays, NatWest and Lloyds. NatWest – also owned by RBS – allowed through $1.1m.




    In the US, big banks processed more than $63.7m. They include Citibank ($37m) and Bank of America ($14m).



    The Guardian contacted all these banks. None of them challenged the authenticity of the data, but they all insisted they had strict anti-money-laundering policies.
    The response from RBS was typical. The bank said: “We are committed to combatting financial crime and money laundering in line with our regulations and have controls and safeguards in place to identify, assess, monitor and mitigate these risks.” The statement covered Coutts and NatWest.
    HSBC said: “This case highlights the need for greater information sharing between the public and private sectors, each of whom holds important information the other does not.”
    However, the Guardian’s disclosures raise awkward questions for UK banks. The Financial Conduct Authority demands that banks “consider the money-laundering risk presented by customers, taking into account country risk; the customer’s reputation and the source of their wealth and funds”.
    In many of the cases looked at by the Guardian, money vanished into offshore shell firms, whose “beneficial owners” remain anonymous, and whose source of wealth is a mystery. The OCCRP discovered that the official owners of many of the firms were fake or “nominee” directors based in Ukraine.



    The Guardian showed details of the transfers to L Burke Files, an international financial investigator. He said compliance checks at many western banks were desultory, and often little more than “box ticking”.
    “Typically the compliance and investigations department is treated like an unwanted step-child. The directors of a bank see compliance as an expense without any return. The compliance professionals are underpaid, underskilled and receive little or no effective training in spotting criminal patterns.”
    Files added: “Most of the transactions I’m seeing here would have required substantial enhanced due diligence. It isn’t just individual transactions. It’s the repeated pattern.”
    Police in eastern Europe have focused on a number of British shell companies, including Seabon Limited, which was run by a company management firm in Tooley Street, London, just around the corner from the mayor of London’s office and City Hall.
    In 2013, Seabon filed accounts to Companies House saying its income was just £1. The firm was wound up in February 2016. According to an analysis of the records, Seabon was involved in transactions worth $9bn. Another firm – Ronida Invest LLP, registered in Newhall Street, Birmingham – processed $6.4bn.
    Prosecutors in eastern Europe claim both firms were set up for the purposes of fraud.
    The records also give an insight into Russian shopping habits, although the customers in many cases are unknown. They bought diamonds from a jewellers in Bond Street, furs from brokers in north London, and chandeliers from a Chelsea boutique.
    The scheme was also used for a wealthy Russian to pay for his son’s boarding fees at Millfield, a prestigious school in Somerset.
    Often, the information in the notes section of wire transfers was misleading. One bank payment of $500,000 was marked down in records as “notebooks”. Actually, it was spent on fur.
    The scheme that allowed the transfer of money from east to west was unravelled by police following the launch of the inquiry in 2014. The OCCRP – which first reported the story – originally called it “the Russian Laundromat”.
    Typically, two firms would pretend to lend money to one another, with the sums underwritten by Russian businesses. One company would then “default” on the loan. Judges would certify the “debt” as authentic, allowing the Russian businesses to send cash to an account in Moldova. From there it went to Latvia, inside the EU.
    Accounts held at 19 Russian banks were involved in the scheme. In 2014, it was reported that one financial institution was the Russian Land Bank (RZB). A bank board member at the time was Igor Putin.
    Detectives say accounts at RZB transferred about $9.7bn to accounts at Moldova’s Moldindconbank. The cash was then moved to Trasta Komercbanka in Riga.


    A view of Riga.
    Pinterest
     A view of Riga. Photograph: Alamy

    RZB’s director Alexander Grigoriev was arrested in Moscow in 2015, a year after his bank was shut down for money-laundering offences.
    Sources told the OCCRP that Grigoriev had links to the FSB, Russia’s main spy agency.
    He has denied wrongdoing and says he is a respectable citizen. He remains in custody, accused of stealing assets in a different case.
    Igor Putin declined to comment. In a letter written in 2014, he said: “My personal experience, gained in recent years, proves the truth of the thesis that the Russian banking system should be radically rehabilitated and cleaned of troubled banks headed by people with doubtful reputations.”



    Trasta, the Latvian bank at the centre of the scandal, was closed in 2016. Maija Treija, deputy director of Latvia’s finance ministry, said it lost its licence due to money laundering. Of the billions sent from Russia, she said: “Obviously it was money either stolen or with criminal origin.” The fight against money laundering was a “never-ending story”, she told the Finnish broadcaster YLE.
    The involvement of Moldova’s banks in the scandal led to a political crisis that has seen five prime ministers come and go in the last two years.
    Former and current officials working at Moldova’s central bank were detained by prosecutors last August suspected of turning a blind eye to information on money laundering carried out through Moldindconbank.
    The fraud has also sparked a row with Moscow. This month, Moldova’s parliament said Russia’s FSB had “abusively treated” Moldovan officials arriving in the Russian Federation. It linked their harassment to Moldova’s Laundromat investigation and said some of the money had been used to try to bribe Moldovan MPs.
    The FSB – run by Vladimir Putin before he became prime minister and president – had used part of the Laundromat money to further Russian state interests, Moldovan officials said.

    Since you’re here …

    … we’ve got a small favour to ask. More people are reading the Guardian than ever, but far fewer are paying for it. Advertising revenues across the media are falling fast. And unlike many news organisations, we haven’t put up a paywall – we want to keep our journalism as open as we can. So you can see why we need to ask for your help. The Guardian’s independent, investigative journalism takes a lot of time, money and hard work to produce. But we do it because we believe our perspective matters – because it might well be your perspective, too.
    If everyone who reads our reporting, who likes it, helps to support it, our future would be much more secure.



    Nath, Siddhacharyas, and Sabar Tantra -- Svechchachari

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    Svechchachari is the pen name of a tantrik sadhaka, who wishes to remain anonymous so that he is able to express his opinions and share his experiences more freely through his writings.
    Nath, Siddhacharyas, and Sabar Tantra
    The Naths were a heterodox tradition of siddhas – accomplished yogis – whose path assimilated various aspects of Tantra and Hatha Yoga.
    Photo published for Nath, Siddhacharyas, and Sabar Tantra | IndiaFacts
    By most accounts, the Naths were a heterodox tradition of siddhas – accomplished yogis – whose path assimilated various aspects of Tantra and Hatha Yoga. The Sanskrit word “Natha” literally means “Lord” or “protector”.  There appears to have been close links between the Hindu Naths and the Siddhas of the Vajrayana tradition. Particularly, during the Pala era of Bengal, Buddhist commentator Taranath notes that the presence of 84 Siddhacharyas, who were Tantric experts and imparted spiritual knowledge to the ordinary people. They were reputed for their supernatural powers, or siddhis, and specially 8 exceptional siddhis known as Aṇimā, Mahima, Garima, Laghima, Prāpti, Prākāmya, Iṣiṭva, and Vaśitva. Apart from Taranath’s documentation, further details about their lives also come down to us from other Tibetan sources like Gos lo-tsa-ba, Sumpa-khan-po, and Bu-ston. Following is a list of the names we find from these sources:
    Luhi, Lila, Viru, Dombi, Sabara, Saraha (Rahulabhadra), Kankali, Mina, Goraksha, Caurangi, Vina, Santi, Tanti, Carmari, Khadga, Nagarjuna, Kanha, Kanari Thangana, Naro, Sali, Tilo, Chatra, Bhadra, Dvikhandi, Ajogi, Kada, Dhobi, Kankana, Kampala, Gingi, Bhade, Tandhi, Kukkuri, Cujbi, Dharma, Mahi, Acinti, Bhalaha, Nalina, Bhusuku, Indrabhuti, Megha, Kuthali, Karmara, Jalandhara, Rahula, Garbhari, Dhakari, Jogi, Celuka, Sundari, Lunacka, Nirguna, Jayananda, Carpati, Campaka, Bhikhana, Kumari, Cavari, Manibhadra, Mekhala, Mankhala, Kalakala, Kanthali, Dhahuli, Udhali, Kapala, Kila, Sagara, Sarvabhaksa, Nagabodhi, Darika, Putuli, Upanaha, Kokila, Ananga, Laksminkara, Samundra and Bhali.
    Mahasiddha Rahulabhadra. Source: http://levekunst.com
    Mahasiddha Rahulabhadra. Source: http://levekunst.com
    Some of these like Manibhadra, Mekhala and Mankhala were female siddhas. Taranath further mentions that one lineage of Siddhas started with Saraha or Rahulabhadra, author of Buddhakapala Tantra, followed by Luipada, author of Yoginisamcarya, Kambala and Padmavajra, Krshna, Lilavajra, author of Krsnayamari-tantra, Gambhiravajra, Kukkuri, etc. Other texts give the succession of Siddhas as Rahula, Nagarjuna, Siddasabari, Luipa, Dombi, Tilopa, Naropa, Dombi, and Kusalibhadra. In the Hindu tradition 9 among these 84 were given special status and considered as a unit, or Navanathas: Matsyendra-Nath, Gorakshanath, Jalandharanath, Kanifanath, Charpatinath, Naganath, Bhartrinath, Revannath, Gahaninath.
    Most of these Naths and Siddhas belonged to lower sections of society, were engaged in domestic and secular professions, while practicing and preaching spirituality to others. This is apparent from the names of  Dombi, Sabari, Tanti, Camari, etc., who all belonged to professions of corpse-carriers in cremation grounds, or leather-workers, washermen, oilmen, tailors, fishermen, woodcutters and the like. Saraha or Rahulabhadra, who was the teacher of Nagarjuna, as per some scholars, was an arrow-maker by profession, while Jalandhara or Hadipa worked as a sweeper in the court of queen Mainamati of Bengal. The system of the Naths was extremely heterodox and kept itself away from the paths of mainstream religion, though it borrowed heavily from a liberal interpretation of Saiva, Shakta, Vaishnava and Buddhist texts.

    Lineage, Philosophy and Practice

    Some scholars believe that the Nath tradition may have originated in the foothills of the Himalayas and the extreme climatic conditions in that area could have contributed to their proclivity towards siddhis of the physical body. But irrespective of their place of origin, their influence clearly spread across India from Maharashtra and Gujarat in the West, to Bengal and Assam in the East, and deep inside South India as well. It is also possible that some of the Siddha lineages were parallel developments. The Rasesvara Siddhas of Maharashtra area and the Maheswara Siddha tradition of the South often mention the Naths and Siddhacharyas from the North. Similarly, some of the Nath literature from the North refer to the alchemical mysteries of Raseswaras, especially with regards to the usage of mercury in the transformation of the physical body. In a text called Viramahesvara from the 12th century, there is a reference to Nath Siddha Goraksha meeting a Maheshwara Siddha around the Tungabhadra region, who imparted secret knowledge to Goraksha. In various places in the North, the Naths are referred to as Kan-phata-yogis because of a particular kundala that they wear in their ears, driven through the cartilage. Madhava in his 14th century Sarvadarsanasamgraha opines that alchemy is a branch of Hatha-Yoga of the Naths. The Shakti pithas were the main place of pilgrimage and initiation. An old Bengali book refers to a journey of Mastyendranath and Gorakshanath from Kamakhya peetha to Hinglaj, where the later, on the orders of his Guru, was made to meditate inside a cave, where animal sacrifices used to happen, until he had a vision of the Goddess Hinglaj and was blessed with clairvoyance. Probably the most revered figure to the Naths was Adinath or the first among them. Some texts equate Adinath with Shiva, others with Dattatreya, while a majority seems to view Adinath as the source or father of Shiva. The lore goes that Adinath’s first son and disciple was Lord Shiva, who became an immortal god by the power of his mahajnana. Shiva then took his wife Chandi or Gauri into the middle of an ocean and imparted the knowledge of the Naths to her. While this discourse was going on, Minanatha or Matsyendranatha heard the conversation from inside the womb of a fish and learned the Nath practices. Another text mentions that originally there were only 5 Nath yogis – Matsyendra, who was born from the navel of Adinath, Goraksha, born from Adinath’s head, Hadi-pa or Jalandhara, born from Adinath’s bones, Kanu-pa or Kanifa or Krsnanath, born from Adinath’s ears, and Caurangi from Adinath’s legs.
    The Siddhacharya culture was further divided into five kulas or clans: Dombi, Nati, Rajaki, Candali, and Brahmani, which were symbolic of the five types of Shakti given high prominence among the Kaulas. The Naths also had many similarities with the Sahajiyas, and both these groups are believed to have reached exceptional proficiency in sadhanas of the human body. Some texts pertaining to the Naths and Siddhacharyas mention that there are 32 special nerves in the body through which the Shakti flows from its origin below the navel. Here an interesting point must be noted. While today the idea is ubiquitous that the Kundalini Shakti arises from the base of the spinal cord, it is more likely an effect of some texts of Tantra and Yoga that were translated during the 18th century, which held this particular view on the topic. There is however other texts, lesser known, both in the Hathayogic and the Tantric tradition, both inside Hinduism and in Tibetan Buddhism, more in the later than the former, where the source of the Kundalini is mentioned as the navel, or just above the navel, in a human being. This was the central point from which the human ego is believed to function, and when this energy was transformed into what is known as the Kundalini, an awakening was felt near or just above the navel and an upsurge of energy move upwards to whatever purpose the seeker directed it for.
    A Party of Kanphat Yogis Resting around a Fire. By Mas’ud. Source: http://www.asia.si.edu/
    A Party of Kanphat Yogis Resting around a Fire. By Mas’ud. Source: http://www.asia.si.edu/
    So it is not surprising that the Siddhacharya and Natha literature mention the navel area as the source of the energy which then flows, or can flow into 32 special ethereal nadis inside the subtle body of a human being. Some of these nadis were: lalana, ramana, rasana avadhuti, pravana, krsnarupini, samanya, pavaki, sumana kamini, etc. Of these lalana, rasana and avadhuti were later on became more popularly known as ida, pingala and susumna nadi – the fundamental trio of Kundalini sadhana. Not only this, there were also many secret centers where multiple nadis crisscrossed and these became known as Chakras. A seeker in the Nath philosophy after awakening his Kundalini from the navel could keep it stationed in one or multiple of these chakras by ritualized meditative processes and thus gain various occult and supernatural abilities. Among the numerous such chakras, the highest resort for Shakti was considered to be the center above the head, mahasukhasthana, the place of greatest bliss! In later and more popular texts this became known by its alternate name, sahasrar or the center of the thousand-petaled lotus. The various Tantrica peethas, specially the four most prominent – Uddiyana, Jalandhara, Purnagiri and Kamarupa – were also equated with various chakras inside the subtle body of a sadhaka and accordingly sadhanas were designed for harnessing the special energy of such places. Eventually one of the fundamental aims was to attain a state of effortless existence and causeless bliss known as sahaja, where the aspirant has the feeling of non-dualism and sees all as a part of his own spiritual Self. While the Naths and the 84 Siddhacharyas may not have created a formidable body of philosophical commentary and polemics, – doctrinal purity seems to have been the least of their concerns – it is undeniable that they too were advocates of practical Vedanta, attained through a process of Tantric and Hathayogic ritualism.
    Till this point we find their ideas very similar to the doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, but not beyond this. For merely a feeling of inner bliss of the soul was not enough for them, the Naths and Siddhas also aimed to divinize the human body and lead an existence not at the mercy of a mechanical and brutish nature, but like a reflection of the Lord, Ishwara himself, stand above nature and direct its course, not in an egoistic human sense filled with effort and the consequent regret from failure, rather in the smooth, magical and simple way in which the Supreme does things in the Universe. In addition to the 6-chakra system of pure Tantrica texts like Sathachakra Nirupana, the Naths had recognized three additional chakras, as mentioned in the Gorakh-Vijaya. These 3 chakras were linked to three forms of Sunyata – Adi, Madhya and Antyah. Very little is known in today’s spiritual circles on these three chakras, except that they were linked to the stages developed post the realizing of the Mahasukhasthana or the thousand-petaled overhead lotus.
    All stories of the Naths also contained heavy dosage of spiritual magic. Matsyendra was believed to have manifested dual bodies on various occasions, while Goraksha’s siddhi of Bhairava allowed him complete knowledge of different forms of yoga and unbeatable mastery in spiritual logic and polemics. Caurangi, it is believed, had regenerated his own limbs by a 12 year sadhana under his Guru’s instructions. A local folklore from western India, tells of an encounter between Jalandhara Natha – born in Bengal, but who roamed across North – and an evil magician where the former ends up transforming the later into a parrot. Jalandhara’s chief disciple Kanifa, according to Tibetan sources would fly in the air or invoke a preta inside a dead-body and sit on it while instructing his disciples. Whatever the truth in these stories, the general idea was that the Naths held many supernatural abilities and this was not in contradiction to their core philosophy or the way in which they defined the aims of their path. Not merely a feeling of liberation, or an escape into Moksha, but rather manifesting the powers of the Divine in this very lifetime while operating from a station of effortless, egoless ease. That to them was a true jivanmukta.

    Sabar Tantra

    The Naths were firm believers in the divine power of the Guru or preceptor, who initiated disciples into the path. While their core worship was of the formless often captured by the crisp terminology like Alakh Niranjan, Sunya, Anadi, etc. they had no theological or practical restrictions against doing sadhana of deities for various purposes, mundane or otherwise. In fact it is quite likely that the idea of using the power of a deity for practical benefits was championed by the Nath yogis and a reflection of the same can be found even today through the innumerable texts of Sabar Vidyas and Tantras available across North, East, West and central India, right from interior Maharashtra to rural Bengal. The Navnath Bhakisar from Maharashtra, a much later day text, contains stories of the 9 Naths and their journey, equating each of the Naths with 1/10 of the spiritual power of Krishna. It has many stories of Naths engaging in spiritual warfare with various devatas to establish their supremacy. While to a casual reader untrained in occult secrets of the Kundalini literature, these may sound blasphemous, the purport is most likely an attempt to convert into popular stories certain aspects of higher sadhana. Indeed some of the nadis described in the Nath literature are considered to be available to the rarest of rare seeker who has gone even beyond the realm of the deities, or at least has spiritualized himself to their extent, not only in a psychological sense of the Upanishadic Mahavakya, Aham Brahmasmi, but also in the physical and vital level of reality. Needless to say, that is no easy matter and for all practical purposes, far removed from the capability of most sadhakas in today’s world.
    nath3
    Jālandharnāth at Jalore By Amardas Bhatti. Source: http://www.asia.si.edu/
    Since the cult of the Siddhas and Naths gave much greater prominence to practical spirituality rather than theory, they would conduct most of their discourses in local languages. This is best exemplified by the famous Maharashtrian Nath Siddha known as Jnaneshwara, who was a disciple of Nivruttinath, who in turn was a disciple of Ganahi Nath, whose Guru was Gorakshanath. Jnaneshwara was the first one to write a famous commentary on the Gita in a non-Sanskrit language, which holds a unique place in the history of Marathi literature, while acting as a core text of the Nath Sampradaya of Maharashtra. In Bengal, the Sahajiyas who were similar to the Naths composed the first caryapadas – a collection of spiritual poem – in proto-Bengali. In fact almost every single text of Sabar Tantra popular across the North is in local language. These texts contain very little or no philosophy but more like a compendium of practical sadhanas for specific gains. The only test of a Sabara prayoga is whether it works and how quickly it works. The percolation of these sadhanas became so far reaching that even some of the more orthodox Kaula sampradayas of the North started using Sabar vidyas for smaller aims. For example, one of the easiest uses of Sabar is to protect an area where a ritual is to be performed. This becomes particularly important given that many Tantric rituals are often conducted in places where there is a serious chance of attacks from ethereal entities and other non-corporeal forces with terrifying consequences. Siddhi of a Sabar vidya is much easier to achieve and apply, provided the exact instruction comes from a qualified source, than using more traditional methods. This also acts as a means of conserving energy because the final goal of spiritual uplift has to come from more standardized sadhanas, but to take care of peripheral and auxiliary matters, Sabar Tantra is the most reliable and quickest bet.
    Though the original Nath tradition has almost declined or moved away from public, or as in the case of Maharashtra transformed into a kind of Vaishnavism, their methods and sadhanas are still widely practiced. It is quite likely that without the Nath yogis, much of the knowledge regarding Kundalini Yogas would never have come down to us. That is probably their most unique and far reaching contribution, for Kundalini is not a term we can find in Vedas or Upanishads or even the Gita; it comes to us from the Nath traditions and then gets incorporated in the Tantras.
    May those legendary Nath Yogis and their teachings never be forgotten in this land!
    Feature Image: http://www.asia.si.edu
    http://indiafacts.org/nath-siddhacharyas-sabar-tantra/

    What if Sociologists Had as Much Influence as Economists? -- Neil Irwin

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    Economists have no clue on how a nation creates wealth.Bharat had śreṇi-dharma,a trusteeship Rāṣṭram commonwealth of artisans and merchants.

    What if Sociologists Had as Much Influence as Economists?

    Economic View
    By NEIL IRWIN
    Walk half a city block in downtown Washington, and there is a good chance that you will pass an economist. People with advanced training in the field shape policy on subjects as varied as how health care is provided, broadcast licenses auctioned or air pollution regulated.
    Turn on cable news, and the guests who opine on the weighty public policy questions of the day quite often have some title like “chief economist” underneath their name. And there are economists sprinkled throughout the government — there is an entire council of them advising the president in most administrations, if not yet in this one.
    But as much as we love economics here — this column is named Economic View, after all — there just may be a downside to this one academic discipline having such primacy in shaping public policy.
    They say when all you have is a hammer, every problem looks like a nail. And the risk is that when every policy adviser is an economist, every problem looks like inadequate per-capita gross domestic product.
    Another academic discipline may not have the ear of presidents but may actually do a better job of explaining what has gone wrong in large swaths of the United States and other advanced nations in recent years.
    Sociologists spend their careers trying to understand how societies work. And some of the most pressing problems in big chunks of the United States may show up in economic data as low employment levels and stagnant wages but are also evident in elevated rates of depressiondrug addiction and premature death. In other words, economics is only a piece of a broader, societal problem. So maybe the people who study just that could be worth listening to.
    “Once economists have the ears of people in Washington, they convince them that the only questions worth asking are the questions that economists are equipped to answer,” said Michèle Lamont, a Harvard sociologist and president of the American Sociological Association. “That’s not to take anything away from what they do. It’s just that many of the answers they give are very partial.”
    As a small corrective, I took a dive into some sociological research with particular relevance to the biggest problems facing communities in advanced countries today to understand what kinds of lessons the field can offer. In 1967, Senator Walter Mondale actually proposed a White House Council of Social Advisers; he envisioned it as a counterpart to the well-entrenched Council of Economic Advisers. It was never created, but if it had been, this is the sort of advice it might have been giving recent presidents.
    For starters, while economists tend to view a job as a straightforward exchange of labor for money, a wide body of sociological research shows how tied up work is with a sense of purpose and identity.
    “Wages are very important because of course they help people live and provide for their families,” said Herbert Gans, an emeritus professor of sociology at Columbia. “But what social values can do is say that unemployment isn’t just losing wages, it’s losing dignity and self-respect and a feeling of usefulness and all the things that make human beings happy and able to function.”
    That seems to be doubly true in the United States. For example, Ofer Sharone, a sociologist at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, studied unemployed white-collar workers and found that in the United States, his subjects viewed their ability to land a job as a personal reflection of their self-worth rather than as an arbitrary matter. They therefore took rejection hard, blaming themselves and in many cases giving up looking for work. In contrast, in Israel similar unemployed workers viewed getting a job as more like winning a lottery, and were less discouraged by rejection.
    It seems plausible that this helps explain why so many Americans who lost jobs in the 2008 recession have never returned to the labor force despite an improved job market. Mr. Sharone is working with career counselors to explore how to put this finding to work to help the long-term unemployed.
    Jennifer M. Silva of Bucknell University has in recent years studied young working-class adults and found a profound sense of economic insecurity in which the traditional markers of reaching adulthood — buying a house, marrying, landing a steady job — feel out of reach.
    Put those lessons together, and you may think that the economic nostalgia that fueled Donald J. Trump’s presidential campaign was not so much about the loss of income from vanishing manufacturing jobs. Rather, it may be that the industrial economy offered blue-collar men a sense of identity and purpose that the modern service economy doesn’t.
    Sociology also offers important lessons about poverty that economics alone does not. “Evicted,” a much-heralded book by the Harvard sociologist Matthew Desmond, shows how the ever-present risk of losing a home breeds an insecurity and despondency among poor Americans.
    It works against the tendency to think about housing policy as solely a matter of which subsidy goes to whom and what incentives ought to be in place to encourage banks to lend in poor neighborhoods. All that stuff is important, of course, but doesn’t really address the overwhelming challenge of insecurity that affects millions of people.
    And a large body of sociological research touches on the idea of stigmatization, including of the poor and of racial minorities. It makes clear that there are harder problems to solve around these issues than simply eliminating overt discrimination.

    It’s one thing, for example, to outlaw housing discrimination based on race. But if real estate agents and would-be home sellers subtly shun minority buyers, the effect can be the same. Professor Gans of Columbia has argued for decades that the stigmatization of poor Americans fuels entrenched, persistent poverty.
    If the White House Council of Social Advisers did exist, one of its great challenges would be to convert some of these findings into actual policy proposals that might help. Part of the ascendance of economics in the policy-making sphere comes from the fact that economists tend to spend more time looking at specific legislative or regulatory steps that could try to improve conditions.
    And trying to solve social problems is a more complex undertaking than working to improve economic outcomes. It’s relatively clear how a change in tax policy or an adjustment to interest rates can make the economy grow faster or slower. It’s less obvious what, if anything, government can do to change forces that are driven by the human psyche.
    But there is a risk that there is something of a vicious cycle at work. “When no one asks us for advice, there’s no incentive to become a policy field,” Professor Gans said.
    It may be true that these lessons on identity and community don’t lend themselves immediately to policy white papers and five-point plans. But a deeper understanding of them sure could help policy makers.

    The meaning of Ramanujan and his lost notebook -- George E. Andrews (1:20:19) ++

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    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_0NuOBNobk (1:20:19) The Meaning of Ramanujan and His Lost Notebook 

    Center for Advanced Study, University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignnnPublished on Jan 21, 2014
    George E. Andrews
    Evan Pugh Professor of Mathematics, The Pennsylvania State University

    George Andrews will describe the brief life of Srinivasa Ramanujan, the self-taught Indian mathematical genius whose legacy includes many formulas that were new and surprising and that took many years for others to prove. Andrews will use elementary arithmetic to illustrate Ramanujan's mathematical work. He will also discuss the philosophical issue of whether mathematical truth transcends culture, incorporating ideas of the late Edward Shils who illustrated Ramanujan's work to support the notion of the universal validity of science.

    Hosted by: Department of Mathematics

    In conjunction with: Center for South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Department of Computer Science, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Department of Physics, Spurlock Museum

    Tuesday, April 26, 2011
    4:00 pm
    Knight Auditorium, Spurlock Museum

    See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzP4HQpzLYM (55:05)

    Conjectures: Ramanujan’s spiritual realisation in Mathematics

    Rajya Sabha TV 

    RAMANUJAN: Letters from an Indian Clerk

    Christopher Sykes 


    See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YW0Qi9ErNos (52:15)

    Documentary on Math Genius Srinivasa Ramanujam

    PAW - Panda Art Works 

    The life story of sriniwasa ramanujan

    Anand raj Jc 


    See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uhNGCn_3hmc (50:42) SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN: The Mathematician & His LegacyPublished on Apr 25, 2016

    Each year, December 22nd is celebrated as the National Mathematical Day in India to commemorate the birth anniversary of the self-taught genius – Srinivasa Ramanujan whose work continues to intrigue, inspire and challenge mathematicians around the world. His fertile mind envisioned a world where science and mathematics converge to uncover fundamental principles governing our universe. Nearly a hundred years after his death, mathematics has slowly developed tools that are unraveling some of the secrets behind his intuitive suppositions. His oeuvre has opened up new vistas of possibilities, new branches of mathematics have sprouted and proliferated and found application in different fields of sciences, implausible in his own times. The Film brings together his life on screen, with period enactments, interviews and animation.

    See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7Ufxl-zSRI (52:15) COURTESY BBC DOCUMENTARY ON RAMANUJAN -Legendry Indian Mathematician -with subtitles-Ravish Physics Published on Apr 14, 2013
    Ramanujan has been one of the greatest mathematicians India has ever produced.This video throws light on his achievements Physics Ravish

    infinity Indian Mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan

    shivaraj fathate 

    shivaraj fathate Published on Jan 2, 2017
    This movie is based on true life story of a great Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan. he invented formulas on his own hard work without any one help. He came England and struggled to publish his formulas.
    I am sure u will be proud as an Indian while watching this movie and you will be happy some where after watching this movie. This movie is too much motivated. So guys watch this movie and enjoy it.

    the movie quality is superb 720p.
    for English subtitle just follow the steps
    Settings, Subtitles C/C, English auto generated.
    it"s done now u will get a subtitle on bottom.

    i hope u guys like this movie let us give a chance to grow we will try our best to add good movies n trick videos.
    so if u like this movie pls write your comment, share url link, like and subscribe our channel thank you so much for your interest have a gud day n keep smile always....






    United States of Europe in economic muddle. NaMo, take the lead, United States of Indian Ocean will be a stable dharma-dhamma union.

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    Peace through economics: a short history of the EU


    At a time when the U.K. is deciding whether to stay in or out of the European Union, a look at the history of EU and it’s unfinished goal of being ‘United States of Europe.’

    The idea of a “United States of Europe” was first proposed by Winston Churchill, the former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1946. However, the move towards a supranational European organisation began on May 9, 1950 with the Schuman Declaration.
    Robert Schuman, the French Foreign Minister, set in motion the formation of a pan-European union by proposing a joint “High Authority” that would control coal and steel production in France and Germany. He proposed that the organisation would be open to other European countries as well. The Schuman Declaration was built upon the idea of Franco-German reconciliation to prevent the two nations from starting another World War.
    European Coal and Steel Community
    The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1951, set up the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the forerunner to the modern European Union. It consisted of the six nations: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany. The idea behind this economic union was that war would be far less likely between countries that are economically interdependent. The ECSC eventually led to the creation of the European Economic Community in 1957.
    European Economic Community
    The Treaties of Rome set up the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) that led to the creation of a ‘Common Market.’ The six member-nations of the EEC promised to reduce trade barriers and come out with common policies in areas such as transportation and agriculture. This eventually created a system that allowed labour and goods to move freely between the member-nations.
    In 1957, Great Britain declined an invitation to join the EEC. In 1963, Great Britain tried to join the Common Market, but the then French President Charles de Gaulle, who believed the Britain “was not serious about European integration,” vetoed its application.
    Merger Treaty
    The executive branches of the three European organisations: ECSC, EEC, and EURATOM were merged when the Treaty Brussels came into force on July 1, 1967. Till this point in time, the three organisations had their own executive branches commonly known as ‘commissions’ while sharing the Common Assembly, which became the European Parliament in 1962, and courts. The Merger Treaty streamlined the European organisations as the European Communities with the creation of a single Commission and a single Council to serve the three communities.
    First Enlargement
    In 1973, the European Communities, which consisted of the original six members, was finally expanded to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom. In 1979, the European Parliament conducted the first pan-European elections, where its citizens elected the Members of the European Parliament directly. Greece joined the European Communities in 1981, followed by Spain and Portugal in 1986.
    The Single European Act
    The Single European Act came into force on July 1, 1987. It created a single European market and reformed its institutions to prepare for the accession of the Spain and Portugal to the European Communities. The Act also helped set into motion a vast six-year programme to reduce the restrictions on trade flow for European nations, setting up the single market. The Commission’s claim is the heart of the European project. It allows for the free movement of people, goods, and money.
    The Treaty of Maastricht
    Treaty of Maastricht or the Treaty on European Union came into force on November 1, 1993. This treaty gave more decision-making power to the European Parliament and created the European Union. The Treaty of Maastricht also created new avenues for European cooperation in fields such as Justice and Home Affairs and a Common Foreign and Security Policy. The Treaty of Maastricht also set the framework for a common currency policy, which in 1995, was renamed as the Euro.
    The Schengen Agreement
    Beginning in 1995, the Schengen Agreement came into force, allowing for a Europe without border controls for its member states.
    The Treaty of Amsterdam
    It came into force in 1999 and consolidated the numerous treaties which made up the EEC and EU. It also created room for greater transparency within the Union.
    The Euro
    In 2002, the Euro came into force for member countries of the Eurozone. On the first year of its introduction, the Euro replaced the currency of 12 nations. Today, 19 members of the European Union have adopted the Euro as their official currency.
    Treaty of Nice
    In 2003, the Treaty of Nice came into force which streamlined the numerous mechanisms of EU governance as well as increased the number of seats in the European Parliament to 732, in the hope of an Eastern expansion.
    Enlargement of the European Union
    The largest enlargement of the European Union occurred on May 1, 2004. Ten countries: Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia became its members taking the member-nations count to 25. Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU on January 1, 2007, followed by Croatia, which became its 28 member on July 1, 2013.
    Treaty of Lisbon
    The Treaty of Lisbon came into force on December 1, 2009 and created a permanent President of the European Council and increased the legislative powers of the European Parliament. This treaty amended the Treaty of Maastricht and the Treaty of Amsterdam that formed the constitutional basis for the EU. The Treaty of Lisbon made the European Central Bank and the European Council official institutions of the EU. The first President of the European Council was Herman Van Rompuy, the former Prime Minister of Belgium.
    Nobel Peace Prize
    On December 10, 2012, President of the European Council Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Commission Jose Manuel Barroso and President of the European Parliament Martin Schulz picked up the Nobel Peace Prize that was awarded to the European Union. The European Union was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for its efforts to stabilise Europe and to turn the continent into one of peace.
    Jean-Claude Juncker as European Commission President
    The European Parliament elected Jean-Claude Juncker as the President of the European Commission. This was the first time the President of the European Commission was elected by the European Parliament.
    (Compiled by Keshav Padmanabhan)

    1528 CE to 2017 CE is the timeline of Sri Rama's political exile from Ayodhya. NaMo, time for Rāmrājyam, NOW.

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    Resolving Ayodhya dispute since 1859: The nine failed attempts at out-of-court settlements

    INDIA Updated: Mar 21, 2017 18:00 IST
    Gulam Jeelani and M Tariq Khan
    Ayodhya

    The centuries-old Babri masjid in Ayodhya was demolished by a Hindu mob in December 1992. The Supreme Court on Tuesday suggested an out-of-court settlement in the case.(HT file photo)

    The quest to find an out-of-court settlement to the Babri Masjid-Ramjanmabhoomi dispute in Ayodhya has spanned nine attempts and more than 150 years. The latest one came on Tuesday from the Supreme Court who asked the two warring factions in the case, dating back to 1949, to give negotiated settlement another shot.
    The Babri Masjid Action Committee, one of the parties, said it was open to the offer but on one condition -- no ‘outsider’ should be part of the process.
    BJP MP Subramanium Swamy had urged the top court to constitute a bench to hear a batch of petitions which challenged the 2010 Allahabad High Court order, which ruled by a majority that the disputed 120 feet by 90 feet plot land be divided into three equal parts among the three petitioners — Sunni Wakf Board, Nirmohi Akhara and the party representing Ram Lalla.
    Read more
    Among the nine failed shots at negotiations, three were initiated by former prime ministers -- Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Chandra Shekhar and PV Narasimha Rao. The first was made by the British in 1859, when a fence was erected to separate the places of worship for both communities.
    Attempts to use the services of non-Muslim religious figures like Sri Sri Ravishankar, the Kanchi Shankaracharya Jayendra Saraswati and Dalai Lama drew momentary response but failed in the long run.
    HT traces all the attempts at negotiations that took place over 158 years:
    1859
    After clashes over the possession of the site, the British administration erected a fence to separate the places of worship. The inner court was to be used by Muslims and the outer court by the Hindus. The arrangement couldn’t last long as Mahant Raghubar Das filed a suit in 1885 seeking permission to build a canopy on Ram Chabootra.
    1990
    Prime minister Chandra Shekhar tried to resolve the dispute through negotiations when volunteers of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), a right-wing group, partially damaged the mosque. But talks failed the following year.
    December 16, 1992
    Ten days after the mosque was razed, PV Narsimha Rao, prime minister of the Congress-led government at the Centre, set up a commission of inquiry under Justice Liberhan, which submitted its report 17 years later in June 2009. Its contents were not made public.
    June 2002
    Prime Minister AB Vajpayee set up an Ayodhya cell in his office and appointed a senior party official, Shatrughan Singh, to hold talks with Hindu and Muslim leaders. But the attempt did not move beyond the announcement.
    Read more
    July 26, 2010
    The Lucknow bench of Allahabad high court reserved its judgement and advised all parties to resolve the issue amicably, but no one was keen. The court said the verdict would be pronounced on September 24.
    September 23, 2010
    A plea for an out-of-court settlement reached the Supreme Court, which said it would hear the matter five days later. The top court, however, rejected it and told the Allahabad high court to deliver its judgement.
    February 24, 2015
    Mohammad Hashim Ansari, the oldest litigant from the Muslim side, met Akhara Parishad president Mahant Gyan Das to discuss a new proposal for a resolution of the dispute, which they planned to place before the Supreme Court. But the out-of-court settlement formula did not take off.
    April 10, 2015
    Yet another attempt at a negotiation started when litigants from both parties met in Ayodhya. Swami Chakrapani, president of the All India Hindu Mahasabha, the main litigant from Hindu side, met the Muslim litigants, who were represented by Mohammad Hashim Ansari. The talks collapsed after the first meeting.
    May 31, 2016Leaders from both sides met again. Mahant Narendra Giri, the newly elected president of All India Akhara Parishad, met Mohammad Hashim Ansari, but before any headway was made, Ansari passed away.
















































    http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/resolving-ayodhya-dispute-since-1859-the-nine-failed-attempts-at-out-of-court-settlements/story-1IORpZpEfdkS63YYsreBjP.html

    In SC, Lucknow and Rae Bareli, Ayodhya battles over the decades

    Indian Express recaps the background and charges, and the list of accused in the major cases related to the Ayodhya dispute and Babri Masjid demolition

    Written by Manish Sahu , Utkarsh Anand | Updated: March 22, 2017 4:52 am

    Babri Masjid, Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid, Ram Janmabhoomi, Ayodhya dispute, Ayodhya, Ayodhya case, Babri Masjid demolition, Babri Masjid Lucknow, Rae Bareli, Hindu-Muslim riots, supreme court, what is the Babri Masjid case, latest news, latest india news, indian express Riots affected area after the demolition of Babri Masjid in Mumbai, 1992. Express archive photo
    Chief Justice of India J S Khehar on Tuesday said the Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid title suits were a matter of “sentiments and religion” that were best resolved amicably, preferably without intervention by the courts. CJI Khehar even offered to mediate among the sides laying claim to the disputed site — however, at least 5 earlier attempts at resolving the decades-old quarrel through negotiations have not been successful.
    Besides the batch of title suits in the Supreme Court, two separate cases are being heard in connection with the demolition of the Babri Masjid at trial courts in Lucknow and Rae Bareli. The accused in the Lucknow case are accused of demolishing the mosque, while those in the Rae Bareli case are being tried for allegedly instigating the crowd to demolish the structure through their speeches. Both cases were investigated by the CBI.od
    The Supreme Court is also hearing appeals by the CBI and one Haji Mehboob against an Allahabad High Court verdict of May 2010, in which the High Court upheld the dropping of conspiracy charges against senior BJP leaders, including L K Advani, in the demolition of the Babri Masjid. This case was last heard on March 6; the next hearing is scheduled for Wednesday, March 22.
    Babri Masjid, Babri Masjid demolition, BJP-Babri Masjid, Hindu, Muslim, Hindu-Muslim riots, LK Advani, Murli Manohar Joshi, Uma Bharti, India news, supreme court, indian expressExpress Archive
    Here is where the cases related to the Ramjanmabhoomi-Babri Masjid dispute and the demolition of the mosque are placed.
    Title Suits
    The Lucknow Bench of the Allahabad High Court had passed an order on September 30, 2010, directing in a 2-1 majority judgment that the “roughly 15,000 square feet site” occupied by the Babri Masjid before its demolition on December 6, 1992, should be divided three ways among Hindus, Muslims and the Nirmohi Akhara, an organised group of sadhus. The court passed the order while disposing of 4 title suits filed by the late Gopal Singh Visharad, the Nirmohi Akhara, the Sunni Central Waqf Board and Ram Lalla Virajman through a retired High Court judge, the late Deoki Nandan Agarwal.
    A batch of appeals against the Allahabad HC order is pending in the Supreme Court. In May 2011, the court had ordered status quo at the site, restoring its previous orders of 1994 and 2002 in respect of the 67 acres adjacent to the disputed site in Ayodhya.
    In January 2013, Justice Aftab Alam reiterated the order to maintain status quo on the title of the land. But Justice Alam retired in April 2013, and the case has not witnessed any effective hearing even on the miscellaneous applications since then.
    The CJI’s observations on Tuesday came after BJP MP Subramanian Swamy mentioned the matter before the court, seeking an early hearing. Swamy had submitted that the batch of cases on the title suits were pending in the apex court for the last six years, and although the pleadings were complete, no specific date or Bench for hearing the dispute had been fixed. The Bench has asked Swamy to carry out consultations and inform it of its decision on March 31.
    Lucknow Case
    ACCUSED: There are 22 accused, mostly leaders of the BJP and Shiv Sena, including the present BJP MPs from Faizabad and Unnao, Lallu Singh and Sakshi Maharaj respectively. The then DM of Faizabad, R N Srivastava, is also an accused. The other 19 are Jaibhan Singh Pawiya, Dharmendra Singh Gujar, Naveen Bhai Shukla, Acharya Dharmendra Dev, Sudhir Kakkar, Vinay Kumar Rai, Prakash Sharma, Gandhi Yadav, Vijay Bahadur Singh, Ramesh Pratap Singh, Om Prakash Pandey, Ramji Gupta, Kamlesh Tripathi, Santosh Dubey, Ram Chandra Khatri, Jai Bhagwan Goyal, Amarnath Goyal, Pawan Pandey, and Brij Bhushan Singh.
    CHARGES: The 22 accused are facing trial under IPC Sections 120B (conspiracy), 147 (rioting), 149 (every member of unlawful assembly guilty of offence commited in prosecution of common object), 395 (dacoity), 332 (voluntarily causing hurt to deter public servant from his duty), 338 (causing grievous hurt by act endangering life or personal safety of others), 201 (causing disappearance of evidence of offence, or giving false information to screen offender), 153A (promoting enmity between groups on grounds of religion, race, place of birth, residence, language, etc., and doing acts prejudicial to maintenance of harmony), 153B (imputations, assertions prejudicial to national integration), 295 (injuring or defiling place of workship with intent to insult the religion of any class), 295A (deliberate and malicious acts intended to outrage religious feelings of any class by insulting its religion or religious beliefs), 505 (statements conducing to public mischief).
    Special Counsel for the prosecution (CBI), Ram Kumar Yadav, said, “The case is being tried in the court of Special Judge Surendra Kumar Yadav in Lucknow. So far, 195 prosecution witnesses have been examined. The last witness was Faizabad-based lawyer Madhurima Mishra, who is one of the eyewitness to the demolition. Her examination was completed on March 18.” The next hearing is on March 25.
    Rae Bareli Case
    ACCUSED: There were 8 accused initially, but 2 prominent individuals among them — Acharya Giriraj Kishore and Ashok Singhal — have now dead. Giriraj died in July 2014 and Singhal in November 2015. The remaining accused are BJP veterans L K Advani and Murli Manohar Joshi, Union Minister Uma Bharti, BJP Rajya Sabha MP Vinay Katiyar, and VHP leaders Sadhvi Rithambhara and V H Dalmia.

    CHARGES: All accused are being tried under IPC Sections 153A, 153B, 147, 149 and 505. (Details above) Defence lawyer Vimal Srivastava said, “The six accused are being tried in the court of Additional Chief Judicial Magistrate Lovey Yadav. So far, 58 witnesses have been examined. The last witness examined was journalist Swadesh Kumar.” The next hearing is on March 25.

    http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/in-sc-lucknow-and-rae-bareli-ayodhya-battles-over-the-decades-ram-janmabhoomi-babri-masjid-4579642/

    Ayodhya talks a terrible idea


     
    Kanchan Gupta | 21 Mar 2017 03:37 PM
    In an amazingly bizarre twist to the seemingly endless and tortuous judicial process to decide ownership of the disputed land in Ayodhya that has been the subject of much controversy since the mid-1980s, the Supreme Court has suggested a "negotiated" resolution of the problem that has vexed successive Governments and well-intentioned individuals.

    Hindus believe Sri Ram was born, and a temple stood commemorating his birth, on this plot of land in the holy town of Ayodhya before being destroyed in 1527 by the marauding army of the Mughal invader Babur, and the building of a mosque, Babri Masjid, at the site with the ruins of the mandir. Muslims fiercely contest this claim.

    The dispute has played out over centuries in the realm of courts, politics and society -- at the local, regional and national levels. Given the sentiments and sensitivities attached to the contesting claims, politicians, administrators and judges have simply passed on the proverbial 'hot potato' to their successors.

    The first communal clashes, as per extant records, over the ownership of what was later to be referred as Plot Number 583 in land records, was in 1853. Three years later, Awadh was annexed by the East India Company. In 1859, British administrators installed fences at the disputed site, demarcating areas for Hindus to worship and Muslims to pray.

    That arrangement came to an end nearly a hundred years later in 1949 when an idol of Ram Lalla, baby Ram, 'miraculously' appeared under the central dome of Babri Masjid. Hindus insisted this was the sanctum sanctorum of the temple that once stood there; it was Ram Janmasthan, the very spot where Sri Ram was born. Muslims vehemently refuted it.

    Civil suits staking claim and counter-claim to the land were swiftly filed in the local court. The district administration responded by putting locks on the doors and ordering status quo to be maintained. Meanwhile, in 1961 a case was filed against the "forcible occupation of Babri Masjid". With that, the Sunni Waqf Board and the Nirmohi Akhara became the main litigants. Later, the Hindu Maha Sabha was to implead itself on behalf of Sri Ram, the presiding deity.

    In 1986 the district court ordered the locks to be removed. That spurred the ongoing VHP agitation to 'liberate' Ram Janmasthan; this became the Ram Janmabhumi Movement of the late-1980s with the BJP, then led by LK Advani, joining in. Like everything else that preceded the Somnath to Ayodhya Yatra and the Shilanyas ceremonies, the destruction of the disputed structure on December 6, 1992, by a large crowd of kar sevaks is now history.

    Before 'Sixth December' several attempts were made by the governments of the day to ward off the looming flashpoint through a negotiated settlement. The efforts continued after 'Sixth December' -- a makeshift plastic sheet Ram Mandir was clearly not an option, nor was rebuilding the Babri Masjid, as was promised by then Prime Minister PV Narasimha Rao.



    More important, a negotiated settlement on Ayodhya would pave the way for an amicable resolution to the festering disputes in Kashi and Mathura. All these efforts were in vain. As Murli Manohar Joshi, then BJP president, told me in an interview in the summer of 1992, "A negotiated settlement is like the Vienna Congress -- dancing, dancing, but not advancing."

    The BJP formulated its post-'Sixth December' position by keeping all options open. Masterful at penning political text, LK Advani put it down as "The BJP will explore all possibilities, including negotiations and judicial proceedings, to facilitate the construction of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya." In the party's 2014 Manifesto, that position was modified to "The BJP will explore all possibilities within the purview of the Constitution to construct a Ram Mandir in Ayodhya". This sentence was replicated in the BJP's Manifesto for the just-concluded 2017 Assembly election in Uttar Pradesh which the party swept, winning 325 of the 403 seats.

    For a moment, let's step back in time. In 2010, after more than 50 years of the filing of the first civil suits in the dispute and nearly 500 years of the original Ram Janmasthan Mandir's destruction, the Allahabad High Court gave its verdict, carefully crafted and, as some commentators pointed out, politically weighed. A third of the property went to Sri Ram, a third to the Nirmohi Akhara and a third to the Sunni Waqf Board.

    On the face of it, the verdict was acceptable to all. Everybody cautiously welcomed it. There was even boastful talk that Muslims could be persuaded, through 'amicable negotiations', to give up their share of a third of the property and adequately compensated. That's how long-running property disputes are settled in India, partly by courts, partly by discussing a full and final settlement through 'adjustment'.

    But the parties to the litigation, the claimants of Plot Number 583 in Ayodhya, knew better than others to walk down the road of negotiation to nowhere. They had been down that road before. So they filed an appeal against the Allahabad High Court's verdict in the Supreme Court, rejecting their share of a third of the property and claiming all of it. It was either a mandir or a masjid; it was either Sri Ram's Janmasthan or a monument to Babur. To concede a third was akin to owning two-thirds of faith. It was and remains unacceptable to Hindus -- there's no way the title holders could sell it to the faithful. To concede two-thirds was owning a third of faith. It was and remains unacceptable to Muslims -- there's no way the Sunni Waqf Board could sell this settlement; it would stand accused of a sellout.

    This elaborate backdrop is necessary to understand the near impossibility of resolving the Ayodhya dispute through negotiations, amicable or otherwise. Even a court-determined settlement would be difficult, if not impossible, to implement.

    But had the Supreme Court done what was expected of it -- determine the ownership of the disputed land on the basis of law and indisputable claim, apart from the fact that Hindus have been in constant occupation of the property since 1949 -- there would have been a sort of final acceptance, even if grudgingly so. It would have also reiterated the supremacy of law over an entitled minority's sentiments and a bruised majority's sensitivities.

    Instead, the Supreme Court, after sitting on the appeal for nearly seven years, has chosen to respond to BJP MP and all-purpose interventionist Subramanian Swamy's 'urgent petition' seeking immediate construction of the Ram Mandir. A bench headed by Chief Justice JS Khehar on Tuesday said that such religious issues can be solved through negotiations and also offered to mediate to arrive at an amicable settlement.

    "These are issues of religion and sentiments. These are issues where all the parties can sit together and arrive at a consensual decision to end the dispute. All of you may sit together and hold a cordial meeting," the bench also comprising Justices DY Chandrachud and Sanjay Kishan​ Kaul said.

    Swamy bas been cautious in his response, suggesting Muslims can build a masjid across or along Saryu river. Zafaryab Jilani of the Babri Masjid Action Committee has rejected an out-of-court privately negotiated settlement. He wants the Supreme Court to mediate. A more clear view will emerge by March 31. How that would help boggkes the mind since third party mediated negotiations have routinely foundered on the rock of obstinacy in the past.

    As of Tuesday, it is a terrible idea to try and go back to sitting across the table to untangle the Ayodhya dispute. The same points will meander their way through pointless chatter. Tethering the proposed talks and their presumed outcome to the BJP's majority in New Delhi and Lucknow would be both politically and strategically wrong. This may be a cynic's view, but it is not an invalid view.

    Had former Prime Minister Chandrashekhar been alive, he would have endorsed this view. Somewhere, wherever he is, I can quite visualise him smiling sardonically as do-gooders prepare to journey once again on the road to nowhere.

    Kanchan Gupta is Commissioning Editor & Commentator, ABP News. Columnist. Blogger.
    http://www.abplive.in/blog/ayodhya-talks-a-terrible-idea-507785 The writer tweets @KanchanGupta
    Ram Mandir: Timeline

    Ram Mandir: A timeline of the long-standing dispute

    By: Express Web Desk | New Delhi | Updated: March 21, 2017 2:14 pm

    Ram Mandir, Ayodhya, Ram Temple, Ayodhya issue, Subramanian Swamy, Ram Mandir, babri masjid demolition, babri masjid, hindu-muslim, Ram mandir issue, ram temple issue, supreme court, JS Khehar, India news, indian expressRam Janam Bhoomi workshop in Ayodhya (Express Photo by Vishal Srivastav)
    The Supreme Court on Tuesday described the Ram Mandir – Ayodhya as a “sensitive” and “sentimental” issue and suggested that it would be best if the contentious issue is settled amicably. The top court’s suggestion comes after BJP leader and Rajya Sabha MP Subramanian Swamy sought an urgent hearing on the Ayodhya dispute. It also called upon parties concerned to sit together to arrive at a consensus and asked Swamy to consult the parties and inform it about the decision on March 31.
    The issue dates back to 1992, when hundreds of karsevaks demolished the 16th century mosque in Ayodhya amid claims that it was the birthplace of Hindu deity Lord Rama and the mosque was constructed on the holy land of Hindus. It triggered widespread Hindu-Muslim violence. A number of senior BJP leaders, including LK Advani and Murli Manohar Joshi, are accused in the case.
    Hundreds of karsevaks brought down the 15th century Babri Masjid in Ayodhya in 1992. (Express Archive Photo)
    Here is a timeline showcasing the long-standing dispute:
    1528: The Babri Masjid, a mosque in Ayodhya, was constructed by Mir Baki on the orders of Mughal emperor Babar. According to the Hindu community, it was built on the foundations of a temple which marked the birthplace of Lord Ram in Ayodhya. This contention lingered on for several years.
    1949Towards the end of December 1949, idols of Lord Ram appeared inside the mosque, allegedly put there by Hindus. It led to widespread protests and both communities filed cases, Hashim Ansari for Muslims and Mahant Paramhans Ramchandra Das for Hindus. The government declared the site as disputed and locked the gates to it.
    1950: Mahant Paramhans Ramchandra Das, the chief of Ram Janmabhoomi Nyas, and Gopal Singh Visharad filed suits in Faizabad, seeking permission to pray before the installed idols. The puja was allowed though the inner courtyard gates remain locked.
    1959: Nirmohi Akhara, one of the main parties to the dispute, and others filed a case and sought permission again to conduct prayers.
    1961: Sunni Central Board of Waqfs in Uttar Pradesh filed a case claiming the mosque, and argued that the surrounding area was a graveyard.
    1984: The Vishwa Hindu Parishad constituted a group to continue the movement as BJP leader L K Advani was made the leader of the campaign.
    February 1, 1986: Faizabad district judge ordered the gates of the structure be opened for Hindus to offer prayers. Babri Masjid Action Committee was formed soon after this.
    1989: The then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi allowed shilanyas or a ground-breaking ceremony in an undisputed site close to the structure. The hearing of the case was subsequently shifted to the High Court.
    September 25,1990: Advani launched a rath yatra (pilgrimage procession) from Somnath to Ayodhya to galvanise support for the issue countrywide.
    November 1990: Advani’s rath was stopped and he was arrested in Samastipur, Bihar. Dissatisfied with the development, the BJP withdrew its support to the VP Singh government, triggering fresh elections. The saffron party made giant strides in the assembly elections by winning a majority.
    December 6,1992: The disputed structure was brought down by kar sevaks and a makeshift temple was placed in its place. The PV Narasimha Rao-led Congress government then moved court for status quo.
    March 5, 2003: The Allahabad High Court ordered the Archeological Survey of India to excavate the disputed site in order to determine whether a temple existed where the mosque stood.
    August 22, 2003: The ASI submitted its report to the Allahabad High Court, saying it had found features of a 10th century temple beneath the site of the masjid
    August 31, 2003: All India Muslim Personal Law Board said it would challenge the ASI report.
    July 26, 2010: The bench reserved its judgement and advised all parties to solve the issue amicably. But no one was keen.
    September 8, 2010: The High Court announced that the verdict would be pronounced on September 24.
    September 14, 2010: A writ was filed to defer the judgement but was subsequently rejected by the High Court.
    September 23: The plea for an out-of-court settlement reached Supreme Court and the apex body said it would hear it again on September 28.
    September 28: The apex court rejected petition for deferment and gives the nod to the Allahabad High court to deliver the judgement. The High Court chose September 30 as verdict day.
    September 30: The Allahabad High Court pronounced its verdict on the long-standing Ayodhya Ramjanmabhumi-Babri Masjid issue and ruled for a three-way division of the disputed area, between the Sunni Waqf Board, the Nirmohi Akhara and the party for ‘Ram Lalla’.
    February 26, 2016: The Supreme Court permitted BJP leader Subramanian Swamy to intervene in the pending matters relating to the Ayodhya dispute with his plea seeking construction of Ram temple at the site of the demolished disputed structure.

    Ram Mandir Ayodhya issue: SC suggests out-of-court settlement, says it’s a sensitive issue

    Ram Mandir Ayodhya dispute: Supreme Court suggests that parties concerned sit together to arrive at a consensus.

    By: Express Web Desk | New Delhi | Updated: March 21, 2017 1:19 pm
    Ram Mandir, Ayodhya, Ram Temple, Ayodhya issue, Subramanian Swamy, Ram Mandir, Ram mandir issue, ram temple issue, supreme court, JS Khehar, India news, indian expressRam Mandir – Ayodhya issue: The Ram Janam Bhoomi workshop in Ayodhya. (Express Photo by Vishal Srivastav)
    Describing the Ram Mandir as a “sensitive” and “sentimental” issue, the Supreme Court on Tuesday suggested that it would be best if the contentious issue is settled amicably. The suggestion from the top court comes after BJP leader Subramanian Swamy sought urgent hearing on the Ayodhya dispute. The court called upon parties concerned to sit together to arrive at a consensus and asked Swamy to consult the parties and inform it about the decision on March 31.
    “These are issues of religion and sentiments. These are issues where all the parties can sit together and arrive at a consensual decision to end the dispute. All of you may sit together and hold a cordial meeting,” said the bench headed by Chief Justice J S Khehar.
    CJI Khehar even went on to say he was ready to mediate on the controversial issue if the parties concerned want him to. The top court further said all parties should choose mediators to make a fresh attempt to settle the issue and that a principal mediator can be chosen by the court, if required, for settling the issue.
    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ao3SLXA9uu8
    The issue dates back to 1992, when hundreds of karsevaks brought down the 16th century mosque in Ayodhya amid claims it was the birthplace of the Hindu deity Lord Rama and the mosque was built on the holy land of Hindus. A number of senior BJP leaders, including LK Advani and Murli Manohar Joshi are the accused in the case.
    In 2010, the Lucknow bench of the Allahabad High Court had pronounced its verdict on the long-standing Ayodhya Ramjanmabhumi-Babri Masjid issue and ruled for a three-way division of the disputed area, between the Sunni Waqf Board, the Nirmohi Akhara and the party for ‘Ram Lalla’.
    Last year, the Supreme Court had allowed BJP leader Subramanian Swamy to intervene in the pending matters relating to the Ayodhya dispute as he sought construction of Ram temple at the site of the demolished disputed structure.
    With PTI inputs
    https://www.scribd.com/document/266996095/Rama-Setu-S-Kalyanaraman-2011 

    To Save Rama Setu, 15 lakhs people from all over Bharatam assembled in Rohini Park on 31 Dec.2007. That is perhaps the largest gathering of people for a national cause. I was National President of the Rama Setu Protection Movement.

     SC gave a stay order for the Setusamudram Project. The following is the book written to save Rama Setu. Rama Mandiram in Ayodhya will be a monument for Sri Rama, the very embodiment of Dharma in Bharatiya tradition; Vigrahavaan Dharmah says Visvamitra. Building the mandiram should be a life-mission of every Bharatiya, every citizen of the Rāṣṭram in Dharma.

    Meenakshi Jain has brought out a succinct summary of the reality of Ram Mandiram in Ayodhya which was destroyed by the marauding mediaevel barbarian hordes. See Book review by Koenraad Elst http://www.vijayvaani.com/ArticleDisplay.aspx?aid=3414 A definitive chronicle on Ayodhya

    Rama Setu (S. Kalyanaraman, 2011) by Srini Kalyanaraman on Scribd

    Promotion of Jihadi elements by Bengal Government:RSS resolution full text

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    RSS ABPS-2017 Resolution: Grave concern on Jehadi Violence in West Bengal

    Date posted: March 21, 2017 | Short URL: http://samvada.org/?p=32250 | 
    Coimbatore March 21, 2017: RSS’s Akhil Bharatiya Pratinidhi Sabha #RSSABPS2017 passed a major resolution expressing grave concern over the violence by Jehadi elements in West Bengal.
    RSS Resolution ABPS-2017
    The Akhil Bharatiya Pratinidhi Sabha (ABPS) expresses grave concern over the unabated rise in violence by Jehadi elements in West Bengal, encouragement to the anti-national elements by the state government due to its Muslim vote bank politics and declining Hindu population in the state.
    The attack and looting of the Kaliyachak Police Station (District Malda) which is just 8 Km inside the Bangladesh border, burning down of the crime record by the anti-national Jehadi elements and growing incidents of attack on security forces in the state are posing a serious challenge to national security and law and order. Fatwas inciting violence are openly being issued by fundamentalist Maulavis. Hindus are being attacked by fundamentalist elements at several places including Katwa, Kaligram, Ilambazar and Metiaburuj (Kolkata). Large number of Hindus are being forced to flee from the border areas under the pressure of fundamentalist forces. Smuggling of fake currency and cow progeny along with illegal migration are being perpetually encouraged by these very elements. During the investigation of Burdwan bomb blasts, the National Investigation Agency (NIA) has found that several terror modules exist across the state and this network of Jehadi extremists is spread on both sides of the border.
    Just when extremists, fomenting trouble in a planned manner, are being encouraged by giving ministerial berths and other prominent political and government positions, at the same time the State Government is creating obstacles in celebrating religious activities of the Hindu society. Sometime back, timings for the immersion of Maa Durga idols were unusually curtailed because of Muharram for which the State Government attracted strictures from the Kolkata High Court.
    Several incidents of bomb blasts, arson, violence and molestation of women have been reported in the past few years. The worst sufferers of these atrocities on the Hindu society, have been the members of the Scheduled Castes. 6 persons from these communities were killed at Juranpur, Vaishnavnagar, Kharagpur and Mallarpur and during the last year’s Durga Puja, a 17 year old girl student from the same community was attacked with acid bulbs, who later succumbed to the injuries. At Dhulagadh, on 13-14 December 2016, Hindus were subjected to a preplanned attack resulting in horrid incidents of arson, looting and molestation of womenfolk. Instead of controlling the extremist elements, the State Government attempted to completely hide these incidents. It is shocking that cases were foisted against some impartial journalists who courageously brought the above heinous incidents to light.
    While on one hand the State Government is threatening to close down the schools which are instilling the spirit of patriotism, on the other hand it is turning a blind eye towards thousands of institutions like the notorious Simulia madarsa where Jehadi and fundamentalist training is being imparted. Original Bangla words in the text books are being distorted under the influence of fundamentalist elements. At several places efforts are being made to stop the traditional Saraswati Puja in the educational institutions. The State Government is overlooking the attempts to islamise the schools like the pretext of observing Milad-Un-Nabi.
     Last year, when the school administration refused the permission to observe Milad-un-Nabi, extremists took control of a 1750 students-strong higher secondary school at Tehatta, just 40 Km away from Kolkata, hoisted their flag and locked the lady teachers in a room. As a consequence, the school remained closed for a month.
    At the time of partition, Hindu majority area of Bengal came into existence as West Bengal. Thereafter, due to the continuous persecution and atrocities in East Pakistan, present Bangladesh, large number of Hindus were forced to seek refuge in West Bengal. It is surprising that despite the large influx of Hindus displaced from Bangladesh to West Bengal, Hindu population of the state which constituted 78.45 % in 1951 has declined to 70.54% as per census of 2011. This is a matter of serious concern to the unity and integrity of the country.
    The ABPS strongly condemns the extremist violence and the Muslim appeasement policy by the State Government and calls upon the countrymen to create awareness against this Jehadi violence and communal politics of the State Government. It also urges the media to present the prevalent grave situation before the country. The ABPS calls upon the State Government to rise above petty vote bank politics and discharge its constitutional obligations. The ABPS also urges the Union Government to ensure firm action against these anti national Jehadi elements of the state in the interest of national security.
    http://samvada.org/2017/news/rss-abps-2017-resolution-grave-concern-on-jehadi-violence-in-west-bengal/
    अखिल भारतीय प्रतिनिधि सभा-2017- पश्चिम बंगाल में बढ़ती जिहादी गतिविधियाँ
    अखिल भारतीय प्रतिनिधि सभा, पश्चिम बंगाल में जिहादी तत्वों के निरन्तर बढ़ रहे हिंसाचार, राज्य सरकार द्वारा मुस्लिम वोट-बैंक की राजनीति के चलते राष्ट्र-विरोधी तत्वों को दिये जा रहे बढ़ावे तथा राज्य में घटती हिन्दू जनसंख्या के प्रति, गहरी चिन्ता व्यक्त करती है। भारत-बांग्लादेश सीमा से मात्र 8 कि.मी. अन्दर स्थित कालियाचक (जिला - मालदा) पुलिस स्टेशन पर राष्ट्रविरोधी जिहादी तत्वों द्वारा आक्रमण कर लूट-पाट करने, आपराधिक रिकार्ड जला देने तथा राज्य में अनेक स्थानों पर सुरक्षा बलों पर हमलों की बढ़ती घटनाएँ , राष्ट्रीय सुरक्षा व कानून व्यवस्था के लिये गंभीर चुनौती बन गई हैं। कट्टरपंथी मौलवियों द्वारा हिंसा को बढ़ावा देने वाले फतवे खुलेआम जारी किए जा रहे हैं। कटवा, कलिग्राम, ईलामबाजार, मेटियाबुरुज (कोलकाता) सहित अनेक स्थानों पर कट्टरपंथियों द्वारा हिन्दू समाज पर आक्रमण किये जा रहे हैं। कट्टरपंथियों के दबाव में सीमावर्ती क्षेत्रों से हिन्दू समाज बड़ी संख्या में पलायन को विवश हो रहा है। इन्हीं तत्वों द्वारा जाली मुद्रा तथा गोवंश की तस्करी व घुसपैठ को निरन्तर बढ़ावा दिया जा रहा है। वर्धमान बम विस्फोट की जाँच करते समय एन.आई.ए. द्वारा यह पाया गया कि पूरे राज्य में कई आतंकी समूह (माड्यूल) सक्रिय हैं तथा जिहादी आतंकियों का यह जाल सीमा के दोनों ओर फैला हुआ है।
    सुनियोजित तरीके से उपद्रव मचा रहे उन्मादी कट्टरपंथियों को मंत्री पद व अन्य महत्त्वपूर्ण राजनैतिक व शासकीय पद देकर जहाँ प्रोत्साहन दिया जा रहा है, वहीं राज्य सरकार हिन्दू समाज के धार्मिक आयोजनों में बाधाएँ खड़ी कर रही है। पिछले दिनों मोहर्रम के कारण माँ दुर्गा की प्रतिमाओं के विसर्जन का समय असामान्य रूप से कम कर दिया गया, जिस पर कोलकाता उच्च न्यायालय ने भी राज्य सरकार को फटकार लगाई थी।
    विगत कुछ वर्षों में बमबारी, हिंसा, आगजनी व महिलाओं से दुराचार आदि की अनेक घटनाएँ हुई हैं। हिन्दू समाज पर हो रहे इन अत्याचारों के सर्वाधिक शिकार अनुसूचित जाति के लोग हैं। जुरानपुर, वैष्णवनगर, खड़गपुर व मल्लारपुर में इन वर्गों के 6 लोगों की हत्या हुई तथा गत दुर्गापूजा के दिनों इसी वर्ग की 17 वर्षीय एक छात्रा पर एसिड बल्ब से हमला किया जो उसकी मृत्यु का कारण बना। धूलागढ़ में 13-14 दिसम्बर 2016 को हिन्दू समाज पर सुनियोजित आक्रमण में आगजनी, लूटपाट व महिलाओं से दुर्व्यवहार की वीभत्स घटनाएँ हुईं। राज्य सरकार द्वारा इन कट्टरपंथी तत्वों को नियन्त्रित करने के स्थान पर इन घटनाओं को पूर्णतया छिपाने का प्रयास किया गया। यह चौंकाने वाला तथ्य है कि जब कुछ निष्पक्ष पत्रकारों ने यह सारा अनाचार प्रकाश में लाने का साहस किया तो उन्हीं के विरुद्ध मुकदमे दर्ज कर दिये गए।
    राज्य सरकार एक ओर राष्ट्रभक्ति का संस्कार देने वाले विद्यालयों को बन्द करने की धमकी दे रही है, वहीं दूसरी ओर कुख्यात सिमुलिया मदरसा जैसी हजारों संस्थाओं की ओर से आँख मूँदे हुए है, जिनमें कट्टरपंथी व जिहादी प्रशिक्षण दिया जा रहा है। कट्टरपंथियों के दबाव में पाठ्यपुस्तकों में मूल बांग्ला शब्दों का विकृतीकरण किया जा रहा है। अनेक स्थानों पर शिक्षण संस्थाओं में परंपरा से चली आ रही सरस्वती पूजा को भी बन्द करने का प्रयास किया जा रहा है। मिलाद-उन-नबी मनाने के नाम पर विद्यालयों का इस्लामीकरण करने आदि के प्रयासों को राज्य सरकार अनदेखा कर रही है। पिछले वर्ष कोलकाता से मात्र 40 कि.मी. दूर 1750 विद्यार्थियों वाले तेहट्ट स्थित उच्च माध्यमिक विद्यालय में विद्यालय-प्रशासन द्वारा मिलाद-उन-नबी मनाने की अनुमति न दिये जाने पर कट्टरपंथियों ने कब्जा करके वहाँ अपना झण्डा फहराया तथा अध्यापिकाओं को कमरे में बन्द कर दिया। परिणामस्वरूप वह विद्यालय एक माह तक बन्द रहा।
    भारत विभाजन के समय बंगाल का हिन्दू बहुल क्षेत्र ही पश्चिम बंगाल के रूप में अस्तित्व में आया था। तदुपरान्त पूर्वी पाकिस्तान या वर्तमान बांग्लादेश में निरन्तर अत्याचार व प्रताड़ना के कारण वहाँ के हिन्दू नागरिक भारी संख्या में पश्चिम बंगाल में शरण लेने को बाध्य हुए। यह आश्चर्यजनक है कि बांग्लादेश से विस्थापित होकर बड़ी संख्या में हिन्दुओं के प.बंगाल में आने के उपरान्त भी राज्य की हिन्दू जनसंख्या जो 1951 में 78.45 प्रतिशत थी, वह 2011 की जनगणना के अनुसार घटकर 70.54 प्रतिशत तक आ गई। यह राष्ट्र की एकता व अखण्डता के लिए गंभीर चेतावनी का विषय है।  
        अखिल भारतीय प्रतिनिधि सभा कट्टरपंथी हिंसा तथा राज्य सरकार की मुस्लिम तुष्टीकरण की नीति की कड़े शब्दों में निंदा करती है तथा समस्त देशवासियों से यह आवाहन करती है कि जिहादी हिंसा व राज्य सरकार की सांप्रदायिक राजनीति के विरुद्ध जन जागरण करें। देश के जन संचार माध्यमों से भी यह आग्रह है कि इस भीषण परिस्थिति को देश के सामने प्रस्तुत करें। प्रतिनिधि सभा राज्य सरकार का आवाहन करती है कि वोटों की क्षुद्र राजनीति से ऊपर उठकर वह अपने संवैधानिक दायित्व का निर्वहन करे। अ.भा.प्र.सभा केन्द्र सरकार से भी यह आग्रह करती है कि राष्ट्रीय सुरक्षा को दृष्टिगत रखते हुए राज्य के राष्ट्र-विरोधी जिहादी तत्वों के विरुद्ध दृढ़ता से कार्यवाही सुनिश्चित करे।

    http://rss.org/Encyc/2017/3/21/ABPS-2017-West-Bengal-Resolution-Hindi.aspx

    Shri Dattatreya Hosabale, RSS Sah Sarkaryavah addressed the concluding day Press Meet of ABPS today. Thanking every member for being in the campus for 3-4 days, entire administration of the campus, gratitude to media persons and all who extended fullest co-operation and made ABPS a memorable success, he deliberated the peculiar dangerous situation in the border state of West Bengal. Members of Hindu society are target of jihadi elements, fundamentalist’s forces and on several occasions police and other Government machinery turned a blind eye in protecting the West Bengal. Increasing jihadi activities is unfortunate under the patronage of state administration there. The situation at Kalichak is so worrying and as per records there is conspiracy behind this. It is learnt that the important criminal records had been destroyed. Hindus flee from the state. NIA have found several terror modules. Even after 60 years of Independence, the state of Hindus in West Bengal is unsafe. The deliberations and discussions at ABPS Meet passed a resolution concerning over the growing jihadi elements in West Bengal, he said. 


    Answering the questions raised by the reporters on various issues: 

    On Ram Mandir, RSS has always insisted that the issue should be settled between two parties. Ram Janma Bhumi Yagna Samiti, Saints, Sages of Hindu Society, Dharma Sansad are working towards this. RSS wishes a permanent solution and will back Dharma Sansad decision. Any decision outside the court settlement or legislation is a welcome move, he said. 

    On Yogi Adityanath assuming power, RSS wishes the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh – many time elected representative from the state. 

    About Tamilnadu RSS, he said RSS has grown here and will grow further. Number of shakas have increased along with seva activities in the State. 

    On a question regarding Sabarimala and discrimination on temple entry, he said that the RSS is always against discrimination and through seva activities RSS is working to change the mindset of the society. As far as Sabarimala issue is concerned, he reiterated the statement made by RSS General Secretary Shri Suresh Joshi and supports entry to temple through dialogue and discussion. 

    --
    Posted By VSK Tamilnadu to Vishwa Samvad Kendra - Tamilnadu at 3/21/2017 04:39:00 PM

    Yogi Adityanath's speech in Lok Sabha March 21, 2017

    Peter Mukerjea & Raghav Bahl’s media companies bribed Karti Chidambaram for FIPB clearances in 2008

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    Peter Mukerjea & Raghav Bahl’s media companies bribed Karti Chidambaram for FIPB clearances in 2008

    Chennai Income Tax Dept findings reveal that Karti Chidambaram took bribes from Raghav Bahl & Peter Mukherjea for FIPB clearance by his Dad
     
    Chennai Income Tax Dept findings reveal that Karti Chidambaram took bribes from Raghav Bahl & Peter Mukherjea for FIPB clearance by his DadChennai Income Tax Dept findings reveal that Karti Chidambaram took bribes from Raghav Bahl & Peter Mukherjea for FIPB clearance by his Dad
    The Income Tax report on former Finance Minister P Chidambaram family’s huge illegal assets exposes that two media firms – INX media and Network 18 had in 2008 bribed son Karti Chidambaram for FIPB approvals. INX Media which runs News X TV channel was then controlled by murder accused Peter Mukherjea. Network 18 which runs several TV channels like CNN-IBN and news portals was controlled by Raghav Bahl who now runs Quint website.
    While Peter Mukherjea’s INX’s paid cash in several installments, Raghav Bahl’s Network 18 allotted 60 lakh shares of its London company called Artevea Digital UK Limited to Karti’s firm. 
    According to the report of Income Tax’s Chennai Investigation Unit, released by BJP leader Subramanian Swamy, during Peter Mukherjea & Raghav Bahl, these two media organizations in 2008 had money trail and shares allotments to Karti’s company Advantage Strategic Consulting and its linked firms. While Peter Mukherjea’s INX’s paid cash in several installments, Raghav Bahl’s Network 18 allotted 60 lakh shares of its London company called Artevea Digital UK Limited to Karti’s firm.
    The Income Tax Department which seized hard disks from Karti’s companies found that Karti got money from these two media organizations as kickback when FIPB approval papers pending with father former Finance Minister P Chidambaram.
    On Sept 22, 2008, Karti’s Advantage Strategic Consulting Private Limited (ASCPL) received Rs.35 Lakhs from INX Media (now known as NewsX TV Channel), which applied for FIPB clearance of 220 million dollars during that period. On the same day, another Rs.60 Lakh was paid from INX Media to Northstar Software Solutions Pvt Ltd. Major shares of this Northstar Software Solutions Pvt Ltd is controlled by CBN Reddy, who is a Benami and Director of ASCPL and its Singapore subsidiary also. On Sept 24, 2008 another tranche of 20,000 Dollars were paid to ASCPL’s Singapore subsidiary by INX Media. The controversial Advantage Strategic Consulting Private Limited is involved in Aircel-Maxis scam related kickbacks.
    All these transactions happened during the time INX Media’s FDI approvals for 220 million dollars were pending with Karti’s father Finance Minister P Chidambaram.
    On Sept 26, 2008, ASCPL had a money transaction of 50,000 dollars with Geben Trading Limited in Athens in Greece. This company’s address is 4 Zaf. Matsa Street, 14564 Athens, Greece and is incorporated in the British Virgin Islands (BVI). The money transactions of ASCPL also point to Geben Trading’s bank account in UBS, Geneva in Switzerland. The emails of banking transaction details were marked to Karti also and documents show about a business takeover of healthcare and rehabilitation centers in Greece. All these transactions happened during the time INX Media’s FDI approvals for 220 million dollars were pending with Karti’s father Finance Minister P Chidambaram. In short, the murder accused Peter and Indrani Mukherjea who sold their INX Media paid around 3 crores rupees to Karti linked firms (including ASCPL) for FIPB clearance.
    In August 2008, Karti’s ASCPL’s Singapore company got 60 lakh (6 million) shares in the media firm Network 18’s London-based company Artevea Digital UK Ltd. This deal happened when Network 18 had applied for a series of FIPB clearances when Chidambaram was the Finance Minister. This kickback is expected to be around 25 crores for processing FIPB clearance.
    According to the Income Tax Report, on August 18, 2008, Artevea Digital issued share certificates to Advantage’s Singapore subsidiary. One share was valued at a nominal price of .01 GBP and 60 lakh shares were allotted to Karti’s Singapore-based company.
    The net worth of the company benefits accrued to shareholders needs to be enquired.
    Mohan Mahanka, Raghav Bahl’s partner and promoter of Network 18 is the major promoter of the London company Artevea Digital UK Limited. Mohan Mahanka and Raghav Baal were Chairman and Managing Director of Network 18 Group respectively in 2008.
    “The enquiries reveal that Artevea Digital UK Ltd has become insolvent in the year 2011 even though it has a very good running business. The net worth of the company benefits accrued to shareholders needs to be enquired. The nature of these investments, associates of Artevea Digital UK Ltd, the approvals and contracts were given to them needs to be studied in detail in the course of inquiries,” said the Income Tax Report.
    https://www.pgurus.com/peter-mukerjea-raghav-bahls-media-companies-bribed-karti-chidambaram-fipb-clearances-2008/

    The guṇa-s of sāmkhya as physical concepts, conservation principle, basis & states of matter -- Manasataramgini

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    http://tinyurl.com/klzbuya Patanjali's Yogasutras with the commentary of Vyasa and Gloss of Vachaspati Misra (Full text 337 pages)

    The guNa-s of sAMkhya as physical concepts

    A pervasive element of Hindu thought is the concept of the tri-guNa-s. Their use is common in colloquial discussion: food might be classified in terms of guNa-s or even people might be categorized based on their dominant guNa. The same tri-guNa terminology might also be used to describe other abstract entities such as organismal behavior, moral qualities of a person or properties of material. The concept of tri-guNa-s while intuitively grasped by a Hindu is a very fluid in terms precise definition. Despite its pervasiveness in modern Hindu discourse its origins lie in the late- and post- vedic developments leading to sAMkhya thought. Because of the imprecise and intuitive understanding of guNa-s in general usage there has been much confusion amongst many modern students of Hindu thought when the guNa-s are used in the context of technical ancient literature. In course of my study of the sAMkhya-yoga system, I became increasingly aware of this issue.
    Amongst modern Hindus one of the first to correctly grasp the technical meanings of the guNa terminology was the scholar from va~Nga, Brajendranath Seal. He correctly saw that the early sAMkhya thinkers considered guNa-s to be not just “qualities” but real physical concepts. That this was the original understand becomes clear from the vyAsa-bhAShya. In explaining the sUtra 3.44 of pata~njali the VB clearly explains each term of the sUtra as an increasingly basic description of matter – evolute of the original prakR^iti. The VB telling uses atypical descriptors for the 3 guNa-s, namely khyAti, kriyA and stithishIlA. These terms along with the context clearly imply that guNa-s of sAMkhya were physical concepts. The sattva (=khyAti) in the most mysterious in modern terms by a distinctive feature of sAMkhya – it might be taken to mean “information” or that aspect of matter that responds to/interacts with the puruSha (of sAMkhya) or consciousness. rajas (=kriyA) is energy and tamas (=stithishIlA) is mass. That these were viewed as physical entities becomes assumes great significance in the context of a sAMkhyan conservation principle guNa-s. In its formulation this principle resembles the modern physical conservation principle of mass/energy. This is provided by the vyAsa bhAShya in the commentary on sUtra 2.19 of pata~njali:
    visheSha-avisheSha li~Nga mAtra-ali~NgAni guNa-parvan ||
    VB: guNAstu sarva dharmAnupAtino na pratyastam ayante na+upajAyante | vyaktibhir eva-atIta-anAgatavyaya-AgamavatIbhir guNa-anvayinIbhir upajananaapAyadharmakA iva pratyavabhAsante |
    “Though guNa-s go through all kinds of transformations/evolution (*anupAt) they are neither destroyed nor created. They appear to as if they had properties that come into being and disappear on account of the various forms of matter formed by the guNas past and yet to come (i.e. the forms of matter) those come and go out of existence.”
    As mentioned above the vyAsa- bhAShya in describing the guNa-s clearly conceives them as the basis of matter. When we take that with above explanation in the context of sutra 2.19 it becomes apparent that the vyAsa-bhAShya is implying the physical conservation of guNa-s. Some points of note are: 1) The word dharma here is used in conjunction with the word “anupatinaH”. In technical Sanskrit this word is used to imply arithmetic progression or a series. So what is meant by dharma are the states of matter that form via the sAMkhyan transformation or evolutionary process from the guNa-s of prakR^iti to the paramANu-s of the bhUta-s. 2) In this light the word vyakti in the next sentence implies the various manifestations or forms of matter/energy. Thus, the sAMkhyan statement of the principle of conservation parallels the modern physical principle: “Matter+energy is neither created nor destroyed; it is only transformed from one form to another”. Is this explanation provided the bhAShya and its physical interpretation as presented above compatible with the original content of the sUtra of pata~njalI? It strongly appears this is the case because the vyAsa bhAShya does consistently show a close understanding of the sUtra text. While the sUtra text is hard to render in a modern language, it does seem the bhAShya is very much in the right context. We can with some trepidation render 2.19 thus: “The evolutes of the guNa-s [which are the basis of matter] are particular and unparticular, which are differentiated and undifferentiated [matter].”
    As far as I know the saMkhya statement is the most sophisticated statement of the conservation principle in the ancient world. Amongst the Greek equivalents of the Hindus Thales had a conservation principle but it was much less sophisticated as far as I can see.

    The case of AchArya vArShagaNya

    It is extremely common for ancient Indian AchArya-s to remain mere names, with little if anything else known about them. As a result their dates and biographies are subject to wild speculations and debates. Such debates, often spearheaded by White indologists and their oriental imitators, show a general tendency to mistrust Hindu sources, obfuscate matters and apply an ad hoc system of decisions to decide whether someone is early or late. It would seem that their general their rule of the thumb is to provide as late dates as possible for most Hindu sources, and try to make it appear that most philosophical development happened after the Buddhists or the contact with the Greeks.
    One Acharya of considerable interest in the development of Hindu thought is vArShagaNya, the great proponent of the sAMkhya-yoga school. He could perhaps be credited with being the first to formulate a version of the law of conservation of mass (energy) and thus becomes an important individual in the history of Hindu science. He is cited as an ancient authority in the vyAsa-bhAShya on the sUtra-s of pata~njali. vAchaspati miShra suggests that he as the author an ancient sAMkhya text termed the ShaShThI-tantra from which the vyAsa-bhAshya draws its citations. In the least it is certain that in discussing sUtra-s of pata~njali the commentator vyAsa had access to a text by vArShagaNya. He is also mentioned in a commentary named yuktidIpikA on Ishvara-kR^iShNa’s kArika-s as a prior authority of sAMkhya.
    Multiple Chinese sources also describe vArShagaNya as an authority of the sAMkhya school. One of these is the Indian Acharya paramArtha who settled in Nanjing, China (around 550 CE) and composed a biographical work on the philosopher vasubandhu of the kaushika gotra from school of puShpapura (modern Peshawar in the Islamic Terrorist state). In this work he states that the great sage of the sAMkhya school was vArShagaNya who was king of the nAga-s living at the base of the Vindhya mountains. His student vindhyavAsa reworked and revised the sAMkhya doctrine and composed a collection of shloka-s containing this revised version of sAMkhya. He participated in a philosophical debate with the bauddha AchArya buddhamitra in Ayodhya, presided over by the king vikramAditya. vindhyavAsa routed buddhamitra in this debate and as result won a great reward from king vikramAditya and thus brought the ascendancy of sAMkhya. It was in order to counter vindhyavAsa that the bauddha-s rallied under vasubandhu to compose the polemical work paramArtha-saptati against sAMkhya.
    The chInAchArya Hsuen-Tsang’s student Kuei-chi considered the positions of the sAMkhya theorists as the pUrva-pakSha in defending the bauddha mata. Here, he mentions that the chief sAMkhya teacher was a certain ba-li-sha in chIna-bhAShA, which meant “rain” in deva-bhAShA. His followers were known as the “rain-host” (which would be a Chinese translation of varSha=rain; gaNa=host). Their chief work is supposed to have been some thing called the hiraNya-saptati, which was used in debating against Indian bauddha Acharya-s who were the teachers of the chIna-s.
    Thus, the available Chinese and Hindu material clearly indicate that vArShagaNya was a major sAMkhya teacher who had influenced the course of its development.
    paramArtha mentions that buddhamitra was vasubandhu’s teacher. Now the White Indologists and their fellow travelers concluded that since vArShagaNya was a teacher of vindhyavAsa, vArShagaNya should have in turn been a senior contemporary of vasubandhu and place him at around 350 CE. This claim has since accepted and used over and over again to date vyAsa bhAShya, the yoga-sUtra etc. However, this claim when examined closely has problematic issues and arises from the indological habit of accepting certain traditional presentations as facts over others, to suit the late dates typically favored by White Indologists.
    1) The Chinese work of paramArtha is clearly mythologizing vArShagaNya- it calls him the king of the nAga-s. 2) It calls buddhamitra as the teacher of vasubandhu during vikramAditya’s reign. But this is contradicted by the accounts of Hsuen-Tsang and Kuei-chi who state that vasubandhu was brAhmaNa manoratha’s student and do not establish a direct connection between the bauddha Acharya defeated by the sAMkhya-s and vasubandhu. 3) paramArtha skips from vikramAditya to bAlAditya in his narrative (around 470 CE) suggesting his account of gupta chronology was contrived. 4) The Chinese sources also conflate the hiraNya-saptati with the kArika of Ishvara-kR^iShNa – something for which we have no evidence from any Indian source. In conclusion we see 1) the general sketchiness of paramArtha’s narrative from the historical viewpoint, 2) its variance from other chIna sources, and 3) the tendency of both paramArtha and Kuei-chi to mythologize vArShagaNya, though to different degrees. Thus they can hardly be used to conclusively anchor the date of vArShagaNya to the exclusion of evidence from all other Indian textual sources.
    In the Hindu sources vArShagaNya is associated with the tradition of the sAmaveda. There was a major sAmavedic redactor of that name who is mentioned in the jaiminIya gR^ihya sUtra, and there might have even been a shAkha of the sAmaveda (or sub-school of jaiminIya) by that name. The vaMsha brAhmaNa of the sAmavedic tradition provides his full name as sushravas vArShagaNya and places him as a student of prAtarAhna kauhala. A certain vArShagaNya is also referred to in bharata’s nATya shAstra as the founder of a technique of discharging a weapon. The most important mention of vArShagaNya is in the mahAbharata (vulgate/Ganguli edition 12[shAnti parvan].319). The specific context of his mention is notable: Chapters 12.302-12.316 (vulgate) contain an elaboration of different forms of sAMkhya thought – including some of the high points of Hindu thought, namely early formulations of the evolutionary theory of life. This is followed by chapters 12.317-13.320 that delve into yoga. The yoga presented here (12.317), while brief, is definitely related to the presentation in pata~njali’s sUtra-s. It mentions the prANAyama, the eight limbs of yoga, the attainment of siddhi-s and the state of samAdhi. However, it is important to note that there is no mention what so ever of pata~njali. Instead in the subsequent chapter (12.319) in a brahmodaya between yAj~navalkya and the gandharva vishvAvasu we are given a list of yoga-sAMkhya teachers, which includes the name vArShagaNya, along with other sAMkhya teachers like kapila, jaigishavya and pa~nchashikha but not pata~njali. This, together with the general indication of the epic sAMkhya preceding the classical sAMkhya, suggests that pata~njali, unlike kapila, was a later figure and was systematizing in his sUtra-s the yoga already presented in the epic. It also shows that vArShagaNya was an early pre-pata~njali teacher of the sAMkhya-yoga school rather than a senior contemporary of vasubandhu of the abhidharma.
    In all likelihood given vArShagaNya’s mention in the Mbh, he was a pre-bauddha teacher of an atomic sAMkhya theory. Perhaps this also explains why the vyAsa bhAShya is termed so. It was probably based on a sAMkhya text of vArShagaNya associated with the mahAbhArata and thereby vyAsa. Hence, it could have inherited that name, although it is entirely possible that the author was simply named vyAsa and conflated with the Epic author (e.g. vAchaspati in his commentary calls the yoga-bhAShya’s author veda-vyAsa). Ultimately, in all accounts it was the followers of his school who revised the original teachings of vArShagaNya that the bauddha-s debated, rather than vArShagaNya, consistent with him being earlier than the dates of those debates.
    We may reconstruct the following from the prior discussions the following relative temporal series:
    vedic brAhmaNa authors->(yAj~navalkya and his school)-> kapila-> pa~nchashikha-> jaigishavya and vArShagaNya-> pata~njali-> vyAsa of bhAShya + other members who follow vArShagaNya school-> Ishvara-kR^iShNa (classical sAMkhya)-> gauDapAda-> sha~Nkara-> vAchaspati mishra
    The four following the vedic brAhmaNa authors, along with the parallel tradition of the bhR^igu smR^iti, constitute the saMkhya of the mahAbhArata. We would place all AchArya-s prior to Ishvara-kR^iShNa as being before 400 CE.

    Riverine Neighbourhood: Hydro-politics in South Asia -- Uttam Kumar Sinha (2016)

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    Riverine Neighbourhood: Hydro-politics in South Asia

    2016
    Publisher: Pentagon Press
    ISBN 978-81-8274-914-6
    Price: Rs. 895  

    About the Book

    Rivers are the most visible form of fresh water. Rivers are ancient and older than civilizations a ‘mini cosmos’ spawning history, tales, spirituality, and technological incursions. Flowing rivers are the largest renewable water resource as well as a crucible for both humans and aquatic ecosystem. Rivers also have a habit of moving on and on from their source from where they gush with gay abandon to their mouth where they quietly disappear into the surroundings. That journey is now being interrupted. Since the age of industrialization, humans have increasingly exerted a pervasive influence on water resources. Rivers in particular have drawn humans to monumental engineering interventions such as dams and barrages often as chest-thumping dominance and seldom as an enduring bond between man and nature.
    ‘Hydro-politics’ or water politics is not a popular expression among water practitioners. In using hydro-politics, the book does not in any way negate hydro-cooperation rather the chapters argue that cooperation is hydro-politics. Since no water dispute, as history tells, has almost ever led to war, states have to ensure that sensible hydro-politics prevails so that the possibilities of water wars are unlikely in the future.
    Transboundary rivers link its riparians in a complex network of environmental, economic and security interdependencies. Cooperation among South Asian riparians is undoubtedly high but that does not mean the absence of competing claims for water. Thus water will remain deeply political. Often water agreements are not always about water. History and hegemony play an important role in understanding the strategic interaction among riparian states and in the contextual framework under what circumstances politics interfere with cooperation or whether sharing of water acts as a neutralising factor in difficult political situations.

    Contents

    Preface
    Abbreviations 

    Introduction
    Waterscape: The Inescapable Reality

    1. South Asia’s Water Security

    The Importance of Water Regimes
    The Dynamics of River Treaties
    South Asia: A Riverine Region
    A Tale of Two Trans-boundary River Basins
    Riparian Relations 39 Tibet: the Third Pole

    2. Himalayan Hydrology: The Anthropocene

    The Context
    Profile of the Himalaya Mountain System
    Himalayan Glacier Profile
    Himalayan Hydrology
    Climate Change and Water Resources
    Himalayan Glaciers in South Asia
    Glaciology and the Indus River System
    Adaptation Measures
    Himalayan Hydro-politics

    3. Ganga Basin and Regional Cooperation

    The Ganga
    Riverine Collaboration
    Ganga in Nepal-India Relations
    Hydropower Cooperation
    Hurdles to Cooperation
    Cleaning the Ganga
    Reducing Mistrust
    Ganga in India-Bangladesh Relations
    Cooperation on Ganga
    Multilateral Mechanisms
    Comprehensive Basin Management (CBM)
    From Source to Mouth

    4. India-Pakistan and the Waters of the Indus

    Legacy of IWT11
    Negotiations 1947-51
    Negotiations: 1952-56
    Final negotiations: 1956-1960
    Role of the World Bank 

    Reactions towards the IWT
    Did India compromise? 
    The Treaty
    Water a Political Issue
    Jammu and Kashmir Factor
    The Future of IWT
    The Possible Way Ahead

    5. China and India: Hydropowers in South Asia

    India and China: Contrasting Riparians
    India and China: Cooperation or Conflict
    Dams and Diversions
    India and China: Hydro Politics
    Climate Change and Himalayan Glaciology
    Towards Water Dialogue
    Turning the Equation
    Hydrological Scenarios: the Shape of things in 2030
    The Way Forward
    Conclusion
    ‘Let the river flow…’
    Index

    Sarasvati Script Rosetta stones from Daimabad, a chalcolithic culture on Pravara river basin

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    The  tradition of Pola festival held annually in many parts of Bhāratam,  is traceable to the utsava bera 'processions of images' of Daimabad with animals drawn on wheeled vehicles.

    We have evidence of five Rosetta stones from Daimabad to validate Sarasvati Script decipherment of inscriptions dated from ca. 3300 BCE (date of the Harappa potsherd with Sarasvati Script discovered by Harvard HARP Team). The five Rosetta stones are:

    Five hypertexts discovered at Daimabad dated to ca 2200 BCE reckoned as Late Harappa phase:

     1.Bronze chariot drawn by two humped bulls and decorated with hypertexts
    2. Bronze Rhinoceros on wheels
    3. Bronze elephant on wheels
    4. Bronze water buffalo on wheels
    5. Terracotta seal with 'rim-of-jar- hieroglyph

    This monograph demonstrates that these five hypertexts are read rebus in Sarasvati Script Cipher of Meluhha words which signify metalwork, metalworkers and seafaring merchants/artisans. Daimabad archaeological evidence establishes the continuum of Sarasvati Civilization in parts of Bhāratam, south of the Vindhyas in what are characterised as 'chacolithic' cultures of Maharashtra and Western Bhāratam.

    Image result for daimabad chariot
    Toy animals made for the Pola festival especially celebrated by the Dhanoje Kunbis. (Bemrose, Colo. Derby - Russell, Robert Vane (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India: volume IV. Descriptive articles on the principal castes and tribes of the Central Provinces. London: Macmillan and Co., limited. p. 40).

    A man (16 cm high) standing on and driving a simple two-wheeled chariot (45 cm long and 16 cm wide) attached by a long pole to two yoked oxen standing on two cast copper strips. There is a small figure of a dog (jackal?) standing on the central pole at the guard of the chariot. The man holds the upper horizontal bar of the guard with his left hand and a long stick curved at both ends in his right. His chest and belly are somewhat elongated. His upper chin and lower lip are protruding. He has a short nose, wide open eyes, and curved, eyebrows. His curly hair is parted in the middle and rolled into a bun at the nape of his neck. His knees are slightly bent and his penis is surmounted by four hoods of a cobra.




    The sculptural hypertext of a jackal on the central pole and vivid portrayal of the membrum virile of the chariot-driver is read rebus in Meluhha: ganḍa 'four'; rebus: khanḍa 'implements'. kulā 'hood of serpent' कोल्हा [ kōlhā ] कोल्हें [ kōlhēṃ ] A jackal rebus: kolhe 'smelter' loj 'penis' rebus: loh 'copper' Thus, the hypertext reads: loh khanḍa kolhe' copper implements smelter'. Two humped bulls: dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS poḷa 'zebu'; rebus: poḷa'magnetite, ferrite ore'.
    Santali. 
    Crook on the hands of the chariot-driver: मेंढा [ mēṇḍhā ] A crook or curved end (of a stick) Rebus: meḍ 'iron'

    A water buffalo (31 cm. high and 25 cm long) on a four-legged platform attached to four solid wheels


    An elephant (25 cm long) on a similar platform (27 cm long),  but with the axles and wheels missing


    A rhinoceros (25 cm long and 19 cm high) standing on the axles of four solid wheels.

    The objects were solid cast and heavy weighing 60 kg altogether. They reveal considerable casting skill and aesthetic finesse. Chemical analysis showed that they were made of bronze with varying, but low, tin content. Although the hoard was not found in the course of the initial excavation, later excavations near the find-spot correlated its find-spot to the late Harappan phase.

    These artefacts do not seem to have been utilitarian objects. They may have had a religious ritualistic significance, and the fact that they are on wheels suggests that they were part of a procession. S.A. Sali was tempted to identify the humn figure as the god Shiva, lord of the beasts, but this is very conjectural. Metal figures of this kind have not been found elsewhere in India, and the Daimabad hoard remains an enigma. (Source: SA Sali, 1986, 477-479).

    Seema J. Pawankar and Pappy K. Thomas, 1997, Fauna and subsistence pattern in the chalcolithic culture of Western India, with special reference to Inamgaon, in: Anthropozoologica, 1997, No. 23-26, Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune, 411006, India (pp.737-746). 

    “Over 200 chalcolithic sites have been reported from Maharashtra, a majority of which belonged to the early Jorwe period, followed by the Malwa and very few of the late Jorwe period…the activities of the early farming communities came to a standstill around 1000 BCE and the settlements remained unoccupied for almost four or five centuries until the beginning of historial period in the 6th-5th centuries BCE.” (p.745).


    As of now, Sarasvati Script is a contender for the designation 'earliest writing system' given the inscription on a potsherd (Figure 1) discovered by HARP in Harappa, dated to ca. 3300 BCE. 
    Figure 1 Potsherd with Indus script inscription, ca. 3300 BCE. Harappa.

    This is perhaps the earliest Indus writing sample, ca. 3300 BCE. 

    Hieroglyph: tagaraka 'tabernae montana' or 'wild tulip' (Samskritam) Rebus: 
    tagara ‘tin’ (Kannada) tagromi 'tin, metal alloy' (Kuwi) takaram tin, white lead, metal sheet, coated with tin (Ta.); tin, tinned iron plate (Malayalam); tagarm tin (Kota); tagara, tamara, tavara id.(Kannada) tamaru, tamara, tavara id. (Tamil): tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. (Telugu); ṭagromi tin metal, alloy (Kuwi); tamara id. (Sanskrit.)(DEDR 3001). trapu tin (AV.); tipu (Pali); tau, taua lead (Pkt.); tũ_ tin (P.); ṭau zinc, pewter (Or.); tarūaum lead (OG.); tarvu~ (G.); tumba lead (Si.)(CDIAL 5992).

    The 'tulip' glyph is seen on a cylinder seal of Ur (cf. Gadd) and also on an axe from Tabraq, on Warka vase:
    Tell Abraq axe[i] with epigraph (‘tulip’ glyph + a person raising his arm above his shoulder and wielding a tool + dotted circles on body).
    tabar = a broad axe (Punjabi). Rebus: tam(b)ra ‘copper’ tagara ‘tabernae montana’, ‘tulip’. Rebus: tagara ‘tin’.


    eraka 'upraised arm' rebus: eraka 'moltencast, copper'.
    [i] After Fig. 7 Holly Pittman, 1984, Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 29-30.Given the date of the potsherd of Harappa to be ca. 3300 BCE, the writing system is evidenced to have continued upto ca. 1400 BCE, the date assigned to a seal with Sarasvati Script discovered in Daimabad (Figure 2) on the banks of Pravara river, a tributary of River Godavari in Maharashtra.
    "In a place called as Daimabad a local farmer, Chhabu Laxman Bhil , found a hoard of four bronze objects  in 1974. One of the objects is a sculpture of a chariot, 45 cm long and 16 cm wide, yoked to two oxen, driven by a man 16 cm high standing in it. This chariot along with other sculptures of animals are so exquisite that they have completely baffled the Archaeologists.http://akshardhoolstories.blogspot.in/p/the-surkotada-horse.html

    The four bronze objects discovered by Chhabu Laxman Bhil are now in Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai.


    Agrawal, D.P., R.V. Krishnamurthy and Sheela Kusumgar 1978. "On the affiliation of the Daimabad Bronzes: Some fresh data" Paper presented at the International Archaeometry Symposium, Bonn, March 1978.

    And:


    Agrawal, D.P., Krishnamurthy, R.V., Kusumgar, Sheela 1979. "Fresh chemical data and the cultural affiliation of the Daimabad bronzes" in Proceedings of the 18th international symposium on archaeometry and archaeological prospection, Bonn, 14-17 March 1978; Archaeo-Physika, Band 10, Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, pp. 8-13.


    Abstract from Agrawal et. al. 1979: "A hoard of copper images -- comprised of a chariot driver, a bull, a rhino, and an elephant -- was accidentally discovered at Daimabad, Maharashtra. Total weight of these four pieces put together exceeds 65 kilograms. There is a controversy about their affinity: whether they belong to the Indus Civilization (Harappan), Chalcolithic, or some other culture. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry was performed on several Harapan, Chalcolithic artifacts, and on these so-called Daimabad bronzes. A comparison of the metal composition shows that they do not belong to the proto-historic cultures at all. The complete absence of tin and negligible amounts of lead in the Daimabad bronzes and the general presence of these metals in the Harappan artifacts do not allow any affinity between the two. Daimabad (Ahmednagar district) in Maharashtra is a known Chalcolithic site, datable to the middle of the second millennium B.C. It was excavated by Deshpande and Sali. From the excavations they sent us a few copper artifacts which were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry to determine the percentages of bismuth, iron, nichel, lead, antimony, and tin. Arsenic measurements are omitted here as if it was not possible to use a N2O flame for this purpose." 


    Anyway M K Dhavalikar 1997 (1999). Indian Protohistory, still sustains his position of Harappan origin of the bronzes:


    "The exact find spot (of the bronze models) was examined by S.R. Rao (1978: 62) who confirmed that the bronzes belonged to the Late Harappan phase (ca. 2000-1800 BC). The calibrated dates would be ca. 2200-2000 BC which would place it in the Late Mature Harappan phase. The next problem relates to the authorship of the bronzes. DP Agrawal (1978: 45) has questioned their antiquity on the basis of the presence of arsenic which, according to him, is absent in artifacts from chalcolithic sites in the Deccan...It has been observed that 'The hardness of most of the copper objects found at Harappa has been shown on analysis to be due to a high arsenic content. The presence of this arsenic is believed to be accidental, being indigenous to the copper deposits from which the ores were extracted rather than secondarily introduced' (Coghlan 1951: 44-45). Lamberg-Karlovsky (1967: 151) therefore rightly argues that 'We must not disregard the possibility, however, that the smiths recognised the advantages of an ore with arsenic in it for producing a harder, less brittle tool'. In the light of evidence of Harappan artifacts, we are of the opinion that the Daimabad bronzes may originally have been Harappan, that is, from Harappa proper, and that they were probably imported into the Deccan. Arsenical alloying is also most significant in the Copper Hoards from the Ganga-Yamuna doab (Agrawal et al 1978)..." (p. 168) 


    Four bronze sculptures of Daimabad. "The archaeologists are not unanimous about the date of these sculptures. On the basis of the circumstantial evidence, M. N. Deshpande, S. R. Rao and S. A. Sali are of view that these objects belong to the Late Harappan period. But on the basis of analysis of the elemental composition of these artifacts, D. P. Agarwal concluded that these objects may belong to the historical period. His conclusion is based on the fact these objects contain more than 1% Arsenic, while no Arsenical alloying has been found in any other Chalcolithic artifacts.

    See: http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/121/1218186467.pdf  Dhavalikar, M.K., 1982. Daimabad bronzes. In: Possehl, G.L. (ed.), Harappan civilization: a contemporary perspective. Warminster, Aris & Phillips -: pp. 362-366 




    Buffalo on four-legged platform attached to four solid wheels 31X25 cm.; elephanton four-legged platform with axles 25 cm.; rhinoceros on axles of four solid wheels 25X19 cm. (MK Dhavalikar, 'Daimabad bronzes' in: Harappan civilization, ed. by GL Possehl, New Delhi, 1982, pp. 361-6; SA Sali, Daimabad 1976-1979, New Delhi, 1986).
    Image result for dhavalikar daimabad bronzes

    Image result for daimabad bronze
    Sculpture of a water buffalo, 31 cm high and 25 cm long standing on a four-legged platform attached to four solid wheels.

    ran:gā ‘buffalo’; ran:ga ‘pewter or alloy of tin (ran:ku), lead (nāga) and antimony (añjana)’(Santali)
    Sculpture of a rhinoceros 19 cm high and 25 cm long standing on two horizontal bars, each attached to an axle of two solid wheels. Hieroglyph, read rebus:Rhinoceros: gaṇḍá4 m. ʻ rhinoceros ʼ lex., °aka -- m. lex. 2. *ga- yaṇḍa -- . [Prob. of same non -- Aryan origin as khaḍgá --1: cf. gaṇōtsāha -- m. lex. as a Sanskritized form ← Mu. PMWS 138]1. Pa. gaṇḍaka -- m., Pk. gaṁḍaya -- m., A. gãr, Or. gaṇḍā. 2. K. gö̃ḍ m., S. geṇḍo m. (lw. with g -- ), P. gaĩḍā m., °ḍī f., N. gaĩṛo, H. gaĩṛā m., G. gẽḍɔ m., °ḍī f., M. gẽḍā m. WPah.kṭg. geṇḍɔ mirg m. ʻ rhinoceros ʼ, Md. genḍā ← H. (CDIAL 4000).காண்டாமிருகம் kāṇṭā-mirukam , n. [M. kāṇṭāmṛgam.] Rhinoceros; கல்யானை. (Tamil) Rebus: khāṇḍa ‘tools, pots and pans, and metal-ware’.  
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    25 cm high sculpture of an elephant on a platform 27 cm long and 14 cm wide, but axles and wheels missing; Elephant ‘ibha’. Rebus: ibbo (merchant of ib ‘iron’)ibha ‘elephant’ (Skt.) Rebus: ibbho 'merchant' (cf.Hemacandra, Desinamamala, vaṇika). ib ‘iron’ (Santali) karibha ‘elephant’ (Skt.); rebus: karb ‘iron’ (Ka.)

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    Image result for daimabad pravaraSculpture of a Daimabad. Chariot. drawn by humped bulls Bronze 22 X 52 X 17.5 cm. The Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Mumbai. driven by a man 16 cm high standing in it;

    Related imageImage result for daimabad chariot
    Daimabad seal. Glyph is decoded : ka ṇḍ karṇaka, ka ṇḍ kan ...
    Figure 2. Seal with Indus script. Daimabad. Hieroglyph: kaṇḍ karṇaka, kaṇḍ kan-ka 'rim of jar' Rebus: karṇi 'super cargo, a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.'; karṇika 'accountant'Rebus: ‘kaṇḍ, 'furnace' scribe'. karṇaka 'helmsman'. http://tinyurl.com/moy4lhm
    See: http://tinyurl.com/ju6fojm Rim-of-jar Harappa Script hypertext with highest frequency in corpora signifies khāṇḍā karṇika 'metal equipment account scribe, supercargo', also 

    कर्णिक karṇika, 'a helmsman' 

     



    kárṇaka m. ʻ projection on the side of a vessel, handle ʼ ŚBr. [kárṇa -- ]
    Pa. kaṇṇaka -- ʻ having ears or corners ʼ; Wg. kaṇə ʻ ear -- ring ʼ NTS xvii 266; S. kano m. ʻ rim, border ʼ; P. kannā m. ʻ obtuse angle of a kite ʼ (→ H. kannā m. ʻ edge, rim, handle ʼ); N. kānu ʻ end of a rope for supporting a burden ʼ; B. kāṇā ʻ brim of a cup ʼ, G. kānɔ m.; M. kānā m. ʻ touch -- hole of a gun ʼ.(CDIAL 2831) Rebus:  karṇadhāra m. ʻ helmsman ʼ Suśr. [kárṇa -- , dhāra -- 1]Pa. kaṇṇadhāra -- m. ʻ helmsman ʼ; Pk. kaṇṇahāra -- m. ʻ helmsman, sailor ʼ; H. kanahār m. ʻ helmsman, fisherman ʼ. (CDIAL 2836) 
    कर्णिक karṇikaकर्णिक a. 1 Having ears.-2 Having a helm.-कः A steersman; कारणिक kāraṇikaकारणिक a. (-का or-की f.) 1 An examiner, a judge  కరణము (p. 250) karaṇamu karaṇamu. [Skt.] n. A village clerk, a writer, an accountant. వాడు కూత కరణముగాని వ్రాతకరణముకాడు he has talents for speaking but not for writing. స్థలకరణము the registrar of a district.
    கரணிகம் karaṇikam n. < karaṇa. [T. karaṇikamu.] Office of accountant. See கருணீகம். Loc.
    कुळकरण (p. 100) kuḷakaraṇa n The office or business of कुळकरणी.
    कुळकरणी (p. 100) kuḷakaraṇī m (कुल & कारणी S) An officer of a village under the पांटील. His business is to keep the accounts of the cultivators with Government and all the public records (Marathi) 

    This is the most frequently deployed hieroglyph in the entire set of Indus writing corpora of about 8000 inscriptions. Read rebus in relation to copper metalwork and engraving. 


    “We see in the interpretation of Daimabad the ghost of the Aryan problem still looming with structures and artefacts interpreted as linked to Vedic religion and ritual. (Sali, 1986)”(Sheena Panja, The chalcolithic phase in Maharashtra: an overview and scope for further research, in: Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute Vol. 51/52, Prof. SM Katre Felicitation volume (1991-92), p.631; loc.cit. Sali, SA, 1986, Daimabad 1976-79Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi) https://www.jstor.org/stable/42930443?seq=13#page_scan_tab_contents


    Daimabad is an archaeological site on the left-bank of Pravara River, a tributary of the Godavari River in Srirampur taluka in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra state in India. "This site was discovered by B. P. Bopardikar in 1958. It has been excavated three times so far by the Archaeological Survey of India teams. The first excavation in 1958-9 was carried out under the direction of M. N. Deshpande. The second excavation in 1974-5 was led by S. R. Rao. Finally, the excavations between 1975-6 and 1978-9 were carried out under the direction of S. A. Sali.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daimabad 

    "After the Harappan civilization we have a sequence of Chalcolithic cultures which span the second millennium BC and extend geographically from the Banas and Berach basins northeast of Udaipur through Malwa and into western Maharashtra up to the Bhima valley. Stratigraphy at key sites such as Dangwada and Kayatha near Ujjain and Daimabad on the Pravara shows that the Kayatha culture was succeeded by the Banas, Malwa and Jorwe cultures in turn. http://thehistoryofindiansubcontinet.blogspot.in/ 


    A conversation between a grammarian and a charioteer


    "Indo-Aryan languages have a long history of transmission, not only in the form of literary works and treatises dealing with logical, philosophical, and ritual matters but also in phonetic, phonological, and grammatical descriptions. The languages are divisible into three major stages: Old-, Middle- and New- (or Modern-) Indo-Aryan. The first is represented by an enormously rich literature stretching over millennia, including Vedic texts and later literary works of various genres. In addition, we are privileged to have knowledge of the details of Old Indo-Aryan of different eras and areas through extraordinarily perceptive descriptions of phonetics and phonology relative to traditions of Vedic recitation in prAtizAkhya works and PANini's ASTAdhyAyI, the brilliant set of rules describing the language current at around the fifth century BCE, with important dialectical observations and contrasts drawn between the then current speech and earlier Vedic usage. Moreover, observations by YAska (possibly antedating PANini) and Patanjali (second century BCE) inform us about some dialect features of Old Indo-Aryan in early times...Speakers of Sanskrit were aware from early on not only of differences between their current language and Vedic but also of areal differences at a given time. Well known examples stem from YAska and Patanjali, who speak of usages proper to the Kamboja, SaurASTra, the east and midlands, as well as of Arya speakers. It is noteworthy that zav is said to occur in Kamboja, a northwestern people whom in his commentary on Nirukta 2.2 Durga refers to as Mleccha (Bhadkamkar 1918: 166.5-6: gatyartho dhAtuh kambojeSv eva bhASyate mleccheSu prakRtyA prayujyata AkhyAtapadabhAvena): zyav, zav, ziyav 'go' are used in Avestan and Old Persian...Patanjali refers to the use of hamm 'go' in SauRASTra. Another feature of the speech of this area is noted in the metrical version of the PANinIyazikSA, which says that nasalized vowels as in arAm 'spokes' of RV 8.77.3b (khe arAm iva khedayA'(...pushed...down) like spokes in the wheel navel with an instrument for pressing together') are pronounced in the manner that a woman from SauRAStra pronounces takram 'buttermilk': takraM, with a fully nasalized final vosel (PS 26: yathA saurASTrikA nArI takrAm ity abhibhASate evam rangAh prayoktavyA khe arAM iva khedayA). Patanjali is well aware of the r/l alternation in particular lexical terms...Old Indo-Aryan was of course dialectically differentiated (See Emeneau 1966). The earliest distribution of dialect areas would have to stem from Vedic times, and the texts, right back to the Rgveda, show evidence of dialect differences, reflected, for example, in the use of forms of the type dakSi and dhakSi 'burn' (Cardona 1991)...There is a large variety of PrAkrits, traditionally named after regions and their inhabitants: MAhArASTrI, zaurasenI and so on. Thus, Bharata mentions (NZ 17.48: mAgadhy avantijA prAcyA zauraseny ardhamAgadhI bAhlikA dAkSiNatyA ca sapta bhASAh prakIrtitA) seven languages as being well known: MAgadhI, the language of Avanti, the language of the east, ZaurasenI, ArdhamAgadhI, BAhlIkA, and the language of the south. Theoreticians of poetics and grammarians of PrAkrits also enumerate and characterize different PrAkrits, among wich MAhArAStrI is given the highest status...The closest thing we have comparable to a dialect map of Middle Indo-Aryan is represented by Azoka's inscriptions of the third century BCE. As has been recognizedd (See Bloch 1950: 43-5, Azokan/PAli section 1.2), the major rock edicts show that east, nortwest and west constitute three major dialect areas...Arya has various meanings centering about the notion of noble, venerable, honorable, but this term was explicitly used with reference to a particular group of people, characterized by the way they spoke...Patanjali uses the phrases AryA bhASante 'Aryas say' and AryAh prayunjate 'Aryas use'. In the comparable passage of his Nirukta, YAska (Nir. 2.2 [161.11-13]) says zavatir gatikarmA kambojeSv eva bhASyate...vikAram asyAryeSu bhASante zava it 'zav meaning 'go' is used only in Kamboja...in the Arya community one uses a derivate (vikAram 'modification) zava 'corpse''. Here, YAska uses the locative plural AryeSu parallel to kambojeSu, both terms referring to communities in which particular usages prevail...The Indian subcontinent has long been home to speakers of languages belonging to different language failies, principally Indo-European (Indo-Aryan), Dravidian, and Austro-Asiatic (Munda). It is to be expected that speakers of these languages who were in contact with each other should have been subject to possible influence of other languages on their own. Scholars have long been aware of and remarked on the changes which the language reflected in the earliest Vedic underwent over time, gradually becoming more and more 'Indianized', so that one can speak of an Indian linguistic area (Emeneau 1956, 1971, 1974, 1980, Kuiper 1967). Scholars have also differed concerning the degree of influence exerted by Munda or Dravidian languages on Indo-Aryan at different stages and the manner in which such influence was made felt. It is proper to emphasize from the outset that Old Indo-Aryan should be viewed as encompassing a variety of regional and social dialects spoken natively, developing historically in the way any living language does, and whose speakers interacted in a society where diglossia and polyglossia were the norm. Sanskrit speakers show an awareness of these facts. Thus, it is not only historically true that early Vedic root aorists of the type akar, agan were gradually replaced by forms of the types akArSU, agamat but also that YAska and Patanjali were aware of such changes and brought the fact out in their paraphrases; see Mehendale 1968: 15-33. PANini accounted for major features of Vedic which differed from his current language. In addition, such early native speakers of Sanskrit give us evidence of attitudes towards different varieties of speech which should be taken into consideration...Patanjali recounts the dialogue: A certain grammarian (kazcid vaiyAkaraNah) says to a chariot driver, ko 'sya rathasya pravetA 'Who is the driver of this car?' The driver answers, AyuSmann aham prAjitA 'Sir, I am the driver', upon which the grammarian accuses him of using an incorrect speech form (apazabda). The driver retorts that the grammarian knows what should obtain by rule (prAptijnah) but not what is desired (iSTijnah): this term is desirable (iSyata etad rUpam), Patanjali doubtless reflects a historical change in the language between PANini's time and area and his. At the same time, he is clearly willing to countenance that usage could include terms which a strict grammarian might consider improper. And he puts this in terms of a contrast between a grammarian and a charioteer. Another famous MaHAbhASya passage concerns sages (RSi-) who were characterized by the way they pronounced the phrases yad vA nah and tad vA nah: yar vA nah, tar vA nah. Although these sages spoke with such vernacular features, they did not do so during ritual acts...On the contrary, both accepted forms and those considered incorrect served equally to convey meanings, and what distinguished corrrect speech was that one gaind merit from such usage accompanied by a knowledge of its grammatical formation. One must recognize also that the standard speech could include elements which originally were not part of the Sanskrit norm. Moreover, Zabara remarks (on JS 1.3.5.10 [II.151]) that although authoity (pramANam) is granted to a learned elite (ziSTAh whose behaviour is authoritative with respect to what cannot be known directly (yat tu ziSTAcArah pramANam iti tat pratyakSAnavagate 'rthe) and who are experts (abhiyuktAh) as concerns the meanings of terms, nevertheless Mlecchas are more expert as concernss the care and binding of birds (yat tv abhiyuktAh zabdArtheSu ziSTA iti tatrocyate: abhiyuktatarAh pakSiNAm poSaNe bandhan ca mlecchAh). Consequently, when it comes to terms like pika- 'cuckcoo', which Aryas do not use in any meaning but which Mlecchas do (ZBh. 1.3.5.10 [II.149]: atha yAN chamdAn AryA na kasmimzcid artha Acaranti mlecchAs tu kasmimzcit prayunjate yathA pika...), authority is granted to Mleccha usage...There is thus evidence to show that before the second century BCE and possibly before PANini's time Mlecchas who inhabited areas outside the bounds of AryAvartta could be absorbed into the prevalent social system and that terms from speech areas such as that of the Kambojas could be treated as Indo-Aryan...Arya brAhmaNas normally were not supposed to engage in discourse with Mlecchas, but they had to do so on occasion. In brief, the picture is that of a society in which an Arya group considered itself the carrier of a higher culture and strived to keep this culture and the language associated with it but at the same time had necessarily to interact with groups like Mlecchas, whose language and customs were considered lesser. The result of such interaction, both with other Indo-Aryans who spoke dalects with Middle Indo-Aryan features and with non-Indo-Aryans, was that Sanskrit was effected through adoption of lexical terms and grammatical features...There is no cogent reason to consider that such changes due to contact had not been carried out gradually over generations for a long time before. Modern views. Although scholars generally agree that Old Indo-Aryan was indeed affected by 'autochthonous' languages and that there is indeed a South Asia linguistic area (see, e.g., Emeneau 1956, 1980, Kuiper 1967, Masica 1976), there are disagreements concerning the possible degree to which such effects should be seen in early Vedic and whether the features at issue could reflect also developments from Indo-European sources. In addition to the extent and sources of lexical borrowings, the main points of contention concern four features commonly considered characteristic of a South Asian linguistic area: (1) a contrast between retroflex and dental consonants, (2) the use of quotative particle (Skt. iti), (3) the use of absolutives (Skt. -tvA, ya), (4) the general unmarked word subject-object-verb...As to what non-Indo-Aryan languages are concerned, obvious candidates are Dravidian and Munda languages. The number of such borrowings into early Indo-Aryan has been the topic of ongoing debate...It has also to be admitted that the archaeological evidence available does not serve to confirm Indo-Aryan migrations into the subcontinent. Moreover, there is no textual evidence in the early literary traditions unambiguously showing a trace of such migration...In an email message kindly conveyed to me by S. Kalyanaraman (11 April 1999)...BaudhAyanazrautasUtra passage...this text cannot serve to document an Indo-Aryan migration into the main part of the subcontinent... " (Dhanesh Jain, George Cardona (eds.), 2003, The Indo-Aryan languages, Routledge, pp.6-7,17-21, 26-28, 31-37)

    The hieroglyph membrum virile denoted rebus: copper, metal. 

    Hieroglyph: ``^penis'': So. laj(R)  ~ lij  ~ la'a'j  ~ laJ/ laj  ~ kaD `penis'.Sa. li'j `penis, esp. of small boys'.Sa. lO'j `penis'.Mu. lOe'j  ~ lOGgE'j `penis'.  ! lO'j Ho loe `penis'.Ku. la:j `penis'.@(C289)``^penis'':Sa. lOj `penis'. Mu. lOj `penis'.KW lOj @(M084) 


    Rebus: lo 'copper' lōhá ʻ red, copper -- coloured ʼ ŚrS., ʻ made of copper ʼ ŚBr., m.n. ʻ copper ʼ VS., ʻ iron ʼ MBh. [*rudh -- ] Pa. lōha -- m. ʻ metal, esp. copper or bronze ʼ; Pk. lōha -- m. ʻ iron ʼ, Gy. pal. li°lihi, obl. elhás, as. loa JGLS new ser. ii 258; 
    Wg. (Lumsden) "loa"ʻ steel ʼ; Kho. loh ʻ copper ʼ; S. lohu m. ʻ iron ʼ, L. lohā m., awāṇ. lōˋā, 
    P. lohā m. (→ K.rām. ḍoḍ. lohā), WPah.bhad. lɔ̃un., bhal. lòtilde; n., pāḍ. jaun. lōh, paṅ. luhā, cur. cam. 
    lohā, Ku. luwā, N. lohu°hā, A. lo, B. lono, Or. lohāluhā, Mth. loh, Bhoj. lohā, Aw.lakh. lōh, 
    H. lohlohā m., G. M. loh n.; Si. loho ʻ metal, ore, iron ʼ; Md. ratu -- lō ʻ copper ʼ. 
    WPah.kṭg. (kc.) lóɔ ʻ iron ʼ, J. lohā m., Garh. loho; Md.  ʻ metal ʼ.(CDIAL 11158)

    kul ‘tiger’ (Santali); kōlu id. (Te.) kōlupuli = Bengal tiger (Te.)Pk. Kolhuya -- , kulha — m. ʻ jackal ʼ < *kōḍhu -- ; H.kolhā, °lā m. ʻ jackal ʼ, adj. ʻ crafty ʼ; G. kohlũ, °lũ n. ʻ jackal ʼ, M. kolhā, °lā m. krōṣṭŕ̊ ʻ crying ʼ BhP., m. ʻ jackal ʼ RV. = krṓṣṭu — m. Pāṇ. [√kruś] Pa. koṭṭhu -- , °uka — and kotthu -- , °uka — m. ʻ jackal ʼ, Pk. Koṭṭhu — m.; Si. Koṭa ʻ jackal ʼ, koṭiya ʻ leopard ʼ GS 42 (CDIAL 3615). कोल्हा [ kōlhā ] कोल्हें [ kōlhēṃ ] A jackal (Marathi) Rebus: kol ‘furnace, forge’ (Kuwi) kol ‘alloy of five metals, pañcaloha’ (Ta.) Allograph: kōla = woman (Nahali) 

    कोल्हा [ kōlhā ] कोल्हें [ kōlhēṃ ] A jackal (Marathi) Rebus: kol 'furnace, forge' (Kuwi) kol 'alloy of five metals, pañcaloha' (Ta.) Rebus: kol , n. < கொல்-. Working in iron; 
    கொற்றொழில். 4. Blacksmith; கொல்லன். கொல்லன் kollaṉ, n. < கொல்². [M. kollan.] Blacksmith; கருமான்
    மென்றோன் மிதியுலைக் கொல்லன் (பெரும்பாண். 207). கொற்றுறை koṟṟuṟai , n. 
    கொல்² + துறை. Blacksmith's workshop, smithyகொல்லன் பட் டடை.கொற்றுறைக் 
    குற்றில (புறநா. 95). கொற்று¹ koṟṟu , n. prob. கொல்-. 1. Masonry, brickwork;
    கொற்றுவேலைகொற்றுள விவரில் (திரு வாலவா. 30, 23). 2. Mason, bricklayer; 
    கொத் தன்Colloq. 3. The measure of work turned out by a mason; ஒரு கொத்தன் 
    செய்யும் வேலை யளவு.இந்தச் சுவர் கட்ட எத்தனை கொற்றுச் செல்லும்?


    kulya 'fly whisk' rebus: kulya n. ʻ receptacle for burnt bones of a corpse ʼ MBh., A. kulā 


    ʻwinnowing fan, hood of a snake ʼ; B. kul°lā ʻ winnowing basket or fan ʼ; Or.kulā 


    ʻwinnowing fan ʼ, °lāi ʻsmall do. ʼ; Si. kulla, st. kulu -- ʻ winnowing basket or fan ʼ.(CDIAL 3350) Rebus: kolle 'blacksmith' kol 'working in iron,  kolhe ‘smelter’  blacksmith'. 



    Malt. kanḍo stool, seat. (DEDR 1179) Rebus: kaṇḍ 'fire-altar' (Santali) khāṇḍa 'tools, pots and pans and metal-ware' (Marathi).





    S. Kalyanaraman
    Sarasvati Research Center


    March 22, 2017

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